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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published in three volumes,
1768-1771.
SECOND
»t
M
ten „
>777— 17*4.
THIRD
>i
»»
eighteen .,
1788— 1797.
FOURTH
„
»
twenty „
1801 — 1810.
FIFTH
i»
•»
twenty »
1815—1817.
SIXTH
i»
»»•
twenty „
1823—1824.
SEVENTH
»*
If
twenty-one „
1830—1842.
EIGHTH
»*
•>
twenty-two *
1853—1860.
NINTH
»
fl
twenty-five „
1875—1889.
TENTH
»
ninth edition and eleven
•u
pplementary volumes,
1902—1901.
ELEVENTH
it
published in twenty-nine volumes,
1910—1911.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II
ANDROS to AUSTRIA
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1910
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENV^y INDmn
CONTRIBUTORS,' WITH THE HEADINGS >p V/ AL
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED
A.A.B. Andrew Alexander Blair, f
Chief Chemist, U.S. Geological Survey and Tenth U.S. Census, 1 870-1 88 i.-j
Member American Philosophical Society. Author of Chemical Analysis of Iron ; Ac. I
A. B. R. Alfred Barton Rendlb, F.R.S., F.L.S.. D.Sc. f Anfiosaann* tu a~»
Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum. \ ^ ^^ **" J" 1 '. . ^
A. C. R. C. Albert Charles Robinson Carter. / Art r~.u«u«
Editor of The Year's Art. ^ jit* noweMee,
A. CSp. Arthur Coe Spencer, Ph.D. /AiMaJachlan Minntalns.
Geologist to the Geological Survey of the United States. \ * WUMD,in «W»™-
A.F.L* Arthur Francis Leach, M.A,
Charity Commissioner since 1906. Fellow of AH Souls' College, Oxford, 1874-1881. J
Fqrmerly AssisUnt Secretary, Board of Education. Author of English Schools at]
the Reformation ; History of Winchester College ; BradfieU College ; &c I
A.F.P. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. f
Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of AU Souls' College, i ASOW,
Oxford.
Anthropometry.
Assnr: City, Asrar^BaoJ-PiL
AnUbIL
{
A.O. Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons. 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;'
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c
A.H.S. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.Litt., LL.D., D.D.
See the biographical article: Saycr, A. H.
IM Sir A. Hovtum-Scitindler, CLE.
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
A. J. L. Andrew Jackson Lamoureux.
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell- University. Editor of the Rio News
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.
A.L Andrew Lang. /
See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew.
A.H.& Agnes Mary Clerke. /
See the biographical article: Clerks, A. M. Y
A. 1 bL Alexander Stuart Murray, LL.D. / AmoAnmk U» awi
See the biographical article: Murray, Alexander Stuart. -^aejiswuw uffpwij,
A.T. Antodte Thomas, D.-is-L.
Professor in the University of Paris. Member of the Institute of France. .Director
of Studies at the £oole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Author of Les Etats pro-
vinciaux de la France centrale sons Charles VII; Sec
A.W.R. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws.
of-EngiamL
Argentina: Geography.
Asuncion;
A tacain*, Dteert of.
Apparitions.
Astronomy: History,
sV Lord Balcarres. M.P., F.S.A.
Eldest son of the 26th Earl of Crawford. Trustee of National Portrait Gallery.
Hon. Secretary, Society for Protection of Ancient Buildings. Author of DonateUo; &c
B.R. Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.). Assoc.Inst.CE., M.Inst. ME.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, the Home Office and the Indian Office.
President, Society Chemical Iod., 1907-1908.
ApportioniDjnt;
Arbitration.
ArtOaBerUs,
CAr. Channtno Arnold. /Australia: Aborigmt*,
University College, Oxford. Barristcr-at-law. Author of The American Egypt, I
tB* Charles Bemoht, D.-is-L.. D.Lrrr. (Oxtm). f Anaals; Anselme;
See the biographical article : Bemont, Cha rles. \ Arbob de JubalnvUle; AoJaiu.
CCfe. Charles Chree, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f Atmospberle Electricity;
Superintendent, Observatory Department, National Physical Laboratory. Formerly < AimM Pni«rt*
Fellow of King's College. Cambridge. President, Physical Society of London. [ Aurora rwanB,
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
VI
CF.A.
G.B.BA.
CPL
C.FL
C.W.*
«£w.w.
D.C.B.
D.P.T.
D.G.H.
D.H.
B.Br.
B.B.T.
R.C.B.
Bd.IL
B.G.
E.O.*
B. P. H.*
B.ILL.
E.T*v
B.V.L.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
-r„At TCCMG C.B.. M.A., LL.D. t D.C.L.
CHARLES NORTON &>CJ c S ,i f t B . E "?^ SchcSar A Balliol. Oxford. 1881-1885.
VicSSancellor of Sheffield Unl n w ^ ty D^ &ilar. Fellow of Trinity. Third.
Hertford. Boden. Ireland. ^^^J^SSh^Si Constantinople, iii»-ia9A.
Sol Charles
Commissioner
Letters from the Far EasL
. Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal '
[j and Cold Harbour,
*—.—. N „- Andrews).
rs» hP T*g HERCULES RBADjfaiJevat Antiquities and Ethnography, British Museum. .
Keeper of British ft*y of Aatiquaries of London. Bast President of the Anthro-
Prcftideat of the^ Author of Antiquities from Benin; Ac.
CHRISTIAN Bit the Sorbonnc. Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author
Profcs* surlo rbgne de Robert U Pitta*
°£l\rles Plummer, M.A. f
Vjsfellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of Ufe\
and Times of Alfred Ike Great-be I
Asia: History.
Anns and Amour: Firearm:
Annj; Artfflery.
Archaeology.
Antnistlon;
CKAKtBB WaLDSTRTN, M.A., DXlTT., PH.D. .
Sbde Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J
Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, 1383-1889. Director of the \
Anglo-toon Chroniels,
Affoss The HeratUM.
Antwerp.
Arte.
American Archaeological School at Athens, 1889-1893.
Sot Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1897).
. . ,MaJqr-Ceneral, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Ararat;
Commission. 1 858-1 86a. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-. Armani**
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- ■ — •
. General of Military Education, 1 895-1 898. Author of From Korti to Khartum;
Life of Lord Otoe; &c
Demetrius Charles Boulger. f
Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Cordon -A
India in the 19th Century; History of Belgium; &c. I
Donald Francis Tovey. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The 1
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. I
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolcan Museum. Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen Cortege, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis. 1899
and 1903; Ephcsus, 1 904-1905; Assiut, 1 906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1 897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal «
Naoy, 1*17-1688; Life of Emiiio CasUlar; a\c,
Ernest Barker, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of -
Mcrton College.
Edward Burnett Tylor, F.R.S. , D.C.L. (Oxon.).
Sec the biographical article: Tylor, E. B.
Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Lrrr. (Dubl.).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
Eduard Meyer, D.Lrrr. (Oxon.). ,
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Ceschichle des
Alterthums; Forschungen uur alien Geschichle; Geschichle des alien Aegypiens; Die*
JsratlUen und ihre Jiaehbarstdmme; Ac
l{
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.
Sec the biographical article: Gosse, E. W.
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam-
bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Ernest Prescot Hill, M.Inst.CE.
Member of the firm of G. A, HiU & Sons, Gvil Engineers, London.
Sir Edwin Ray Lanexster, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.) LL.D.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1006.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1 874- 1 890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891 -1898. «
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford. I9°5<
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
Rev. Etoslred Leonard Taunton (<L 1907).
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits t*
England ; &c
Anttoeh; Anamen; Arafctjtr,
Asto Minor; Aspendos;
Assus.
Anson, Baron;
Antonio, Mor of Crrnto;
Aland* Count of; Armada.
A11U0 OounelL
Afittattvoiofjr.
Anthony, Saint; Angustinian
Canons; Angnsttnlan
Hermits; Angnstlnlana.
Atom**; Aidashir; Arsaots;
Arses; Artabanus;
Artapnernes; Artaxerzee;
Astfaios.
Asbjornsen and M004
Aneurysm;
Aqueduct: Modem,
Edward Yerrall Lucas.
Editor of Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb.
Author of Life of Charles Lamb.
Artnropoda.
Aquaftf*, Ctaodlo.
Austen, Jane.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES'
vii
F.&CL
F.G.P.
P.H.MB.
F.LLO.
r.R.a
F.T.M.
P.W.Mo.
P.W.B.*
G.C.B,
CLE.
C.H.C.
G.H.FO.
C.K.
G.So.
6.W.B.
G.I.T.
H.B.
H-Ol
H.F.G.
H.F.F.
H.F.T.
H.H*.
H.H.S.
EEC.
Coknwallis Conybears. M.A. D.Th. (Giessen).
., _ m v T wn.aBjuu,, *».«. v.au. vnHUI . f AnotnttBgs Annenisji Cftmhs
'Krmerty Fellow of University Cohege, Oxfoid!" Fellow dTthe British Academy, «| Armenian Language and
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals;^K. I literature; Asoettebm.
Frederick Gyxer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.
Vice-President Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine lor 4
Women. Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London
and Birmingham ; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
Francis Henry Nsvxlle, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge* « nd Lecturer on Physics and
Chemistry.
Francis Llewelyn Gxirtth, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S-A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo-
logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German "
Archaeological Institute.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Snt Frank T. Marzials, C.B.
Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Author of Lives of Victor Hugo
Moiiire; Dickens; Ac
Frederick Walker Mott, F.R.S., M.D. f
Physician to Charing Cross Hospital. Pathologist to the London County Asylums, -j
Fuuerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution. (.
Frederick William Rudlbk, I.S.O., F.G.& f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-190?. ■{
AnubU; Apis;
Angler, G.V.B.
Apoplexy.
AtaeamUe.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
Gilbert Charles Bourne. M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., D.Sc. (Oxon.). 1
Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford. Fellow of Merton*.
College, Oxford. (.
Rev. George Edhundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. i itffmihf m,!***
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brascnose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. ,1 JU * WHID * • history.
Georce Herbert Carpenter, B.Sc. f Ant;
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the 4 *„#.-.
Association of Economic Biologists. Author of Insects: tkeir Structure and Life* I "r 1 ****
George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S., F.L.S., Ph.D, f
Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor -j AqORTlmm.
of Zoology at University College, London. I
GUSTAV KrOqver, Ph.D.
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. Author of Das Papsttmm; Sec
Grant Showerman. Ph.D. |
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Author of The Great Mother of-i
the Gods.
< Arias; Alftanaslus;
1 Augustine, Saint (of Hippo).
Attls.
George Willis Botsford, A.M. . f
Professor in Columbia University, New York. Author of The Roman Assemblies < Areopagus.
(1909)2 Ac L
-'AataralbftSha^dld;
Ret. Grxyrtbes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. AinMni Antiquities, History,
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and- lAteralme ; Arabian PhUo-
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. sophy (in part) ; A'S
.Asa'Arr;Asma«f;7
Hilary Baubrmann, F.G.S. (d. Z909).
Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of -
A Treats* on the Metallurgy of Iron.
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of
_\)\c Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition.
Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. f
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J ArotuMOfeterYX.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles. [
Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Pelham, H. F.
Rev. Henry Fanskawe Tozer, M.A., F.R-G.S.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corre-
spondlng Member of Historical Society of Greece. Author of Lectures on the Geo- '
grapky of Greece ; History of A ncient Geography. Editor of Fisday's History of Greece,
Hiber Hart.
Barrister-at-law. j
Henry Hbathcote Statham, F.RJ.B.A.
Editor of The Builder. Author of Architecture (Modern) for General Readers
Modem Architecture; &c.
Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- .
Saxon Institutions.
Anthracite.
Argyll, Birls and Dukes of
(in fdrt)' t Asnuith, H. H. '
Attica,
Auctions and
Architecture: Modem,
AngH; Anglo-Saxons.
viir
H. h. d.
H.Se.
H. Sm.
LA.
lb.r
J. A. H.
J.A.R.
J.B.T.
J.Rn.
J.D.B.
J.D.Pr.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J.G.C.A.
J. G. F.
J. 6. H.
J.G.Sc
J.H.A.H.
J.H.F.
J.H.R.
J.HLH.
J.L
J.L.W.
J.M.M.
Hbnry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Elementary
Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c
Henri S£e. f
Professor in the University of Rennes. \
Hugh Sheringham. /
Angling Editor of The Field (London). \
Israel Abrahams, M.A. r
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Lilera- '
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.
Isaac Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., M.D.
King's Botanist in Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Shcrardian Professor of Botany
in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.
John Allen Howe, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Very Rev. Joseph Ariotage Robinson, M.A., DJX
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian
Professor of Divinity. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation ; Ac.
Six John Batty Tuke, M.D., LL.D. (Edin.), D.Sc. (Dubl.) f
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh j
and St Andrews, 1900-1910. I
John Bilson.
External Examiner in Architecture, University of Manchester.
Jakes David Bourchier, MA, F.R.G.S.
Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders
of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the
Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York. Took part in
the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. Author of A Critical Commentary
on the Booh of Daniel; Assyrian Primer.
John George Clark Anderson, M.A.
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of Stadias Pontica,
Sir Joshua Girling Fitch.
See the biographical article: Fitch, Sir Joshua G.
Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I. Mech.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Stc
Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, a
Uandhooh; The Upper Burma Gazetteer; &c
John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.
Fellow. Lecturer and Librarian of St John's College, Cambridge.
John Henry Freese. M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Atlantic Ocean.
Anne of Brittany.
Angling.
'Asher Ben JenleL
Anglosperms (in pari).
Archean System;
ArenJg Group.
Artotldes, Apology of.
Aphasia,
Architecture: Romanesque and
Gothic, in England.
Athens;
Athos.
Assnr (BfhBcal).
Angora.
Arnold, Matthew (in Part),
John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree; &c.
John Holland Rose, M.A., Lrrr.D. r
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures]
Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon J; Napoleonic Studies; The Development of 1
the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; Chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. I
Alftfean.
Arehelaas, King of Judaea;
Asmoneus; Assideans.
Annalists; Aphrodite; ApoDo;
Artemis; Athena.
Arundel. Earldom of.
Jules Isaac.
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons.
Miss Jessie L. Weston.
Author of Arthurian Romances.
John Malcolm Mitchell.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
College (University oFLond
/
„-. Lecturer in Classics, East London
London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.
J.P.E
Jakes Macqueen.
Member and Feltow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Professor of
Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Examiner for the Fellowship
Diploma of the R.C.V.S. Editor of Fleming's Operative Veterinary Surgery (2nd
edition) ; Dun's Veterinary Medicines (10th edition) ; and Neumann a Parasites and
Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (and edition).
Jean Paul Htppolyte Emmanuel Adh£mar Esmein. f
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J *»■.»•••
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cams iUmeutaire d'histoire du 1 «PP* n *ie»
droit francais ;4c I
Augereau.
Anne of France.
Arthur (King);
Arthurian Legend.
Aqueduct: Ancient and
Medieval; Aquinas, Thomas
(in part); Archon; Arms
and Armour: Ancient.
Anthrax.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Jacos Saitoh. Balum. J A»ni»iitiass*Ba.
Founder and Hon. Sec of the National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. \ «p^a»inwssp
f Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S. f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J 4-n*.
burgh University. Nefll M-dallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 "**»"•
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I
Riv. Jakes Sibree. J j
Author of Madagascar and its People ; &c I
Andrews).
>llcge, Oxford. Auth
of Geology and] i
The Dead Heart of [
ill.
IIP. Jobn^Smxtb Flett, p.Sc.,F.p.S.
It*
J.V.B. Jakes Vernon Baktlet, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). TabasIbV
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic! JpcstollB VUhUB.
JLW.a John Walter Gregory, F.R.S., D.Sc . . _ „ «...
Professor of Geology, University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J Australia: Pkysicd
Mineralogy, University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart ej 1 Geography.
Australia; Australasia. I
IW.Bs, Jakes Wyojete Headlak, M.A. f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly J
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at i
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and Ike Foundation of Ike German I
LI Kathleen Schlestnger. /AkrorI: Assr: Aaloa.
Author of The Instruments of Ike Orchestra. \ *^ ' '
Anjou.
ABhycrtti; Anksrttr,
Anorthito;
- ABfto-Noniuui
L B.* Louis Halpren. D.-es-L.
Lecturer on Medieval History at the University of Bordeaux. Formerly Secretary
of the ficole des Chartes, Paris.
LJ.L Leonard Jakes Spencer, M.A., F.G.S.
Department of Miiieralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralegical Magaune.
LEBr. Louis Maurice Brandin, M.A.
Fieldcn Professor of French and of Romance Philology in the University of London.
LW. Luazx Wour.
Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Formerly President of
the Society. Joint editor of the BibUotkoca Angle- Judaicu.
IC Mosss Gastek.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and
Bytantine Literature, 1886 and 1801. President, Folklore Society of England.
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian
Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Bcn-Sira; The Hebrew Version of
Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle,
IH.C. Montague Hughes Craceanthorfe, K.C., D.C.L. f
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General I ArhftrarJon. ImieruniiomuL
Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated | "••*■•*•«•• nmnumn..
Council of Law Reporting. Honorary Fellow St John's College, Oxford. I
U.DiG. Michael Jan de Goejs.
See the biographical article : Gorje, Michael Jan de,
■.It. Morris Jastrow, Ph.D. (Leipsig).
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c
l L H. Lady Hdcoins.
See the biographical article: Hucgins, Sir William.
I.I.T. Marcus Niebuhr Too, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum,
i. 0. B. C. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Casfari, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Binning-
ham University, 1005-1908. Author of chapters on Greek History in The Years '
Work its Classical Studies.
■• P.* Leon Jacques Maxlme Prtnet.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary to the Institute
of France (Academy of"Moral and Political Sciences).
*.!. Norman McLean, MA
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Chrbt's College. Cambri jge. University Lecturer
in Aramaic Examiner for the Oriental languages Tripos and the The* '
Tripos at Cambridge.
1. W.T. Noithcote Wkitbexdge Thomas, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Sodet6 d' Anthropologic de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; Ac
{Arabia: Literature {in part).
[Ann; Ami {God);
\ Astrology.
{AnnJIU; Astrolabe,
jApsImjArehldamus;
\ Arifttodtmns; AiMosmoss.
• Aratos of SJeyoo; Arssdls;
Altos: History)
' AristtdsstbsJsst;
Attmmimpart).
JAojnstopDisd*.
J Aphraatss.
{£££?«**
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P.A.
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B.A.W.
B.G.J.
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B.H.C
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B.J.IL
R.L*
R.Ms,
R.M.B.
R.H.W.
B.P.8.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of
Oswald Barron. F.S.A.
Editor of The Ancestor, 1 902- 1 905.
Honourable Society of Baronetage.
OSCAR Briuant.
Paul Daniel Alphandery.
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecote Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorboi
Pari*. Author of Les Idies morales chet Us hiUrodoxes latines au debut du X*
Steele.
PuncB Peter Alzxetvztcb Kropotdn.
See the biographical article: Krofotrtn, PRINCE PETER A.
Peter Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LLJD.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demon
strstor in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford,
1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology -" *"*-- — " " — ! — » ~ a ~- - » ■
Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Bi
1890, 1901-1903.
English.
« r AujUU: Statistics.
3»{
ApostoBet;
Arnold of
{ Aral; Astrakhan.
tomy and Assistant to Linacre rTotcssor at uxioro, -
logy at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London
n Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 189a-
in Zoology to the University 01 London, 1903.
Philip Chesney Yoree, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Percy Gardner, Lrrr.D., LLJ).
See the biographical article : Gardner, Percy. * L
Peter Giles, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College. Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
Phlup Lake, M.A., F.G.S.
Lectarer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly .
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian
Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology.
Paul Vinogradofe, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and Harvard).
Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford. Fellow of the
British Academy. Honorary Professor of History in the University of Moscow.
Author of Villainat* in England ; English Society in the nth Century; Ac
The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh.
See the biographical article: Rayleigh, 3RD Baron.
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
Colonel Robert Alexander Wahab, C.M.G., C. I. E.
{
Afigktwy,lstEtrlof;
of(
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AbMe* tft aUrquess of;
Argyll* Earb tod Dukes of;
ArIm«ton,Earlof.
Aryan.
Asia: Geology;
Austria: Geology.
Anglo-Saxon Law.
Served in the Afghan War, 1878-1880; with the Hazara Expeditions, 1888 and J Arabia: Modem History;
1891; with the Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, &c. Commissioner for" Aslr.
- Arlitopbanea,
{
the Aden Boundary Delimitation.
Sir Richard Glaverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard C.
Richard Garnett, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard.
Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. (Oxon.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British
Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1 898-1906.
Author of Critical History of Future Life ; Ac
Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S., F.L.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Ronald John McNeill, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gatette (London).
Richard Lydekeer, F.R.S., F.G.S.. F.Z.S.
Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum'.,
The Deer of all Lands ; 4c.
Rev. Robert Mackintosh, M.A., D.D.
Professor at Lancashire Independent Collejgc, M
Robert Nkbet Bain (d. 1009).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs,
l6lj to 1725; Slavonic Europe; Ike Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; Ac
Ralph Nicholson Wornum (18x3-1877).
Keeper of the National Gallery, 1834-1877- Author of The Epochs of Painting', Ac.
R. Phen£ Spiers, F.S.A.. F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College. -w . Mka
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's I **•■,
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; Ac. I ArohlttotSrl.
{
Apoearjrftte LKeratura;
Apocryphal Utarsttun.
Antrlkm; AphJdat,
Australia: Recent Legislation.
Antelope; AisMftattnm;
Arttodaetjla; Aaroaba.
Anthropomorphism; Apolo-
getfcs; Apotheosb(»» pari).
Anna, Empress of Russia;
Apraksln, T. M.;
Arakeater, A. A* Count;
Arany, Janos;
Armlalt, Q. K, Count.
Araoesqns.
Apse;
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IF*
IS.
LS.CL
Lit
&A.CL
ia
ii.
ira
it.
ILL
I. Or,
tH.
T.H.H.*
T.LH.
T.M.L.
T.UVD.
1W.B.DL
REM* POUFARDIN, JX-BS-L.
Secretary of the Eoole dee Charter
Nationale, Paris.
Honorary Librarian at the Bibliothoque *
LiEUT.-GEN. SlE RICHARD StRACHEY, R.E.,
See the biographical article: Strachsy, s
G.C.S.I., LL.D., F.R.S.
irR.
Aria*, Kingdom ot
Asia: Climate, Flora and
FOtiftOm
Robrt Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Lm. (Cantab.). f h
Professor of Latia in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin J AP«n*! Archaeology;
in University College, Cardiff. Fellow of Gonvffle and Caius College, Cambridge. | ArlCtni; /
Author of The Italic Dialect*. ' I
Round Trvslove, M.A. f . .
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar \ Ariel.
of Christ Church, Oxford. I
Stanley Arthur Cooe. M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew
Ige. Examiner in Hebrew and
1904-1908; Council of Royal Asiatic Society,
1904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Mooes and
Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow
and Syriac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. I
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908; Councd of
Aft;
An;
Ash*;
Astarta.
Art
Palestine; &c
SiPNEY COLVTN, M.A., D.LlTT.
See the biographical article: Colvin, Sidney.
Simon Nbwcqmb, LL.D., D.Sc.. D.C.L. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article: Nbwcomb, Simon.
Viscount St Cyres.
See the biographical article: Iddsslbigh, ist Earl of.
The Right Hon. Lord Swaythlino (Stjk Samuel Montagu). . f a . mii ....
M.P. for Whatecbapel, 1885-1900. Founder of the firm of Samuel Montagu & Co., i ArMBBfR.
Bankers, London. I
Timothy Augustine Coghlan. I.S.O.
Agent-General for New South Wales. President of Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science (Economics and Statistics), 190a. Author of The Seven
Colonies of Australia; Statistical Account of Australia ami New Zealand.
Thomas Allan Ingram, MA, LLJX
Trinity College. Dublin.
{
{Astronomy: Descriptor
Astrophysics.
{ArnasM: Family.
TsWsttS Asset, M.A., DXtit. (Oxon.).
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rone. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Author of numerous articles in the
Papers of the British School at Rome; The Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna; Ac.
Anttan; Aptia Via; -
Apulia: History;
Aqueduct: Roman;
AquOela; Aquino;
Ardta; Araso;
Arlaao dl Paella; Arista*
Arlminum; Arpt; Arplno;
Sib Thomas Barclay, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
THomab Cass, MA
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynnete Professor of Moral
and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford. Author of Physual Realism ; &c.
Thomas Hoogein, LL.D., D.Lrrr.
See the biographical article : Hopgkin, T. .
COL. Sir Thomas Hungereoed Holdich. K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of the Indian
Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; &c
Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., D.Sc. (Cantab.).
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. '
Ret. Thomas Martin Lindsay, LL.D., D.D.
Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the
Prof e ssor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of'
History of the Reformation ; L$e of Luther ; &c.
Walts* Theodore Watts-Dunton.
Sea the biographical article: Watts-Dunton, W. T. \
T. W. Rhys Davids, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. President of
the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian
of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1905. Author of Buddhism: 6c.
; Assist; Astura;
Atasts; Anfldann;
Augusta (Slefly);
Augusta
Augusta Praetoria
AureUa, Via.
Angary;
Annexation.
Asylum, Rhjhl of.
Lsla: Geography q
Apoflonlus of Ptrp;
- Anwld; stattbtw.
xn
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
W.A.B.O.
W./LP.
W.Cr.
W.ELCo.
W.E.1.
W.F.O.
W.F.Sh.
V.H.BO.
W.H.DL
W.J.P.
W.ILB.
W.F.B.
W.R.L.
W.W.
W.W.F.*
W.W. R«
Rev. William Augustus BrevoortCoolidge, M.A..F.R.G.S., Hon. Ph.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford. Professor of English History, ~
College, Lampeter, 1 880-1881. Author of Guide du haul dauphini
the Tadi; Guide to Grinddwcid ~ ' " ~ ' ~ - "
>N. Ph.D. (Bern), f
ttory, St David's
ini; The Rang* of\
in Nature and in
tea. \
in's I
5
[ Antfbes;
Arnand,
Arenbisoon;
; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps i
History; Ac. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; Ac
Waltxe Alison Phillips, M.A.
Principal Assistant Editor of the nth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica..
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College. Oxford, and Senior Scholar of St John's
College. .Author of Modern Europe; Ac.
WlLBEUf BODSSKT, D.THEOL. f
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of ' AntJeMst
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; Ac.
Walter Crane, f Arts tod Crafts;
See the biographical article : Ciane, Walter. \ Art T
Right Rev. William Eoward Coluns, D.D., Bishop or Gibraltar.
Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London. Lecturer,
St John's and Sdwyn Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The Beginnings of English *
ChrisHan$ty m
Major William Egerton Edwards.
Captain and Brevet Major, Royal Field Artillery. Inspector, Inspection Staff, Wool* « Armour Pfcftta*.
wich Arsenal. Lecturer on Armour and Explosives at the Royal Naval War ' M * MUW1U «-■■»•»•
College, Greenwich, 1 904-1909.
William Frildxn Craibs, M.A. f
Barrister-at-law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. J
Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Author of Craves on Statute 1
Law. I
William Fleetwood Sheppard, M.A., D.Sc. f
Senior Examiner under the Board of Education. Senior Wrangler, 1884. Formerly i AriUUnOtlO.
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. I
William Henry Bennett, M.A.. D.D., Dim. (Cantab.).
Pr o fes s o r of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; Ac
Angtl;
College, Sheffield. Author of RMgion of the Post*Rxilic Prophets; Ac
William Henry Dines, F.R.S.
William Justice Ford, M.A. (d. 1904).
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Head Blaster of Leamington
College.
Six William Markby. K.C.I.E.. D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Mareby, Sir W. " L
William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dantb Gabriel. 1
Hon. William Pembbr Reeves.
Director, London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1 896-1909. Author of A History of New Zealana.
W. R. Lethaby, F.S.A.
Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County
Council. Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth ; Ac.
William Wallace. MA
See the biographical article: Wallace, William (d. 1897).
William Wards Fowler. M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gilford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greehs and Romans
The Roman Festsoals of the Republican Period; Ac.
William Walxes* Rockwell, Lie Theol.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
;{
Archery.
Austin, John.
AiigeHeo, Fro,
Atkinson, Sir Henry Albeit
Architecture: Romanesque
and Gothic in Prance.
{in pari).
Amu
Argot
r Antieoh, Synods of;
Arms, Synod of;
I Augsburg , Coni colon ft
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
itnUbowDlspQtes.
Argenson: Family.
ArymSamaJ.
Asthma.
Augurs.
Arioste.
Asaejtftu.
Athletic Sports.
Augustan Hbte
ArisoBJL
flijism sailing
AtholL Earls and Dnkos
Aungerrjle, B.
ArknnsBs.
Assam,
of.
Anrnnfsob.
Arsenic
Assembly.
Atlas ■otmtaln*.
Aurenaa.
Arthur, Chester Amu
Assets.
Attainder.
AwIoubu
Art Sales.
Assise.
Atterbury, Itonoit,
AusonltsJton»
AnueeL torts at
AsBOimttosl of Meta.
Aiioltiitfl Auditor
AlkfOMlttS.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II
ANDROS, 8IH EDMUND (1637-17x4), English colonial
governor in America, was born in London on the 6th of December
1637, son of Amice Andros, an adherent of Charles I., and the
royal bailiff of the island of Guernsey. He served for a short
time in the army of Prince Henry of Nassau, and in 1660- 1662
was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of Bohemia (Elizabeth
Staaxl, daughter of James I. of England). He then served
against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in what
is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke
of York (later James II), governor of New York and the Jerseys,
though his jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until
ha recall in 1 681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty
and favouritism in the collection of the revenues, he proved
himself to be a capable administrator, whose imperious disposi-
tion, however, rendered him somewhat unpopular among the
colonists. During a visit to England in 1678 he was knighted.
In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his capital, of the
■ Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts (in-
cluding Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was
extended over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious
interference with colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest
resentment, and on the 18th of April 1689, soon after news of
the arrival of William, prince of Orange, in England reached
Boston, the colonists deposed and arrested him. In New York
bis deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon afterwards deposed by
Jacob Leislcr (?.?.); and the inter-colonial union was dissolved.
Andros was sent to England for trial in 1600, but was immediately
released without trial, and from 169a until 1698 he was governor
of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of Commissary
James Blair (q.t.) t with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1604
be was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was
governor of Guernsey. He died in London in February 17x4
aad was buried at St Anne's, Soho.
See The Andros Tracts (3 vols., Boston. 1 869-1873).
ANDROS, or Andro, an island of the Greek archipelago, the
most northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about
a m. N. of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom
of Greece. It is nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is
10 no. Its surface is for the most part mountainous, with many
fruitful and well-watered valleys. Andros, the capital, on the
east coast, contains about »ooo Inhabitants. The ruins of
PaUeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the west coast; the town
possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus. The island
has about 18,000 inhabitants.
The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population,
perhaps with an admixture of Thracian bloocL Though originally
dependent on Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become
sufficiently prosperous to send out several colonies to Chakidicc
(Acanthus, Stagcirus, Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships
to Xerxes and was subsequently harried by the Greek fleet.
Though enrolled in the Delian League it remained disaffected
towards Athens, and in 447 had to be coerced by the settlement of
a dcruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its freedom and in 408
withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the second
Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for
as a frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea,
Macedonia and Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison
from Antipatcr; in 308 it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the
Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed again to Macedonia after
a battle fought oft its shores. In 200 it was captured by a com-
bined Roman, Pcrgamcne and Rhodian fleet, and remained a
possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that kingdom
in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
a.d. 1 207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva
under Venetian protection.
ANDR0T10N (e. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a con-
temporary of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the
speech of Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality
in proposing the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five
Hundred at the expiration of its term of office. Androlion filled
several important posts, and during the Social War was appointed
extraordinary commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes.
Both Demosthenes and Aristotle (Rkel. iii. 4) speak favourably
of his powers as an orator. He is said to have gone into exile
at Megara, and to have composed an Aiihis, or annalist ic account
of Attica from the earliest limes to his own day's (Pausanias
vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed whether the annalist and orator are
identical, but an Androtion who wrote on agriculture is certainly
a different person. Professor Gaetano de Sanctis (in L'Atlidr
di Androzione t urn papiro di Oxyrhynckos, Turin, 1908) attributes
to Androtion, the atlhidographer, a 4th-century historical frag-
ment, discovered by B. P. Grenfcll and A. S. Hunt (Oxytkyncku*
Papyri, vol. v.). Strong arguments against this view are set
forth by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, May 1908
to
ANDUJAR— ANEMOMETER
AMD0JAR (the anc. Slilurgi), a town of southern Spain,
in the province of Jaen; on the right bank of the river Guadal-
quivir and the Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1000) 16,302.
Andujar is widely known for its porous earthenware jars, called
akarrasas, which keep water cool in the hottest weather, and are
manufactured from a whitish clay found in the neighbourhood.
ANECDOTE (from or-, privative, and txeifa/i*, to give out
or publish), a word originally meaning something not published.
It has now two distinct significations. The primary one is
something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote
either secret histories — Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the
titles of his secret history of Justinian's court — or portions of
ancient writers which have remained long in manuscript and
are edited for the first time. Of such anecdote there are many
collection; the earliest was probably L. A. Muratori's, in 1709.
In the more general and popular acceptation of the word,
however, anecdotes are short accounts of detached interesting
particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections are almost infinite;
the best in many respects is that compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826)
and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the Percy Anecdotes.
(1820-1823).
ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679- 1730), French surgeon, was born at
Toulouse about 1679. After studying at Montpcllier and Paris,
he served as surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then
after two years at Vienna he went to Italy and served in the
Austrian army. In 17 10 he was teaching surgery in Rouen,
whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he was practising in
Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his successful
surgical treatment of fistula loxrymalis, and while at Genoa
invented for use in connexion with the operation the fine-pointed
syringe still known by his name.
ANEMOMETER (from Gr. &>c/iof, wind, and pit-por, a
measure), an instrument for measuring cither (he velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two
classes, (1) those that measure the velocity, (2) those that
measure the pressure of the wind, but inasmuch as (here is a close
connexion between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable
anemometer of either class will give information about both these
quantities.
Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two
classes, (1) those which do not require a wind vane or weather-
cock, (2) those which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented
( 1 846) by Dr Thomas Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory,
is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs
to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups,
mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie
at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis
round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross;
a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this
axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time
the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups
arc placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is easy to
see that the wind afways has the hollow of one cup presented to
it ; the back of the cup on the opposite end Of the cross also faces
the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a
continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes
round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of
this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane;
on the other hand It is not well adapted to leaving a record on
paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it
leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when
Dr Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no
matter what the size of the cups or the length of the arms, thecups
always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This
result was apparently confirmed by some independent experi-
ments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that
the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity
of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the
dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value
between two and a little over three. The result has been that
wind velocities published in many official publications have often
been in error by nearly 50%.
The other forms of velocity anemometer-may be described as
belonging to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer
the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis
of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and
therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in
direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or
some other contrivance to fulfil the same purpose must be em-
ployed. This type of instrument is very little used in England,
but seems to be more in favour in France. In cases where the
direction of theair motion is always the same, as in the ventilating
shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these anemometers,
known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give most
satisfactory results.
Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into
the plate and lube classes, but the former term must be taken as
including a good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type
of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or
circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the
wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a
spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force
which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off
on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by
means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork.
Instruments of this kind have been in use for alongscriesof years,
and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60 lb
per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values arc
erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of
the anemometer.
The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and
while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for
measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely
unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind.
To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the
plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains
and levers. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back
and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which
a steady wind of the same force would place it; by the time the
motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by
the springiness of the connexion, and not only is the plate itself
driven loo far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by
the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than
double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart .
A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the
plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until
released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being
driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that
moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast
of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pres-
sure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has not been shown by them, and instances
exceeding 20 lb arc extremely rare.
Many other modifications have been used and suggested.
Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure
anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not
require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end
of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure
the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton
being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results.
Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube contain-
ing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the
wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of
instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a
tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an
equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in air-
tight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end
of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is
not of any practical use in anemomelry, because the magnitude
of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly
at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the t rue
direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure
tube anemometer (fig. 1) utilizes the increased pressure in the
open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease
ANEMONE— ANERIO
if pressure caused inside when the wind blows over a ring of small
*x>'.a drilled through the metal of a vertical lube which is closed
it the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action
Jcpends are very small, and special means are required to register
u.a, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. a),
±sy wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of
ihc tube facing the wind is capable of registration.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact
:hat the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires
ro ciling or attention for years; and the registering part can be
placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the
(item*] part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might
ppear at first sight as though one connexion would serve, but the
..fcrences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so
r. Inute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the record-
5 g part b placed has to be considered. Th'is if the instrument
dipxnds on the pressure or suction effect alone, and, this pressure
ar suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary
room, in which the doors and windows arc carefully closed and a
newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be pro-
duced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the opening of a
Fig. 1.
Fie. 2.
window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely
alter the registration.
The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the
wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many
text-books on engineering give the relation P= 005 v* when P is
the pressure in lb per sq. ft. and v the velocity in miles per hour.
The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about
the end of the 18th century as based on some experiments, but
with a footnote stating that little reliance could be placed on it.
The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book
to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no
doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the
.005 should be replaced by 003, for many independent authorities
using different methods have found values very close to this
last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly
proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates
are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a sq. ft.
up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and for these sizes,
and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation P * .003 **
is fairly correct.
In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that b
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity
scale. In cases where the density of the air b not of average value,
as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer
for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately 1 J %
should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer
for each 1000 ft. that it stands above sea-levcL (W. H. Di.)
ANEMONE, or Wind-Flower (from the Gr. owjjot, wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaccae), containing about
ninety species in the north and south temperate zones. Anemone
nemorosa, wood anemone, and A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower,
occur in Britain; the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone
pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties.
The plants are perennial herbs with an underground rootstock,
and radical, more or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated
flower stem bears one or several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow,
flowers; there b an involucre of three leaflets below each flower.
The fruits often bear long hairy styles which aid their distribution
by the wind. Many of the species arc favourite garden plants;
among the best known b Anemone coronaria, often called the
poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like
divided leaves, and large showy poppy -like blossoms on stalks
of from 6 to 9 in. high; the flowers are of various colours, but the
principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There are
also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the centre
are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It b an old garden
favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties.
They grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure,
which should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted
in October, and for succession in January, the autumn-planted
ones being protected by a covering of leaves or short stable
litter. They will flower in May and June, and when the leaves
have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till planting
time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the
single varieties b a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as it
affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and
often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or
crocus. The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming
plants, of which A. hortensis and A. fulgens have less divided
leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require
similar treatment. Another set b represented by A. Pulsatilla,
the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface
hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A.japonica,
and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially,
are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials;
they grow well in light soil, and reach 2 3 to 3 ft. in height,
blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
species, represented by the native British A. nemorosa and
A. apennina, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers
for planting in woods and shady places.
The genus Hepalica b now generally included in anemone as a
subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and
are varieties of the common South European A. Hepalica;
they are charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue
flowers.
ANENCLETUS, or Anacletus, second bishop of Rome. About,
the 4U1 century he b treated in the catalogues as two persons —
Anacletus and Clctus. According to the catalogues be occupied
the papal chair for twelve years (c. 77SS).
ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very
great Roman masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the
elder, was born about 1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and
succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as composer to the papal chapel.
Several masses and motets of hb.are printed in Proske'a Musica
Divina and other modern anthologies, and it b hardly too much
to say that they are for the most part worthy of Palestrina
himself. The date of his death b conjecturally given as 1630.
His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and
seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of
some of hb numerous compositions to. hb elder brother b a
pardonable mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been
reprinted. But the statement, which continues to be repeated
in standard works of reference, that " he was one of the first of
Italians to use the quaver and its subdivisions " b incompre-
hensible. Quavers were common property in all musical countries
quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers appear in a
madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers are
probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation
ANET— ANGEL
to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have
learnt from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the
necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified
negative asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because Uiey
understood it and loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither
the progressive work of their own day nor the reactionary work
of their imitators could live. The 12-part Stabat Mater in the
seventh volume of Palestrina's complete works has been by some
authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.
ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of
Eurc-ct-Loir, situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre,
1o m. N.E. of Drcux by rail. Pop. (1006) 1324. It possesses
the remains of a magnificent castle, built in the middle of the
16th century by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers. Near it is the
plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated the armies of the League
in 1500.
ANEURIN, or Aneirin, the name of an early 7th -century
British (Welsh) bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens
(1821-1875), the editor and translator of Ancurin's principal epic
poem Gcdodin, for a son of Gildas, the historian. Gododin is an
account of the British defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth
(identified by Stephens with Dawstane in Liddesdale), where
Ancurin is said to have been taken prisoner; but the poem is
very obscure and is differently interpreted. It was translated
and edited by W. F. Skene in his Four Ancient Books of Wales
(1866), and Stephens' version was published by the Cymmro-
dorion Society in 1888. See Celt: Literature (Welsh).
ANEURYSM, or Aneubisu (from Gr. i^tOpurua, a dilata-
tion), a cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of
an artery and contains blood. The walls of the cavity arc formed
cither of the dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel.
The dilatation of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result
of disease or injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflamma-
tion of the inner coats of the artery. The breaking of a bottle
or glass in the hand is apt to cut through the outermost coat of
the artery at the wrist (radial) and thus to cause a local weakening
of the tube which is gradually followed by dilatation. Also when
an artery is wounded and the wound in the skin and superficial
structures heals, the blood may escape into the tissues, displacing
them, and by its pressure causing them to condense and form the
sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased, may be torn
by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed tissues
which thus form the aneurysmal sac
The division of aneurysms into two classes, true and false, is
unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false
is not an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is lrgal
tender. A better classification is into spontaneous and traumatic.
The man who has chronic inflammation of a large artery, the
result, for instance, of gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-
disease, and whose artery yields under cardiac pressure, has a
spontaneous aneurysm; the barman or window-cleaner who has
cut his radial artery, the soldier whose brachial or femoral artery
has been bruised by a rifle bullet or grazed by a bayonet, and the
boy whose naked foot is pierced by a sharp nail, are apt to be
the subjects of traumatic aneurysm. In those aneurysms which
arc a saccular bulging on one side of the artery the blood may be
induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit layer upon layer
of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This laminar coagulation
by constant additions gradually fills the aneurysmal cavity and
the pulsation in the sac then ceases; contraction of the sac and
its contents gradually takes place and the aneurysm is cured.
But in those aneurysms which are fusiform dilatations of the
vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for the blood
sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
laminated fibrine.
In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the
blood pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is
rarely effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now
resorted to more promptly and securely than was previously the
case. Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of
treatment by compression, or the application of an indiarubber
bandage, the surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the
artery, and applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation.
Experience has shown that this method possesses great advantages,
and that it has none of the disadvantages which were formerly
supposed to attend it. Saccular dilatations of arteries which are
the result of cuts or other injuries are treated by tying the vessel
above and below, and by dissecting out the aneurysm. Pop-
liteal, carotid and other aneurysms, which are not of traumatic
origin, are sometimes dealt with on this plan, which is the old
" Method of Antyllus " with modern aseptic conditions. Speak-
ing generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with surgically the
sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic measures
are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and dis-
appointing. For aneurysm in the chest or abdomen (which
cannot be dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried
of injecting a pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of
the armpit, so that the gelatine may find its way into the blood
stream and increase the chance of curative coagulation in the
distant aneurysmal sac. (E. 0.*)
ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. anfractuosus, winding), twisting
and turning, drcuitousness; a word usually employed hi the
plural to denote winding channels such as occur in the depths
of the sea, mountains, or the fissures (sulci) separating the
convolutions of the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.
ANGARIA (from iyyapot, the Greek form of a Babylonian
word adopted in Persian for " mounted courier "), a sort of
postal system adopted by the Roman imperial government
from the ancient Persians, among whom, according to Xcnophon
(Cyrop. viii. 6; cf. Herodotus viii. 08) it was established by
Cyrus the Great Couriers on horseback were posted at certain
stages along the chief roads of the empire, for the transmission
of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers. In the
Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was
a compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant
exemption. The word, which in the 4th century was used for
the heavy transport vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for
the animals by which they were drawn, came to mean generally
"compulsory service." So angaria, angariare, in medieval
Latin, and the rare English derivatives "angariate," "angaria-
tion," came to mean any service which was forcibly or unjustly
demanded, and oppression in general.
ANGARY (Lat. jus atigariae; Fr. droit d'aniarie; Ger.
Angarie; from the Gr. iyyapila, the office of an lyyapoi, courier
or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy
from doing so) any kind of property on belligerent territory,
including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a
neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws
and Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention
of 1899 on the same subject, provides that railway plant, land
telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other ships (other than
such as arc governed by maritime law), though belonging to
companies or private persons, may be used for military opera-
tions, but " must be restored at the conclusion of peace and
indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that " the
plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the
property of those states or of companies or private persons,
shall be sent back to them as soon as possible." These articles
seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral property,
while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral property.
It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies as
wide a range of contingencies as the " necessity of war " can be
made to cover. (T. Ba.)
ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman
being in monotheistic religions, e.g. Islam, Judaism, Christianity,
and in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism
the grades of superhuman beings are continuous; but in mono-
theism there is a sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree,
between God on the one hand, and all other superhuman beings
on the other; the latter are the " angels."
" Angel " is a transcription of the Gr. iyyt K&i, messenger.
iyyt\os in the New Testament, and the corresponding mal'ckh
in the Old Testament, sometimes mean " messenger," and
ANGEL
1 angel," and this double sense is duly represented
is the English. Versions. " Angel " is also used in the English
Version for •»•*» *A.bblr t Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for
*¥* 'Elokim, Pis. viii. 5, and for the obscure l¥j* *A*Vdi*,in
Ps. IxviiL 17.
In the later development of the religion of Israel, 'Elohim
is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in
earlier times * Elohim (gods), bni 'Elohim, bni Elim (sons of
gods, ije, members of the class of divine beings) were general
terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used
ccDectivcIy of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and
iiverefore inferior, and ultimately subordinate. 1 So, too, the
tagels are styled " holy ones," 1 and " watchers,"* and are
spoken of as the " host of heaven" 4 or of " Yahweh."* The
-hosts," n*Q* SebO&lh in the title Yahweh Sebaoth, Lord of
Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels.' The
New Testament often speaks of "spirits," m*6jiara. 7 In the
earlier periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism
had not been formally stated, so that the idea of " angel " in
the modern sense does not occur, but we find the MaTakh
Ya*vch r Angel of the Lord, or MaTakh Elokim, Angel of God.
Tke MaTakh Yahweh is an appearance or manifestation of
Yzkvrh in the form of a man, and the term MaTakh Yahweh is
used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 3, with
ii 4; xiii. 2» with xiv. 10). Those who sec the MaTakh
Ydmek say they have seen God.* The MaTakh Yahweh (or
Bskim) appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c, and
kads the Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.* The phrase MaTakh
Tdcaxb may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for
the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding
crude anthropomorphism, and later on, when the angels were
classified, the MaTakh Yahweh came to mean an angel of
extinguished rank.. 19 The identificaton of the MaTakh Yahweh
*uh the Logos, or Second Person of the Trinity, is not indicated
by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea of a Being
partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from
fcm, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the
doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.
In the earlier literature the MaTakh Yahweh or 'Elohim is
almost the only ntaTakh ("angel") mentioned. There are,
fc>*ever, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman
beings other than the MaTakh Yahweh or Elohim. There are
the cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. rviii., xix. 0) the
appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with
inree. afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the
wgirlal form of the story Yahweh appeared alone." At Bethel,
Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder, 11 and later on they
appear to him at Mahanaim. 1 * In all these cases the angels, like
l > e MaTakh Yahweh, are connected with or represent a theo-
phany Similarly the " man " who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel
b identified with God.* 4 In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh.
Thus the pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say
about angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh
and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly
mention angels.** Nevertheless we may well suppose that the
«?pular religion of ancient Israel had much to say of super-
human beings other than Yahweh, but thai the inspired writers
have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying.
Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.
x sr m €\m*t vi. a ; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I. * Zech. xiv. 5.
• f£ « iv?il 4 *>«*• *vii. 3 (?). • Josh. v. 14 (ft.
• The "identification of the " hosts ,r with the stars comes to the
: '?I:^-. the stars were thought of as closely connected with
L^TtJ « a? probable that the ' p »«-»« " «-~ •<•« .M«*«fi~i *!►»•
1 proDoi
Israel.
ih* armies of
* Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. aa.
* Zcch. i. 11 r
r*riviii i" with xviil. 2, and note change of number in xix. 17.
V* wxviii. 12. E. " Gen. xxxii. I, E. M Gen. xxxii. 24, to, I.
.. A-^Lf*ecl " of I Kings xiii. 18 might be the MaTakh Yahweh,
asm x
be
-V. s cT 7. or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may
- - post-exilic.
The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the
period immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy 1 *
and Isaiah 17 ; and at the same time we find angels prominent in
Ezekicl who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced
by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian
religion, and perhaps even by the angclology of Zoroastrianism. 1 *
Ezekicl gives elaborate discriplions of cherubim 1 *; and in one
of his visions he sees seven angels execute the judgment of God
upon Jerusalem.** As in Genesis they are styled " men," maTahh
for " angel " does not occur in EzekieL Somewhat later, in the
visions of Zechariah, angels play a great part; they are some-
times spoken of as " men," sometimes as mal'akk, and the
MaTahh Yahweh seems to hold a certain primacy among them*
Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest
before the divine tribunal.* 1 Similarly in Job the bni Elohim,
sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
Satan, still in his role of public prosecutor, the defendant being
Job.** Occasional references to " angels " occur in the Psalter* 4 ;
they appear as ministers of God.
In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the " evil angels " of A. V. conveys a false
impression; it should be " angels of evil," as R.V., i.e, angels
who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.
The seven angels of Ezckiel may be compared with the seven
eyes of Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been
connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven
chief angels**, parallel to and influenced by the Amcshaspentas
(Amesha Spcnta), or seven great spirits of the Persian mythology,
but the connexion is doubtful.
In the Priestly Code.c. 400 b.c^ there is no reference to angels
apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural
in Genesis i. 26.
During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels
underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under
foreign influences. In Daniel, c. 160 B.C., angels, usually
spoken of as " men " or " princes/' appear as guardians or
champions of the nations; grades are implied, there are " princes "
and " chief " or " great princes "; and the names of some angels
are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is pre-eminent**, he is
the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading part is played
by Raphael, " one of the seven holy angels."* 7
In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel.
In the canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering
as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter;
but they appear as subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and
not as morally evil. The statement** that God " charged* His
angels with folly " applies to all angels. In Daniel the princes
or guardian angels of the heathen nations oppose Michael the
guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we find Asmodaeus
the evil demon, to rorapor ootjionoir, who strangles Sarah's
husbands, and also a general reference to "a devil or evil
spirit," rvcv/ia.* 9 The Fall of the Angels is not property a
scriptural' doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as inter-
preted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the bni Elokim
of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above),
but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels
of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no
way suggests that the bni Elohim suffered any loss of status
through their act.
The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent
the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the
process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded
by Milton in Paradise Lost. The development of the doctrine
of an organised hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish litera-
ture of the period 200 B.C. to a.d. 100. In Jewish apocalypses
especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names
of angels; and such works as the various books of Enoch and
M Deut. vi. 4. 5. n Isaiah xltii. 10 Ac.
u It is not however certain that these doctrines of Zoroastrianism
were developed at so early a date.
«• Ezck. i. x. » Esek. ix. « Zcch. i. II f.
1 Job i.. ii. Cf. 1 Chron. xxi. 1
u Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. a.
■ Too. xii. 15. ■ Job iv. 18.
" Zech. iii. 1.
"• Pss. xci. II, oil 20 Ac.
** Dan. viii. 16, x. 13, 20,21.
** Tobit iii. 8, 17, vi 7.
ANGEI^-ANGELICO
the Ascension of Isaiah supply much information on this
subject.
In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the
ministers of God and the agents of revelation 1 ; and Our Lord
speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions', implying in one saying
that they neither marry nor are given in marriage.' Naturally
angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testa-
ment takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy,
but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good
and bad angels is recognized; we have names, Gabriel 4 , and
the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon*, Beelzebub', and Satan';
ranks are implied, archangels*, principalities and powers',
thrones and dominions 10 . Angels occur in groups of four or
seven 11 . In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with the. "Angels " of the Seven
Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels,
standing to the churches in the same relation that the "princes"
in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the " angels " are
personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
" angels " arc the human representatives of the churches, the
bishops or chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel
to such a use of " angel," and it is doubtful whether the mon-
archical government of churches was fully developed when
the Apocalypse was written.
Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines
of the angclology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play
an important part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Mid-
rashim and the Kabbala. Religious thought about the angels
during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the
angelic hierarchy set forth in the De Hitrarchia Celesti, written
in the 5th century in the name of Dionysius the Arcopagite and
passing for his. The creeds and confessions do not formulate
any authoritative doctrine of angels; and modern rationalism
has tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard
the subject as one on which we can have bo certain knowledge.
The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels;
but the Book of Jubilees and the Slavonic Enoch describe their
creation; and, according to CoL i. x6, the angels were created
in, unto and through Christ.
Nor docs the Bible give any formal account of the nature
of angels. It is doubtful how far Ezekicl's account of the
cherubim and Isaiah's account of the seraphim are to be taken
as descriptions of actual beings; they are probably figurative,
or else subjective visions. Angels are constantly spoken of as
" men," and, including even the Angel of Yahwch, are spoken
of as discharging the various functions of human life; they eat
and drink", walk 1 * and speak 14 . Putting aside the cherubim
and seraphim, they arc not spoken of as having wings. On the
other hand they appear and vanish 1 *, exercise miraculous powers 14 ,
and fly 17 . Seeing that the anthropomorphic language used of
the angels is similar to that used of God, the Scriptures would
hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in either case.
A special association is found, both in the Bible and elsewhere,
between the angcb and the heavenly bodies 1 ', and the elements
or elemental forces, fire, water, &c lt . The angels are infinitely
numerous 10 .
The function of the angels is that of the supernatural servants
of God, His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh,
as we have seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the
bni Elokim and the seraphim are His court, and the angels arc
alike the court and the army of God; the cherubim are his
throne-bearers. In his dealings with men, the angels, as their
4 E.t. Matt. 2. ao (to Joseph), iv. II (to Jesus), Luke i. 26 (to Mary),
Acts xil 7 (to Peter).
* E.g. Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27. * Mark xii. 35. * Luke i. 19.
' Rev. ix. if. 4 Mark iii. 23. T Mark i. 13.
• Michael, Judeo. • Rom. viii. 38; Col. ii. 10.
» Col. i. 16. » Rev. vii. 1. » Gen. xviii. 8.
"• Gen. xix. 16. " Zech. iv. 1. " Judges vi. 12, 21.
■ Rev. vii. 1. viii. a Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.
■ Job xxxviii. 7; Ase. of Isaiah, iv. 18; Slav. Enoch, \y. 1.
» Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; possibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8, 20.
» Pi. brviii. 17; Dan. vu. 10.
name implies, are specially His messengers, declaring His will
and executing His commissions. Through them he controls
nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels- 1 .
Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels*.
According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by
angels. Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated
the Jewish and Christian ideas as to angels.
While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence
of spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is
probable that many of the details may be regarded merely as
symbolic imagery. In Scripture the function of the angel
overshadows his personality; the stress is on their ministry;
they appear in order to perform specific acts.
Bmi.tOGRAPHV.— See the sections on " Angels " in the handbooks
of O.T. Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayscr-Marti. Ac. ;
and of N. T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzce's Dogmatics.
Also commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Be van.
on Daniel, and G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 310 flu; and articles
s.v. " Angel " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, and the Encyclobaedi
Biblica. (W. H. Be.)
ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (angelol, ange) in 1340,
and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new
issue of the "noble," and so at first called the " angel- noble."
It varied in value between that period and the time of Charles I.
(when it was last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was
derived from the representation it bore of St Michael and the
dragon. The angel was the coin given to those who came to be
touched for the disease known as king's evil; after it was no
longer coined, medals, called touch-pieces, with the same device,
were given instead.
ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelllfcrae,
represented in Britain by one species, A . sylveslris, a tall perennial
herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels of
white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given
to a plant of an allied genus, Archangclica officinalis, the tender
shoots of which arc used in making certain kinds of aromatic
sweetmeats. Angelica balsam is obtained by extracting the roots
with alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether.
It is of a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica
wax and angelicin, CuH a O. The essential oil of the roots of
Angelica archangclica contains 0-tcrebangelcnc, Ci H u , and other
tcrpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains 0-terebangeIene,
together with mcthylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.
The angelica tree is a member of the order Avaliaccae, a species
of Aralia {A. spinosa), a native of North America; it grows
8 to 12 ft. high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an
umbrella-like head, and much divided leaves.
ANGEUCO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. H Beato Fra
Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed
painter-friar of the Florentine state in the 15th century, the
representative, beyond all other men, of pictistic painting. He
is often, but not accurately, termed simply " Fiesole," which is
merely the name of the town where he first took the vows; more
often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound designation into
English, it runs thus—" the Beatified Friar John the Angelic
of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
Fra Giovanni or Friar John; "The Angelic" is a laudatory
term which was assigned to him at an early date, — we find it in
use within thirty years after his death; and, at some period
which is not defined in our authorities, he was beatified by due
ecclesiastical process. His baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni
being only his name in religion. He was born at Vicchio, in the
Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown but seemingly well-to-do
parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes stated); in 1407 he
became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at Fiesole, and
in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not
certain, but may be pronounced probable. The painter named
Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to lib art-training, and
the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work.
n Matt, xviii. 10: Act9 xii. 15.
■ Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2; LXX. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.
ANGELICO
According to Vatari, the first paintings of this artist were in the
Certosa off Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest
extant performances, in considerable number, arc it Cortona,
whither he was sent during his novitiate; and here apparently he
spent ail the opening years of his monastic life. His first works
executed in fresco were probably those, now destroyed, which he
painted in the convent of S. Domcnico in this city; as a fresco*
painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, Gherardo
Stamina. From 1418 to 1436 he was back at Ficsole; in 1436
he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in
Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the altarpiccc for the
choir, followed by many other works; he may have studied
about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel in
the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of
Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome.
The pope who reigned from 143 1 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and
he it was who in 1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a
colleague of Angclico, to be archbishop of Florence. If the story
(first told by Va&ari) is true— that this appointment was made at
the suggestion of Angclico only after the archbishopric had been
offered to himself, and by him declined on the ground of his
inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station— Eugenius,
and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor Nicholas V., must
have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to
Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole
statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough.
Certain it is that Angclico was staying in Rome in the first half
of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the CappeUa del Sacra-
mento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova
of the cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Bcnozzo
Gazsoli He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel
of Nicholas V. In this capital he died in 1455, and he lies
buried in the church of the Minerva.
According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men
00 whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy
and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a
brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted
with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he
never retouched, or altered his work, probably with a religious
feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to
come, such it should remain He was wont to say that he who
illustrates the acts of Christ should be wi th Christ. It is averred
that he sever handled a brush without fervent prayer and he
wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last Judgment and
the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most frequently
treated.
Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
Giovanni's so journings in various localities, the reader will be able
to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now
proceed to name as among his most important productions. In
Florence,in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national
museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the
first cloister is the Crucifixion with St Dominic kneeling; and
the same treatment recurs on a wall near the dormitory; in the
chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a
composition of twenty life-sized figures—the red background,
which has a strange and harsh effect, is the misdoing of some
restorer; an " Annunciation," the figures of about three-fourths
of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the " Virgin
enthroned," with four ftamts; on the wall of a cell, the " Corona-
tion of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Benedict,
Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcom-
ing Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an " Adoration of the Magi ";
the ** Marys at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the
altarpiccc which Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the
choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the
academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmos
and Damian (the patrons of the Medici family), Dominic, Peter,
Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment
illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been
severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery, an alUrpiece,
the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and twelve
angels. In S. Domcnico, Ficsole, a few frescoes, less fine than
those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and
Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally
formed the predclla of this picture has, since i860, been in the
National Gallery, London, and worthily represents there the hand
of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the
banner of the Resurrection, and a multitude of saints, including,
at the extremities, the saints or beati of the Dominican order;
here arc no fewer than 266 figures or portions of figures, many of
them having names inscribed. This predella was highly lauded
by Vasiri; still more highly another picture which used to form
an altarpiece in Ficsole, and which now obtains world-wide
celebrity in the Louvres-the " Coronation of the Virgin," with
eight predclla subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic. For the
church of Santa Trinila, Florence, Angelico executed a " Depo-
sition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a " Last
Judgment," both now In the Florentine academy; for S. Maria
Novella, a " Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three
sections, now in the Uffizi,— this again is one of his masterpieces.
In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the
ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen
saints and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are
now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of
Nicholas V., the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also
various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four evangelists.
These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered
somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his
youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the architectural
perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently
attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a " St
Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Latcran museum, and
a " Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo, Ficsole. It
has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised
as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises that
illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, abo a
Dominican, who died In r448, have been ascribed to the more
famous artist. Benedettomay perhaps have assisted Giovanni in
the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly
traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was
published in Florence, in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already
mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and Gentile da Fabriano arc named
as pupils of the Beato.
We have spoken of Angclico's art as " pictistic "; this is In
fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt
suavity, devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness,
which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond
rivalry a particular ideal— that of ecclesiastical saintliness and
detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be
denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method
of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of
sexless religiosity which hardly eludes the artificial or even the
hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the
most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impres-
sion. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be
accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to
his own range of conceptions, consonant with his monastic calling,
unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as
he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far
short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as
Masacdo and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject
or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
actions— the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations
or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had
much finish and harmony of composition and colour, without
corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of
the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light
scale of his tints is constantly remarkable, combined with a free
use of gilding; this conduces materially to that celestial character
8
ANGELL— ANGERS
which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the
divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the
redeemed.
Books regarding Fra Angrlico are numerous. We may mention
those by S. Bcissel, 1805; V. M. Crawford, 1000; R. L. Douglas,
1900; I. B. Supino, 1901 ;-D. Tumiati, 1897; C. Williamson, 1901.
(W. M. R.)
ANGELL, OEOROB THORNDIKB (1833-1009), American
philanthropist, was born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the
5th of June 1823. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied
law at the Harvard Law School, and in 1851 was admitted to the
bar in Boston, where he practised for many years. In 1868
he founded and became president of the Massachusetts Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the same year
establishing and becoming editor of Our Dumb Animals, a
journal for the promotion of organised effort in securing the
humane treatment of animals. For many years he was active
in the organization of humane societies in England and America.
In 1882 he initiated the movement for the establishment of
Bands of Mercy (for the promotion of humane treatment of
animals), of which in 1908 there were more than 72,000 in active
existence. In 1889 he founded and became president of the
American Humane Education Society. He became well known
as a criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safe-
guarding of the public health and against adulteration of food.
He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1909.
ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in
a perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a
corruption of the word angle-lights, as they are nearly
triangular.
ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the
Annunciation. It has its name from the opening words, A ngelus
Domini nuniiavit Maria*. It consists of three texts describing
the mystery, recited as verside and response alternately with
the salutation " Hail, Mary I " This devotion is recited in the
Catholic Church three times daily, about 6 a.m., noon and 6 p.m.
At these hours a bell known as the Angelas bell is rung. This
is still rung in some English country churches, and has often
been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival of the curfew-bell
The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed to Pope
Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
ascribed to Louis XL of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be
thrice said daily.
ANGELUS 8ILESIUS (1624-1677)* German religious poet,
was born in 1624 at Breslau. His family name was Johann
Scheffier, but he is generally known by the pseudonym Angelus
Silesius, under which he published bis poems and which marks
the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran, and at first
physician to the duke of Wurttembcrg-Oels, he joined in 1652
the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a' priest,
and became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died
at Breslau on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published
under the title Heilige Scdenlust, oder geisllicke HirtenliaUr der
im ihren J tsum vfrlkbten Ptyche (i6s^, a coUcciion of 205 hymns,
the most beautiful of which, such as, Liebe, die du mich turn
Bildt deiner GoUkeit hastgemachi and Mir naeh, sfrrkhi Ckristus,
wiser Held, have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal.
More remarkable, however, is his Geistreickc Sinn- und ScAluss-
reime (1657), afterwards called Ckerubiniscker Wander smann
(1674). This is a collection of " Rcimsprilche " or rhymed
distichs embodying a strange mystical pantheism drawn mainly
from the writings of Jakob Bdhme and his followers. Silesius
delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of mysticism. The
essence of God, for instance, be held to be love; God, he said,
can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an object
of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself,
without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words,
by becoming man, God And man are therefore essentially one.
A complete edition of ScbelBer's works {Sdmttiekt p+stisckt Werkt)
was rjubtished by D. A. Rosenthal, a vols. (Regensburg. 1862).
Both the Ckerubtniuker Wandtnmann and Heitigt SetUnlust have
been republished by G. EHingcr (1895 ««d 1001); a selection from
— *-—- ~*k by O. B. Hartlebea (1*96). For farther notices
of SOtsius' life and work, see Hoffmann von FaJlerslebtn In WtU
mar'tckes Jakrbutk /. (Hanover, 1854); A. Kahlert, Angdms Suuha
(1853); C. Sdtmann, Angelus Silsstus und stint Mjstik (1896), and
a biog; by H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).
ANGER]f0NDE,atown of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on Lake MQnde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-
Stettin railway, and at the junction of lines to PrenxJau, Freien*
walde and Schwedt. Pop. (jooo) 7465. It has three Protestant
churches, a grammar school and court of law. Its industries
embrace iron founding and enamel working. In 1420 the elector
Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained here a signal victory over the
Pomeranians.
ANGERONA, or Angeionxa, an old Roman goddess, whose
name and functions are variously explained. According to
ancient authorities, she was a goddess who relieved men from
pain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans and their flocks from
angina (quinsy); or she was the protecting goddess of Rome
and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which might not
be pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it was
even thought that Angerona Itself was this name. Modern
scholars regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and
Dea Dia; or as the goddess of the new year and the returning
sun (according to Mommscn, ab angerendo - Aro row d>a+4p<00at
tor iJXior). Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronaiia,
was celebrated on the 21st of December. The priests offered
sacrifice in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in
which stood a statue of Angerona, with a finger on her mouth,
which was bound and closed (Macrobius L to; Pliny, Nat. Hist.
iii. 9; Varro, L. L. vi. 23). She was worshipped as Ancharia
at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her has been recently
discovered. (See Faesulae.)
ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department
of Mainc-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway
to Nantes. Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on
both banks of the Maine, which are united by three bridges. The
surrounding district is famous for its flourishing nurseries and
market gardens. Pierced with wide, straight streets, well
provided with public gardens, and surrounded by ample, tree-
lined boulevards, beyond which lie new suburbs, Angers is one
of the pleasantest towns in France. Of .its numerous medieval
buildings the most important is the cathedral of St Maurice,
dating in the mam from the xsth and 13th centuries. Between
the two flanking towers of the west facade, the spires of which
are of the x6th century, rises a central tower of the same period.
The most prominent feature of the facade is the series of eight
warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir
and transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are
its rich stained glass (1 2th, 13th and 1 5th centuries) and valuable
tapestry (14th to 18th centuries). The bishop's palace which
adjoins the cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the xsth
century. Of the other churches of Angers, the principal are
St Serge, an abbey-church of the 12th and 15th centuries, and
La Trinite ( x 2th century). The prefecture occupies the buildings
of the famous abbey of St Aubin ; in its courtyard are elaborately
sculptured arcades of the nth and 12th centuries, from which
period dates the tower, the only survival of the splendid abbey*
church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th century)
and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (nth century) are also to be seen.
The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an
armoury. The ancient hospital of St Jean (xsth century) is
occupied by an archaeological museum; and the Logfs Barrault,
a mansion built about 1500, contains the public library, the
municipal museum, which has a large collection of pictures and
sculptures, and the Musee David, containing works by the famous
sculptor David d' Angers, who was a native of the town. One of
his masterpieces, a bronxe statue of Ren6 of Anjou, stands close
by the castle. The Hotel de Pince or d'Anjou (1523^530)
is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are also
many curious wooden houses of the 15th and x6th centuries.
The palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
ANGERSTEIN— ANGIOSPERMS
* hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the
buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating
from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court
of assises. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com-
merce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce,
a branch of the Bank of France and several learned societies.
Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a
rycee, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a uni-
versity with free faculties {faailtit litres) of theology, law, letters
and science, a higher school of agriculture, training colleges, a
school of arts and handicrafts and a school of fine art. The
prosperity of the town is largely due to the great slate-quarries
of the vicinity, but the distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable,
rope and thread-making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes,
umbrellas and parasols are leading industries. The weaving of
sail-cloth and woollen and other fabrics, machine construction,
wire-drawing, and manufacture of sparkling wines and preserved
fruits are also carried on. The chief articles of commerce,
besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp, early vegetables,
fruit, Bowers and five-stock.
Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under
the Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it
became the seat of the counts of Anjou (?.*.). It suffered severely
from the invasions of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding
years, and of the English in the tath and 15th centuries; the
Huguenots took it in 1585, and the Vcndean royalists were
repulsed near it in 1703. Till the Revolution, Angers was the
seat of a celebrated university founded in the 14th century.
See L. M. Thorode, Notice detavilU a" Angers (Angers. 1897).
AKOKBITBUf, JOHN JUUUS (1735-1822), London merchant,
and patron of the fine arts, was born at St Petersburg and settled
in London about 1740. His collection of paintings, consisting
of about forty of the most exquisite specimens of the art,
purchased by the British government, on his death, formed the
nucleus of the National Gallery
ANOILBBRT (d. 8x4), Frankish Latin poet, and minister
of Charlemagne, was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated
at the palace school under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser
of the emperor's son, Pippin, he assisted for a while in the govern-
ment of Italy, and was later sent on three important embassies
to the pope, in 792, 704 and 796. Although he was the father
of two children by Charlemagne's daughter, Bertha, one of them
named Nithard, we have no authentic account of his marriage,
and from 700 he was abbot of St Riquier, where his brilliant
rule gained for him later the renown of a saint AngObcrt,
however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
lather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying
the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied
Charlemagne to Borne in 800 and was one of the witnesses to
his wOl in 814. Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's
literary circle, and was the probable author of an epic, of which
the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the
palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo IIL It
fa» a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Fortunatus, composed
in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true
poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin
on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an
epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful
picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded
by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference
to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring
merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.
Angflbert't poems nave been published by E. Dummler in the
Monumcnta Germaniae Historic*. For criticism* of this edition see
Traube in Roederer's ScMriften Jtr ftrmamstht Pkiloiofi* (1888).
See also A. MoJinier. Lu Sources *V Ikistoire ie Frmnu.
AMGIXA PECTORIS (Latin for " pain of the chest "), a term
applied to a violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably
in connexion with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion
causing pr ogres si ve degeneration of the heart muscle (sec Heamt;
Meant). An attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with
a sodden seisure of pain, felt at first over the region of the heart,
but radiating through the chest in various directions, and
frequently extending down the left arm. A feeling of constriction
and of suffocation accompanies the pain, although there is
seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the attack comes
on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily exertion, the
sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the continuance
of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The
countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the
pulse feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly
the attack subsides and complete relief is obtained. The dura-
tion of a paroxysm rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it
may last for a longer period. The attacks are apt to recur on
slight exertion, and even in aggravated cases without any such
exciting cause. Occasionally the first seizure proves fatal; but
more commonly death takes place as the result of repeated
attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under middle life,
and is much more common in males than in females. It must
always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all
other remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of
nitrite of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed
by the physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose
strength. As soon as the pain begins the patient crushes a
pearl in his handkerchief and holds it to his mouth and nose.
The relief given in this way is marvellous and usually takes place
within a very few seconds. In the rare cases where this drug
does not relieve, hypodermic injections of morphia are used.
But on account of the well-known dangers of this drug, it should
only be administered by a medical man. To prevent recurrence
of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous attention
to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
physical strain.. But the most important preventive of all is
" bed," of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least
premonition of anginal pain.
Pseudo-angina.— In connexion with angina pectoris, a far
more common condition must be mentioned that has now
universally received the name of pseudo-angina. This includes
the praecordial pains which very closely resemble those of true
angina. The essential difference lies in the fact that pseudo-
angina Is independent of structural disease of the heart and
coronary arteries. In true angina there is some condition within
the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve centres. In
pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but some
peripheral or visceral nerve. The Impulse passes thence to the
medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of
pain that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are
three main varieties:— (x) the reflex, (2) the vase-motor, (3) the
toxic. The reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due
to irritation from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of
pseudo-angina may be agonizing, the pain radiating through the
chest and into the left arm, but the patient docs not usually
assume the motionless attitude of true angina, and the duration
of the seizure is usually much longer. The treatment is that of
the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is a good one, sudden
death not occurring.
ANGIOSPBRMS. The botaiii(^ term "Angiosperm"(ArK^oi»,
receptacle, and vrkpita, seed) was coined in the form Angio-
spermae by Paul Hermann in 1600, as the name of that one of
his primary divisions of the plant, kingdom, which included
flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contra-
distinction to his Gymnospcrmac, or flowering plana with
achenial or schizo-carptc fruits— the whole fruit or each of its
pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and
its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus with the same sense,
but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his
class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope
only became possible after Robert Brown had established in
1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
Conifcrae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms.
From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were,
*as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the
term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers,
but with varying limitation, as a group-name for other
10
ANGIOSPERMS
dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851 of Hofmeister's
brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the embryo-sac
of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct relation-
ships of these with the Cryptogamia, filed the true position of
Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suit-
able designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicoty-
ledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term
is nowadays received and in which it is used here.
The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in
the direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit
and adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angio-
sperms are the highest expression of this evolution and constitute
the dominant vegetation of the earth's surface at the present
epoch. There is no land-area from the poles to the equator,
where plant-life is possible, upon which Angiosperms are not
found. They occur also abundantly in the shallows of rivers and
fresh-water lakes, and in less number in salt lakes and in the sea ;
such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however, primitive forms, but
are derived from immediate land-ancestors. Associated with
this diversity of habitat is great variety in general form and
manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
surface of a pond consists of a tiny green " thalloid " shoot, one,
that is, which shows no distinction of parts — stem and leaf, and
a simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The
great forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of
hundreds of years, has developed a. wide-spreading system of
trunk and branches, bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets
innumerable leaves, while beneath the soil a widely-branching
root-system covers an area of corresponding extent Between
these two extremes is every conceivable gradation, embracing
aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or climbing in
habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater variety
than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants, the
Gymnosperms.
In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far
exceeds that found in Gymnosperms (see Plants: Anatomy).
The vascular bundles of the stem belong to the col-
lateral type, that is to say, the elements of the wood or
xylem and the bast or phloem stand side by side on the
same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into which
the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating
a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating
the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristcm or active formative
tissue, known as cambium; by the formation of a layer of
cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium) a
complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in
thickness results from it by the development of xylem on the
inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon becomes
crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk of
the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to
differences in the character of the elements produced at the
beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in
transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of
growth — the so-called annual rings. In the smaller group, the
Monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young
stem and scattered through the ground tissue. Moreover they
contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
diameter only in exceptional cases.
As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodia]; dichotomy or
the forking of the growing point into two equivalent branches
which replace the main stem, is absent both in the case
of the stem and the root The leaves show a remark-
able variety in form (see Leaf), but arc generally small
in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
some Monocotyledons, e.g. in the Aroid family, where in some
genera the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each
VegtUOrm
In rare cases the main axis is unbrancbed and ends in a flower,
as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral
leaves are borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers
are formed only on shoots of a higher order, often only on the
ultimate branches of a much branched system. A potential
branch or bud, either foliage or flower, is formed in the axil of
each leaf; sometimes more than one bud arises, as for instance
in the walnut, where two or three stand in vertical series above
each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or are called to
development under exceptional circumstances, such as the
destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous
buds which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds
occasionally arise from the roots, when they are called adven-
titious; this occurs in many fruit trees, poplars, elms and others.
For instance, the young shoots seen springing from the ground
around an elm are not seedlings but root-shoots. Frequently,
as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root, the original root of
the seedling, persists throughout the life of the plant, forming,
as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as in carrot, or in
perennials, a much-branched root system. In many Dicotyledons
and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes, and
its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the
stem.
The most characteristic feature, of the Angiosperm is the
flower, which shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration,
and supplies the most trustworthy characters for the /fewer.
distinction of the series and families or natural orders,
into which the group is divided. The flower is a shoot (stem
bearing leaves) which has a special form associated with the
special function of ensuring the fertilization of the egg and the
development of fruit containing seed. Except where it is
terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf, which
is then known as a bract Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
arises singly in tne axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion
of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-
bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate
branch-system in which the bracts are small and scale-like,
Such a branch-system is called an inflorescence. The primary
function of the flower is to bear the spores. These, as in Gymno-
sperms, are of two kinds, microspores or pollen-grains, borne
in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and megaspores, in which
the egg-cell is developed, contained in the ovule, which is borne
enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyQ). The flower may
consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where each
flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly
concerned with the reproductive process, acting as protective
organs for the sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope.
These form the perianth and arc in one series, when the flower
is termed monochlamydeous, or in two series (dichlamydeous).
In the second case the outer series (calyx of sepals) is generally
green and leaf-like, its function being to protect the rest of the
flower, especially in the bud; while the inner series (corolla of
petals) is generally white or brightly coloured, and more delicate
in structure, its function being to attract the particular insect or
bird by agency of which pollination is effected. The insect, &c,
is attracted by the colour and scent of the flower, and frequently
also by honey which is secreted in some part of the flower.
(For further details on the form and arrangement of the flower
and its parts, see Flower.)
Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (micros por on gia)
which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on ft
stalk or filament The development of the micro- ,
sporangia and the contained spores (pollen-grains) [
is closely comparable with that of the microsporangia
in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is set free
by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath
family (Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then
dropped or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some
member of the animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface el
ANGIOSPERMS
XI
the cnrpd of the same or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate
of carpels forming the pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary
containing one or more ovules and a receptive surface or stigma;
the stigma is sometimes carried up on a style. The mature pollen-
grain is, like other spores, a single cell; except in the case of
some submerged aquatic plants, it has a double wall, a thin
delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the endospore or intine,
and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or extine. The exo-
spore of tan. bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured,
and the character of the markings is often of value for the
distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the
microspore begins before it leaves the poUen«sac. In very few
cases has anything representing prothallial development been
observed; generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative
cell) is cut off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on
the stigma, under favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain
puts forth a pollen-tube which grows down the tissuetf the style
to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by
projections or hairs, to the mouth of an ovule. . The nucleus of
the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the
generative nucleus which divides to form two male- or sperm-
cells. The male-cells are cwricd to their destination in the tip
of the pollen-tube.
The ovary contains one or. more ovules borne on a pla-
centa, which is generally some part of the ovary-wall. The
development of the ovule, which represents the
****** macrosporangium, is very similar to the process in
JJfc°"*" Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two
coats surrounding the central nucellus, except at the
apex where an opening, the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a
cellular tissue enveloping one large cell, the .embryo-sac or
microspore. The germination of the macrospore consists in
the repeated division of its nucleus to form two groups of four,
oac group at each end of the embryo-sac. One nucleus from each
group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of the sac, where
the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus. Of the
three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere,
the other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive
egg-cells (in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as
synergidae. The three cells at the opposite end are known
as antipodal cells and become invested with a cell- wall. The
gametophyte or prothallial generation is thus extremely reduced,
consisting of "but little more than the male and female sexual
cells — the two sperm-cells in the pollen- tube and the egg-cell
(with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac. At the period of
fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
|hfc to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-
tube has penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes
absorbed, and the male or sperm-cells arc ejected into the embryo-
sac. Guided by the synergidae one male-cell passes into the
oosphere with which it fuses, the two nuclei uniting, while the
other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or, as it is also called, the
endosperm nucleus. This remarkable double fertilization as it
has been called, although only recently discovered, has been
proved to take place in widely-separated families, and both in
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is every probability
that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal process in Angio-
sperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere immediately
surrounds Itself with a cell- wall and become* the oospore which
by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant.
IT* endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular
tissue which fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-
sac, and forms a tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored
a supply of nourishment for the use later on of the embryo. It
has long been known that after fertilization of the egg has taken
place, the formation of endosperm begins from the endosperm
nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as the recommence-
ment of the development of a prothallium after a pause following
the rein vigora ting union of the polar nuclei. This view is still
maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
male-cell, aa the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertiliza-
tion which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the
other. If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product
of an act of fertilization aa definite aa that giving rise to the
embryo itself, we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced
within the embryo-sac — one, the embryo, which becomes the
angiospermous plant, the other, the endosperm, a short-lived,
undifferentiated nurse to assist in the nutrition of the former,
even, as the subsidiary embryos in a pluri-embfyonic Gymno-
sperm may facilitate the nutrition of the dominant one. If this is
so, and the endosperm like the embryo is normally the product
of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid endosperm as
it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we may have
the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed' in the
mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants,
regarding which it has only been possible hitherto to assert
that they were indications of the extension of the influence of
the pollen beyond the egg and its product. This would not,
however, explain the formation of fruits intermediate in sfze and
colour between those of crossed parents. The signification of
the coalescence of the polar nuclei is not explained by these new
facts, but it is noteworthy that the second male-cell is said to
unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus, the sister of the
egg, before the union of this with the basal polar one. The idea
of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new one;
it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that
these represented male and female cells, an assumption for which
there was no evidence and which was inherently improbable.
The proof of a coalescence of the* second male nucleus with the
definitive nucleus gives the conception a more stable basis.
The antipodal cells aid more or less in the process of nutrition
of the developing embryo, and may undergo multiplication,
though they ultimately disintegrate, aa do also the synergidae.
As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting qualitative
change is associated with the process of fertilization. The
number of chromosomes (see Plants: Cytology) in the nucleus
of the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the
number found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this
reduced number persists in the cells derived from them. The
full number is restored in the fusion of the male and female nuclei
in the process of fertilization, and remains until the formation of
the cells from which the spores are derived in the new generation.
In several natural orders and genera departures from the course
of development just described have been noted. In the natural
•order Rosaceae, the series Querdflorae, and the very anomalous
genus Casuarina and others, instead of a single macrospore a
more or less extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one
cell proceeds to the formation of a functional female celL In
Casuarina, Juglans and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube
does not enter by means of the micropyle, but passing down the
ovary wall and through the placenta, enters at the chalaaal end
of t£e ovule. Such a method of entrance is styled chalazogamic,
iu contrast to the porogamic or ordinary method of approach by
means of the micropyle.
The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested
by cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying
number of transverse segment-walls transform it into
a pro-embryo — a cellular row of which the cell nearest
the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the embryo-sac,
and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo, while the
terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons the
shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of the
pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal
cell forms the cotyledonary portion ajone of the shoot of the
embryo, its axial part and the root being derived from the
adjacent cell; the cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the
apex of the primary stem a lateral one — a condition in marked^
contrast with that of the Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons,
12
ANGIOSPERMS
however, the cotyledon is not really terminal. The primary root
of the embryo in all Angiosperms points towards the micropyle.
The developing embryo at the end of the suspensor grows out to
a varying extent into the forming endosperm, from which by
surface absorption it derives good material for growth; at the
same time the suspensor plays a direct part asa carrier of nutrition,
and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed,
special absorptive " suspensor roots " which invest the developing
embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even
into the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac
sends out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument As
the embryo develops it may absorb all the food material available,
and store, either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not
immediately required for growth, as reserve-food for use in
germination, and by so doing it increases in size until it may fill
entirely the embryo-sac; or its absorptive power at this stage may
be limited to what is necessary for growth and it remains of
relatively small size, occupying but a smallarea of the embryo-sac,
which is otherwise filled with endosperm in which the. reserve-food
is stored. There are^lso intermediate states. The position of the
embryo in relation to the endosperm varies, sometimes it is
internal, sometimes external, but the significance of this has not
yet been established.
The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from
the endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before
that of the egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the
nursing of the young embryo. If in its extension to contain the
new formations within it the embryo-sac remains narrow, endo-
sperm formation proceeds upon the lines of a cell-division, but in
wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is first of all formed as a layer
of naked cells around the wall of the sac, and only gradually
acquires a pericellular character, forming a tissue filling the 'sac
The function of the endosperm is primarily that of nourishing the
embryo, and its basal position in the embryo-sac places it
favourably for the absorption of food material entering the ovule.
Its duration varies with the precocity of the embryo. It may be
wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the embryo within
the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more or less
conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as a massive
element of the seed its nutritive function is usually apparent, for
there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and according
to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in cellulose,
mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition,
such endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other
functions, for instance, that of water-absorption.
Some deviations from the usual course of development may be
noted. Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an
egg-cell without the latter having been fertilized has been de-
scribed m species of Thalidrum, Antettnariatokd AkkemiUo. Poly-
embryony is generally associated with the development of cells
other than the egg-cell. Thus in Erytkronium and Linmocharis the
fertilized egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos
are produced. Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the
embryo-sac may exceptionally form an embryo, e.g. the synergidae
in species of Mimosa, Iris and Allium, and in the last-mentioned
the antipodal cells also. In CocUbogyne (Euphorbiaceae) and in
Funkia (Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious
production of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the
top of the embryo-sac. In a species of Allium, embryos have
been found developing in the same individual from the egg-cell,
synergids, antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two
Malayan species of Balanophora, the embryo is developed from
a cell of the endosperm, which is formed from the upper polar
nucleus only, the egg apparatus becoming disorganized. The
last-mentioned case has been regarded as representing an
apogamous development of the sporophyte from the gametophy te
comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the
examples cited above suggests the use of great caution in for-
mulating definite morphological theories upon them.
As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within
the embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the
substance of the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its
outer limit, and combines with it and the integument rnJttirt
to form the seed<oai\ or the whole nucellus and even M0dt
the integument may be absorbed. In some plants the
nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of de-
posit of reserve-food constituting theperisperm which may coexist
with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone form a
food-reserve for the embryo, as in Conna. Endospermic food-
reserve has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter
is comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series.
Seeds in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist. are com-
monly called albuminous or endospermic, those in which neither is
found are termed exalbuminous or exendospermic. These terms,
extensively used by systems tists, only refer, however, to the
grosser features of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident
occurrence of a food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds
show to microscopic examination a distinct endosperm which may
have other than a nutritive function. The presence or absence
of endosperm, its relative amount when present, and the position
of the embryo within it, are valuable characters for the distinction
of orders and groups of orders. Meanwhile the ovary wall has
developed to form the fruit or pericarp, the structure of which is
closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed.
Frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary,
and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the
fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry and others.
The character of the seed-coat bears a definite relation to that of
the fruit Their function is the twofold one of protecting the
embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also directly
promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the seed
is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
protection of the embryo and may also have .to secure dissemina-
tion. On the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these
functions for the embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly
developed. Dissemination is effected by the agency of ^^^^^
water, of air, of animals— and fruits and seeds are |^"
therefore grouped in respect of this as hydrophilous,
anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these are
obvious — buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
mechanism or attractive structure for the third. Hie methods in
which these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and
every part of the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into
requisition to supply the adaptation (see Faun). Special
outgrowths, arils, of the seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In
the feature of fruit and seed, by which the distribution of Angio-
sperms is effected, we have a distinctive character of the class. In
Gymnosperms we have seeds, and the carpels may become modified
and dose around these, as in Pinus, during the process of ripening
to form an imitation of a box-like fruit which subsequently open-
ing allows the seeds to escape; but there is never in them the
closed ovary investing from the outset the ovules, and ultimately
forming the ground-work of the fruit.
Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds
upon a suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of
which is a sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of
vitality of the embryo is a point of interest. Some j^y*
seeds retain vitality for a period of many years, though <wi
there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
" mummy wheat " will germinate, on the other band some seeds
lose vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the
seed the more slow as a general rule will germination be in
starting, but there are notable exceptions. This pause, often of
so long duration, in the growth of the embryo between the time
of its perfect development within the seed and the moment of
germination, is one of the remarkable and distinctive features of
the life of Spermatophytes. The aim of germination is the fixing
of the embryo in the soil, effected usually by means of the root,
which is the first part of the embryo to appear, in preparation
for the elongation of the epicotyledonary portion of the shoot,
and there is infinite variety in the details of the process. In
ANGIOSPERMS
13
albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the absorbents of
the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought above
ground (epigeal), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or carrying
it upon them, and then they serve as the first green organs of the
plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (hypocotyt)
commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Ex-
albuminous Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their
cotyledons, which may in germination remain below ground
{hP°t*<rf)- In albuminous Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself,
probably in consequence of its terminal position, is commonly
the agent by which the embryo is thrust out of the seed, and it
may function solely as a feeder, its extremity developing as a
sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or it may
become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping
off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted.
ExaRramtnous Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or
strongly hydrophilous plants and have often peculiar features
io germination.
Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements
of Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an
occasional process. At the same time every bud on a
shoot has the capacity to form a new plant if placed
in suitable conditions, as the horticultural practice
of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we see
plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we
know may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and
on roots. Where detachable buds are produced, which can be
transported through the air to a distance, each of them is an
incipient shoot which may have a root, and there is always
reserve-food stored in some part of it. In essen t ial s such a bud
resembles a seed. A relation between such vegetative distribu-
tion buds and production of flower is usually marked. Where
there is free formation of buds there is little flower and commonly
no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous plants are
an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for flower.
The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the
general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path
*jjj?** v or paths of their evolution, we can as yet say little.
^ mmcmy . Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history
' tells us nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by
their vegetative organs. We readily recognize in them now-a-
days the natural classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons
distinguished alike i n vegetative and in reproductive construction,
yet showing remarkable parallel sequences in development;
and we see that the Dicotyledons are the more advanced and
show the greater capacity for further progressive evolution.
But there is no sound basis for the assumption that the Dicoty-
ledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the palaeonto-
logical evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being the
older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is mani-
festly a temptation to connect hclobic forms of the former with
ranal ones of the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of
Angiosperms has not sprung from that of Gymnosperms.
Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature of
Angiosperms supply the due to phytogeny, but the uncertainty
regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower
gives a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct
Cogressrve sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure
is appeared to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has
been taken to be always derived. There is, however, abundant
evidence that it may have the one or the other character in different
cases. Apart from this, botanists are generally agreed that the
concrescence of parts of the flower-whorls— -in the gynaeceum as
the seed-covering, and in the corolla as the scat of attraction, more
than in the androecium and the calyx— is an indication of advance,
a* is also the concrescence that gives the condition of epigyny.
Dorsi vent rali ty is also clearly derived from radial construction, and
anatropy of the ovule has followed atropy. We should expect the
albuminous state of the seed to be an antecedent one to the ex-
albuminous condition, and the recent discoveries in fertilization
tend to confirm this view. Amongst Dicotyledons the gamopetalous
forms are admitted to be the highest development and a dominant
one of our epoch. Advance has been along two lines, markedly in
reUrion to insect-pollination, out of which has culminated in the
hypogynous epipctalous bicarpedate forms with dorsiventral often
large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur in Scrophulariaceae,
and the other in the cpigynous bicarpcllate small-flowered families of
which the Compositac represent the most elaborate type. In the
polypctalous forms progression from hypogyny to epigyny is gener-
ally recognized, and where dorsivcntrality with insect-pollination
has been established, a dominant group has been developed as in the
Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class, however, and the
position within it of apetafous families with frequently unisexual
flowers, have provoked much discussion. In Monocotyledons a
similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed, ana from the
dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this connexion it is
noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are adapted as bulbous
geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xcrophilous conditions. The
Cramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant self-pollinated
or wind-pollinated family, and this may find explanation in a
multiplicity of factors.
Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system
of arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to
their true affinities. In his Philosophia Botauica (1751) Linnaeus
grouped the genera then known, into sixty-seven orders (fragment*),
all except five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these
but did not characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger
groups. Some represent natural groups and had in several cases
been already recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are,
in the light of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-denned poly-
pctalous and gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order,
and even Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together
where Chey have some striking physiological character in common.
Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean fragmenta was
continued in France by Bernard dc Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine
Laurent, and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his Genera
Plantarum secundum Ordines Natural** duppsita (1789) is the first
which can claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully
characterized, and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen
classes under the two main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicoty-
ledons. The former comprise three classes, which are distinguished
by the relative position of the stamens and ovary; the eleven
cusses of the latter are based on the same set of characters and fall
into the larger subdivisions Apetalae, Monopetalae and Polypetalae,
characterized respectively by absence, union or freedom of the
petals, and a subdivision, Diclinei Irregulares, a very unnatural group,
including one class only. A. P. dc Candolle introduced several
improvements into the system. In his arrangement the last sub-
division disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall into two groups, a
larger containing those in which both calyx and corolla are present
in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae, representing the
Apetalae and Didines Irregularis of Jussieu. The dichlamydeous
group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorac, Calyciflorae and
CoroUiflorac, depending on the position and union of the petals.
This, which we may distinguish as the French system, finds its most
perfect expression in the classic Genera Plantarum (1862-1863) of
Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description, based on
careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of flowering
plants. The subdivision is as follows:—
- Dlcotjrledons.
Thalamiflorac
Polypetalae - Disciflorae. *
,Calyci florae.
Infcrac.
Gamopetalae- Heteromcrae.
IBicarpcllatac.
Monochlamydeae in eight series.
Monocotyledons in seven scries.
Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed
in 6 larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name
from a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion
at the base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is
superior. It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae,
has petals and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It
contains 37 orders in 5 cohorts.
Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae. has an inferior ovary and
stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bkarpellatae.
has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains
24 orders in 4 cohorts.
The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form
groups characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules,
and are now recognised as of unequal value.
The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
with the most complicated cpigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
Scitamineae. and passing through the petaloid hypogynous orders
(series Coronaricae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, sorew-piaes and
»4
ANGKOR— ANGLE
others where it is more or lets aborted (aeries Nudiflorae). Series 6,
Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series
Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a
grass-like habit.
The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicoty-
ledons undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more
elaborate forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is
the inclusion among the Monochlamydeac of a number of orders
which arc closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing
in absence of a corolla. The German systematise A. W. Eiehlcr,
attempted to remove this disadvantage which since the time of
Jussieu had characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped
the Dicotyledons in two subclasses. The earlier Chonpetalae
embraces the Polypetalae and Monochlamydac of the French
systems. It includes 21 series, and is an attempt to arrange as far
as possible in a linear scries those orders which are characterized by
absence or freedom of petals. The second subclass, Gamopetalae,
includes 9 series and culminates in those which show the most
elaborate type of flower, the series Aggrcgatae, the chief representa-
tive of which is the great and wide-spread order Compositae. A
modification of Eichlcr's system, embracing the most recent views
of the affinities of the orders of Angiosperms, has been put forward
by Dr Adolf Englcr of Berlin, who adopts the suggestive names
Archichlamydeae and Mctachlamydcae for the two subdivisions of
Dicotyledons. Dr Engler is the principal editor of a large scries of
volumes which, under the title Die nalurlichen Pjlantenlamilien, is
a systematic account of all the known genera of plants and represents
the work of many botanists. More recently in Das Pflantenrcich
the same author organized a scries of complete monographs of the
families of seed-plants.
As an attempt at a phylogenctic arrangement, Engfcr's system is
now preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty
in the way of system has been produced by van Ticghem, as follows:
Monocotyledons.
Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
Dicotyledons.
Insemimeab.
Sbmineak.
Vnitegmineoe.
Bitegmineae,
The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal Dicoty-
ledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaccae and
Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological differentia-
tion of the epidermis of their root is (hat generally characteristic of
Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons — the old view of
the cpiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being adopted.
But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is extremely
doubtful, and though there may be ground lor reconsidering the
position of Nymphaeaccae, their association with the grasses as a
distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the group-
ing in the Dicotyledons, van Ticghem supporting the view that the
integument, the outer if there be two. is the lamina of a leaf of which
the 1 unicle is the petiole, whilst -the nucellus is an outgrowth of this
leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed,
and therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, howevtffT
mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments
to be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and biteg-
minous groups is simply that of the absence or presence, of an in-
dusium, not a character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know,
the number of the ovular coats is inconstant within the same family.
At the same time the groups based upon the integuments are
of much the same extent aa the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of
other systems. We do not yet know the significance of this correla-
tion, which, however, is not an invariable one, b et ween number of
integuments and union of petals.
Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr C. J.
Chamberlain of Chicago University have given a valuable general
account of the morphology of Angrasperms as far as concerns the
flower, and the series of events which ends in the formation of the
seed {Morphology of Angiosperms, Chicago. iQOl).
AvTHOMTlBe,— The reader will find in the following works details
of the subject and references to the literature: Beatham and
Hooker, Genera Plantarum (London. 1862-1883); Eichkr. Bhthet-
diagramme (Leipzig, 1879-1878); Engler and Prantl, Die natmiiehen
PJlanxenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, Syllabus dor
PJlansenfamUien. 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903): Knuth, Hamdbuck dor
NnUnbtologi* (Leipsjg* 1898. 1899); Sachs, History of Botany.
English ed. (Oxford. 1890); Sokreder. SystemaUuhe Anatomio dor
Dicotytedonen (Stuttgart. 1809); van Tieghcm. Elements do botan-
•fKc ; Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Angiosperms (New
York, 1903). (I. B. %. ;X B. R.)
ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of
the ancient Khmer civilization. They arc situated in forests
to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous
of the remains being the town of Angkor-Thorn and the temple
of Angkor- Vat, both of which lie on the right bank of the river
Sicm-Reap, a tributary of Tonic-Sap. Other remains of the
same form and character lie scattered about the via' nit y on
both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient stone
bridge.
Angkor-Thorn lies about a quarter of a mile from the river.
According to Aymonier it was begun about a. o. 860, in the
reign of the Khmer sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished
towards a.o. 000. It consists of a rectangular enclosure, nearly
7 m. in each direction, surrounded by a wall from ao to 30 ft.
in height. Within the enclosure, which is entered by five monu-
mental gates, are the remains of palaces and temples, overgrown
by the forest. The chief of these are: —
(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an
enclosure containing also the pyramidal religious structure
known as the Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there
extends a terrace decorated with magnificent reliefs.
(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by
galleries with colonnades, within which is another and more
elaborate system of galleries, rectangular in arrangement and
enclosing a cruciform structure, at the centre of which rises a
huge tower with a circular base. Fifty towers, decorated
with quadruple faces of Brahma, are built at intervals upon
the galleries, the whole temple ranking as perhaps the most
remarkable of the Khmer remains.
Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architec-
ture, lies less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within
a rectangular park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter
of which measures 6060 yds. On the west side of the park a
paved causeway, leading over the moat and under a magnificent
portico, extends for a distance of a quarter of a mile to the chief
entrance of the main building. The temple was originally
devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards to that of
Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the first
half of the 1 ath century a J). It consists of three stages, connected
by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the
terraces of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vault-
ing supported on columns lead from the three western portals
to the second stage. They are connected by a transverse
gallery, thus forming four square basins. Khmer decoration,
profuse but harrnonious, consists chiefly in the representa-
tion of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often
depicted; floral decoration it reserved chiefly for borders,
mouldings and capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the
chief material employed by the Khmers; limonite was also used.
The stone was cut into huge blocks which are fitted together
with great accuracy without the use of cement
See E. Aymonier, he Cambodge (3 vols^. 1900-1904) ; Doudart de
Lagree, Voyage d'txploration en Indo-Chine (1872-1873); A. H.
Mouhot, Travels in fndo-China, Cambodia and Laos (2 vols., 1864) :
Fournereau and Porcher, Les Raines d Angkor (1890) ; L. Delaporte,
Voyage au Cambodge: I'anhiteeture Khmer (1680); J. Moure, Lt
Royaume de Cambodg* (a vols., 1883).
ANGLE (from the Lat angulms, a corner, a diminutive, of
which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin;
cognate are the Lat ongere, to compress into a bend or to
strangle, and the Gr. ayeos, a bend; both connected with
the Aryan root ank-, to bend: see Anolino), in geometry, the
inclination of one line or plane to another. Euclid (Elements,
book 1) defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in
a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie
straight with respect to each other (see Geometey, Euclidean).
According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a
quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was utilised by
Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight
line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the
interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted
the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and
obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of
ANGLER— ANGLESEY
15
these concepts and the various definitions of angles in Euclidean
geometry is to be found in \V. B. Frankland, The First Book
ef Euclid's Elements (1005). Following Euclid, a right angle
is formed by a straight line standing' upon another straight line
. so as to make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a
right angle is termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than
a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference between an acute
angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle,
and between an angle and two right angles the supplement of the
angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement
b treated in the article Twconometxy. A solid angle is definable
as the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in
a common point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The
angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between three
trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral. A
spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle
between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured
by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and the
centre of the sphere.
The angle between a line and a curve ( mixed angle) or between
two curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between
the line and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the
tangents to both curves at their common point. Various names
(now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases: —
aw phi cynic (Gr. Ap^t, on both sides, cvprot, convex) or
dssoidal (Gr f navfo, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal
(Gr. fytrpto, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic
(Gr. ao&y, a hollow) or angtdus luntdaris, biconcave.
ANOLBR, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-
1 devil (Lophius piscalorius), a fish well known off the coasts of
Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its
[ body and its singular habits having attracted the attention of
naturalists of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is
known as the " monk," a name' which more properly belongs to
Rhine squat ina, a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous
size, broad, flat and depressed, the remainder of the body
appearing merely Uke an appendage. The wide mouth extends
The Angler {Lopkius piscatorius).
all round the anterior circumference of the head; and both
jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are
inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impedi-
ment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent
its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so
articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being
enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea,
where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed.
All round its head and also along the body the skin bears
fringed appendages resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a
structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of
assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, assists
tins fish greatly in concealing itself in places which it selects
on account of the abundance of prey. To render the organization
of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it Is provided with
three long filaments inserted along the middle of the head,
which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines
of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the
economy of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates
in a tappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is
believed to attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to
seize them with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that
smaller fishes are attracted in this way, but experiments have
shown that the action of the jaws is automatic and depends
on contact of the prey with the tentacle. Its stomach is disten-
sible in an extraordinary degree, and not rarely fishes have
been taken out quite as large and heavy as their destroyer. It
grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens of 3 ft. are
common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It
consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3 ft.
broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a
single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in
the sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins
elongated into filaments. The British species is found all round
the coasts of Europe and western North America, but becomes
scarce beyond 6o° N. lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the
Cape of Good Hope. A second species (Lophius budegassa)
inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third (I. setigerus) the coasts of
China and Japan.
ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLET, 1st Earl op (1614-1686),
British statesman, son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (ex. 1621)
and Baron Mountnorris (cr. 162S), and of Dorothy, daughter
of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle, Pembrokeshire, was born
at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was educated at Magdalen
College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1634.
Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and being
employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde,
now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in conclud-
ing a treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing
the country from complete subjection to the rebels. In April
1647 he was returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons.
He supported the parliamentary as against the republican or
army party, and appears to have been one of the members
excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard Cromwell's parliament
for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his seat in the restored
Rump Parliament of 1 659. He was made president of the council
in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for
Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the
commonwealth converted him to royalism, and be showed great
activity in bringing about the Restoration. He used his influence
in moderating measures of revenge and violence, and while
sitting in judgment on the regicides was on the side of leniency.
In November 1660 by his father's death he had become Viscount
Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish peerage, and on
the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Anneslcy of Newport
Pagncll in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the peerage
of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in
parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on
the abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of
taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services
in the administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He
filled the office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on
the committee for carrying out the declaration for the settlement
of Ireland and on the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in
1671 and 1672, he was a leading member of various commissions
appointed to investigate the working of the Acts of Settlement.
In February 1661 he had obtained a captaincy of horse, and
in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of Ireland for the
treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked by
great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July
1 663 he alone signed a protest against the bill" for the encourage-
ment of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin
and bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign
commodities being greater than the export of home goods,
"it must necessarily follow . . . that our silver will also be
carried away into foreign parts and all trade fail for want of
money." 1 He especially disapproved of another clause in the
same bill forbidding the importation of Irish cattle into England,
a mischievous measure promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and
he opposed again the bill brought in with that object in January
1 Protests of the Lords, by J. E. Thorold Ro^er* (i«75). »• *!'•
Carti's Life of Ormonde (1851). iv. 2*4: Fart. Hist. iv. 284.
i6
ANGLESEY
1667. This same year his naval accounts were subjected to an
examination in consequence of his indignant refusal to take part
in the attack upon Ormonde;' and he was suspended from his
office in 1668, no charge .however, against him being substantiated.
He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671 between the two
Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend money
bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled
The Privileges of the House of Lards and Commons (1702), in
which the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was
appointed lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining
the great seal the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In
1679 he was included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council.
In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey
showed great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is men-
tioned as endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force
the laws against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. 1
In the panic of the " Popish Plot " in 1678 he exhibited a saner
judgment than most of his contemporaries and a conspicuous
courage. On the 6th of December he protested with three
other peers against the measure sent up from the Commons
enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking
bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent
from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and
though believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord
Stafford, he interceded, according to his own account, 1 with
the king for him as well as for Langhorne and Plunket His
independent attitude drew upon him an attack by Dangerfield,
and in the Commons by the attorney-general, Sir W. Jones,
who accused him of endeavouring to stifle the evidence against
the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested against the second
reading of the bfll for disabling Dauby. In 1681 Anglesey
wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, as a
rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs
on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the
Roman Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde
to have censured his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding
the M Cessation," and the duke brought the matter before the
council. In 1682 he wrote The Account of Arthur, Earl of
Anglesey . . . of the true state of Your Majesty's Government and
Kingdom, which was addressed to the king in a tone of censure
and remonstrance, but appears not to have been printed till
1694. 4 In consequence he was dismissed on the 9U1 of August
1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared
at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and
in June 1685 he protested atone against the revision of Stafford's
attainder. He died at his home at felechingdon in Oxfordshire
on the 26th of April 16S6, closing a career marked by great
ability, statesmanship and business capacity, and by con-
spicuous courage and independence of judgment He amassed
a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he had been allotted
lands by Cromwell.
The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is
certainly unjust and not supported by any evidence. Pepys,
a far more trustworthy judge, speaks of him invariably in terms
of respect and approval as a " grave, serious man," and com-
mends his appointment as treasurer of the navy as that of
"a very notable man and understanding and will do things
regular and understand them himself."* He was a learned
and cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which
was dispersed at his death. Besides the pamphlets already
mentioned, he wrote. — A True Account of the Whole Proceedings
betwixt . .the Duke of Ormond and ... the Earl of Anglesey
(1682); A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian (1683); other works
ascribed to him being The King's Right of Indulgence in Matters
Spiritual . . .asserted (1688); Truth Unveiled, to which is
added a short Treatise on . . . Transubstantiation (1676); The
Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy (1688); and
1 Carti's Ormonde, iv. 330, 340.
1 Memoirs, 8, 9.
\ £ a/ -e^ &£ Pap ' Dom ' < l6 73- ,6 75). P. 152. *
• Hy Sir J. Thompson, his son-in-law. Reprinted in Somen Tracts
(Scott, 1812), viii. 344, and in Pari. Hist. iv. app. xvi.
* Diary (ed. Wbcatley, 1904), iv. 398, vii. 14.
England's Confusion (1659). Memoirs of Lord Anglesey 1
published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical
information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir
John Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface
to Lord Anglesey's State of the Government in 1694. The author
however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords asserted (170a),
while blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished
papers," admits their genuineness.
Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiresa
of Sir James Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides
other children, he had James, who succeeded him, Altham,
created Baron Altham, and Richard, afterwards 3rd Baron
Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl (d. 1761), left
a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the peerage
became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers
as Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament
of Great Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created
in 1793 earl of Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the
male descendants of the xst earl of Anglesey became extinct
in the person of George, 2nd earl of Mountnorris, in 1844, when
the titles of Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris passed
to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863)! who thus became
10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the xst Viscount
Valentia, the father of the xst earl of Anglesey in the Annesley
family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls
Annesley in the Irish peerage.
Authorities.— DiV/. of Nat. Biography, with authorities there
collected; lives in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), iv. 181,
Biographic Britannica, and H. Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors
(1806), Hi. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's
character and career); also Bibtiotkeca Anglesiana . . . perTnomam
Philippum (1686) ; The Happy Future State of England, by Sir Peter
Pett (1688); Great News from Poland (1683), where his religious
tolerance is ridiculed; Somers Tracts (Scott, 1812), viii. 344; Notes
of the Privy Council (Roxburghe Club, 1896) ; Cat. of State Paters,
Dom.;State Trials, viii. and ix. 619. (P. C. V.)
ANGLESEY. HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, 1st Marquess or
(1768-1854), British field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May
1 768. He was the eldest son of Henry Paget, 1 st carl of Uxbridge
(d. 1812), and was educated at Westminster School and Christ
Church, Oxford, afterwards entering parliament in 1790 as
member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six years. At the
outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as he
was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised
on his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in
which he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel
(1793). The corps soon became part of the regular army as the
80th Foot, and it took part, under Lord Paget 's command, in
the Flanders campaign of 1794. In spite of his youth he held a
brigade command for a time, and gained also, during the campaign,
his first experience of the cavalry arm, with which he was thence-
forward associated. His substantive commission as lieutenant-
colonel of the 16th Light Dragoons bore the date of the
15th of June 1795, and in 2796 he was made a colonel
in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth
Villicrs, daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord
Paget was transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7 th Light
Dragoons, of which regiment he became colonel in 1801. From
the first he applied himself strenously to the improvement of
discipline, and to the perfection of a new system of cavalry
evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799 in Holland, Paget
commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the unsuitable
character of the ground, he made, on several occasions, brilliant
and successful charges. After the return of the expedition, he
devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his
command became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802
he was promoted major-general, and six years later lieutenant-
general. In command of the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army
during the Corunna campaign, Lord Paget won the greatest
distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente, the British
cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore wrote: —
" It is impossible for roe to say too much in its praise. . . . Out
cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and
ANGLESEY
*7
the right spirit has been infused into them by the example and
instruction of their . . . leaders . . . ." At Benavente one of
Napoleon's best cavalry leaders, General Lefebvre Dcsnoettes,
was taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget's last service in the
Peninsula. His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley, after-
wards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at that time for him to
serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during
the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry
leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to 1815
was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he
commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself
with his parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port,
which he represented almost continuously up to his father's
death in 1813, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as
earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was divorced and married Mrs
Wellesley, who had about the same time been divorced from her
husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke
of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the
British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of .danger such as
that of Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best
cavalry general in the British army could not be neglected.
Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on the eve
of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of
the alhed cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement
of the allies from Quatre Bras to Waterloo on the 17th of June,
and on the 18th gained the crowning distinction of his military
career in leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre,
which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's corps d'ormie (see
Waterloo Campaign). Freely exposing his own life throughout,
the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe
wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later
the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition
of his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as
second only to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B.
and he was also decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.
In 1 8 18 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 18x9
be became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he
acted as lord high steward of England. His support of the
proc e edings against Queen Caroline made him for a time un-
popular, and when he was on one occasion beset by a crowd, who
compelled him to shout " The Queen," he added the wish, " May
all your wives be like her." At the dose of April x 82 7 he became
a member of the Canning administration, taking the post of
master-general of the ordnance, previously held by Wellington.
Re was at the same time sworn a member of the privy council.
Under the Wellington administration he accepted the appoint-
ment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself
to the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims
which he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying
of party animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission
to the laws, to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and
improvement of education. On the great question of the time
Ins views were opposed to those of the government. He saw
dearly that the time was come when the relief of the Catholics
from the penal legislation of the past was an indispensable
measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter to the
Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation
in parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration
in November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
The times were changed; the act of emancipation had been
passed, and the task of viceroy in his second tenure of office was
to resist the agitation for repeal of the union carried on by
fPConnell. He felt it his duty now to demand Coercion Acts for
the security of the public peace; his popularity was diminished,
differences appeared in the cabinet on the difficult subject, and
in July 1 833 the ministry resigned. To the marquess of Anglesey
Ireland is indebted for the board of education, the origination of
which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable act of
his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement- he
remained out of office, and took li ttle part in the affairs of govern-
ment. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his
advancement to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years
before, he exchanged his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons
which he had held over forty years, for that of the Royal Horse
Guards. He died on the 29th of April 1854.
The marquess had a large family by each of bis two wives, two
sons and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters
by the second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the
marquessate; but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd,
4th and 5U1 marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were
notorious, died in 1905, when the title passed to bis cousin.
Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves
in the army and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one,
Sir Charles Paget (1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral
in the Royal Navy; another, General Sir Eowaio Paget
( J 775-1849), won great distinction by bis skilful and resolute
handling of a division at Corunna, and from 1822 to 1825 was
commander-in-chief in India. One of the marquess's sons by his
second marriage, Loan Clarence Edward Pacet (1811-1895),
became an admiral; another, Lord George Augustus
Frederick Paget (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the
charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently
commanded the brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry
division in the Crimea. In 1865 be was made inspector-general
of cavalry, in 1871 lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877
full general. His Crimean journals were published in 188 1.
ANGLESEY, or Anglksea, an insular northern county of Wales.
Its area is x 76,630 acres or about 2 76 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see
of Bangor, is separated from the mainland by the M enai Straits
(Afon Menai), over which were thrown Telford's suspension
bridge, in 1826, and the Stephenson tubular railway bridge in
1850. The county is flat, with slight risings such as Parys, Cadair
Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i*. "chair of the monastery"; there
is a Nanner, " convent," not far away) and Holyhead Mountain.
There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water
is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the land poor for the
most part compared with its old state of fertility, and there are
few industries.
As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
surface in three areas:— (1) a western region including Holyhead
and LJanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Tref-
draeth, and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough,
Caerwen and Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists
and slates, often much contorted and disturbed. The general line
of strike of the formations in the island is from N.E. to S. W. A
belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central
pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to
the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the
pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovidan slates
and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out
in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmcl Point A
small patch of Ordovidan strata lies on the northern side of
Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovidan rocks are much folded,
crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists
and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian.
Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses carboni-
ferous rocks are found. The carboniferous limestone occupies a
broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow
spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangefni to Malldraeth
sands. The limestone is underlain on the N. W. by a red basement
conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be
of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the N.
coast about Llanfihangel and Uangoed; and in the S.W. round
Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is
made of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied
by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears
near Tatl-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic
and felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron
i8
ANGLESITE— ANGLI
ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found
near Uanf aerynneub wil and upon the opposite shore In Holyhead.
There are abundant evidences of glariation, and much boulder
clay and drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand
occur on the S.W. coast.
The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holy-
head branch) crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to
Gaerwen and Holyhead (Cacr Gybi), also from Gacrwen to
Amlwch. The staple of the island is farming, the chief crops
being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in the centre. Copper
(near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime and sandstone,
marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey, coal
especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
county in iooi was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough,
but one member is returned for the county. It is in the north-
western circuit,- and assises are held at Beaumaris, the only
municipal borough (pop. 13 26). Amlwch (»0Q4), Holyhead
(10,070), Llangefni (175O and Mcnai Bridge (Pont y Borth,
1700) are urban districts. There are six hundreds and seventy-
eight parishes.
M6n (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted
form of O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names
are Ynys Dywyll (" Dark Isle ") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or
kedyrn; " Isle of brave folk "). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann.
«v. jo, Agr. xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius
(62). It is called Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas
Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys Prydcin, Ynys Brut are
other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once
part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat !
of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands over- j
looking the sea, e.g. at PlAs Newydd. The Druids were attacked •
in a.d. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in a.d. 78. In j
the 5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the I
princesof Gwyneddlived till 1277. Thcpscsentroad from Holyhead !
to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman j
camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed,
especially by the Hon. Mr Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Cacr Gybi is
Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Cint or
black nations, gentes), especially in a.d. 853.
Sec Edw. Brccse, Kalendar o/Cvynedd (Venedocia). on Anglesey,
Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and The History of
Powys Fadog.
ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO«,
crystallizing in the orthorhombtc system, and isomorphous with
barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
by Dr Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-
mine in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was
given by F. S. Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey,
which were formerly found abundantly on a matrix of dull
limonite, are small in size and simple in form, being usually
bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces of a dome; they
arc brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of limonite.
Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi in
Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright
faces. The variety of combinations and
habits presented by the crystals is very
, extensive, nearly two hundred distinct
forms being figured by V. von Lang in
his monograph of the species; without
measurement of the angles the crystals
are frequently difficult to decipher. The
hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6*3. There are distinct
cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism |nof and the
basal plane Jooif, but these are not so well developed as in
the isomorphous minerals barytes and celestite.
Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed
by the oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes
where these have been affected by weathering processes. At
Monteponi the crystals encrust cavities in glistening granular
galena; and from Leadhills, in Scotland, pseudomorphs of
anglesite alter galena are known. At most localities it is found
as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing lodes, but at some places,
in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large masses, and is then
mined as an ore oT lead, of whkh the pure mineral contains 68 %.
ANGLI, Anglii or Angles, a Teutonic people mentioned
by Tacitus in his Germanic (cap. 40) at the ead of the 1st century.
He gives no precise indication of their geographical position,
but states that, together with six other tribes, including the
Varini (the Warni of later times), they worshipped a goddess
named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on " an island
in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his Geography (ii. 11. § 15), half a
century later, locates them with more precision between the
Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks of
them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately,
however, it is dear from a comparison of his map with the evidence
furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indica-
tions which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertaint y
of these passages there has been much speculation regarding
the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however has
little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the
Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which
region the Lex Angfiorum et Werinorum hoe est Thuringorum
is believed. by many to have come. At the present time the
majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the
beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern
part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is
derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing
with persons and events of the 4th century (see below), and
partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus
as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially
Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject
have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was
Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the
kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain
Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skioldr, the mythical
founder of the Danish royal family (Skidldungar). In English
tradition this person is connected with " Scedeland " (pl.) v
a name which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as
Skane, while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated
with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.
Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt
in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the
Hist or ia BriUonum . King Alfred and the chronicler jEthel weard
identified this place with the district which is now called Angel
in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have
been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well
with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded
by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named
Wermund (<?».) and Off a (q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal
family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with
Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has pre-
served record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son,
in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from.
whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the
5th century the Angli invaded this country (see Britain, Anglo-
Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the. con-
tinent except in the title of the code mentioned above.
The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in
prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and
5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found,
special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery
at Borgstedterfcld, between Rendsburg and Eckcrnfdrde,
which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling
those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater
importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c, and in the
latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are
able to reconstruct a -fairly detailed picture of English civilization
in the age preceding the invasion of Britain.
Authorities.— Bede. Hist. Ece. I. 15: King Alfred's version of
" [2. 19; /Ethel weard's Ckronirie.lib. i. For traditions
concerning the kings of Angel, see. under Offa-(i). L. Weiland*
1. II
itbe
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
19
D* Angdn (1889); A. Erdmann, Ober dit Heimat una den Namtu
£<r Angdn (Upsala, 1890— cf. H. Moller in the Anzeiger fur dcutschcs
Xltcrtum und dtutsche Litltralur, xxii. 129 ff.): A. Kock in the
Huterisk Tidskrifl (Stockholm), 1895, *v. p. 163 ff.; G. Schutte,
Var AngUnu Tyikeref (Flensbore, 1900); H. Munro Chadwick,
7~W Ori&noj tkt English Nation (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt,
Pcnmark in the Early Iron Age (London, 1866); J. Mcstort, Urnen-
f'-rdhofe in Schltsteig-llolstein (Hamburg. 1886) ; S. Milller, Nordiscke
AltrrUunskunde (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122 ff.; see
further Anglo-Saxons and Britain, Angle-Saxon. (H. M. C)
ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that
great branch of the Christian Church consisting of the various
churches in communion with the Church of England. The
necessity for such a phrase as M Anglican Communion," first used
in the 19th century, marked at once the immense development
of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change which
has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a
separate article (see England, Church op); and it is not
without significance that for more than two centuries after the
Reformation the history of Anglicanism is practically confined
to its developments within the limits of the British Isles. Even
in Ireland, where it was for over three centuries the established
religion, and in Scotland, where it early gave way to the dominant
Fresbytcrianism, its religious was long overshadowed by its
political significance. The Church, in fact, while still claiming to
be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious practice, had ceased
to be Catholic in its institutional conception, which was now
bound up with a particular state and also with a particular
conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the Scots-
nan, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one
of the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown
and nation. This conception of the relations of church and state
was hardly favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeed-
ing the Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the
English Church to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits,
which, in the 16th and 17th centuries, brought to the Church
of Rome in countries beyond the ocean compensation for what
she had lost in Europe through the Protestant reformation.
Even when English churchmen passed beyond the seas, they
carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical organiza-
tion. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood
in the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and
though in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted
10 obtain a bishop for Virginia, up to the time of the American
revolution the churchmen of the colonics had to make the best
of the legal fiction that their spiritual needs were looked after
by the bishop of London, who occasionally sent commissaries
*o visit them and ordained candidates for the ministry sent to
England for the purpose.
The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen
to claim that their communion ranks with those of Rome and
the Orthodox East as one of the three great historical divisions
of the Catholic Church, was due, in the first instance, to the
American revolution. The severance of the colonics from their
alt-fiance to the crown brought the English bishops for the first
time face to face with the idea of an Anglican Church which
should hare nothing to do either with the royal supremacy
or with British nationality. When, oA the conclusion of peace,
the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr Samuel Seabury to
England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to
consecrate him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore
refused. In the opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, on act of
parliament was necessary before a bishop could be consecrated
for a see abroad; to consecrate one for a foreign country seemed
impossible, since, though the bestowal of the poUtfas ordinis
would be valid, the crown, which, according to the law, was the
source of the episcopal jurisdiction, could hardly issue the
accessary mandate for the consecration of a bishop to a sec
outside the realm (see Bishop). The Scottish bishops, however,
being hampered by no such legal restrictions, were more amen-
able; and on the nth of November 1784 Seabury was con-
secrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786, on the
initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad;
and, on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in
America and the nature of certain liturgical changes in con-
templation, the two English archbishops proceeded, on the
14th of February 1787, to consecrate William White and Samuel
Prevoost to the sees of Pennsylvania and New York (see
Protestant Episcopal Church).
This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established
in the United States of America a flourishing church, which,
while completely loyal to its own country, is bound by special
ties to the religious life of England. It marked the emergence
of the Church of England from that insularity to which what may
be called the territorial principles of the Reformation had
condemned her. The change was slow, and it is not yet by any
means complete.
Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards
the traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity
of Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the juris-
diction of Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion
of the Anglican Church has been in no sense conceived as a
Protestant aggressive movement against Rome. Occasional
exceptions, such as the consecration by Archbishop Plunket
of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in Spain, raised
so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main, then,
the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the
British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its
claim, so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the
Church of England and the English race, while recognizing its
special duties towards the non-Christian populations subject
to the empire or brought within the reach of its influence. As
against the Church of Rome, with its system of rigid centraliza-
tion, the Anglican Church represents the principle of local
autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive and more
catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has developed
on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation; but,
though in principle there is no great difference between a
church defined by national, and a church defined by racial
boundaries, there is an immense difference in effect, especially
when the race— as in the case of the English— is itself
ecumenical.
The realization of what may be called this catholic mission
of the English church, in the extension of its organization to
the colonies, was but a slow process.
On the 1 2th of August 1787 Dr Charles Inglis was consecrated
bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British
possessions in North America. In 1793 the see of th*
Quebec was founded; Jamaica and Barbados followed cswt*
in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1830. J?J** to
Meanwhile the needs of- India has been tardily met, on **
the urgent representations in parliament of William Wilbcrforce
and others, by the consecration of Dr T. F. Middkton as bishop
of Calcutta, with three archdeacons to assist him. In 1817 Ceylon
was added to his charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East
Indies and the islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 "New
South Wales and its dependencies "! Some five years later, on
the nomination of the duke of Wellington, William B rough ton
was sent out to work in this enormous jurisdiction as archdeacon
of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835 and 1837, the sees of
Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836 Broughton
himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus down
to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several
were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more
than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of
that year, however, Bishop Blomneld of London published his
famous letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that
" an episcopal church without a bishop is a contradiction in
terms," and strenuously advocating a greateffort for the extension
of the episcopate. It was not in vain. The plan was taken up
with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841 the bishops
of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration
which inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent
20
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
declarations in 187 2 and 1891 have served both to record progress
and to stimulate to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand
was founded in 1841, being endowed by the Church Missionary
Society through the council, and George Augustus Sclwyn was
chosen as the first bbhop. Since then the increase has gone on,
as the result both of home effort and of the action of the colonial
churches. Moreover, in many cases bishops have been sent to
inaugurate new missions, as in the cases of the Universities'
Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo, Corea and New Guinea;
and the missionary jurisdictions so founded develop in time
into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial jurisdictions of
1841, there are now about a hundred foreign and colonial
jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant Episcopal
Church of the United States.
It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired
legislative independence and a determinate organization. At
first, sees were created and bishops were nominated by the
crown by means of letters patent; and in some cases an income
was assigned out of public funds. Moreover, for many years
all bishops alike were consecrated in England, took the customary
" oath of due obedience " to the archbishop of Canterbury, and
were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans. But by degrees
changes have been made on all these points.
(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization
necessary, and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Cal-
cutta received letters patent as metropolitan of India
£™*JJ^ when the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded;
J22r and fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton in
1847 and Bishop Gray in 1853, as metropolitans of
Australia and South Africa respectively. Similar action was
taken in 1858, when Bishop Sclwyn became metropolitan of
New Zealand; and again in i860, when, on the petition of the
Canadian bishops to the crown and the colonial legislature for
permission to elect a metropolitan, letters patent were issued
appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that office. Since
then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed by
regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by the
resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The
constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as
South Africa.Ncw South Wales,and Queensland, the metropolitan
sec is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city
can claim pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else
is the senior bishop by consecration. Two further developments
must be mentioned: (a) The creation of diocesan and provincial
synods, the first diocesan synod to meet being that of New
Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation of a provincial synod was
foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian bishops at Sydney
in 1850; (6) towards the dose of the 19th century the title of
archbishop began to be assumed by the metropolitans of several
provinces. It was first assumed by the metropolitans of Canada
and Rupert's Land, at the desire of the Canadian general synod
in 1893; and subsequently, in accordance with a resolution of
the Lambeth conference of 1897, it was given by their synods to
the bishop of Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales and
to the bishop of Cape Town as metropolitan of South Africa
Civil obstacles have hitherto delayed its adoption by the metro-
politan of India.
(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches! have been freed
from their rather burdensome relations with the state. The
^^ church of the West Indies was disestablished and
JjJJfJJV disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was decided, in
eoatnL **&** v. Eton College, that the crown could not claim
the presentation to a living when it had appointed the
former incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case
of an English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the
crown lawyers, two missionary bishops were consecrated without
letters patent for regions outside British territory: C. F.
Mackenzie for the Zambezi region and J. C. Patteson for
Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape Town and New Zealand
respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared, in Long v.
The Bishop of Cope Town, that " the Church of England, in places
where there is no church established by law, is in the same
situation with any other religious body." In 1865 it adjudged
Bishop Gray's letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to
be powerless to enable him " to exercise any coercive juris-
diction, or hold any court or tribunal for that purpose," since
the Cape colony already possessed legislative institutions when
they were issued; and his deposition of Bishop Colcnso was
declared to be " null and void in law " (re The Bishop of
Natal). With the exception of Colcnso the South African
bishops forthwith surrendered their patents,and formally accepted
Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example followed in 1865
in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the diocese of
Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and con-
secrated under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time
entirely discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen
for the bishop of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate
produced the reply from the colonial secretary that " it was not
the part of the crown to interfere in the creation of a new
bishop or bishopric, and not consistent with the dignity of the
crown that he should advise Her Majesty to issue a mandate
which would not be worth the paper on which it was written, and
which, having been sent out to Canada, might be disregarded
in the most complete manner." And at the present day the
colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however,
is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of
sees founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue
(with the exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does
so) . They are not only nominated by the crown and consecrated
under letters patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected
" to such power of revocation and recall as is by law vested "
in the crown; and where additional oversight was necessary
for the church in Tinnevelly, it could only be secured by the
consecration of two assistant bishops, who worked under a com-
mission for the archbishop of Canterbury which was to expire
on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then, however,
new sees have been founded which are under no such restrictions:
by the creation of dioceses either in native states (Travancore
and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota Nagpur,
Lucknow, &c). In the latter case there is no legal subdivision of
the older diocese, the new bishop administering such districts as
belonged to it under commission from its bishop, provision being
made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical there shall be
no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.
(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the
archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 185s no colonial
bishop was consecrated outside the British Isles, the
first instance being Dr MacDougall of Labuan, con- \
secrated in India under a commission from the arch-
bishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be unlawful
for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the
suffragan's oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed
by the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop
at his discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has
not been done in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by
the metropolitan of Sydney at his consecration. Thus the
constituent parts of the Anglican communion gradually acquire
autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop into organized
dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with canons of
their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve
isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another,
and act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and
dioceses are mapped out by common arrangement, and even
transferred if it seems advisable; e.g. the diocese Honolulu
(Hawaii), previously under the jurisdiction of the archbishop
of Canterbury, was transferred in 1900 to the Episcopal Church
in the United States on account of political changes. Though
the see of Canterbury claims no primacy over the Anglican
communion analogous to that exercised over the Roman Church
by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and deference,
which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange of
greetings. There a also a strong common life emphasized by
common action.
The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world.
ANGLING
21
Instituted by Archbishop Longtey in 1867, and known as the
Lambeth Conferences (9.*.). though even for the
y^a,,, Anglican communion they have not the authority of an
r*«gi»iB ecumenical synod, and their decisions are rather of the
nature of counsels than commands, have done much
to promote the harmony and co-operation of the various branches
of the Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this
common life was given by the great pan-Anglican congress held
in London between the 12th and 94th of June 1008, which
preceded the Lambeth conference opened on the 5th of July.
The idea of this originated with Bishop Montgomery, secretary
to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and was endorsed
by a resolution of the United Boards of Mission in X003. As the
result of negotiations and preparations extending over five years,
*$o bishops, together with delegates, clerical and lay, from every
diocese in the Anglican communion, met in London, the opening
service of intercession being held in Westminster Abbey. In its
general character,- »he meeting was but a Church congress on an
enlarged scale, and the subjects discussed, e.g. the attitude of
churchmen towards the question of the marriage laws or that
of socialism, followed much the same lines. The congress, of
course, had no power to decide or to legislate for the Church, its
main value beingin drawing its scattered members closer together,
is bringing the newer and more isolated branches into con-
sciousness of their contact with the parent stem, and in opening
the eyes of the Church of England to the point of view and the
peculiar problems of the daughter-churches.
The Anglican communion consists of the following:— (1) The
Church of England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with
14 and zx dioceses respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland,
1 provinces, Armagh and Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respec-
tively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal Church, with 7 dioceses.
(4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, with
89 dioceses and missionary jurisdictions, including North Tokyo,
Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the independent dioceses of
Hayti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church, consistingof (o)the
province of Canada, with xo dioceses; (b) the province of Rupert's
Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India and Ceylon, x
province of xx dioceses. (7) The Church of the West Indies, x
province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward
Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church,
consisting of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10
dioceses; (0) the province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses) (c) the
province of Victoria, with 5 dioceses, (o) The Church of New
Zealand, x province of 7 dioceses, together with the missionary
jurisdiction of Melanesia. (10) The South African Church, x
province of xo dioceses, with the a missionary jurisdictions of
lfashonaland and Lebombo. (xi) Nearly 30 isolated dioceses
and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from the see of
Canterbury.
Authorities. — Official Year-book of the Church of England;
Phiilimore, Ecclesiastical Law, vol. ii. (London, 1895); Digest of
5P.G. Records (London. 1893); E. Stock, History of the Church
Missionary Society, 3 vols. (London, 1800) : H. W. Tucker. The
3P.G. Records (London, 1891); E. Stock, History
Missionary Society, 3 vols. (London, 1899): H. W.
English Church in Other Lands (London. 1886) ; A. T. Wirgman, The
Church and the Civil Power (London, 1893)
AMGLIKO, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by
means of a baited book or " angle " (from the Indo-European
root ank-, meaning " bend "). 1 It is among the most ancient
of human activities, and may be said to date from the time when
man was in the infancy of the Stone Age, eking out a precarious
existence by the slaughter of any living thing which he could
reach with the rude weapons at his command. It is probable
that attack on fishes was at first much the same as attack on
» As to whether " angling " necessarily implies a rod as well aa a
hne and hook, we the discussion in the law case of Barnard v. Roberts
(Times L.R., April 13, 1907), when the question arose as to the use
of night-lines being angljng; but the decision against night-lines
went on the ground of the absence of the personal element rather
than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries are blind
guides on this point, and the authorities cited are inconclusive;
but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three necessary factors —
a personal angler, the sporting element, and the use of recognized
animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and conducted by
means of a rude spear with a flint head. It is probable, too, that
the primitive harpooners were not signally successful in their
efforts, and so set their wits to work to devise other means of
getting at the abundant food which waited for them in every
piece of water near their caves. Observation would soon show
them that fish fed greedily on each other and on other inhabitants
of the water or living things that fell into it, and so, no doubt,
arose the idea of entangling the prey by means of its appetite.
Hence came the notion of the first hook, which, it seems certain,
was not a hook at all but a " gorge," a piece of flint or stone
which the fish could swallow with the bait but which it could not
eject afterwards. From remains found in cave-dwellings and
their neighbourhood in different parts of the world it is obvious
that these gorges varied in shape, but in general the idea was the
same, a narrow strip of stone or flake of flint, either straight or
shgbtly curved at the ends, with a groove in the middle round
which the line could be fastened. Buried in the bait it would be
swallowed end first; then the tightening of the line would fix
it cross- wise in the quarry's stomach or gullet and so the capture
would be assured. The device still lingers in France and in a
few remote parts of England in the method of catching eels which
is known as "sniggling." In ilia a needle buried in a worm plays
the part of the prehistoric gorge.
The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge
is easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved,
until eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained.
This development would be materially assisted by man's dis-
covery of the uses of bronze and its adaptability to his require-
ments. The single hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to
us, was possibly a concession of the lake-dweller to what may even
then have been a problem — the " education " of fish, and to a
recognition of the fact that sport with the crude old methods
was failing off. But it is also not improbable that in some parts
of the world the single hook developed pari passu with the
double, and that, on the sea-shore for instance, where man was
able to employ so adaptable a substance as shell, the first hook
was a curved fragment of shell lashed with fibre to a piece of
wood or bone, in such a way that the shell formed the bend of
the hook while the wood or bone formed the shank. Both early
remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear out this
supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were
pressed into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line
or the rod that may have been used with these early hooks is
largely a matter of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the
tendril of a plant, the first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is
fairly obvious that the rod must have been suggested by the
necessity of getting the bait out over obstacles which lay between
the fisherman and the water, and that it was a device for increas-
ing both the reach of the arm and the length of the line. It
seems not improbable that the rod very early formed a part of the
fisherman's equipment.
Literary History. — From prehistoric times down to compara-
tively late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have
remained a practice; its development into an art or sport is a
modern idea. In the earliest literature references to angling are
not very numerous, but there are passages in the Old Testament
which show that fish-taking with hook as well as net was one of
the common industries in the East, and that fish, where it was
obtainable, formed an important article of diet. In Numbers
(si. 5) the children of Israel mourn for the fish which they " did
eat in Egypt freely." So much too is proved by the monuments
of Egypt; indeed more, for the figures found in some of the
Egyptian fishing pictures using short rods and stout lines are
sometimes attired after the manner of those who were great in
the land. This indicates that angling had already, in a highly
civilized country, taken its place among the methods of diversion
at the disposal of the wealthy, though from the uncompromising
nature of the tackle depicted and the apparent simplicity of the
fish it would scarcely be safe to assume that in Egypt angling
arrived at the dignity of becoming an " art." In Europe it took
very much longer for the taking of fish to be regarded even as an
22
ANGLING
amusement, and the earliest references to it in the Greek and
Latin classics arc not very satisfying to the sportsman. There is,
however, a passage in the Odyssey (xii. 247) which is of consider-
able importance, as it shows that fishing with rod and line was
well enough understood in early Greece to be used as a popular
illustration. It occurs in the well-known scene where Scylla
seizes the companions of Odysseus out of the ship and bears them
upwards, just as " some fisher on a headland with a long rod "
brings small fishes gasping to the shore. Another important,
though comparatively late, passage in Greek poetry is the
twenty-first idyll of Theocritus. In this the fisherman Asphalion
relates how in a dream he hooked a large golden fish and describes
graphically, albeit with some obscurity of language, how he
' ' played "it. Asphalion used a rod and fished from a rock, much
after the manner of the Homeric angler. Among other Greek
writers, Herodotus has a good many references to fish and fishing;
the capture of fish is once or twice mentioned or implied by Plato,
notably in the Laws (vii. $23); Aristotle deals with fishes in his
Natural History; and there are one oft wo fishing passages in the
anthology. But in Greek literature as a whole the subject of
angling is not at all prominent. In writers of late Greek, however,
there is more material. Plutarch, for instance, gives us the
famous story of the fishing match between Antony and Cleopatra,
which has been utilized by Shakespeare. Moreover, it is in Greek
that the first complete treatise on fishing which has come down
to us is written, the Halieutka of Oppian (c. a.d. 169). It is a
hexameter poem in five books with perhaps more technical than
sporting interest, and not so much even of that as the length of
the work would suggest Still it contains some information about
tackle and methods, and some passages describing battles with
big fish, in the right spirit of enthusiasm- Also in Greek is what is
famous as the first reference in literature to fly-fishing, in the
fifteenth book of Aelian's Natural History (3rd century a.d.). It
is there described how the Macedonians captured a certain
spotted fish in the river Astracus by means of a lure composed of
coloured wool and feathers, which was presumably used in the
manner now known as " dapping." That there were other
Greek writers who dealt with fish and fishing and composed
" haiku tics " we know from Athenaeus. In the first book of his
Deipnosophistae he gives a list of them. But he compares their
work unfavourably with the passage of Homer already cited, in a
way which suggests that their knowledge of angling was not a
great advance upon the knowledge of their remote literary
ancestors. In Latin literature allusions to angling are rather
more numerous than in Greek, but on the whole they are un-
important. Part of a poem by Ovid, the Holieuikon, composed
during the poet's exile at Tomi after a.d. 9, still survives. In
other Roman writers the subject is only treated by way of allusion
or illustration. Martial, however, provides, among other
passages, what may perhaps be entitled to rank as the earliest
notice of private fishery rights — the epigram Ad Piscatorem,
which warns would-be poachers from casting a line in the Baian
lake. Pliny the elder devoted the ninth book of his Natural
History to fishes and water-life, and Plautus, Cicero, Catullus,
Horace, Juvenal, Pliny the younger and Suetonius all allude to
angling here and there. Agricultural writers, too, such as Varro
and Columella, deal with the subject of fish ponds and stews
rather fully. Later than any of these, but still just included in
Latin literature, we have Ausonius (c. ad. 320) and his well-
known idyll the Hostile, which contains a good deal about the
fish of the Moselle and the methods of catching them. In this
poem is to be found the first recognizable description of members
of the salmon family, and, though the manner of their application
is rather doubtful, the names salmo, solar and forio strike a
responsive note in the breast of the modern angler.
Post-classical Literature. — As to what happened in the world of
angling in the first few centuries of the Christian era we know
little. It may be inferred, however, that both fish and fishermen
occupied a more honourable position in Christendom than they
ever did before. The prominence of fishermen in the gospel
narratives would in itself have been enough to bring this about,
but it also happened that the Greek word for fish, IXOTZ. had an
anagrammatic significance which the devout were not slow to
perceive. The initial&c f the word resolve into what is practically
a confession of faith, 'Inoovt Xpusros Gsov Tlot Zvrijp (Jesus
Christ, Son of God, Saviour). It is therefore not surprising that
we find the fish very prominent as a sacred emblem in the painting
and sculpture of the primitive church, or that Clement of Alex*
andria should have recommended it, among other things, as a
device for signet rings or seals. The fisherman too is frequently
represented in early Christian art, and it is worthy of remark
that he more often uses a line and hook than a net. The refer-
ences to fish and fishing scattered about in the writings of the
early fathers for the most part reflect the two ideas of the
sacredness of the fish and divine authorization of the fisherman;
the second idea certainly prevailed until the time of Uaak
Walton, for he uses it to justify his pastime. It is also not
unlikely that the practice of fasting (in many cases fish was
allowed when meat was forbidden) gave the art of catching fish
additional importance. It seems at any rate to 'have been a
consideration of weight when sites were chosen for monasteries
in Europe, and in many cases when no fish-producing river was
at hand the lack was supplied by the construction of fish-ponds.
Despite all this, however, save for an occasional allusion in the
carry fathers, there is hardly a connecting link between the
literature of Pagan Rome and the literature that sprang up on
the invention of printing. One volume, the Gtoponica, a Greek
compilation concerning whose authorship and date there has
been much dispute, is attributed in Bibliotheca Piscatoria to the
beginning of the 10th century. It contains one- book on fish,
fish-ponds and fishing, with prescriptions for baits, &c, extracted
for the most part from other writers. But it seems doubtful
whether its date should not be placed very much earlier. Tradi-
tion makes it a Carthaginian treatise translated into Greek. A
more satisfactory fragment of fishing literature-is to be found in
the Colloquy of iClfric, written (ad pucros linguae loUnae locu*
liouis exercendos) towards the end of the same century. iElf ric
became archbishop of Canterbury in jld. 99s, and the passage
in the Anglo-Saxon text-book takes honourable rank as the
earliest reference to fishing in English writings, though it is not
of any great length. 1 1 is to be noted, that the fisher who takes a
share in the colloquy states that he prefers fishing in the river to
fishing in the sea. Ascribed to the 13th or 14th century is a
Latin poem De Veiula, whose author was apparently Richard de
Fournival. It contains a passage on angling, and was placed to
the credit of Ovid when first printed (c. 1470). A manuscript in
the British museum, Comptes des pickeries de Viglise de Troyes
(a.d. 1349-1413), gives a minute account of the fisheries with
the weights of fish captured and the expenses of working.
There is, however, practically nothing else of importance till we
come to the first printed book on angling (a translation of Oppian,
1478, excepted), and so to the beginning of the literature proper.
This first book was a little volume printed in Antwerp probably
in 1497 at the press of Matthias van der Goes. In size it is little
more than a pamphlet, and it treats of birds as well as fish: —
Dit Boeexben Icerl hoe men mack Voghelen . . . ende . . .
visschen vangen metten handen. Ende oeck andersins. . . .
(" This book teaches how one may catch birds . . . and . . .
fish with the hands, and also otherwise "). Only one copy
apparently survives, in the Demson library, and a translation
privately printed for Mr Alfred Denison in 187? was limited to
twenty-five copies. At least two other editions of the book
appeared in Flemish, and it also made its way, in 150?, to
Germany, where, translated and with certain alterations and
additions, it seems to have been re-issued frequently. Next in
date comes the famous Treatyst of Fysskynge wyth an Angle,
printed at Westminster by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496 as a part
of the second edition of The Book of St Albans. The treatise
is for this reason associated with the name of Dame Juliana
Berncrs, but that somewhat dubious compiler can have had
nothing whatever to do with it. The treatise is almost certainly
a compilation from some earlier work on angling (" bokes of
credence " arc mentioned in its text), possibly from a manuscript
of the earlier part of the 15th century, of which a portion is
ANGLING
23
ill the Denison collection. This was published in
1883 by Mr Thomas Satchel) under the title An Older Form of the
Treaty** 0/ Fysshynge wyth an Angle. But it is also possible
that a still older work was the parent of both books, for it has
been held that the manuscript is an independent version. How-
ever this may be, it is certain that the treatise itself has been the
parent off many other works. Many of the instructions contained
in it are handed down from generation to generation with little
change except in diction. Especially i&this the case with the list
of trout-flies, a meagre twelve, which survives in many fishing
books until well into the 18th century.
From the beginning of the 16th century the fisherman's library
begins to grow apace, as, though books solely devoted to fishing
are not yet frequent, works on husbandry and country pursuits
almost all contain something on the subject. In Italy the
fisherman and his occupation apparently were considered poetic-
ally; the word pescatore or its cognates are common on Italian
:6th and 17th century title-pages, though in many instances
the fulfilment of the implied promise is not adequate, from an
angler's point of view. From the pages of Bibliolheca Piscatoria
a fairly long list of Italian writers could be gleaned. Among
them may be mentioned Sannazaro (Piscatoria, &c, Rome, 1526)
icd Andrea Calmo (Rime pescatorie, Venice, 1557). A century
later was Parthenfus, who published a volume of Halieutica at
Naples. This writer has an amusing reference to the art of
'" tickling " trout as practised in Britain. In Germany, as has
been shown, the original little Flemish treatise had a wide vogue
m the 1 6th century, and fishing played a part in a good many
books on husbandry such as that of Conrad Hercsbach (1570).
fmh and fish-ponds formed the main topic of a Latin work by
Dubravius (1552), while Gesner in the middle of the 16th and
Aldrovaadi at the beginning of the 17 th centuries wrote at length
oa the natural history of fishes. In France the subject is less
neil represented, but Les Pcscheries of Chris, dc Camon (Lyons,
1509) and Lc Plaisir des champs of CL Gauchet (Paris, 1604)
deserve to be noted. Les Ruses innocenles by Francois Fortin,
first published at Paris in 1600, and several times in later editions,
is characterized by Messrs Westwood and Satchell as " on the
whole the most interesting contribution made by France to
the literature of angling." England during the most part of the
16th century was evidently well enough served by the original
treatise out of The Book of St Albans. It was republished twice
by Wynkyn de Worde, six or seven times by Copland, and some
five times by other printers. It was also practically republished
in A Boohe of Fishing by L. M. (1500). L. M. (Leonard Mascall)
ranks as an angling author, but he did little more than borrow and
edit the treatise. The same may be said of another version of The
Book of St Albans " now newly collected by W. G. Faulkener "
and issued in 1506.
Modern Literature.— In 1600 appeared John Tavcrner's C«rtoi>«*
Experiments concerning Fish and Fruitc, and after this the period
of angling literature proper begins. The Secrets of A ngling ( 1 6 1 3) ,
by J(ohn) D(ennys), Esq., is one of the most important
volumes in the angler's library, both on account of the excellence
of the verse in which it is written and also on account of its
practical value. Gervase Markham, •■• the first journalist," as
he has been called, published his first book of husbandry at
the same date, and, as in most of his many books on the same
subject, devoted a certain amount of space to fishing. But
Markham gathered his materials in a rather shameless manner
and his angling passages have little originality. Thomas Barker's
The Art of Angling (1st ed., 1651) takes a more honourable
position, and received warm commendation from Isaak Walton
himself, who followed it in 1653 with The Comphot Angler.
So much has been written about this treasured classic that it is
only necessary to indicate its popularity here by saying that
it* editions occupy some twenty pages in Bibliothcca Piscatoria
(1883), and that since that work was published at least forty
new editions have to be added to the list. During Walton's
life-time the book ran through five editions, and with the fifth
(1676) was incorporated Charles Cotton's second part, the
M instructions bow to angle for a trout or grayling, in a clear
stream." In some cases too there was added a third book,
the fourth edition of The Experienced Angler, by Robert Venables
(1st ed., 1662). The three books together bore the title of
The Universal Angler. Venables's portion was dropped later,
but it is worth reading, and contained sound instruction though
it has not the literary merit of Walton and Cotton.
A few other notable books of the century call for enumeration,
The Gentleman* s Recreation by Nicholas Cox (1674), Gilbert's
The Angler's Delight (1676), Chetham's Vade-Mccum (1681),
The CompleU Troller by Robert Nobbes (1682), R. Franck's
Northern Memoirs (1694), and The True Art of Angling by J. S.
(1696). Of these Chetham, Nobbes, Franck and J. S. have the
merit of considerable originality. Franck has gained some
notoriety by his round abuse of Walton. In the 18th century
among others we find The Secrets of Angling by C. G. (1705),
Robert Howlett's The Angler* s Sure Guide (1706), The Whole
A rt of Fishing ( 1 7 14) » The Com pleat Fisherman by James Saunders
(1724), The Art of Angling by R. Brookes (1740), another book
with the same title by R. and C. Bowlker (Worcester, c. 1750),
The Complete Sportsman by Thomas Fairfax (c. 1760), The
Angler's Museum by T. Shirley (1784), and A Concise Treatise
on the Art of Angling by Thomas Best (1787). Of these only
Saunders's, Bowlker's and Best's books are of much importance,
the rest being for the most part " borrowed." One volume of
verse in the 18th century calls for notice, Moses Browne's
Piscatory Eclogues (1729). Among greater names we get angling
passages in Pope, Gay and Thomson; the two last were evidently
brothers of the angle.
With the 19th century angling literature becomes too big a
subject to be treated in detail, and it is only possible to glance
at a few of the more important books and writers. Daniel's
Rural Sports appeared in 1801; it is a treasure-house of odd
facts. In 1828 Sir Humphry Davy published his famous
Salmonia, which was reviewed in the Quarterly by Sir Walter
Scott. At about this time too were appearing the Nodes A mbro-
sianae in Blackwood's Magazine. Christopher North (Professor
Wilson) often touched upon angling in them, besides contributing
a good many angling articles to the magazine. In 1835 that
excellent angling writer Thomas Tod Stoddart began his valuable
series of books with The Art of Angling as Practised in Scotland.
In 1839 he published Songs and Poems, among which are pieces
of great merit. During this period, too, first appeared, year
by year, the Newcastle Fishers' Garlands, collected by Joseph
Crawhall afterwards and republished in 18641 These border
verses, like Stoddart's, have often a genuine ring about them
which is missing from the more polished effusions of Gay and
Thomson. Alfred Ronalds's The Ply-Fisher's Entomology
(1st ed., 1836) was a publication of great importance, for it
marked the beginning of the scientific spirit among trout-fishers.
It ran through many editions and is still a valuable book of
reference. A step in angling history is also marked by George
Pulman's Vade-Mccum of Fly-fishing for Trout (1841), for it
contains the first definite instructions on fishing with a " dry
fly." Another is marked by Hewett Wheatlcy's The Rod and
the Line (1849), where is to be found the earliest reference to the
"eyed" hook. Yet another is marked by W. C. Stewart's
The Practical Angler (1857), in which is taught the new doctrine
of " up-stream " fishing for trout. This is a book of permanent
value.' ' Among the many books of this period Charles Kingslcy's
Miscellanies (1859) stands out, for it contains the immortal
" Chalk-Stream Studies." The work of Francis Francis begins
at about the same time, though his A Book on A ngling, which
is still one of the most valuable text-books, was not first published
till 1867. Another well-known and excellent writer, Mr H.
Cholmondeley Pennetl, began in the early 'sixties; it is to him
that we owe the admirable volumes on freshwater fishing in
the " Badminton Library." Among other English writers
mention must be made of Messrs William Senior, John Bkker-
dyke and F M. Hal ford, who have all performed signal services
for angling and its literature. (See further bibliography ad fin.)
In America the latter half of the 19th century produced a good
deal of fishing literature, much of it of a high standard. / go
24
ANGLING
o-Fisking by Dr W. C. Prime (1875), Fishing with the Fly by
C. F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others (1883), The American
Salmon Fisherman and Fly Rods and Fly Tackle by H. P. Wells
(1886 and 1885), Little Rivers and other books by the Rev. H.
Van Dyke — these are only a few specially distinguished in style
and matter. Germany and France have not contributed so
largely to the modern library, but in the first country we find
several useful works by Max von dem Borne, beginning with
the Hand buck der Angelfischerei of 1875, and there are a good
many other writers who have contributed to the subject, while
in France there are a few volumes on fishing by different hands.
The most noticeable is M. G. Albert Petit's La Truite de riviere
(1897), an admirable book on fly-fishing. As yet, however, though
there are many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has not
established itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature
of its own; the same may be said of Germany.
Modern Conditions. — In the modern history of angling there
are one or two features that should be touched upon. The great
increase in the number of fishermen has had several results.
One is a corresponding increase in the difficulty of obtaining
fishing, and a notable rise in the value of rivers, especially those
which are famed for salmon and trou L Salmon-fishing now may
be said to have become a pastime of the rich, and there are signs
that trout-fishing will before long have to be placed in the same
exclusive category, while even the right to angle for less-esteemed
fish will eventually be a thing of price. The development is
natural, and it has naturally led to efforts on the part of the
angling majority to counteract, if possible, the growing difficulty.
These efforts have been directed chiefly in two ways, one the
establishment of fishing clubs, the other the adoption of angling
in salt water. The fishing club of the big towns was originally
a social institution, and its members met together to sup, con-
verse on angling topics and perhaps to display notable fish that
they bad caught. Later, however, arose the idea that it would be
a convenience if a club could give its members privileges of fishing
as well as privileges of reunion. So it comes about that all over
the United Kingdom, in British colonics and dependencies, in
the United States, and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs
rent waters, undertake preservation and restocking and generally
lead an active and useful existence. It is a good sign for the
future of angling and anglers that they are rapidly increasing in
number. One of the oldest fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was
the Schuylkill club, founded in Pennsylvania in 1732. An
account of its history was published in Philadelphia in 1830.
Among the earliest clubs in London arc to be numbered such
societies as The True Waltonians, The Piscatorial, The Friendly
Anglers and The Gresham, which are still flourishing. A certain
amount of literary activity has been observable in the world of
angling clubs, and several volumes of "papers" are on the
records. Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of
Anglers* Evenings published in 1880-1894, a collection of essays
by members of the Manchester Anglers' Association. The other
method of securing a continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-
angling as a substitute for fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern
thing. Within the memory of men still young the old tactics of
hand-line and force were considered good enough for sea fish.
Now the fresh- water angler has lent his centuries of experience
in deluding his quarry; the sea-angler has adopted many of the
ideas presented to him, has modified or improved others, and has
developed the capture of sea-fish into a science almost as subtle
as the capture of their fresh-water cousins. One more modern
feature, which is also a result of the increase of anglers, is the great
advance made in fish-culture, fish-stocking and fish-acclimatiza-
tion during the last half-century. Fish-culture is now a
recognized industry; every trout-stream of note and value is
restocked from time to time as a matter of course; salmon-
hatcheries are numerous, though their practical utility is still a
debated matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish are
also bred for purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now
considered a fairly simple matter to introduce fish from one
country to another, and even from continent to continent. In
England the movement owes a great deal to Francis Francis,
who, though he was not the earliest worker in the field, was
among the first to formulate the science of fish-breeding; his
book Fish-Culture, first published in 1863, still remains one of
the best treatises on the subject In the United States, where
fishery science has had the benefit of generous governmental and
official support and countenance and so has reached a high level
of achievement, Dr. T. Garlick {The Artificial Reproduction of
Fishes, Cleveland, 1857) is honoured as a pioneer. On the
continent of Europe the letter half of the 19th century saw a very
considerable and rapid development in fish-culture, but until
comparatively recently the propagation and care of fish in most
European waters have been considered almost entirely from the
point of view of the fish-stew and the market. As to what ha*
been done in the way of acclimatization it is not necessary to say
much. Trout (Salmofdrio) were introduced to New Zealand in
the late 'sixties from England; in the 'eighties rainbow trout
(Salmo irideus) were also introduced from California; now New
Zealand provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the world.
American trout of different kinds have been introduced into
England, and brown trout have been introduced to America;
but neither innovation can be said to have been an unqualified
success, though the rainbow has established itself firmly in some
waters of the United Kingdom. It is still regarded with some
suspicion, as it has a tendency to wander from waters which do
not altogether suit it. For the rest, trout have been established
in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in South* Africa, and early in 1006 an
attempt was made to carry them to British Central Africa. In
fact the possibilities of acclimatization are so great that, it seems
probable, in time no river of the civilized world capable of holding
trout will be without them.
Methods and Practice
Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in
fresh water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the
sport have much in common, and sea-angling is really little more
than an adaptation of fresh-water methods to salt-water con-
ditions. Therefore it will not be necessary to deal with it at
great length and it naturally comes in the second place. Angling
in fresh water is again divisible into three principal parts, fishing
on the surface, i.e. with the fly; in mid- water, i.e. with a bait
simulating the movements of a small fish or with the small fish
itself; and on the bottom with worms, paste or one of the many
other baits which experience has shown that fish will take. With
the premise that it is not intended here to go into the minutiae
of instruction which may more profitably be discovered in the
many works of reference cited at the end of this article, some
account of the subdivisions into which these three styles of fishing
fall may be given.
Fresh-Water Fishing.
Fly-fishing. — Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it
is the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method
par excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting
family of fish, the Salmonidae. It may roughly be considered
under three heads, the use of the " wet " or sunk fly, of the " dry "
or floating fly, and of the natural insect. Of these the first
is the most important, for it covers the widest field and is
the most universally practised. There are few varieties of fish
which may not either consistently or occasionally be taken with
the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The large and gaudy bunch
of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon, very large trout,
black bass and occasionally other predaceous fish are taken is not,
strictly speaking, a fly at all. It rather represents, if anything,
some small fish or subaqueous creature on which the big fish is
accustomed to feed and it may conveniently receive the generic
name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however, which are used
to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually feed 00
insect food are in most cases intended to represent that food in
one of its forms and are entitled to the name of "artificial flies.**
The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the imitation
theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of closer
observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters. Both
wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and
ANGLING
25
oldest kind of surface-faking, the use of a natural insect as a bait
Each method is referred to incidentally below.
Spitmmg, 6re. — Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly
consists in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it,
and its devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey
on their fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling 1 are these
devices. In thefirst a small dead fish or an imitation of it made
in metal, india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve
rapidly as it is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea
of something in difficulties and trying to escape. In the second
a small fish is put on the angler's hook alive and conveys the
same idea by its own efforts. In the third a small dead fish is
caused to dart up and down in the water without revolving, it
conveys the same idea as the spinning fish, though the manipula-
tion is different.
Bottom-Fishing.— Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling
which is the moot general. There is practically no fresh-water
ash that win not take some one or more of the baits on the angler's
fist if they are properly presented to it when it is hungry Usually
the baited hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule
suggested by the name M bottom-fishing " is not invariable and
often the bait is best used in mid-water; similarly, in " mid-water
fishing " the bait must sometimes be used as dose to the bottom
as possible. ' Bottom-fishing is roughly divisible into two kinds,
goat-fishing, in which a bite is detected by the aid of a float
fastened to the line above the hook and so balanced that its tip
a visible above the water, and hand-fishing, in which no float is
ased and the angler trusts to his hand to feel the bite of a fish. In
most cases either method can be adopted and it is a matter of
taste, but broadly speaking the float-tackle is more suited to water
which is not very deep and is either still or not rapid. In great
depths or strong streams a float is difficult to manage.
The Fish.
It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler
catches according to the methods which he employs, as most
fish can be taken by at least two of these methods, while many
of those most highly esteemed can be caught by all three.
Sporting fresh-water fish are therefore treated according to their
Umilies and merits from the angler's point of view, and it is briefly
indicated which method or methods best succeed in pursuit of
Salmcn. — First in importance come the migratory Salmomdae,
and at the head of them the salmon (Sdmo solar), which has a
two-fold reputation as a sporting and as a commercial asset. The
salmon fisheries of a country are a very valuable possession, but
it is only comparatively recently that this has been realized and
that salmon rivers have received the legal protection which is
accessary to their well-being. Even now it cannot be asserted
that in England the salmon question, as it is called, is settled
Partly owing to our ignorance of the life-history of the fish, partly
owing to the difficulty of reconciling the opposed interests of
commerce and sport, the problem as to how a river should be
treated remains only partially solved, though it cannot be denied
that there has been a great advance in the right direction. The
Efe-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns the matter in hand,
may be very briefly summed up It is bred in the rivers and fed
in the sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn as high as they
can get, the ova are deposited on gravel shallows, hatching out in
the course of a few weeks into parr The infant salmon remains
in fresh water at least one year, generally two years, without
growing more than a few inches, and then about May assumes what
is celled the smolt-dress, that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands
and red spots of infancy and becomes silvery all over. After this
it descends without delay to the sea, where it feeds to such good
purpose that in a year it has reached a weight of a lb to 4 R> or
more, and it may then reascend as a grilse. Small grilse indeed
may only have been in the sea a few months, ascending in the
autumn of the year of their first descent If the fish survives the
1 Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and talk
with trailing, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along
behind a boat in motion.
perils of its first ascent and spawning season and as a kdt or
spawned fish gets down to the sea again, it comes up a second time
as a salmon of weight varying from 8 lb upwards. Whether
salmon come up- rivers, and, if so, spawn, every year, why some
fish are much heavier than others of the same age, what their mode
of life is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer when
the breeding season is not tiU about November or December,
whether they were originally sea-fish or river-fish — these and
other similar questions await a conclusive answer. One principal
fact, however, stands out amid the uncertainty, and that is that
without a free passage up and down unpolluted rivers and without
protection on the spawning beds salmon have a very poor chance
of perpetuating their species. Economic prudence dictates
therefore that every year a considerable proportion of running
salmon should be allowed to escape the dangers that confront
them in the shape of nets, obstructions, pollutions, rods and
poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the interests which are
bound up in these dangers (the last excepted; officially poachers
have no interests, though in practice their plea of " custom and
right " has too often to be taken into consideration) that the
salmon question consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish for
the market, a fair proportion for the rods and a fair proportion
for the redds, without unduly damaging manufacturing interests,
this is the object of those who have the question at heart, and
with many organizations and scientific observersat work it should
not be long before the object is attained. Already the system of
" marking " kelts with a small silver label has resulted in a con-
siderable array of valuable statistics which have made it possible
to estimate the salmon's ordinary rate of growth from year to
year. It is very largely due to the efforts of anglers that the
matter has gone so far. Whether salmon feed in fresh water is
another question of peculiar interest to anglers, for it would seem
that if they do not then the whole practice of taking them must
be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides of the argu-
ment, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and kelts
excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not
feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do,
and bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture
by rod and line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious
food-stuffs as dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side
it is argued that food is never found inside a salmon after it has
been long enough in a river to have digested its last meal taken in
salt water The very few instances of food found in salmon which
have been brought forward to support the contrary opinion are
in the scientific view to be regarded with great caution; certainly
in one case of recent years, which at first appeared to be well
authenticated, it was afterwards found that a small trout had been
pushed down a salmon's throat after capture by way of a joke.
A consideration of the question, however, which may perhaps
make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr J Kingston
Barton in the first of the two volumes on Fishing (Country Lift
Series). He maintains that salmon do not habitually feed in
fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility of their occasion-
ally taking food. His view is that after exertion, such as that
entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the fish may
feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap at
anything in its vidnity which .looks edible. The fact that the
angler's best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly
arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they
are compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the
worse becomes the prospect of catching them, and " unfishable "
is one of the expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the
condition of a river during the long periods of drought which too
often distinguish the sport
Salmon Tackle and Methods.— It is when the drought breaks up
and the long-awaited rain has come that the angler has bis chance
and makes ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on
some short streams only a few hours) during which the water
will be right; right is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning
not only that the colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but
that its height shall be within an inch or two of a given mark,
prescribed by experience. As to the tackle which is made ready,
26
ANGLING
there is, as in most angling matters, divergence of opinion.
Salmon fly-rods are now made principally of two materials,
greenheart and split-cane; the former is less expensive, the
latter is more durable; it is entirely a matter of taste which a
man uses, but the split-cane rod is now rather more in favour,
and for salmon-fishing it is in England usually built with a
core of steel running from butt to tip and known as a " steel
centre." How long the rod shall be is also a matter on which
anglers differ, but from 16 ft. to 17 ft 6 in. represents the limits
within which most rods are preferred. The tendency is to
reduce rather than to increase the length of the rod, which may
be accounted for by the adoption of a heavy line. Early in the
19th century anglers used light-topped rods of 30 ft and even
more, and with them a light line composed partly of horse-hair;
they thought 60 ft. with such material a good cast Modern
experience, however, has shown that a shorter rod with a heavier
top will throw a heavy dressed silk line much farther with less
exertion. Ninety feet is now considered a good fishing cast,
while many men can throw a great deal more. In the United
States, where rods have long been used much lighter than in
England, the limits suggested would be considered too high.
From x 2 ft. 0* in. to 15 ft 6 in. is about the range of the American
angler's choice, though long rods are not unknown with him.
The infinite variety of reels, lines, gut collars 1 and other forms of
tackle which is now presented to the angler's consideration and
for his bewilderment is too wide a subject to be touched upon
here. Something, however, falls to be said about flies. One of
the perennially fruitful topics of inquiry is what the fish takes a
salmon-fly to be. Beyond a fairly general admission that it is
regarded as something endowed with life, perhaps resembling
a remembered article of marine diet, perhaps inviting gastro-
nomic experiment, perhaps irritating merely and rousing an
impulse to destroy, the discussion has not reached any definite
conclusion. But more or less connected with it is the controversy
as to variety of colour and pattern. Some authorities hold that
a great variety of patterns with very minute differences in colour
and shades of colour is essential to complete success; others
contend that salmon do not differentiate between nice shades of
colour, that they only draw distinctions between flies broadly
as being light, medium or dark in general appearance, and that
the size of a fly rather than its colour is the important point for
the angler's consideration. Others again go some way with the
supporters of the colour-scheme and admit the efficacy of flies
whose general character is red, or yellow, or black, and so on.
The opinion of the majority, however, is probably based on past
experience, and a man's favourite flies for different rivers and
condition of water are those with which he or someone else has
previously succeeded. It remains a fact that in most fly-books
great variety of patterns will be discoverable, while certain old
standard favourites such as the Jock Scott, Durham Ranger,
Silver Doctor, and Thunder and Lightning wilt be prominent
Coming out of the region of controversy it is a safe generalization
to say that the general rule is: big flies for spring fishing when
rivers are probably high, small flies for summer and low water,
and flies medium or small in autumn according to the conditions.
Spring fishing is considered the cream of the sport. Though
salmon are not as a rule so numerous or so heavy as during the
1 The precise date when silkworm cut (now so important a feature
of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys. in his
Diary (1667 J, mentions " a gut string varnished over
beyond any hair for strength and smallness " as a new angling secret
— *- * - 1i he likes " mightily. In the third edition (1 700) of Chetham's
which h
Vadc-Mecum, already cited, appears an ad
India weed, which » the only thing for
fishing." Again, in the third edition of
advertisement of the " East
or trout, carp and bottom-
ling." Again, in the third edition of Nobbea'a Art of Trolling,
(1805;, in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed by
J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July
20, 1801), in which it is stated that gut " is produced from the
silkworm and not an Indian weed, as has hitherto been conjec-
tured. . . ." The word " gut " is employed before this date^but it
seems obvious that silkworm gut was for a long time used under the
impression that it was a weedTand that its introduction was a thing
of the 17th century. It is probable, however, that vegetable fibre
was used too; we believe that in some parts of India it is used by
natives to this day. Pepys' " minikin ' was probably cat -gut. 1
autumn run, and though kelts are often a nuisance in the early
months, yet the clean-run fish of February, March or April
amply repays patience and disappointment by its fighting powers
and its beauty. Summer fishing on most rivers in the British
Islands is uncertain, but in Norway summer is the season,
which possibly explains to some extent the popularity of that
country with British anglers, for the pleasure of a sport is largely
increased by good weather.
Two methods of using the fly are in vogue, casting and barling.
The first is by far the more artistic, and it may be practised
either from a boat, from the bank or from the bed of the river
itself; in the last case the angler wades, wearing waterproof
trousers or wading-stockings and stout nail-studded brogues.
In either case the fishing is similar. The fly is cast across and
down stream, and has to be brought over the " lie " of the fish,
swimming naturally with its head to the stream, its feathers
working with tempting movement and its whole appearance
suggesting some live thing dropping gradually down and across
stream. Most anglers add to the motion of the fly by " working "
it with short pulls from the rod-top. When a fish Lakes, the rise
is sometimes seen, sometimes not; in any case the angler should
not respond with the rod until he feels the pulL Then he should
lighten, not strike. The fatal word " strike," with its too literal
interpretation, has caused many a breakage. Having hooked
his fish, the angler must be guided by circumstances as to what
he does; the salmon will usually decide that for him. But it is
a sound rule to give a well-hooked fish no unnecessary advantage
and to hold on as hard as the tackle will allow. Good tackle will
stand an immense strain, and with this " a minute a pound " is a
fair estimate of the time in which a fish should be landed. A
foul-hooked salmon (no uncommod thing, for a fish not infre-
quently misses the fly and gets hooked somewhere in the body)
takes much longer to land. The other method of using the fly,
harling, which is practised on a few big rivers, consists in trailing
the fly behind a boat rowed backward .and forwards across the
stream and dropping gradually downwards. Fly-fishing for
salmon is also practised on some lakes, into which the fish run.
On lakes the boat drifts slowly along a " beat," while the angler
casts diagonally over the spots where salmon are wont to lie.
Salmon may also be caught by " mid-water fishing," with a
natural bait either spun or trolled and with artificial spinning-
baits of different kinds, and by " bottom-fishing " with prawns,
shrimps and worms. Spinning is usually practised when the
water is too high or too coloured for the fly; trolling is seldom
employed, but is useful for exploring pools which cannot be
fished by spinning or with the fly; the prawn is a valuable lure
in low water and when fish are unwilling to rise; while the worm
is killing at all states of the river, but except as a last resource
is not much in favour. There are a few waters where salmon
have the reputation of not taking a fly at all; in them spinning
or prawning are the usual modes of fishing. But most anglers,
wherever possible, prefer to use the fly. The rod for the alter-
native methods is generally shorter and stiffcr than the fly -rod,
though made of like material. Twelve to fourteen feet represents
about the range of choice. Outside the British Islands the
salmon-fisher finds the headquarters of his sport in Europe in
Scandinavia and Iceland, and in the New World in some of the
waters of Canada and Newfoundland.
Land-locked Salmon. — The land-locked salmon {Salmo solar
sebago) of Canada and the lakes of Maine is, as its name implies,
now regarded by scientists as merely a land-locked form of the
salmon. It does not often attain a greater size than 20 lb,
but it is a fine fighter and is highly esteemed by American
anglers. In most waters it does not take a fly so well as a spinning-
bait, live-bait or worm. The methods of angling for it do not
differ materially from those employed for other Saknonidae.
Pacific Salmon. — Closely allied to Salmo solar both in appear-
ance and habits is the genus Oncorhynchus, commonly known
as Pacific salmon. It contains six species, is peculiar to the North
Pacific Ocean, and is of some importance to the angler, though
of not nearly so much as the Atlantic salmon. The quinnat is
the largest member of the genus, closely resembles saUt in
ANGLING
27
appearance and surpasses him in size. The others, sockeye,
humpback, cohoe, dog-salmon and masu, are smaller and of less
interest to the angler, though some of them have great commercial
varae. The last-named is only found in the waters of Japan , but
the rest occur in greater or less quantities in the rivers of Kam-
chatka, Alaska, British Columbia and Oregon. The problems
presented to science by solar are offered by Oncorkynckus also,
bat there are variations In his life-history, such as the fact that
few if any fish of the genus are supposed to survive their first
spawning season. When once in the rivers none of these salmon
b of very much use to the angler; as, though it is stated that
they w/fll occasionally take a fly or spoon in fresh water, they are
not nearly so responsive as their Atlantic cousin and in many
streams are undoubtedly not worth trying for At the mouths of
some rivers, however, where the water is distinctly tidal, and
in certain bays of the sea itself they give very fine sport, the
method of fishing for them being usually to trail a heavy spoon-
bait behind a boat By this means remarkable bags of fish have
been made by anglers. The sport is of quite recent development.
£ea-7>ifiiJ.— Next to the salmon comes the sea-trout, the other
migratory saimonid of Europe. This is a fish with many local
names and a good deal of local variation. Modern science, how-
ever, recognises two "races*' only, Salmo truUa, the sea-trout
proper, and Salmo eambricus or eriox, the bull-trout, or sewin
of Wales, which is most prominent in such rivers as the Coquet
and Tweed. The life-history of sea-trout is much the same as
that of salmon, and the fish on their first return from the sea in
the grilse-stage are called by many names, finnock, herkng and
winding being perhaps the best known. Of the two races
Salmo India alone is of much use to the fly-fisher. The bull-trout,
for some obscure reason, is not at alt responsive to his efforts,
except in its kelt stage. Then it will take greedily enough, but
that is small consolation. The bull-trout is a strong fish and
grows to a great size and it is a pity that it is not of greater
sporting value, if only to make up for its bad reputation as an
article of food. Some amends, however, are made by its cousin
the sea-trout, which is one of the gamest and daintiest fish on
the angler's list. It is found in most salmon rivers and also
in not a few streams which are too small to harbour the bigger
fish, while there are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (where
the fish is usually known as white trout) where the fishing is
superb when the trout have run up into them. Fly-fishing for
sea-trout is not a thing apart A three-pounder that will impale
itself on a big salmon-fly, might equally well have taken a tiny
trout-fly. Many anglers, when fishing a sea-trout river where
they run large, 5 lb or more, and where there is also a chance of s
salmon, effect a compromise by using a light 13 ft or 14 ft
double-handed rod, and tackle not so slender as to make hooking
a salmon a certain disaster. But undoubtedly to get the full
pleasure out of sea-trout-fishing a single-handed rod oi 10 ft to
12 ft with reasonably fine gut and small flies should be used, and
the way of using it is much the same as in wet-fly fishing for
brown trout, which will be treated later. When the double-
handed rod and small salmon-flies are used,the fishingis practically
the same as salmon-fishing except that it is on a somewhat
smaller scale. Flies for sea-trout are numberless and local
patterns abound, as may be expected with a fish which has so
catholic a taste. But, as with salmon-fishers so with sea-trout-
fishers, experience forms belief and success governs selection.
Among the small salmon-flies and loch-flies which will fill his
book, the angler will do well to have a store of very small trout-
flies at hand, while experience has shown that even the dry fly
will kill sea-trout on occasion, a thing that is worth remembering
where rivers are low and fish shy. July, August and September
are^in general the best months for sea-trout, and as they are dry
months the angler often has to put up with indifferent sport The
fish will, however, rise in tidal water and in a few localities even
in the sea itself, or in salt-water lochs into which streams run.
Sea-trout have an irritating knack of " coming short," that is to
say . they will pluck at the fly without really taking it. There are
occasions, on the other hand, in loch-fishing where plenty of
time must be given to the fish without tightening on it especially
if it happens to be a big one. Like salmon, sea-trout are to be
caught with spinning-baits and also with the worm. The main
controversy that is concerned with sea-trout is whether or no
the fish captured in early spring are clean fish or well-mended
kdts. On the whole, as sea-trout seldom run before May, the
majority of opinion inclines to their being kelts.
Non-migratory Salmonidae.—Qi the non-migratory members
of the Salmonidoe the most impotent in Great Britain is the
brown trout {Salmo fcrio) Its American cousm the rainbow
trout (S. irideus) is now fairly well established in the country
too, while other transatlantic species both of trout and char
(which are some of them partially migratory, that is to say,
migratory when occasion offers), such as the steelhead (5. rvrtt-
Zero), fontinalis (S fontinolis) and the cut-throat trout (5.
elariH), are at least not unknown. All these fish, together with
their allied forms in America, can be captured with the fly, and,
speaking broadly, the wet-fly method will do well for them all.
Therefore it fs only necessary to deal with the methods applicable
to one species, the brown trout
rtwrf.— Of the game-fishes the brown trout is the most popular,
for it is spread over the whole of Great Britain and most of
Europe, wherever there are waters suited to it. It is a fine
sporting fish and is excellent for the table, while in some streams
and lakes It grows to a very considerable size, examples of 16 lb
from southern rivers and 20 lb from Irish and Scottish lakes
being not unknown. One of the signs of its popularity is that its
habits and history nave produced some very animated con-
troversies. Some of the earliest discussions were provoked
by the liability of the fish to change its appearance in different
surroundings and conditions, and so at one time many a district
claimed its local trout as a separate spedes. Now, however,
science admits but one species, though, to such well-defined
varieties as the Loch Leven trout, the estuarine trout and the
gUlaroo, it concedes the right to separate names and " races."
In effect all, from the great forox of the big lakes of Scotland
and Ireland to the little fingerling of the Devonshire brook, are
one and the s&mt— Salmo fori*.
Wet-Fly Pishing for Trout.— Fly-fishing for trout fs divided into
three kinds: fishing with the artificial fly sunk or " wet," fishing
with it floating or " dry " and fishing with the natural insect
Of the two first methods the wet fly is the older and may be taken
first Time was when all good anglers cast their flies down-
stream and thought no harm. But in 1857 W. C. Stewart pub-
lished his Practical Angkr, in which he taught that it paid better
to fish up-stream, for by so doing the angler was not only less
likely to be seen by the trout but was more likely to hook his fish.
The doctrine was much discussed and criticized, but it gradually
won adherents, until now up-stream fishing is the orthodox
method where it is possible. Stewart was also one of the first to
advocate a lighter rod in place of the heavy 1a ft and 13 ft.
weapons that were used in the North in his time. There are
still many men who use the long rod for wet-fly fishing in streams,
but there are now more who find to ft. quite enough for their
purpose. For lake-fishing from a boat, however, the longer rod'
is still in many cases preferred. In fishing rivers the«main art
is to place the right flies in the right places and to let them come
naturally down with the stream. The right flies may be ascer-
tained to some extent from books and from local wisdom, but
the right places can only be learnt by experience. It does not,
however, take long to acquire "an eye for water" and that is
half the battle, for the haunts of trout in rapid rivers are very
much alike. In lake-fishing chance has a greater share in bring-
ing about success, but here too the right fly and the right place
arc important; the actual management of rod, line and flies, of
course, iB easier, for there is no stream to be reckoned with.
Though there is little left to be said about wet-fly fishing where
the fly is an imitation more or less exact of a natural insect,
there is another branch of the art which has been stimulated by
modern developments. This is the use of salmon-flies for big
trout much in the same way as for salmon. In such rivers as the
Thames, where the trout are cannibals and run very large,
ordinary trout-flies are of little use, and the fly-fisher* onij
28
ANGLING
chance is to use a big fly amf* work " it, casting across and
down stream. The big fly has also been found serviceable with
the great fish of New Zealand and with the inhabitants of such
a piece of water as Blagdon Lake near Bristol, where the trout
run very large. For this kind of fishing much stronger tackle
and a heavier rod are required than for catching fish that seldom
exceed the pound.
Dry Fly. — Fishing with the floating fly is a device of southern
origin, and the idea no doubt arose from the facts that on the
placid south-country streams the natural fly floats on the surface
and that the trout are accustomed to feed on it there. The
controversy " dry versus wet " was long and spirited, but the
new idea won the day and now not only on the chalk-streams,
but on such stretches of even Highland rivers as are suitable, the
dry-fly man may be seen testing his theories. These theories
arc simple and consist in placing before the fish an exact imitation
of the insect on which it is feeding, in such a way that it shall
float down exactly as if it were an insect of the same kind. To
this end special tackle and special methods have been found
necessary. Not only the fly bat also the line has to float on the
water; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane
or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful, special precautions
have to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not
" drag "; special casts have to be made to counteract awkward
winds; and, lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the
water is a matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many
shades and colours. Many brains have busied themselves with
the solution of these problems with such success that dry-fly
fishing is now a finished art. The entomology of the dry-fly
stream has been studied very deeply by Mr F. M. Halford, the
late G. S. Marryat and others, and improvements both in flies
and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however, there
has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing
as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly
work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather
less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs
much less— approximately 6 oz. to xo ft. The light rod, it is
urged, is much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary
purposes. Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not
"ordinary purposes," that chalk-stream weeds are too strong
and chalk-stream winds too wild for the light rod to be efficient
against them. However, the light rod is growing in popular
favour, British manufacturers are building rods after the
American style; and anglers are taking to them more and more
The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in
Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet
in the United States or Canada.
Fishing with the Natural Fly— The natural fly is a very killing
bait for trout, but its use is not wide-spread except in Ireland.
In Ireland "dapping" with the green drake or the daddy-
longlegs is practised from boats on most of the big loughs. A
light whole-cane rod of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is
required with a floss-silk line light enough to be carried out on
the breeze; the " dap " (generally two mayflies or daddy-long-
legs on a small stout-wired hook) is carried out by the breeze and
just allowed to touch the* water. When a trout rises it is well to
count " ten " before striking. Very heavy trout are caught in
this manner during the mayfly season. In the North " creeper-
fishing " is akin to this method, but the creeper is the larva of
the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it is cast more like an ordinary
fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes, however, the mature insect
is used with equally good results. A few anglers still practise
the old style of dapping or " dibbling " after the manner advised
by Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing small overgrown
brooks. A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and a grass-
hopper or almost any large fly will serve for bait.
Other Methods.— The other methods of taking trout principally
employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river
trout such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the
best spinning or live bait, for great lake trout (Jcrax) a small fish
of their own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are
numberless artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the
Devon being perhape the favourite. The useof the drop-minnow,
which is trolling on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed
more in the north of England than elsewhere. The worm is
mostly deadly in thick water, so deadly that it is looked on
askance. But there is a highly artistic mode of fishing known as
' ' dear-water worming. " This is most successful when rivers are
low and weather hot, and it needs an expert angler to succeed in
it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like a fly, and the
method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy and difficulty.
The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits which they
will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots, cater-
pillars, small frogs, bread— there is very little the fish will not
take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch
trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm,
and the tendency nowadays both in England and America is to
restrict anglers where possible to the use of the artificial fly only.
Grayling. — The only other member of the salmon family in
England which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling,
a fish which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter.
It can be caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same
tackle as trout, which generally inhabit the same stream. Gray-
ling will take most small trout-flies, but there are many patterns
of fly tied specially for them, most of them founded on the red
tag or the green insect. Worms and maggots are also largely
used in some waters for grayling, and there is a curious con-
trivance known as the " grasshopper," which is a sort of con-
promise between the fly and bait. It consists of a leaded hook
round the shank of which is twisted bright-coloured wool. The
point is tipped with maggots, and the lure, half artificial, half
natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked up and down in
the water In some places the method is very killing. The
grayling has been very prominent of late years owing to the
controversy " grayling versus trout." Many people hold that
grayling injure a trout stream by devouring trout-ova and trout-
food, by increasing too rapidly and in other ways. Beyond,
however, proving the self-evident fact that a stream can only
support a given amount of fish-life, the grayling's opponents do
not seem to have made out a very good case, for no real evidence
of its injuring trout has been adduced.
Char.— The chars (Salvelinus) are a numerous family widely
distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not very
important to the angler. One well-defined species {SaMinus
alpinus) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but
principally in Westmorland and Cumberland. It sometimes
takes a small fly but is more often caught with small artificial
spinning-baits. The fish seldom exceeds 1} lb in Great Britain,
though in Scandinavia it is caught up to $ lb or more. There are
some important chars in America, J ontinalis being one of the most
esteemed. Some members of the genus occasionally attain a size
scarcely excelled by the salmon. Among them are the Great Lake
trout of America, Crislhomer namaycush, and the Danubian
" salmon " or huchen, Salmo hucho. Both of these fish are caught
principally with spinning-baits, but both will on occasion take a
salmon-fly, though not with any freedom after they have reached
a certain size. An attempt has been made to introduce huchen
into the Thames but at the time of writing the result cannot yet
be estimated.
Pike.— The pike (Esox lucius), which after the Salmonidae is
the most valued sporting fish in Great Britain, is a fish of prey
pure and simple. Though it will occasionally take a large fly, a
worm or other ground-bait, its systematic capture is only essayed
with small fish or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is supposed
to be the most deadly lure for big pike, probably because it is the
method employed by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic
and has been found quite successful enough by those who give it a
fair and full trial. Trolling, the method of " sink and draw " with
a dead bait, referred to previously in this article, is not much
practised nowadays, though at one time it was very popular. It
was given up because the traditional form of trolling-tackle was
such that the bait had to be swallowed by the pike before the hook
would take hold, and that necessitated killing all fish caught,
whether targe or small. The same objection formerly applied to
ANGLING
29
live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook. Now, how-
ever, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in
live-baiting, and the system is by some few anglers extended to
the other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and arc
at their best in December. They grow to a very considerable size,
fish of 20 lb being regarded as " specimens " and an occasional
thirty-pounder rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The
heaviest pike caught with a rod in recent years which is sufficiently
authenticated, weighed 37 lb, but heavier specimens are said to
have been taken in Irish lakes. River pike up to about 10 lb in
weight are excellent eating.
America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge
of the great lake region (Esox masquinongy) is the most important.
It is a very fine fish, excelling Esox lucius both in size and looks.
From the angler's point of view it may be considered simply as a
large pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasion-
ally reaches the weight of 80 lb or perhaps more. The pickerel
(Esox retkulaius) is the only other of the American pikes which
gives any sport. It reaches a respectable size, but is as inferior to
the pike as the pike is to the muskelunge.
Perch. — Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory
fishes. The European perch (Perca Jluviatilis) has a place by
itself in the affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch
by almost any method of fishing, and a large number of Walton's
disciples have been initiated into the art with its help. Worms
and small live-baits are the principal lures, but at times the fish
wilt take small bright artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attrac-
tions such as boiled shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots,
wasp-grubs, &c are sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is
one of the best methods of taking perch. Very occasionally, and
principally in shallow pools, the fish will take an artificial fly
greedily, a small salmon-fly being the best thing to use in such a
case. A perch of 2 lb is a good fish, and a specimen of 4} lb
about the limit of angling expectation. There have been rare
instances of perch over 5 lb, and there are legends of eight-
pounders, which, however, need authentication.
Black Bass.— The yellow perch of America (Perca flatescens) is
very much like its European cousin in appearance and habits, but
it is not so highly esteemed by American anglers, because they
are fortunate in being possessed of a better fish in the black bass,
another member of the perch family. There are two kinds of black
bass (Mkropierus salmoides and Micro p tents dolomieu), the large-
mouthed and the small-mouthed. The first is more a lake and
j>ond fish than the second, and they are seldom found in the same
waters. As the black bass is a fly-taking fish and a strong fighter,
it is as valuable to the angler as a trout and is highly esteemed.
Bass-flies are sui generis, but incline more to the nature of salmon-
flies than trout-flies. An artificial frog cast with a fly-rod or very
light spinning-rod is also a favourite lure. For the rest the fish
will take almost anything in the nature of worms or small fish,
like its cousin the perch. A 4 lb bass is a good fish, but five-
pounders are not uncommon. Black bass have to some extent
been acclimatized in France.
The rujjc or pope (Acerina vulgaris) is a little fish common in the
Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers. It is very
like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which distinguish
the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a golden olive
background. It is not of much use to the angler as it seldom
exceeds 3 as. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and
similar baits greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is
expecting better fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch, of
which two species are of some importance to the angler, one the
wall-eye of eastern America (Slizostedion vitreum) and the other
the zander of Central Europe (Sandrus lucioperca). The last
especially is a fine fighter, occasionally reaching a weight of 20 lb.
It is usually caught by spinning, but will take live-baits, worms
and other things of that nature. The Danube may be described
as its headquarters. It is a fish whose sporting importance will be
more realized as anglers on the continent become more numerous.
Cyprinidae. — The carp family (Cyprinidae) is a large one and
its members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes.
la America the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c.
are little esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful
angler only, or as baits for the better fish in which the continent is
so rich. In England, however, the Cyprinidae have an honoured
place in the affections of all who angle " at the bottom," while in
Europe some of them have a commercial value as food-fishes. In
India at least one member of the family, the mahseer, takes rank
with the salmon as a " big game " fish.
Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream. — The family as represented in
England may be roughly divided into two groups, those which
feed on the bottom purely and those which occasionally take flies.
The first consists of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these
carp, tench and bream are cither river or pool fish, while the
barbel is found only in rivers, principally in the Thames and
Tren t The carp grows to a great size, 20 lb being not unknown ;
tench are big at 5 lb; barbel have been caught up to 14 lb or
rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 lb, while a fish of
over xi lb is on record. All these fish are capricious feeders,
carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some
waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and
the angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport
needs both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not
quite so difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great
quantities, and the other is generally to be enticed by the man
who knows how to set about it. Two main principles have to be
observed in attacking all these fish, ground-baiting and early
rising. Ground-baiting consists in casting food into the water so
as to attract the fish to a certain spot and to induce them to feed.
Without it very little can be done with shy and large fish of these
species. Early rising is necessary because they only feed freely,
as a rule, from daybreak till about three hours after sun-rise. The
heat of a summer or early autumn day makes them sluggish, but
an hour or two in the evening is sometimes remunerative. The
bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom, and it consists
mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of various kinds;
and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits such as
small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of
banana, &c None of these fish feed well in winter.
Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub.— The next group of Cyprinidae
consists of fish which will take a bait similar to those already
mentioned and also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary
angler's aspirations are roach about 2 lb, rudd about a| lb,
dace about 1 lb and chub about 5* lb. There are instances
of individuals heavier than this, one or two roach and many
rudd of over 3 lb being on record, while dace have been
caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb are not
unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather
when they are near the surface, or early in the season when they
are on the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the
summer. Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species,
but chub often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called
" palmers," which represent caterpillars, are generally used for
them. The fly may be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and
there 18 little to choose between the methods as regards effective-
ness. Fly-fishing for these fish is a branch of angling which might
be more practised than it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute
for trout fishing. Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and
give good sport all the winter.
Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, brc— The small fry of European
waters, gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead,
are principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-
named species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a
succulent dish. Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon
and minnows, a maggot or small fly for bleak, and the rest are
most easily caught in a small-meshed net The loach is used
principally in Ireland as a trout bait, and the other two are of
small account as hook-baits, though sticklebacks are a valuable
form of food for trout in lakes and pools.
Mahseer.— Among the carps of India, several of which give
good sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer
(Bar bus mosal), a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and
strength. It reaches a weight of 60 lb and sometimes more
and is fished for in much the same manner as salmon, with the
3°
ANGLING
difference that after about 10 lb it takes a spinning-bait, usually
a heavy spoon-bait, better, than a fly.
Cat-fish. — None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no
example is found in England) are what may be called sporting
fish, but several may be caught with rod and line. There are
several kinds in North America, and some of them are as heavy
as 150 lb, but the most important is the wels (Silurus giants)
of the Danube and neighbouring waters. This is the largest
European fresh-water fish, and it is credited with a weight of
300 lb or more. It is a bottom feeder and will take a fish-bait
either alive or dead; it is said occasionally to run at a spinning
bait when used very deep.
Burbot. — The burbot {Lota vulgaris) is the only fresh-water
member of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only
in a few slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often,
probably because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only
at night. It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most
flesh or fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has
similar characteristics.
Sturgeon. — The sturgeons, of which there are a good many
species in Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They
are anadromous fishes of which little more can be said than that
a specimen might take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia
they arc sometimes caught on long lines armed with baited hooks,
and occasionally an angler hooks one. Such a case was reported
from California in The Field of the 19th of August 1905.
Shad. — Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first
is the shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, alike and
twaite (Clupea alosa and C. finta), ascend one or two British
and several continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the
more common, and in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes
gives very fair sport to anglers, taking worm and occasionally
fly or small spinning bait. It is a good fighter, and reaches a
weight of about 3 lb. Its sheen when first caught is particularly
beautiful America also has its shads.
Flounder. — The other is the flounder (Plewonecies ficsus), the
only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long
way up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and
it will take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder
of 1 lb is, in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are some-
times caught.
Eel. — The eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is regarded by the angler
more as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable
sue (and it often reaches a weight of S lb or more) it is a splendid
fighter and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life
history has long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it
breeds in the sea and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found
practically everywhere, and its occurrence in isolated ponds to
which it has never been introduced by human agency has given
rise to a theory that it travels overland as well as by water. The
best baits for eels are worms and small fish, and the best time
to use them is at night or in thundery or very wet weaftfcer.
Sea Angling.
Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of
tackle and method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences
are differences of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain
extent sea angling may also be divided into three classes— fishing
on the surface with the fly, at mid- water with spinning or other
bait, and on the bottom; but the first method is only practicable
at certain times and in certain places, and the others, from the
great depths that often have to be sounded and the heavy
weights that have to be used in searching them, necessitate
shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and stronger tackle than
fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the sea-fisherman
is liable to come into conflict with very large fish occasionally.
In British waters the monster usually takes the form of a skate
or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has been
landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching
fish of this calibre.
Great Came Fishes.— There are several giants of the sea which I
arc regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them
being the tarpon (Tarpon ollantkus) and the tuna or tunny
(Thunnus thynnus), which have been taken on rod and line
up to 223 lb and 251 lb respectively. Jew-fish and black
sea-bass of over 400 lb have been taken on rod and line, and
there are many other fine sporting fish of large size which give
the angler exciting hours on the reefs of Florida, or the coasts
of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically all of them are taken
with a fish-bait cither live or dead, and used stationary on the
bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.
British Game Fishes. — On a much smaller scale are the fishes
most esteemed in British waters. The bass (Labrax lupus)
heads the list as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A
fish of 10 lb is a large one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken.
Small or " school " bass up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes
be caught with the fly (generally a roughly constructed thing
with big wings), and when they are really taking the sport is
magnificent. In some few localities it is possible to cast for
them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is required.
In other places bass may be caught from the shore with fish bait
used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again
sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few
methods and few lures employed in sea angling which will not
account for them at times. The pollack (Gadus pottochius)
and coal -fish (Gadus virens) come next in esteem. Both in some
places reach a weight of 20 lb or more, and both when young
will take a fly. Usually, however, the best sport is obtained
by trailing some spinning-bait, such as an artificial or natural
sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and especially for pollack,
the bait must be kept near the bottom and heavy weights on the
line arc necessary; the coal-fish are more prone to come to the
surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (Mugil eapito) is
a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely difficult
to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet is
more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be
caught close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom,
and as a rule vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or rag-
worms are found to answer best. Usually ground-baiting is
necessary, and the finer the tackle used the grea*tef is the chance
of sport. Not a few anglers fish with a float as if for river fish.
The fish runs up to about 8 lb in weight. The cod (Gadus
morhua) grows larger and fights less gamely than any of the fish.
already mentioned. It is generally caught with bait used on
the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young cod,
give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel
(Scomber scomber) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip
of fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but
it will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle
are game fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb.
Whiting and whiting-pout (Gadus merlangus and Gadus luseus)
both feed on or near the bottom, do not grow to any great ske, and
are best sought with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three
or four hooks at intervals above a lead which is called a " pater-
noster." If one or more of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle
will do for different kinds of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs
being the two species most often caught by anglers. The bream
(Pagcllus centrodonlus) is another bottom-feeder which resembles
the fresh-water bream both in appearance and habits. It is
an early morning or rather a nocturnal fish, and grows to a weight
of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed in mid-water or even
close to the surface. The conger eel (Conger vulgaris) is another
night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as it grows to a great size,
and is very powerful. Strong tackle is essential for conger
fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the darkness cannot be
given any law. The bait must be on or near the bottom. There
are, of course, many other fish which come to the angler's rod
at times, but the list given is fairly complete as representing the
species which are especially sought. Beside them are occasional
(in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish and sharks,
skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and give
ANGLING— ANGLO-NORMAN
3i
plenty of sport on & rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed.
Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidac,
smelts (Osmcrus eperlanus), sea-trout, occasionally brown trout,
and still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water
cither in sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best
fished for with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with frag-
ments of shrimp, ragworm, and other delicacies.
Modern Authorities and Reference Books. — History and
Literature-. Prof. A. N. Mayer, Sport with Gun and Rod (New York
and Edinburgh), with a chapter on " The Primitive Fish-Hook/' by
Barnet Phillips; Dr R. Munro» Lake Dwellings of Europe (London,
1&90), with many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-hooks,
&c-: H. Cholmondeley Penncll and others, Fishing Gossip (Edin-
burgh, 1866), contains a paper on " Fishingand Fish-Hooles of the
Eiitest Date," by Jonathan Conch; C. D. Badham, Prose
HalumHcs (London, 1851), full of curious lore, relating, however,
more to tchthyophagy than angling; The Angler's Note-Book and
Naturaiisfs Record (London, 1st series -°°- — J — *~ - 00 8),
edited by T. Satchel), the two volumes sic
matter on angling history, literature, am ty.
Anting Literature (London, 1856), inacc id,
but containing a good deal of curious mi se-
wbere; O. Lambert, Angling Literature it 1),
a good little general survey; J. J. M 'ng
(London, 1881), with chapters on fishi B.
Marston. Walton and Some Earlier Wr ng
(London and New York, 1894); Piscatory** owmj * '«£*'<> )«»>• *•
London. 1890), contains a paper on " The Useful and Fine Arts in
their Relation to Fish and Fishing,** by S. C. Harding; Super
Flumista (Anon. ; London, 1904), gives passim useful information on
ksiiiog literature; T. West wood and T. Satchell, BMtotheca
Piscatoria (London, 1 883) an admirable bibliography of the sport:
together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston, 1901, it
aav be considered wonderfully complete.
Methods and Practice. — General Fresh-water Fishing : F. Francis,
A Book on Anglint (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound
test-book, particularly good on salmon fishing ; H. C. Pennell and
orhera, Fishing — Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish (Bad-
minton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickcrdyke, The
Book of the All-Round Angler (London, 1900) ; Horace G. Hutchinson
and others. Fishing (Country Life Series, 2 vols., London, 1904),
contains useful ichtnyological notes by G. A. Boulengcr, a chapter
00 " The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr J. Kingston
Barton, and a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of
Norway, by C. E. Raddyfle.
Salmon and Trout.— Major J. P. Traherne, The Habits of the
Salmon (London, 1889); G. M. Kelson, The Salmon Fly (London,
1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flics; A. E.
Gathome Hardy. The Salmon (" Fur. Feather and Fin Scries,"
London, 1898) ; Sir H. Maxwell, Bt., Salmon and Sea Trout (Angler's
Library, London, 1898); Sir E. Grey, Bt., Fly Fishing (Haddon
Hall Library, London and New York, 1899) ; W. Earl Hodgson,
Salmon Fishing (London, 1906), contains a scries of coloured plates
of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, The Trout (" Fur, Feather and
Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing: W. C. Stewart,
The Practical A ngler (London, 1905), a new edition of an old but
still valuable work; E. M. Tod, Wet Fly Fishing (London, 1903);
W. Earl Hodgson, Trout Fishing (London, 1905), contains a series
of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly Fbhing:
F. M. Halford, Dry-Fly Fishing 4* Theory and Practice (London,
1002), the standard work on the subject; G. A. B. Dewar, The
Book of the Dry Fty (London, 1807). Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The
"" " " " " 188) ; H. A. Rolt, Grayling Fishing in
South Country Streams (London, 1905).
" ""' * — ••—•■ Coarse Fish (Angler's Library,
Booh of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888]
lowth Country Streams (London, 1
Coarse Fish,-C. H. Wbeeley, __
London, 1897); J. W. Martin, Practical Fishing (London); Floe
fishing and Spinning (London, 1885); W. Senior and others, Pii..
and Perth (" Fur. Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A. J.
fardine, Pike and Perch (Angler's Library, London, 1898) ; H. C.
enncll, The Book of the Pike (London. 1884); GrevUle Fennell,
The Booh of the Roach (London, 1884).
Sets Fishings—]. C. Wilcocks, The Sea Fisherman (London,
>4&4); John Bickerdyke (and others), Sea Fishing (Badminton
Library, London. 1895) ; Practical Letters to Sea Fishers (London,
1902); F. G. Aflalo, Sea Fish (Angler's Library, London, 1897);
P. L. Haslopc, Practical Sea Fishing (London, 1905).
Tackle, Flies, Gfc.—H. C. PenncU, Modern Improvements in
Fishing Tackle (London, 1887); H. P. Wells, Fly Rods and Fly
Tactic (New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, The Fly* Fisher s
Entomology (London, 1883); F. M. Halford, Dry Fly Entomology
(London, 1902) ; Floating Flies and How to Dress, them (London,
i*S*>); T. E. Pritt, North Country Plies (London, 1886); H. G.
M'ClrRand. Horn to tie Flies for Trout and Grayling (London. 1905) ;
C apt. J. H. Hale. How to tu Salmon Flies (London, 1892); F. G.
Aflalo, lobn Bickerdyke and C. H. Whcelcy, How to buy Fishing
Tickle (London).
Ichthyology, Fisheries. Fish- Culture, &c— Dr Francis Day, Fishes
ef Great Britain and Ireland (* vols., London. 1889); British and
Irish Salmonidt
tion to the Stud)
to the Study of
Francis, Prodi
Culture (Londo
1902); J. J. A
F. Mather, M
Stone, Domestic
Angling Gu\
Britain: The j
most importan. ..
.Introduc-
n, A Guide
1905); F-
»3); Fish
t (London,
cs, 1902);
ivingstone
to—Great
ion about
me foreign
waters, published annually ; The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide
to Scotland (London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, published
twice a year; Augustus Grimble, The Salmon Risers of Scotland
(London, 1900, 4 vols.) ; The Salmon Rivers of Ireland (London,
1003); The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and Wales
(London, 1004, 2 vols.), this fine series-gives minute information as
to salmon pools, flics, seasons, history, catches, &c. ; W. M. Gallichan,
Fishing in Wales (London, 1903) ; Fishing in Derbyshire (London,
1905) ; J- Watson, English Lake District Fisheries (London, 1899) ;
C. Wade, Exmoor Streams (London, 1903): G. A. B. Dew " "
~" " " ; Hi Regan," j._
E. S. Shrubsole, The Land
How and
Country Trout Streams (London, - ,
Where to Fish in Ireland (London, 1900) ;
of Lakes (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in County Donegal).
Europe: " Palmer Hackle, Hints on Angling (London, 1846).
contains " suggestions for angling excursions in France and Bel-
gium," but they are too old to be of much service; W. M. Gallichan.
Fishing and Travel in Spain (London, 190O ; G. W. Hartley, Wild
Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod (Edinburgh, 1903), contains
a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, Wegweiser fur
Angler durch Deutsehland, Oesterreich und die Schweis (Berlin, 1877),
a book of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though
out of date in many particulars; Illustrierte Angler-Schule {der
deutschen Fischerei Zeitung), Stettin, contains good chapters on the
wels and huchen; H. Storck. Der Angelstwrt (Munich, 1898),
contains a certain amount of geographical information; E. B.
Kennedy, Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia (London, 1904), contains
useful information about fishing; General E. F. Burton, Trouting
in Norway (London, 1807) ; Abel Chapman, Wild Norway (London,
1897); F. Sandcman, Angling Travels in Norway (London. 1895).
Ar— •-- - - .,_...__ l,_ „,_.„ ^ fj niud States (New
Y< erch and Pickerel (New
Y< and Trout (New York.
19 Eastern Canada (Quebec,
18 tr in Florida (London,
18 Florida (London, 1902).
In London, 1897); "Skene
Dl , contains a chapter on
th Teylon. New Zealand:
W (London. 1894); Capt.
Hi and (Wellington, 1905),
co 1.
tok of the Fishery Laws
(e C. M'Barnet, London,
1903).
ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the
British people in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the
United States, are the racial descendants of the " ten tribes "
forming the kingdom of Israel, large numbers of whom were
deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall of Samaria in
721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book called
Philo-Israet) rests on premises which are deemed by scholars —
both theological and anthropological — to be utterly unsound.
ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE.— The French language (q.v.)
came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the
whole of the 12th century it shared with Latin the distinction of
being the literary language of England, and it was in use at the
court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of Henry
IV. that English became the native tongue of the kings of
England. After the loss of the French provinces, schools for the
teaching of French were established in England, among the most
celebrated of which wc may quote that of Marlborough.
The language then underwent certain changes which gradually
distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but, except
for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of
pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the
language was subjected were the individual modifications of
the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-
Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so
called, gradually ceased to exist The prestige enjoyed by the
French language, which, in the 14th century, the author of the
lianibre de language calls " le plus bel et 1c plus gracious language
32
ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE
et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde et
de touz genz mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre (quar Dieux
le fist si douce et amiable prindpalement a l'oneur et loenge de
luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels
du del, pour la grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such
that it was not tUI 1363 that the chancellor opened the parlia-
mentary session with an English speech. And although the
Hundred Years' War led to a decline in the study of French
and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman literature, the French
language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical
language of the courts of justice until the 17th century. It is
still the language of the Channel Islands, though there too it
tends more and more to give way before the advance of
English.
It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period
of Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12 th
century to the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of
this period is generally said to coindde with the loss of the
French provinces to Philip Augustus, but literary and political
history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the
first period would be more accurately denoted by the appearance
of the history of William the Marshal in 1225 (published for the
Socitti de Vhistoire de France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1001 ).
It owes its brilliancy largely to the protection accorded by Henry
II. of England to the men of letters of his day. " He could speak
French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of
every tongue between 'the Bay of Biscay and the Jordan.' He
was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his day, and
amid all his busy active life be never lost his interest in literature
and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty, they
always had either a bow or a book " (Diet, of Nat. Biog.). Wace
and Benolt de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding,
and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems.
An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of
Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of
which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the
works of Beroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the
most celebrated of the Anglo-Norman romans d'avcnlure. It is
important to keep this fact in mind when studying the different
works which Anglo-Norman literature has left us. We will
examine these works briefly, grouping them into narrative,
didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic literature.
Narrative Literature: (a) Epic and Romance. — The French
epic came over to England at an early date. We know that the
Chanson de Roland was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we
possess Anglo-Norman MSS. of a tew chansons de teste. The
Pelerinagede Charlemagne (Koschwitz, AltfranzOsische Bibliotheh,
1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman
manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the
author was certainly a Parisian. The oldest manuscript of the
Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written
in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may
mention La Chancun de Willome, the MS. of which has (June
1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer,
Romania, xxxii. 597-6x8). Although the diffusion of epic poetry
in England did not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it
developed the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style
in which the tales of Horn, of Bovon de Hampton, of Guy 0/
Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished), and of
Fuik Fits Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to this
drcumstance. Although the last of these works has come down
to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a
previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a render-
ing into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many
of the chansons de teste (cf. L. Brandin, Introduction la Fulk Fitt
Warine, London, 1904).
The interinfluencc of French and English literature can be
studied in the Breton romances and the romans d'avcnlure even
better than in the epic poetry of the period. The Lay oj Orpheus
is known to us only through an English imitation; the Lai du
cor was composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of
the 1 2th century (Wuiff, Lund, 1888). The his of Marie de
France were written in England, and the greater number of the
romances composing the matiere de Bretagne seem to have passed
from England to France through the medium of Anglo-Norman.
The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the Historia Regum
Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth (fix 54), passed into French
literature, bearing the character which the bishop of St Asaph
had stamped upon them. Chrttien de Troye's Perceval (c. 1 1 75)
is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron
(c. 1 21 5) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris
and J. Ulrich, z886, a vols., SocUU des Ancient Textes) from
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend
of the middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inventions of
world-literature, the story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two
authors, Beroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and
the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see Arthurian ^ecend;
Grail, The Holy; Tristan). One Folic Tristan was composed
in England in the last years of the Z2th century. (For all these
questions see Soc. des Anc. Textes, Muret's ed. 1903; Bedier's
ed. 1902-1905). Less fasdnating than the story of Tristan
and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two
romans d'avcnlure of Hugh of Rutland, Ipomedon (published by
Kolbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and Protesilaus (still
unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adven-
tures of a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria,
niece of King Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the
king's wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and
deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between
Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Prote-
silaus, the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus,
who had expelled him from Calabria. He saves his brother's
life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria, and, after the
death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries
Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize
Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his
younger son (d. Ward, Cat. of Ram., I 728). To these two
romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Amadas et Idoine, of
which we only possess a continental version, is to be added.
Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed
in England in the iath century (An English Miscellany presented
to Dr FurnivaU in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, Oxford,
1 00 1, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of Richard
Cetur de Lion is lost, and an English version only has been pre-
served. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into England
the roman d % Alexandre in his Roman de toute chevalerie, many
passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English
poems on Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer,
Alexandre le grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, Metrical
Romances, Edinburgh).
(b) PabUaux, Fables and Religious Tales.— In spite of the
incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we
have only some half-dozen fableaux written in England, viz. Le
chevalier a la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler Us muets, La
chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Let trots dames, La gageure, La
prttre d % Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orlians (B6dicr, Lts Fabliaux,
2895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the
middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she
claimed to have translated from King Alfred. In the Conies
moralises, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (Soc. Anc.
Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to those of
Marie de France.
The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and
have been handed down tons in three collections:
(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated
from William of Malmesbury (t"43?) by Adgar in the xath
century (" Adgar's Marien-Legendcn," Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A.
Herbert, Rom. xxxii. 394).
(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St Edmund
at Bury, who wrote e. 1250 three Mary Legends (Rom xxix. 27).
(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed
c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have
been published in Suchier's BiMiotheca Normannica; in the
Altf. BiU. See also Muasafia, " Studien zu den mittelalterlichen
ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE
33
Marien-letenden" in Sitamngsb. der Wien. Akadomk (L cxiiL,
cxv., cxix., cxxiii., cxxix.).
Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in
Chardri's5* dormans and Josaphat, c xsx6 (Koch, Alt jr. Bibl.,
1880; G. Paris, Points et Uganda dm moyen Age).
(<) History.— Oi far greater importance, however, are the
works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The
first Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who
wrote his Estorie da Angles (between 1x47 assA "5 1 ) ^ Dmmt
Constance, wife of Robert FitsvGiskbert (The Anglo-Neman
Metrical Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i.ii., London, 18S8). This
history comprised a first part (now lost), which was merely a
translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historic regmmBritonnioe,
preced e d by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part
which carries us as far as the death of William Rufus. For this
second part he has consulted historical documents, but he stops
at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about
which he might have been able to give us some first-hand infor-
mation. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Rem el da dues de
Normamiie (ed. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1870, 2 vols.), written
1 160-1 1 74, stops at the battle of Tincbebray in x 107 just before
the period for which he would have, been so useful. His Brut
or Casta das Bretons (Le Rous de Limy, 1 836-1838, 2 vols.),
written in z 155, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth.
** Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Reman de Rem,
M traduit en les abregeant des historiens latins que nous posses-
ions; xnais ca et li il ajoute soit des conies populaires, par
excmple sur Richard !•', sur Robert I**, soit des particularites
qu'tl amvait par tradition (sur ce meme Robert le magnifique,
sur rcxp£dition de Guillaume, Ac.) et qui donnent a son ceuvre
«n reel inttret bistorique. Sa langue est exceUente; son style
emir, serto, simple, d'otdinaire assez monotone, vous plait par sa
saveur archalque et quelquefois par une certatne grace et unc
certaioe malice."
The History of the Dukes of Normandy by Benott de Sainte-
More is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the
request of Henry II. about 1x70, and takes us as far as the year
1 135 (ed. by Francisque Michel, 1 836-1844, Collection de docu-
ments imidits, 3 vols.). The 43,000 lines which it contains are of
but little interest to the historian; they are too evidently the
work of a romancier comrtois, who takes pleasure in recounting
bve-adventures such as those he has described in his romance
of Troy. Other work*, however, give us more trustworthy
information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry II. 's
Conqucstef Ireland in x X72 (ed. Francisque Michel, London, 1837),
which, together with the Expugnatio hibernica of Giraud de
Barri, constitutes our chief authority on this subject. The
Conquest of Ireland was republished in 189a by Goddard Henry
Orpen, under the title of The Song of Dcrmot and the Earl (Oxford,
Clarendon Press). Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in
the north of England in 1x74, wrote an account of the wars
between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of Scotland and
Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (Chronicle of the reigns of Stephen
. . . HI., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel, London, 1886,
pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to be com-
pared in value with The History of William the Marshal, Count of
StriguU and Pembroke, regent of England from 1216-1210, which
was found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (SociSli de
fhistoire fie Prance, 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of
historiography was composed in 1225 or x 226 by a professional
poet of talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It
was compiled from the notes of the marshal's squire, John d'Early
(t 1230 or x*3t), who shared all the vicissitudes of his master's
life nxid was one of the executors of his will. This work is of great
value for the history of the period 11 86-1 2 19, as the informa-
tion furnished by John d'Early is either personal or obtained at
first hand. In the part which deals with the period before x 186,
it is true, there are various mists rn, due to the author's
ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes
arc amply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The
style is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions
abort and picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most
living pictures of medieval society. Very pale by the side of
this work appear the Chroniqme of Peter of Langtof t, written
between 13x1 and 13309 and mainly of interest for the period
x 204-1307 (ed. by T. Wright, London, 1 866-1 868); the Chron-
iqme of Nicholas Trevet (ias8?-x328?), dedicated to Princess
Mary, daughter of Edward I. (jDuffus Hardy, Doer. Catal. III.,
340-350); the Scala Chronica compiled by Thomas Gray of
Heaton (f c. 1360), which carries us to the year 1362-1363 (ed.
by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the Black
Prince, a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and
relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by
Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the
different versions of the Brutes, the form and historical import*
ance of which have been indicated by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la
SociiU des Anciens Texta, 1878, pp. 104-145). V>d by F. W. D.
Brie (Geschichta und QueUcn der mittelenglischen Prosachronih,
The Brute of England or The Chronicles of England, Marburg,
xoos).
Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of
Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century),
who gave also the Secret des Secrets, a translation from a work
wrongly attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next
division (Rom. xxiii. 314).
Didactic Literature.— This is the most considerable, if not the
most interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it com-
prises a large number of works written chiefly with the object
of giving both religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman
lords and ladies. The following list gives the most important
productions arranged in chronological order: —
Philippe de Thaun, Com put, c. 11 19 (edited by E. Mall,
Strassburg, 1873), poem on the calendar; Bestioire, c. 11 30
(ed. by E. Walberg, Paris, xooo; cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxL 175);
Lois de Guillaume le Conqueront (redaction between 1x50 and
X170, ed. by J. E. Matake, Paris, 1809); Oxford Psalter, c. 1150
(Fr. Michel, Libri Psalmorum tersio antiqua tallica, Oxford,
i860); Cambridge Psalter, c. xx6p (Fr. Michel, Le Lime des
Psaumes, Paris, 1877); London Psalter, same as Oxford Psalter
(cf. Beyer, It. f. rem. Phil. xL 5U-534; xii. 1-56); Disticha
Catonis, translated by Everard de Kirkhamand Elie de Winchester
(Stengel, Ausg. u. Abhandlungen) ; Le Roman de fortune, summary
of Bocthts' Deconsolatione philosophiae, by Simon de Fresne (Hist,
lit. xxviii. 408); Quatre lives des rois, translated into French in
the lath century, and imitated in England soon after (P.
Schlosser, Die Lauteerhdltnisse der quatre litres da rois, Bonn,
1886; Romania, xvii. 124); Donnei da Amam, the conversation
of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the poet, of a
purely didactic character, in which are included three interesting
pieces, the first being an episode of the story of Tristram, the
second a fable, L'homme et le serpent, the third a tale, L'homme
et Voiseau, which is the basis of the celebrated Lai de Voisolet
(Rom. xxv. 497); Atfsw &** Sibiks (xxoo); Enscignements
Trebor, by Robert de Ho (-H00, Kent, on the left bank of the
Medway) [edited by Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101;
cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxii. 14O; Lapidaire de Cambridge (Pannier,
Les Lopidoira franeoisY, Frere Angier de Ste. Frideswide, Dia-
logues, soth of November xsxs (Rom. xii. 145-208, and xxix.;
M. K. Pope, £tnde sur la langue de Frbre Angler, Paris, 1903);
Li dialoge Grigoire le pope, ed. by Foerster, 1876; Petit Plet, by
Chardri, c. 12x6 (Koch, Altfr Bibliothek, L,and Mussafia, Z.f. r.P.
iii. $9»); Rente phUosopha, c. 1225 (Rom. xv. 356; xxix. 72);
Histoke de Marie et de J isms (Rom. xvi. 248-262); Poeme sur
VAncien Testament (Not. et Extr. xxxiv. 1, sxo; Sec. Anc.
Testes, 1889, 73-74); Le Corset and Le Miroir, by Robert de
Gretham (Rom. vii. 343; xv* 296); Lumiero as Lais, by Pierre
de Pcckham, c 1250 (Rom. xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman redaction
of Image du monde, e. 1250 (Rom. xxi. 481); two Anglo-Norman
versions of Quatre sours (Justice, Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th
century (ed. by Fr. Michel, Psautierd'Oxford, pp. 364-368, Bulletin
Sac. Am. Testa, 1886, 57; Romania, xv. 352); another Comput
by Rauf de Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer, Archives da missions,
2nd series iv. 154 and 160-164; Rom. xv. 285); Le chastd
d'omors, by Robert Grosscteste or Greathead, ^bishop "'
3+
ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE
Lincoln (11253) fed. by Cooke, Carmine Anglo-Normannica,
1853, Caxton Society] ; Pocme sur I* amour de Dieu et sur la koine
du picki, 13th century, second part (Rom. xxix. 5); Le manage
des neuf titles du diable {Rom. xxix. 54); Ditie d'Urbain, attri-
buted without any foundation to Henry I. (P. Meyer, Bulletin'
Soc. Anc. Textes, 1880, p. 73 and Romania xxxii, 68); Dialogue
de Tetique Saint Jul ten el son disciple (Rom. xxix. 21) ; Poeme sur
V antichrist et lejugement dernier, by Henri d'Arci (Rom. xxix. 78;
Not. et. Extr. 35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington produced at
the end of the 13th century his Manuel des ptchis, which was
adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his Handlying Sinne
(1303) [Hist. lit. xxviii. 170-207; Rom. xxix. 5, 47-531 1 ** c
FiXTTUvaM, Robert of Brunne 1 s Handlying 5yfi*t (Roxb.Club, 1862) ;
in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon's Contes moralists (see
above); Traitt de naturesse (Rom. xiii. 508); Sermons in verse
(P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.); Proterbes de bon enseignement (op. cil.
xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of
French. Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a treatise
A Madame Dyonise de Mounleehensi pur a prise de Vintage
(Wright, A Volume of Vocabularies', P. Meyer, Rec. a" anc. textes,
p. 360 and Romania xxxii, 22); Orthographia gallica (Stursinger,
AH jr. Bibl. 1884); La maniire de language, written in 1396
(P. Meyer, Rev. crit. d'hisl. et de lilt. nos. compl. de 1870); Un
petit litre pour enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun
jrancois, c. 1309 (Stengel, Z. fUr n. f. Spr. u. Lilt. i. 1 1). The im-
portant Mirour deVomme, by John Gower, contains about 30,000
Ones written in very good French at the end of the 14th century
(Macaulay, The Complete Works of John Cower, i., Oxford, 1809).
Hagiography. — Among the numerous lives of saints written
in Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following,
the list of which is given in chronological order:— Voyage de Saint
Brandon (or Brandain), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for
Queen Aelis of Louvaln (Rom. St. i. 553-5*8; Z. f. r. P. ii. 438-
459; Rom. xviii. 203. C. Wahlund, Die alt jr. ProsaUbersetz.
von Brendan* s Meerfakrt, Upsala, 1001); life of St Catherine by
Clemence of Barking (Rom. xiii. 400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St
Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de Berneville (Soc. Anc. Textes fr.,
1881 ; Rom. xi. and xxiii. 94); life of St Nicholas, life of Our Lady,
by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel, Cod. Digby, 66); Uhlemann,
Cram. Krit. Sludien %u Waee's Conception und N kolas, 1878;
life of St George by Simon de Fresne (Rom. x. 319; J. E. Matzkc,
Public, of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of Amcr. xvii. 1902; Rom. xxxiv.
148) ; Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice, by Marie de France (Jenkins,
1894; Eckleben, Aelleste Schilderung torn Fegefeuer d. H.
PatrUius, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906); La tie de St Edmund
le Rei, by Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (Memorials of
St Edmund's Abbey, edited by T. Arnold, ii. 1892; Rom. xxii.
170); Henri d'Arci's life of St Thais, poem on the Antichrist,
Visio S. Pauli (P. Meyer, Not. el Extr. xxxv. 137-158); life of
St Gregory the Great by Frerc Angicr, 30th of April 1214 (Rom.
viii. 509-544; ix. 176; xviii. 201); life of St Modwenna, between
1225 and 1250 (Suchier, Die dem MaUhttus Paris sugeschriebene
Vie de St Auban, 1873, pp. 54-58); Fragments of a life of St
Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer, Soc. Anc. Text.fr., 1885);
and another life of the same by Bcnott of St Alban, 13th century
(Michel, Chron. des dues de Normandie; Hist. Lit. xxiii. 383);
a life of Edward the Confessor, written before 1245 (Luard,
Lttes of Edward the Confessor, 1858; Hist. Lit. xxvri. 1), by an
anonymous monk of Westminster; life of St Auban, c. 1250
(Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann, " Cber die vie de St Auban in Bezug
auf Quelle," ftc. Rom. St. iv. 543-626; ed. by Atkinson, 1876).
The Vision of Tnudgal, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is preserved
in MS. 312, Trinity College, Dublin; the MS. is of the 14th
century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (La vision
da Tondale, ed. by Friedcl and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this
category we may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century
(Hist. Lit. xxiii. 436; Child, The Englisk and Scottish Popular
Ballads, 1888, p. v; Wolter, Bibl. Anglo-Norm. ii. 115). Other
lives of saints were recognised to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer
when examining the MSS. of the Welbeck library (Rom. xxxii.
637 and Hist. Lit. xxxiii. 338-378).
Lyric Poetry.— -The only extant songs of any importance axe
the seventy-one Ballads of Gower (Stengel, Cower' s Minnesong,
1886). The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character.
Most of them have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer
(Bulletin de la Soc. Anc. Testes, 1889; Not. et Extr. xxxiv;
Rom. xiii. 5x8, t. xiv. 370; xv. p. 254, &c). Although so few
have come down to us such songs must have been numerous
at one time, owing to the constant intercourse between English,
French and Provencals of all classes. An interesting passage in
Piers Plowman furnishes us with a proof of the extent to which
these songs penetrated into England. We read of :
"... dykera and deluers that doth here dedes iHe,
And dryuen forth the longe day with ' Deu, vous sane,
Dame Emmel ' " (Prologue, 223 f.)
One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry
written in the end of the 13th century, is the Plainle d' amour
(Vising, Goteborg, 1005; Romania xiii, 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4)1
and we may mention, merely as literary curiosities, various
works of a lyrical character written in two languages, Latin and
French, or English and French, or even in three languages,
Latin, English and French. In Early English Lyrics (Oxford,
1007) we have a poem in which a, lover sends to his mistress a
love-greeting composed in three languages, and his learned
friend replies in the same style (De amico ad omkom, Responcio,
viii and ix).
Satire.— The popularity enjoyed by the Roman de Renart
and the Anglo-Norman version of the Riote du Monde (Z.f. rom.
Pkil. viii. 275-289) in England is proof enough that the French
spirit of satire was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the fair
sex presented the most attractive target for the shots of the
satirists. However, an Englishman raised his voice in favour
of the ladies in a poem entitled La Bonti des dames (Meyer, Rom.
xv- 3i5*339)> And Nicole Boson, after having represented
" Pride " as a feminine being whom he supposes to be the
daughter of Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked the
women of his day in the Char d*Orgueil (Rom. xiii. 5x6), also
composed a BounU des femmes (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which
he covers them with praise, commending their courtesy, their
humility, their openness and the care with which they bring up
their children. A few pieces of political satire show us French and
English exchanging amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The
Roman des Francais, by Andr£ de Coutances,was written on the
continent, and cannot be quoted as Anglo-Norman although
it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston Paris: Trots versions
rimtcs de VttangUe de Nicodeme, Soc. Anc. Textes, 1885) ,it is a
veryspiritedreply to French authors who hadattacked the English.
Dramatic Literature.— This must have bad a considerable
influence on the development of the sacred drama in England,
but none of the French plays acted in England in the 12th and
13th centuries has been preserved. Adam, which is generally
considered to be an Anglo-Norman mystery of the 12 th century,
was probably written in France at the beginning of the 13th
century (Romania xxxii. 637), and the so-called Anglo-Norman
Resurrection belongs also to continental French. It is necessary
to state that the earliest English moralities seem (o have been
imitations of the French ones.
Bibliography. — Apart from the works already mentioned see
generally: Scheibner, " Obcr die Herrachaft der frt. Sprnche in
England "(Annaberg, Progr. der Koniglichen ReaUchuk, 1880, 38 (.} •
Groeber, Crundr. der romaniscken Pkilologie, ii. Hi. (Strassburg,
1902); G. Paris, La Litt.fr. au moyen Age (1905); Esquisse historique
de la lilt. fr. au moyen age (1907); La Lift. norm, atant V annexion
912-1204 (Paris. 1899); " L'Esprit normand en Angleterre/'X^ Poisie
Paris v 1906) ; Thomas ^Wright*
idon,
877.
au moyen Ate (and series 43-74, Paris. 1906); Thomas Wri
Bioeraphia britannica literarta (Anglo-Norman period, Lon«
1846); Ten Brink, Gesckichte der enghscken LilUratur (Berlin, t
i- 2); J- J- Juiserand, Hist. tiit. du peuple anglais (2nd ed. 1895,
vol. i.); W.H. Schoficld, English Literature from the Norman Con*
Quest to Chaucer (London, 1006); Johan Vising, Fransha SprAket i
England (Goteborg, 1900, 1901, 1902). (L. Ba.)
ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak trf ** the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle "; it would be more correct to say that
there are four Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all
grow out of a common stock, that in some even of their inter
entries two or more of them use common materials; but the same
ANGLO-SAXON LAW
35
may be said of several group* of medieval chronicles, which no one
dreams of treating as single chronicles, Of this f ou rf old Chronicle
there are seven MSS. in existence; C.C.C. Cant. 173 (A); CoU.
Tib. A vL (B); CoU. Tib. B i. (C); CoU. Tib. B iv. (D); Bodl.
Laud. Mist. 636 (Z) t Co4L Dentition A viii. (F); CoU. Otho B xi
(G). Of these G is now a mere fragment, and it is known to have
been a transcript of A. F is bilingual, the entries being given both
in Saxon and Latin. It is interesting as a stage in the transition
from the vernacular to the Latin chronicle; but it has little
independent value, being a mere epitome, made at Canterbury in
the 1 1 th or 1 2th century, of a chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it
goes (to 977), is identical with C, both having been copied from a
common original, but A, C, D, E have every right to be treated as
independen t chronicles. The relations between the four vary very
greatly in different parts, and the neglect of this consideration has
led to much error and confusion. The common stock, out of
which all grow, extends to 892. The presen t writer sees no reason
to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier local
chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated,
or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns;
while for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and
written, were utilized. Among the latter the chronological
epitome appended to Bede's Ecclesiastical History may be
specially mentioned. But even this common stock exists in two
different recensions, in A, B, C, on the one hand, and D, E on the
other. The main points of difference are that in D, E (1 ) a scries
of northern annals have been incorporated; (2) the Bede entries
arc taken, not from the brief epitome, but from the main body of
the Ecd. Hist. The inference is that, shortly after the compiling
cf this Alfredian chronicle, a copy of it was sent to some northern
monastery, probably Ripon, where it was expanded in the way
indicated. Copies of this northernized Chronicle afterwards found
their way to the south. The impulse given by Alfred was con-
tinued under Edward, and we have what may be called an official
continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C,D
extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a
separate document a short register of Mercian affairs during the
yme period (902-924), which might be called the acts of i£thel-
ilaed, the famous " Lady of the Mercians/' while D has incorpor-
ated it, not very skilfully, with the official continuation. Neither
of these documents exists in E. From 925 10975 all the chronicles
arc very fragmentary; a few obits, three or four poems, among
ihem the famous ballad on the battle of B run an burn, make up
the meagre talc of their common materials, which each has tried
to supplement* in its own way. A has inserted a number of
Winchester entries, which prove that A is a Winchester book.
And this local and scrappy character it retains to loox, where it
practically ends. At some subsequent time it was transferred
bodily to Canterbury, where it received numerous interpolations
H the earlier part, and a few later local entries which finally tail
off into the Latin acts of Lanfranc. A may therefore be dismissed.
C has added to the common stock one or two Abingdon entries,
with which place the history of C is closely connected ; while D and
E have a second group of northern annals 901-066, E being how-
ever much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or not having
access to, much both of the common and of the northern material
which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E arc practically
identical, and give a connected history of the Danish struggles
wider jEthclred II. This section was probably composed at
Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too
complicated to be expressed by any formula; sometimes all three
agree together, sometimes all three are independent; in other
places each pair m turn agree against the third. It may be noted
that C is strongly an ti-God win ist, while E is equally pro-Godwin ist,
D occupying an Intermediate position. C extends to 1066, where
it ends abruptly, and probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is
certainly mutilated. In its later history D is associated with some
place in the diocese of Worcester, probably Evesham. In its
present form D is a comparatively late MS., none of it probably
cuch earlier, and some of it later, than 1100. In the case of
entries in the earlier part of the chronicles, which are peculiar to
D. we cannot exclude the possibility that they may be late
interpolations. E is continued to 1 154. In its present form it is
unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is full of
Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later
entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only
the entries after x 121, where the first hand in the MS. ends, which
were actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1013-1067
certainly, and possibly also the section 1 068-11 a 1, was composed
at St Augustine's, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme
interest and value, the writer being in close contact with the
events which he describes. The later parts of E show a great
degeneration in language, and a querulous tone due to the
sufferings of the native population under the harsh Norman rule;
"but our debt to it is inestimable; and we can hardly measure
what the loss to English history would have been, if it had not
been written; or if, having been written, it had, like so many
another English chronicle, been lost."
Biblio ~~ ount is based on the introduction
in vol. u sr's edition of Two of th* Saxon
Chronicle ess, 189a, 1890I; to which the
student n I arguments. The editio prince ps
of the Ai by Abraham Wheloc, professor
of Arabic s work was printed (1643-1644).
It was b called G above, and is the chief
source of IS. which perished, all but three
leaves, In »j. Edmund Gibson of Queen's
College, i of London, published an edition
in 1692. 1, and E, with collations or tran-
scripts of nd Gibson give Latin translations.
In 1823 0r Ingram, of Trinity College,
Oxford, 1 n. Besides A, B, E, F, Ingram
used C ai — Jut both he and Gibson made the
fatal error of trying to combine the disparate materials contained
in the various chronicles in a single text. An improvement in this
respect is seen in the edition made by Richard Price (d. 1833) for the
first (and only) volume of Monumenta Historica Britanntca (folio
1848). There is still, however, too much conflation, and owing to the
plan of the volume, the edition only extends to 1066. A translation
is appended. In 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe's six-text edition
in the Rolls Scries. Though not free from defects, this edition is
absolutely indispensable for the study of the chronicles and the
mutual relations of the different MSS. A second volume contains
the translation. In 1863 the Clarendon Press published Two Saxon
Chronicles (A and £) Parallel, with supplementary extracts from the
others, by the Rev. John Earlc. This edition has no translation,
but in the notes and introduction a very considerable advance was
made. On this edition is partly based the later edition by the
Rev. C. Plummer, already cited above. In addition to the trans-
lations contained in the editions already mentioned, the following
have been issued separately. The first translation into modern
English was by Miss Anna Gurney, privately printed in 1819. This
was largely based on Gibson's edition, and was in turn the basis of
Dr Giles' translation, published in 1847, and often reprinted. The
best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson, in his series
of Church Historians of England ( 1 853). Up to the Conquest it is a
revision of the translation contained in Mon. Hist. Brit. From that
point it is an independent translation. (C. Pl.)
ANGLO-SAXON LAW. 1. The body of legal rules and
customs which obtained in England before the Norman conquest
constitutes, with the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine
expression of Teutonic legal thought While the so-called
"barbaric laws" (leges barbarorum) of the continent, not except-
ing those compiled in the territory now called Germany, were
largely the product of Roman influence, the continuity of Roman
life was almost completely broken in the island, and even the
Church, the direct heir of Roman tradition, did not carry on a
Continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a
Roman province in the same sense as Tours or Reims. One of
the striking expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the
language in which the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are
uniformly worded in English, while continental laws, apart from
the Scandinavian, are all in Latin. The English dialect in which
the Anglo-Saxon laws have been handed down tousisin most cases
a common speech derived from West Saxon— naturally enough
as Wessex became the predominant English state, and the court
of its kings the principal literary centre from which most of the
compilers and scribes derived their dialect and spelling. Traces
of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the Textut
ftotfensis, the MS. of the Kentish laws; and Northumbrian
dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions,
36
ANGLO-SAXON LAW
while Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the
conquest, Latin takes the place of English in the compilations
made to meet the demand for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still
applied in practice.
a. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the
manner of their publication. They would fail into three divisions :
(i) laws and collections of laws promulgated by public authority;
(3) statements of custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules
and enactments. To the first division belong the laws of the
Kentish kings, jEthelberht, Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed;
those of Ine of Wcssex, of Alfred, Edward the Elder, iEthelstan, 1
Edmund, Edgar, jEthelred and Canute; the treaty between
Alfred and Guthrum and the so-called treaty between Edward
and Guthrum. The second division is formed by the convention
between the English and the Welsh Dunsaetas, the law of the
Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the
fragments of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The
third division would consist of the collections of the so-called
Pseudo-leges Canuii, the laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I.,
and the great compilation of the Quadriparlitus, then of a number
of short notices and extracts like the fragments on the " wedding
of a wife," on oaths, on ordeals, on the king's peace, on rural
customs (Reetitudines singularum pcrsonarum), the treatises
on the reeve (gerefa) and on the judge (dema), formulae of oaths,
notions as to wcrgeld, &c. A fourth group might be made of the
charters* as they are based on Old English private and public
law and supply us with most important materials in regard to it.
Looking somewhat deeper at the sources from whieh.Old English
law was derived, we shall have to modify our classification to
some extent, as the external forms of publication, although
important from the point of view of historical criticism, are not
sufficient standards as to the juridical character of the various
kinds of material. Direct statements of law would fall under the
following heads, from the point of view of their legal origins:
i. customary rules followed by divers communities capable
of formulating law; ii. enactment* of authorities, especially
of kings; iii. private arrangements made under recognized
legal rules. The first would comprise, besides most of the state-
ments of custom included in the second division according to
the first classification, a great many of the rules entered in
collections promulgated by kings; most of the paragraphs of
iEtbelberht's, Hlothhere's, and Eadric's and Ine's laws, are
popular legal customs that have received the stamp of royal
authority by their insertion in official codes. On the other hand,
from Withraed's and Alfred's laws downwards, the element of
enactment by central authority becomes more and more
prominent. The kings endeavour, with the help of secular and
clerical witan, to introduce new rules and to break the power
of long-standing customs (e.g. the precepts about the keeping
of holidays, the enactments of Edmund restricting private
vengeance, and the solidarity of kindreds as to feuds, and the
like). There are, however, no outward signs enabling us to
distinguish conclusively between both categories of laws in the
codes, nor is it possible to draw a line between permanent laws
and personal ordinances of single sovereigns, as has been
attempted in the case of Frankish legislation.
3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at
our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in
the distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us
of primary importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books
are almost entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated
to the background. While it is impossible to give here anything
like a complete or exact survey of the field — a task rendered
almost impossible by the arbitrary manner in which paragraphs
are divided, by the difficulty of making Old English enactments
fit into modern rubrics, and by the necessity of counting several
times certain paragraphs bearing on different subjects— a brief
statistical analysis of the contents of royal codes and laws may
be found instructive.
We find roughly 4x9 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and
1 TheJudicia cmiaiis Lundoniae are a gild statute confirmed by
King iEthelstan.
procedure as against 91 concerned with questions of private
law and civil procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many
as 238 are taken up with tariffs of fines, while 80 treat of capital
and corporal punishment, outlawry and confiscation, and iox
include rules of procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses
apply to rights of property and possession, 13 to succession and
family law, 37 to contracts, including marriage when treated
as an act of sale; 18 touch on civil procedure. A subject which
attracted special attention was the law of status, and no less
than 107 paragraphs contain disposition dictated by the wish
to discriminate between the classes of society. Questions of
public law and administration are discussed in 2x7 clauses,
while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart from
purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it
is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that
are dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administra-
tion comes in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for
23 clauses. Police regulations are very much to the fore and
occupy no less than 72 clauses of the royal legislation. As to
church matters, the most prolific group is formed by general
precepts based on religious and moral considerations, roughly
1x5, while secular privileges conferred on the Church hold about
62, and questions of organization some 20 clauses.
The statistical contrasts are especially sharp and characteristic
when we take into account the chronological sequence in the
elaboration of laws. Practically the entire code of iEthelberht,
for instance, is a tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject
continues to occupy a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and
Eadric, Inc and Alfred, whereas it appears only occasionally
in the treaties with the Danes, the laws of Withraed, Edward
the Elder, iEthelstan, Edgar, Edmund and iEthelred. It re-
appears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the latter
is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The system
of " compositions " or fines, paid in many cases with the help
of kinsmen, finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period
of English history and loses its vitality later on in consequence
of the growth of central power and of the scattering of maegths.
Royalty and the Church, when they acquire the lead in social
life, work out a new penal system based on outlawry, death
penalties and corporal punishments, which make their first
appearance in the legislation of Withraed and culminate in that
of iEthelred and Canute.
As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into
the period preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties
with the Danes, the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the
lines of an opposition between twelvehynd-men and twyhynd-
men, paving the way towards the feudal distinction between the
free and the unfree. In the arrangements of the commonwealth
the clauses treating of royal privileges are more or less evenly
distributed over all reigns, but the systematic development of
police functions, especially in regard to responsibility for crimes,
the catching of thieves, the suppression of lawlessness, is mainly
the object of 10th and nth century legislation. The reign of
iEthelred, which witnessed the greatest national humiliation
and the greatest crime in English history, is also marked by the
most lavish expressions of religious feeling and the most frequent
appeals to morality. This sketch would, of course, have to be
modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the unofficial
fragments x>f customary law in the same way as the paragraphs
of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to tabulate
the indirect evidence as to* legal rules. But, imperfect as such
statistics may be, they give us at any rate some insight into the
direction of governmental legislation.
4. The next question to be approached concerns the pedigree
of Anglo-Saxon law and the lattcr's natural affinities. What is
its position in the legal history of Germanic nations? How
far has it been influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially
by Roman and Canon law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes,
especially the Kentish and the West Saxon ones, disclose a close
relationship to the barbaric laws of Lower Germany— those of
Saxons, Frisians, Thuringians. We find a division of social ranks
which reminds us of the threefold gradation of Lower Germany
ANGLO-SAXON LAW
37
fedelings. ff filings, laxzen— eorls, eeorls, laets), and not of the
tvofold Prankish one (ingenui Franci, Ranani), nor of the minute
differentiation of the Upper Germans and Lombards. In sub-
sequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the
capitularies' legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on
one hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan and
Edgar on the other, a resemblance called forth less by direct
borrowing of Frankish institutions than by the similarity of
political problems and condition. Frankish law becomes a
powerful modifying element in English legal history after the
Conquest, when it was introduced wholesale in royal and in feudal
courts. The Scandinavian invasions brought in many northern
legal customs, especially in the districts thickly populated with
Danes. The Domesday survey of Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire,
Yorkshire, Norfolk, &c, shows remarkable deviations in local
crganuation and justice flagmen, sokes), and great peculiarities
as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and a few
charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law (nidings-
veer*), special usages as to fines (lakslit). the keeping of peace,
attestation and sureties of acts (Jctstermen), &c But, on the
vfcole, the introduction of Danish and Norse elements,apart from
local cases, was more important owing to the conflicts and
compromises it called forth and its social results, than on account
d any distinct trail of Scandinavian views in English law. The
Scandinavian newcomers coalesced easily and quickly with the
satire population.
The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the
Saxon period: we notice neither the transmission of important
legal doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes,
nor the continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage.
Bet indirectly Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant
k5scnce through the medium of the Church, which, for all its
xsohur character, was still permeated with Roman ideas and
'arms of culture. The Old English " books " are derived in a
i raendabout way from Roman models, and the tribal law of real
property was deeply modified by the introduction of inctividual-
sec notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of women,
kc Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased
the store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national isolation
of the English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse
*ah France and Italy.
5. It would be useless to attempt to trace in a brief sketch
tie history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of
Ass^o-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an
•tthne off * few particularly characteristic subjects.
(e) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless
one realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and
pnrflege. Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or
-uent but susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to
a the expression of the juridical consciousness of the people at
targe or of the communities of which it is composed. It is tribal
a its origin, and differentiated, not according to boundaries
between states, but on national and provincial lines. There may
be the folk-right of West and East Saxons, of East Angles, of
Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians, Danes, Welshmen, and
these main folk-right divisions remain even when tribal kingdoms
'Jsappear and the people is concentrated in one or two realms.
The chief centres for the formulation and application of folk-
-^fct were in the 10th and nth centuries the shire-moots, while
bc witan of the realm generally placed themselves on the higher
rsund of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-
.-£bt ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of
^tracts, the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated
ay folk-right-, the reeves employed by the king and great men
•we supposed to take care of local and rural affairs according to
cU.- right- The law had to be declared and applied by the people
jctt in. its communities, while the spokesmen of the people were
-either democratic majorities nor individual experts, but a few
-a jingmen — the twelve eldest thanes or some similar quorum.
i Ik-right could, however, be broken or modified by special law
sr special grant, and the fountain of such privileges was the
ruyal power. Alterations and exceptions were, as a matter of
fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves, and chiefly
by the Church. Thus a privileged land-tenure was created—
bookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set at
nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations
of grants and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of
the hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were
conferred. In process of time the rights originating in royal
grants of privilege overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many
respects, and became themselves the starting-point of a new
legal system — the feudal one.
(6) Another feature of vital importance in the history of
Anglo-Saxon law is its tendency towards the preservation of
peace. Society is constantly struggling to ensure the main
condition of its existence— peace. Already in iEthelberht'a
legislation we find characteristic fines inflicted for breach of the
peace of householders of different ranks—the ceorl, the eorl, :
and the king himself appearing as the most exalted among them.
Peace is considered not so much a state of equilibrium and
friendly relations between parties, but rather as the rule of a
third within a certain region — a house, an estate, a kingdom.
This leads on one side to the recognition of private authorities
— the father's in his family, the master's as to servants, the
lord's as to his personal or territorial dependents. On the other
hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes its
course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we witness
in Anglo-Saxon law the gradual evolution of more and more
stringent and complete rules in respect of the king's peace and
its infringements.
(c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us
the individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain
commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the
fellows of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities.
•The most elementary of these groups is the maegth, the associa-
tion of agnatic and cognatic relations. Personal protection and
revenge, oaths, marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over
settlement, and good behaviour, are regulated by the law of
kinship. A man's actions-are considered not as exertions of his
individual will, but as acts of the kindred, and all the fellows of
the maegth are held responsible for them. What began as a
natural alliance was used later as a means of enforcing responsi-
bility and keeping lawless individuals in order. When the
association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary associations— gilds
—appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers associated in
mutual defence and support, and they had to share in the
payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in
for certain forms of collective responsibility, because they pre-
sented groups of people associated in their economic and legal
interests.
(d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and
intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation
of the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about
the sale of cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about
the pursuit of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify
sales of chattels, arc other expressions of the difficulties attending
peaceful intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement
of and substitute for collective responsibility. The hlajord and
his kiredmen are an institution not only of private patronage,
but also of police supervision for the sake of laying hands on
malefactors and suspected persons. The landrka assumes the
same part in a territorial district. Ultimately the laws of the
10th and nth centuries show the beginnings of the frankpledge
associations, which came to act so important a part in the local
police and administration of the feudal age.
The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their
intrinsic importance in any system of law, they are, as it were,
made prominent by the documents themselves, as they are
constantly referred to in the latter.
BiBUOcaAPBY.— Editions: Uebermann. Die Ctsctu de? Angel-
sachsen (1903, 1906) is indispensable, and leaves nothing to be
desired as to the constitution of the texts. The translations and
notes are, of course, to be considered in the light of an instructive,
but not final, commentary. R. Sehmid, Getetu der Amgtisaehstn
(and edk, Leipzig, 1958) b still valuable on account of its handiness
38
ANGLO-SAXONS—ANGOLA
and the fulness of ict glossary. B. Thorpe, Ancient Laws and
Institutes of England (1840) is not very trustworthy. Domesday
Book, i. ft. (Rec. Coram.); Codex Diplomatic** Aevi Saxonici, i.-vi.
ed. J. M. Kemble (1839-1848); Cartularium Saxonicum (up to 940),
ed. W. de Gray Birch (1885-1*93); J- Carle. Land Charters (Oxford,
1888); Thorpe, Diplomatarium Anglicanum; Facsimiles of Ancient
Charters, edited by the Ordnance Survey and by the British Museum ;
Haddan and Stubbs, Councils of Great Britain, i.-iii. (Oxford. 1869-
1.878).
Modem works. — Konrad Maurer, uber Angelsachsische Rechts-
verhdltnisu, Kritische Ueberschau (Munich, 1853 ff.), still the best
account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law ; Essays on A ntlo-Saxon
Law, by H. Adams, H. C. Lodge, J. L. Laughliq and t. Young
(1876) ; J. M. Kemble. Saxons in England: F. Palgrave, History of the
English Commonwealth; Stubbs. Constitutional History of England,
i.; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, L; H. B runner,
Zur Ruhtsgeschichle der rdmisch-germanischen Urkunde (1880);
Sir F. Pollock. The King's Peace (Oxford Lectures); F. See boh m;
The English Village Community; Ibid. Tribal Custom in Anglo-
Saxon Law; Marquardsen, Haft und BUrgschaft im Angelsachsischen
Recht; Jastrow, ' uber die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven,"
Gierke's Untersuchungen, i.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, iv.; F. W.
Maitland, Domesday and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) I H.M. Chad wick,
Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); P. Vinogradoff, " Folc-
land " in the English Historical Review, 1893; " Romanistische Ein-
fftlsse im Angelsachsischen Recht : Das Buchland " in the Melanges
Fitting, 1907: " The Transfer of Land in Old English Law " in
the Harvard law Review, 1907. (P. Vi.)
ANGLO-SAXONS. The term " Anglo-Saxon " is commonly
applied to that period of English history, language and literature
which preceded the Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time
of King Alfred, who seems to have frequently used the title rex
Anglorum Saxonum or rex Angul-Saxonum. The origin of this
title is not quite clear. It is generally believed to have arisen
from the final union of the various kingdoms under Alfred in
886. Bede (Hist. Eccl. i. 15) states that the people of the more
northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, &c.)
belonged to the Angli, while those of Essex, Sussex and Wesscx
were sprung from the Saxons (?.«.), and those of Kent and
southern Hampshire from the Jutes (q.v.). Other early writers,
however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither in
language nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable
differences between the two former groups, though in custom
Kent presents most remarkable contrasts with the other king-
doms. Still more curious is the fact that West Saxon writers
regularly speak of their own nation as a part -of .the Angdcyn
and of their language as Engtisc, while the West Saxon royal
family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bcrnicia. On
the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the distinction
drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East
Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli
and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the
evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had practically
coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the invasion.
At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come
into use on the continent, where we find it, nearly a century
before Alfred's time, in the writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul
the Deacon). There can be little doubt, however, that there it
was used to distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from
the Old Saxons of the continent.
See W. H. Stevenson, Aster's Life of King Alfred (Oxford, 1904.
pp. 148 ff.); H. Munro Chadwick. The Origin of the English Nation
(Cambridge, 1907) ; also Britain, Anglo-Saxon. (H. M. C.)
ANGOLA, the general name of the Portuguese possessions on
the west coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception
of the enclave of Kabtnda (q.v.) the province lies wholly south of
the river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it
extends along the coast from the southern bank of the Congo
(6° S., ia° E.) to the mouth of the Kunene river (17 18' S.,
it* so' E.). The coast-line is some 000 m. long. On the north
the Congo forms for 80 m. the boundary separating Angola from
the Congo Free State. The frontier thence (in 5° 52' S.) goes due
east to the Kwango river. The eastern boundary— dividing the
Portuguese possessions from the Congo State and Barotseland
(N.W. Rhodesia)— is a highly irregular line. On the south
Angola borders German South-West Africa, the frontier being
drawn somewhat S. of the 17th degree of S. latitude. The area
of the province is about 480,000 sq. m. The population is
estimated (1906) at 4,119,000.
The name Angola (a Portuguese corruption of the Bantu word
Ngola) is sometimes confined to the 105 m. of coast, with its
hinterland, between the mouths of the rivers Dande and Kwanza,
forming the central portion of the Portuguese dominions in West
Africa; in a looser manner Angola is used to designate all the
western coast of Africa south of the Congo in the possession of
Portugal; but the name is now officially applied to the whole of
the province. Angola is divided into fivt districts: four on the
coast, the fifth, Lunda, wholly inland, being the N.E. part of the
province. Lunda is part of the old Bantu kingdom of Muata
Yanvo, divided by international agreement between Portugal
and the Congo Free State.
The coast divisions of Angola are Congo on the N. (from the
river Congo to the river Loje), corresponding roughly with the
limits of the " kingdom of Congo " (see History below) ; Loin da
which includes Angola in the most restricted sense mentioned
above; Benguella and Mossamedes to the south. Mossamcdcs
is again divided into two portions— the coast region and the
hinterland, known as Huiila.
Physical Features.'— The coast is for the most part flat, with
occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but
one deep inlet of the sea — Great Fish Bay (or Bahia dos Tigres),
a little north of the Portuguese-German frontier. Farther north
are Port Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while
shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient
to allow Urge ships to unload close inshore. The coast plain
extends inland for a distance varying from 30 to too m. This
region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile. The
approach to the great centra) plateau of Africa is marked by a
scries of irregular terraces. This intermediate mountain belt is
covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly abundant,
though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy
beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from
4000 to 6000 ft. It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains,
and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland
falls away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south
it merges into a barren sandy desert. A large number of rivers
make their way westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the
mountain belt, and are unimportant, the only two of any size
being the Kwanza and the Kunene, separately noticed. The
mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau, or diversify
its surface, run generally parallel to the coast, as Tala Mugongo
(4400 ft.), Chella and Yissecua (5250 ft. to 6500 ft.). In the
district of Benguella are the highest points of the province; viz.
Loviti (7780 ft.), in 1 2 5' S., and Mt. Elonga (7550 ft). South of
the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo*Cabaza (3300 ft.).
From the tableland the Kwango and many other streams flow
north to join the Kasai (one of the largest affluents of the Congo),
which in its upper course forms for fully 300 m. the boundary
between Angola and the Congo State. In the south-east part of
the province the rivers belong either to the Zambezi system, or,
like the Okavango, drain to Lake Ngami.
Geology. — The rock formations of Angola arc met with in three
distinct regions: (1) the littoral zone, (2) the median zone formed
by a scries of hills more or less parallel with the coast, (j) the
central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient crystal-
line rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones
and conglomerates considered to be of Palaeozoic age. The
outcrops are largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is
composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some
Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The littoral zone contains the
only fossiliferous strata. These are of Tertiary and Cretaceous
ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date.
The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Ben-
guella) are of Albian age and belong to the Acantkoceras mamillari
zone. The beds containing Schloenbackia inflata are referable to
the Gault. Rocks of Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande,
Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with gypsum,
copper and sulphur of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of
Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly basalts, form a line
ANGOLA
39
of hillt almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossa-
medes. Nepheline basalts and Bparites occur at Dombe Grande.
The presence of gum copal in considerable quantities in the
superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions.
Cliwale. — With the exception of the district of Mossamedes,
tlie coast plains are nnsuited td Europeans. In the interior,
above 3300 ft., the temperature and rainfall, together with
malaria, decrease. The plateau climate is healthy and invigor-
ating. The mean annual temperature at Sao Salvador do Congo
b 73-5* F.; at Loanda, 74-3*; and at Caconda, 67 •*•. The
climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing winds, which are
W , S. W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are distinguished— the cool,
from June to September; and the rainy, from October to May.
The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is accompanied by
violent storms.
Flora and Fauna. — Both flora and fauna are those character-
istic of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as
Benguella the coast region is rich in oil-palms and mangroves.
In the northern part of the province are dense forests. In the
south towards the Kunene are regions of dense thorn scrub.
Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts
their number has been considerably reduced by the ruthless
methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species
most common are various root rubbers, notably the Carpodinus
ckyhrrhua. This species and other varieties of carpodinus are
very widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The
coffee, cotton and Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the
tobacco plant flourishes in several districts. Among the trees
are several which yield excellent timber, such as the taenia
(Pteraearpus tinctorius), which grows to an immense size, its
wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola mahogany.
The bark of the musuemba (Albmia eoriaria) is largely used in
the tanning of leather. The mulundo bears a fruit about the
size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and con-
taming scarlet pips like a pomegranate. The fauna includes
the lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippo-
potamus, buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other kinds of antelope,
wild pig, ostrich and crocodile. Among fish are the barbel,
bream and African yellow fish.
Inhabitants.— The great majority of the inhabitants are of
Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district
with the pure negro type. In -the south-east are various tribes
of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are
the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and
the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part
of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of
Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the
west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with
the Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a consider-
able strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the
Lunda district Along the upper Kunene and in other districts
of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population
being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white
inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divi-
sions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity
professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and possibly
later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols
of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native
has a " Santu " or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona.
Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province.
The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the
simplest constuction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments;
the day is spent In an open space in front of the hut protected
from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves.
Chief Towu.—Tht chief towns are Sao Paulo de Loanda,
the capital, Kabinda, Benguella and Mossamedes (q.v.). Lobito,
a little north of Benguella, is a town which dates from 1905 and
owes its existence to the bay of the same name having been
chosen as the sea terminus of a railway to the far interior. Noki
is on the southern bank of the Congo at the head of navigation
from the sea, and close to the Congo Free State frontier. It
is available for ships of large tonnage, and through it passes
the Portuguese portion of the trade of the lower Congo. Ambris
— the only seaport of consequence in the Congo district of the
province— is at the mouth of the Loje river, about 70 m. N. of
Loanda. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between
Loanda. and Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of
Mossamedes and S, of the town of that name.
In the interior Humpata, about 95 ro. from Mossamedes,
is the chief centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none
but native towns containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants
and often enclosed by a ring of sycamore trees. Ambaca and
Malanje are the chief places in the fertile agricultural district
of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda, with which they are in
railway communication. Sio Salvador (pop. 1500) is the name
given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town of the
" kingdom of Congo." It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and
is about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki,
in 6* is' S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected
in the 16th century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls
were destroyed in the closing years of the 10th century and the
stone used to build government offices. There is a fort, built
about 1850, and a small military force is at the disposal of the
Portuguese resident Bembe and Encoje are smaller towns in
the Congo district south of Sao Salvador. Bihc, the capital of
the plateau district of the same name forming the hinterland of
Benguella, is a large caravan centre. Kangomba, the residence
of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda is in the hill
country S.E. of Benguella.
Agriculture and Trade. — Angola is rich in both agricultural
and mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are
mealies and manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco
plants. Tbe chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels
and palm-oil, cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust,
cotton, ivory and gum are also exported. The chief imports are
food-stuffs, cotton and woollen goods and hardware. Consider-
able quantities of coal come from South Wales. Oxen, intro-
duced from Europe and from South Africa, flourish. There are
sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a few other
manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends on
the " jungle " products obtained through the natives and from
the plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured
labour, the labourers being generally u recruited " from the far
interior. The trade of the province, which had grown from
about £800,000 in 1870 to about £3,000,000 in 1005, is largely
with Portugal and in Portuguese bottoms. Between 1803 and
1004 the percentage of Portuguese as compared with foreign
goods entering the province increased from 43 to 301 %, a result
due to the preferential duties in force.
The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe,
and deposits on the M'Brije and the Cuvo and in various places
in the southern part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the
Lucalla affluent of the Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum
and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao; gold in Lombijc and
Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native black-
smiths are held in great repute.
Communications. — There is a regular steamship communication
between Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which
port is within sixteen days' steam of Lisbon. There is also a
regular service between Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and
Southampton. The Portuguese line is subsidized by the govern-
ment The railway from Loanda to Ambaca and Malanje is
known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It is of metre
gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was in-
tended to carry the line across the continent to Mozambique,
but when the line reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1804 that scheme
was abandoned. The railway had created a record in being the
most expensive built in tropical Africa — £8942 per mile. A
railway from Lobito Bay, 25 m. N. of Benguella, begun in 1904,
runs towards the Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It is of standard
African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) and is worked by an English company.
It is intended to serve the Katanga copper mines. Besides
these two main railways, there are other short lines Unking
the seaports to their hinterland. Apart. from the railways.
4°
ANGORA
communication is by ancient caravan routes and by ox-wagon
tracks in the southern district. Riding-oxen are also used. The
province is well supplied with telegraphic communication and is
connected with Europe by submarine cables.
Government and Revenue— The administration of the province
is carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who
acts under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon.
At the head of each district is a local governor. Legislative
powers, save those delegated to the governor-general, are
exercised by the home government. Revenue is raised chiefly
from customs, excise duties and direct taxation. The revenue
(in 1 904-1005 about £350,000) is generally insufficient to meet
expenditure (in 1004- 1005 over £400,000)— the balance being
met by a grant from the mother country. Part of the extra
expenditure is, however, on railways and other reproductive
works.
History. —The Portuguese established themselves on the west
coast of Africa towards the close of the 1 5th century. The river
Congo was discovered by Diogo Cam or Cao in 148a. He erected
a stone pillar at the mouth of the river, which accordingly took
the title of Rio de Padrao, and established friendly relations
with the natives, who reported that the country was subject to
a great monarch, Mwani Congo or lord of Congo, resident at
Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not long in making them-
selves influential in the country. Goncalo de Sousa was
despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first mis-
sionaries entered the country in his train. The king was soon
afterwards baptized and Christianity was nominally established
as the national religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at
Bonza Congo (renamed Sao Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits
arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes. Of the prosperity of the
country the Portuguese have left the most glowing and indeed
incredible accounts. It was, however, about this time ravaged
by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior, and Portuguese
influence gradually declined. The attention of the Portuguese
was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern
districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop's scat was removed to
Sao Paulo de Loanda and Sao Salvador declined in importance.
In the 18th century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and
France, steps were taken towards re-establishing Portuguese
authority in the northern regions; in 1758 a settlement was
formed at Ejicoje; from 1784 to 1789 the Portuguese carried
on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the district immediately
south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at Quincollo on the
Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of Bcmbe. Until,
however, the "scramble for Africa" began in 1884, they possessed
no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz, which
was first occupied in 1855. At Sao Salvador, however, the
Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the
native princes who had real authority was a potentate known
as Dom Pedro V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the
help of a Portuguese force, and reigned over thirty years. In
1888 a Portuguese resident was stationed at Salvador, and the
kings of Congo became pensioners of the government
Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now con-
stitutes the province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam
during 1482 and the three following years. The first governor
sent to Angola was Paulo Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz,
who reduced to submission the region south of the Kwanza nearly
as far as Benguella. The city of Loanda was founded in 1576,
Bcnguella in 1617. From that date the sovereignty of Portugal
over the coast-line, from its present southern limit as far north
as Ambriz (7 50' S.) has been undisputed save between 1640
and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel the
Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic
development of the country was not entirely neglected and many
useful food products were introduced, the prosperity of the
province was very largely dependent on the slave trade with
Brazil, which was not legally abolished until 1830 and in fact
continued for many years subsequently.
In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily
refused to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights
north of Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese
sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty,
meeting with opposition in England and Germany, was not
ratified. Agreements concluded with the Congo Free State,
Germany and France in 1 885-1 886 (modified in details by
subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province, except
in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotscland (N.W.
Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo- Portuguese
agreement of 180 1 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy
in 1005 (see Africa: History). Up to the end of the 19th century
the hold of Portugal over the interior of the province was slight,
though its influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins.
The abolition of the external slave trade proved very injurious
to the trade of the seaports, but from i860 onward the agricultural
resources of the country were developed with increasing energy,
a work in which Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the
definite partition of Africa among the European powers, Portugal
applied herself with some seriousness to exploit Angola and her
other African possessions. Nevertheless, in comparison with its
natural wealth the development of the country has been slow.
Slavery and the slave trade continued to flourish in the interior
in the early years of the 20th century, despite the prohibitions of
the Portuguese government. The extension of authority over
the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not accomplished
without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a Portu-
guese column lost over 300 men killed, including 114 Europeans,
in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from
the German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe
and were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their
southern neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905
and again in 1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region.
/ - - -- - - ^ Portugueses
(Li: U Rner Congo
(2 \ storia do Congo
. . ke Kingdom of
Co* notes by Mar-
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Cot ts and writings
of it Kingdom of
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Foreign Office.
ANGORA, or Encuri. (1) A city of Turkey (anc. A ncyra) in
Asia, capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep,
rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of
theEnguri Su,a tributary of the Sakaria(Sangari us), about 220 m.
E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of
the old citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but
the town is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its
houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however,
many fine remains of Graeco- Roman and Byzantine architecture,
the most remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on
the walls of which is the famous Monumentum Ancyranum (see
A ncyra). Ancyra was the centre of the Tectosages, one of the
three Gaulish tribes which settled in Galatia in the 3rd century
B.c, and became the capital of the Roman province of Galatia
when it was formally constituted in 25 B.C. During the Byzan-
tine period, throughout which it occupied a position of great
importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs; then it fell
into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen years by
the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks in
1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora,
in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made
prisoner by the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 14 x 5 it was recovered
by the Turks under Mahommcd I., and since that period has
ANGOULfeME
+1
b el onge d to the Ottoman empire. In 1839 it mi taken by the
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is connected with
Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair, grain and
yellow berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town is
noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an
agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British
consul. Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians,
largely Roman Catholic Armenians, about 0400; Jews, 400).
(3) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which
includes most of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural
country, depending for its prosperity on its grain, wool (average
annual export, 4,400,000 lb), and the mohair obtained from the
beautiful Angora goats (average annual clip, 3,300,000 lb). The
fineness of the hair may perhaps be ascribed to some peculiarity
m the atmosphere, for it is remarkable that the cats, dogs and
other animals of the country are to a certain extent affected in
the same way, and that they all lose much of their distinctive
beauty when taken from their native districts. The only im-
portant industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-shehcr and Kaisarf eh.
There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
spring, including some of great repute medicinally. Average
annual exports 1806-1808, £920,763; imports, £4x1,836 Pop.
about 000,000 (Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being
Christians, with a few hundred Jews). (J . G. C. A.)
See C. Ritter, Erdkunde wn Asien (vol xviii., 1 837-1839); V.
Curaet. La Turfuie d'Asie, t. i. (1891); Murray's Handbook to Asia
Mmor (1895); and other works mentioned under Ancyba.
AVGOULfiMB. CHARLES DB VALOIS, Duke of (1573-1650),
the natural son of Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was
born on the a8th of April 1 573, at the castle of Fayet in Daupbine,
His father, dying in the following year, commended him to the
care and favour of his brother and successor, Henry III., who
faithfully fulfilled the charge. His mother married Francois de
Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her daughters, Henriette,
marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the mistress of
Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and was
destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made
grand prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of
large estates left by Catherine de* Medici, from one of which he
took his title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a
dispensation from the vows of the order of Malta, and married
Charlotte, daughter of Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards
coke of Montmorency. In 1 589 Henry III. was assassinated, but
on his deathbed he commended Charles to the good-will of his
successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was made colonel of
horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns during the
early part of the reign But the connexion between the king and
the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by
the dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of
which was to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry
the marchioness. The conspiracy was discovered; Biron and
Auvergne were arrested and Biron was executed. Auvergne
after a few months' imprisonment was released, chiefly through
the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the duchess of Angouleme
and his father-in-law. He then entered into fresh intrigues with
the court of Spain, acting in concert with the marchioness of
Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604 d'Entragues and
he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same time the
marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death
against the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment.
Auvergne remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to
16x6. A decree of the parlcment (1606), obtained by Marguerite
de Valois, deprived him of nearly all his possessions, including
Auvergne, though he still retained the title In 16 16 he was
released, was restored to his rank of colonel-general of horse, and
despatched against one of the disaffected nobles, the duke of
LongueviUe, who had taken Peronne. Next year he commanded
the forces collected in the lie de France, and obtained some
successes. In 16x9 he received by bequest, ratified in 1620 by
royal grant, the duchy of AngouUme, Soon after he was engaged
on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
treaty of Ulm, signed July 1610. In 1637 he commanded the large
forces assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after
in 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the
French army in Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant"
general of the army. He appears to have retired from public life
shortly after the death of Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died
in 1636, and in 1644 he married -Francoise de Narbonne, daughter
of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had no children and survived
her husband until 17 13. Angouleme himself died on the 34th of
September 1650, By his first wife he had three children: Henri,
who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his father
as duke of Angouteme and was colonel-general of light cavalry
and governor of Provence; and Francois, who died in 1633.
The duke was the author of the following works ^-(x)AffttuMres,
from the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arquea (15891-
1593), published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his
Ckotx de c$roni2ues (1836) and by Petitot in his Mimoirts (1st scries,
vol. xliv.) ; (3) Les Harangues, prononcls en assemblie de MM. les
princes Protestants d'AUemagne, par Monseigneur le due d' AngouUme
(1620); (3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torres.
To him has also been ascribed the work. La ghUraU etfidiU Rilation
de tout u qui s'est passi an I' isle de JU, enwyie par It rot & la royne
sa mere (Paris, 1637).
ANGOULBMB, a city of south-western France, capital of
the department of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the
railway between Bordeaux and Poitiers. Pop. (1006) 30,040.
The town proper occupies an elevated,promontory, washed on
the north by the Charente and on the south and west by the
Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more important
of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory joins
the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.
The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel
beneath the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angou-
leme is encircled by boulevards known as the Ramparts, from
which fine views may be obtained in all directions. Within the
town the streets are often dark and narrow, and, apart from the
cathedral and the hotel de villc, the architecture is of little
interest The cathedral of St Pierre (see Cathedral), a church
in the Byzantine-Romanesque style, dates from the nth and
iath centuries, but has undergone frequent restoration, and was
partly rebuilt in the latter half of the 19th century by the
architect Paul Abadie. The facade, flanked by two towers with
cupolas, Is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary and
sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The
crossing is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the
north transept by a fine square tower over 160 ft high. The
hotel de ville, also by Abadie, is a handsome modem structure,
but preserves two towers of the chateau of the counts of Angou-
leme, on the site of which it is built It contains museums of
paintings and archaeology. Angouleme is the seat of a bishop,
a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public institutions include
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of trade*
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank
of France. It also has a lycee, training-colleges, a school of
artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been
connected since the 14th century Most of the mills are situated
on the banks of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the
town. The subsidiary industries, such as the manufacture of
machinery and wire fabric, are of considerable importance.
Iron and copper founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture
of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron goods, gloves, boots
and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on. Commerce is
carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.
Angouleme (Iculisma) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths
in 507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In
1360 it was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English;
they were, however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V.,
who granted the town numerous privileges. It suffered much
during the Wars of Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture
by the Protestants under Coligny.
+2
ANGOUMOIS— ANGUILLA
The countship of Angoullme dated from the 9th century, the
most important of the early counts being William Taillefer,
whose descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century.
Withdrawn from them on more than one occasion by Richard
Coeur-de-Lion, it passed to King John of England on his marriage
with Isabel, daughter of Count Adhemar, and by her subsequent
marriage in 1220 to Hugh X. passed to the Lusignan family,
counts of Marchc. On the death of Hugh XIII. in 1302 without
issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In 1 394 tnc countship
came to the house of Orleans, a member of which, Francis I.,
became king of France in 1515 and raised it to the rank of duchy
in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. Hie duchy afterwards
changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-
Antoine, eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.
See A. F. Lievre, Angoulime: histoire, institutions el monuments
(Angouleme, 1885).
ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corre-
sponding to-day to the department of Charcnte. Its capital
was Angouleme.
See Essai d'une bibiiothique hhtarique de VAngoumois, by E.
Castaigne (1845).
ANGRA, or Angra do.Heroismo ("Bay of Heroism," a
name given it in 1829, to commemorate its successful defence
against the Miguelist party), the former capital of the Portuguese
archipelago of the Azores, and chief town of an administrative
district, comprising the islands of Terceim, St George and
Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra is built on the south
coast of Terceira in 38 38' N. and in 37° 13' W. It is the
headquarters of a military command, and the residence of a
Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of
little commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a cele-
brated naval station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by
the promontory of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbour-
ing ports of Ponta Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade Is not
large, and consists chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and
other fruit. Angra served as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of
Portugal from 1830 to 1833.
ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in
26° 38' S., 15° E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487.
F. A. E. Luderitz, of Bremen, established a trading station here
in 1883, and his agent concluded treaties with the neighbouring
chiefs, who ceded large tracts of country to the newcomers.
On the 14th of April 1884 Luderitz transferred his rights to the
German imperial government, and on the following 7 th of
August a German protectorate over the district was proclaimed.
(See Africa, 5 5, and German South-West Africa.) Angra
Pequena has been renamed by the Germans LUderitz Bay, and
the adjacent country Is sometimes called Ludcritzland. The
harbour is poor. At the head of the bay is a small town, whence
a railway, begun in 1906, runs cast in the direction of Bechuana-
land. The surrounding country for many miles is absolute
desert, except after rare but terrible thunderstorms, when the
dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly filled with a turbulent
stream, the water finding its way into the bay.
The islands oil the coast of Angra Pequena, together with
others north and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867
and added to Cape Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin
Island are in the bay; Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird
islands are to the north; Halifax, Long, Possession, Albatross,
Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef islands are to the south.
On these islands are guano deposits; the most valuable is on
Ichaboe Island.
ANGSTROM, ANDERS JONAS (18x4-1874), Swedish physicist,
was born on the 13th of August 1814 at Ldgdd, Medelpad,
Sweden. He was educated at Upsala University, where in
1839 he became privat doccnt in physics. In 1842 he went to
Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience in practical
astronomical work, and in the following year he became observer
at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial
magnetism he made many observations oi magnetic intensity
and declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by
the Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed
till shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data
obtained by the Swedish frigate " Eugenie " on her voyage
round the world in 1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph
Ferdinand Svanbcrg (1806-1857) in the chair of physics at
Upsala, and there he died on the aist of June 1874. His most
important work was concerned with the conduction of heat and
with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, Optiska Under so* -
ningar, presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he not
only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from
the gas In which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of
resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the
same rcfrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement ,
as Sir E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford
medal of the Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental
principle of spectrum analysis, and though for a number of years
it was overlooked it entitles him to rank as one of the founders
of spectroscopy. From 1861 onwards he paid special attention
to the solar spectrum. He announced the existence of hydrogen ,
among other elements, in the sun's atmosphere in 1862, and in
1868 published his great map of the normal solar spectrum
which long remained authoritative in questions of wave-length,
although his measurements were inexact to the extent of one
part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in
1867, to examine the spectrum of the aurora borealia, and
detected and measured the characteristic bright line in its yellow
green region; but he was mistaken in supposing that this same
line, which is often called by his name, is also to be seen in the
zodiacal light
Hiason, Knut Jokax Angstrom, was born at Upsala on the
12th of January 1857, and studied at the university of that town
from 1877 to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he
was appointed lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in
1885, but in 1891 returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became
professor of physics. He especially devoted himself to investiga-
tions of the radiation of heat from the sun and its absorption by
the earth's atmosphere, and to that end devised various delicate
methods and instruments, including his electric compensation
pyrhcliometer, invented m 1893, and apparatus for obtaining a
photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum (1895).
ANGUIER, FRANCOIS (c. 1604-1669). and MICHEL (161 1-
1686), French sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in
Normandy. Their apprenticeship was served in the studio of
Simon Guillain. The chief works of Francois are the monument
to Cardinal de Blrullc, founder of the Carmelite order, in the
chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which all but the bust has been
destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II., last due de Mont-
morency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures of the
triumphal arch at the Porte St Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group
of the Nativity in the church of Val de Grace was reckoned
his masterpiece. From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of
the sculpture and decoration in this church, and it was he who
superintended the decoration of the apartments of Anne of
Austria in .the old Louvre. F. Fouquet also employed him for his
chateau in Vaux.
See Henri Stein, LesfrbtsAuguier (1889), with catalogue of work*,
and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson. Deux
tcuIpUurs Nornunds: lesjreres Anguier (1889).
ANGUILLA, or Snake, a small island in the British Indies,
part of the presidency of St Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the
Leeward Islands. Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is
situated in x8° ia' N. and 63 5' W., about 60 m. N.W. of St
Kitts, is 1 6 m. long and has an area of 3 5 sq. m. The destruction
of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in the almost complete
deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land is in the hands of.
peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes, peas, beans,
corn, &c, and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate of lime and
salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the principal
ANGULATE— ANGUS
43
exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island of
St Thomas.
AHGULATB (Lat. angulus, an angle), shaped with corners or
angles; an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape
of stems, leaves and wings.
AJfGTJS, EARLS OP. Angus was one of the seven original
earldoms of the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been
occupied by seven brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The
Celtic line ended with Matilda {fl. 1240), countess of Angus in
her own right, who married in 1243 Gilbert de UmfraviU and
founded the Norman line of three earls, which ended in 1381, the
then holder of the title being summoned to the English parlia-
ment. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl, co. Berwick, had been
created earl of Angus in a new line. This third creation ended
with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and
widow of Thomas, 13th carl of Mar. By an irregular connexion
with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mat's sistor,
she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
(c. 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son,
to whom in 1380 the title was granted by King Robert II. He
was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The
5th earl was his great-grandson.
Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus (c. 1450-c. 1514),
the famous " Bell the-Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded
Ms father, George the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was
made warden of the east marches, but the next year he joined the
league against James III. and his favourite Robert Cochrane
at Lauder, where he earned his nickname by offering to beH the
cat, ijt. to deal with the latter, beginning the attack upon him
by polling his gold chain off his neck and causing hint with others
of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he joined
Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV.
of England, on the nth of February 1483, signing the convention
at Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship. of the
F wg «»K king; In March however they returned, outwardly at
least, to their allegiance, and received pardons for their treason.
Later Angus was one of the leaders ia the rebellion against
James in 1487 and 1488, which ended in the hater's death. He
was made one of the guardians of the young king James IV. but
soon lost influence, being superseded by the Homes and Hepburn*,
and the wardenshtp of the marches waa given to Alexander Home:
Though outwardly on good terms with James, he treacherously
made a treaty with Henry VIL about 1489 or 1401, by which he
cadertook to govern his relations with James according to
instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle,
commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the
condition of receiving English estates in compensation. In
October 1401 he fortified his castle of Tantallon against James,
bat was obliged to submit and exchange his Liddeadak estate
and Hermitage Castle for the lordship of Bothwell. In 1493
he was again in favour, received various grants of lands, and
was made chancellor, which office he retained till 1408. In 1501
be was once more in disgrace and confined to Dumbarton
Castle, After the disaster at Floddcn in 1513, at which he was
not present, but at which be lost his two eldest sons, Angus was
appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died
at the dose of this year, or in 1 5 14. He was married three times,
and by bis first wife had four sons and several daughters. His
third son, Gavin Doughs, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately
noticed.
Archibald Douglas, the 6th earl (;. 1480-1557), son of
George, master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded
on his grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret
(<J. 1513), daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell;
and in 1 $14 be married the queen dowager Margacetof Scotland,
widow of James IV n and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this
Utter act he stirred up the jealousy o( the nobles and the opposi-
tion of the French party, and civil war broke out. He was
superseded in the government on the arrival of John Stewart,
duke of Albany, who was made regent Angus withdrew to his
estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the queen at
Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he joined
Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for
London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516.
He met her once more at Berwick in June 151 7, when Margaret
returned to Scotland on Albany's departure in vain hopes of
regaining the regency. Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence,
Angus had formed a connexion with a daughter of the laird of
Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect of her by refusing to
support his claims for power and by secretly trying through
Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his own
against the attempts of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, to
dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom
Margaret now sided against her husband, deprived him of power.
The regent took the government into his own hands; Angus was
charged with high treason in December, and in March 1522 was
sent practically a prisoner to France, whence he succeeded in
escaping to London in 1524. He returned to Scotland in
November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with
whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to
have anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore,
Angus forced his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by
Margaret and retreated to Tantallon. He now organized a large
party of nobles against Margaret with the support of Henry VIII.,
and in February 1525 they entered Edinburgh and called a
parliament. Angus was made a lord of the articles, was included
in the council of regency, bore the king's crown on the opening
of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held the chief power.
In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches, and
suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July
the guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed
period till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to
retire, and advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and
his opponents. He now with his followers engrossed all the
power, succeeded in gaining over some of his antagonists, includ-
ing Arran and the Hamiltons, and filled the public offices with
Douglases, he himself becoming chancellor. " None that time
durst strive against a Douglas nor Douglas's man." 1 The young
king James, now fourteen, was far from content under the
tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded, and several
attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus com-
pletely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh
with 10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling.
His successes were consummated by a pacification with Beaton,
and ih 1527 and 1528 he was busy in restoring order through the
country. In the latter year, on the nth of March, Margaret
succeeded in obtaining her divorce from Angus, and about the
end of the month she and her lover, Henry Stewart, were
besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however, James suc-
ceeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with
Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed
Angus and all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within
seven miles of his person. Angus, having fortified himself in
Tantallon* was attainted and his lands confiscated. Repeated
attempts of James to subdue the fortress failed, and on one
occasion Angus captured the royal artillery, but at length it
was given up as a condition of the truce between England
and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge with Henry,
obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry
engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus
had been chiofly guided in his intrigues with England by his
brother, Sir George Douglas of Pittcndriech (d. 15*52), master of
Angus, a far cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and
lands were also declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle,
Archibald Douglasof Kilspindie (d. 1535), who had been a friend
of James and was known by the nickname of "-Greysteel."
These took refuge in exile. James avenged himself on such
Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's third sister Janet,
Lady Claims, was summoned to answer the charge of com-
municating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her
estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was trieti for conspiring
against the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the
Castle Hill, Edinburgh, on the 1 7th of July 1 537. Her Innocence
'Lindsay of Ptacottie (1814). H. 314.
44-
ANGUSSOLA— ANHALT
has been generally assumed, but Tytler (HtsL of Scotland, iv.
PP- 433i 434) considered her guilty. Angus remained in England
till 1543, joining in the attacks upon his countrymen on the
border, while James refused all demands from Henry VIIL for
his restoration, and kept firm to his policy of suppressing and
extirpating the Douglas faction. On James V.'s death in 1542
Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions from Henry to
accomplish the marriage between Mary and Edward. His
forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored, and he was made
a privy councillor and lieutenant-general. In 1 543 he negotiated
the treaty of peace and marriage, and the same year he himself
married Margaret, daughter of Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly
afterwards strife between Angus and the regent Arran broke out,
and in April 1544 Angus was taken prisoner. The same year
Lord Hertford's marauding expedition, which did not spare the
lands of Angus, made him join the anti-English party. He
entered into a bond with Arran and others to maintain their
allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the mission sent to
France to offer the tatter's hand. In July x 544 he was appointed
lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished himself
on the 37th of February 154s in the victory over the English at
Ancrum Moor. He still corresponded with Henry VIIL, but
nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and
peace treaty, and on the 10th of September commanded the van
in the great defeat of Pinkie, when he again won fame. In 1 548
the attempt by Lennox and Wharton to capture him and punish
him for his duplicity failed, Angus escaping after his defeat to
Edinburgh by sea, and Wharton being driven back to Carlisle.
Under the regency of Mary of Lorraine his restless and ambitious
character and the number of his retainers gave cause for frequent
alarms to the government On the 31st of August 1547 he
resigned his earldom, obtaining a regrant sibi ei suis kaercdibus
masculis el suis assignatis quibuscumque. His career was a long
struggle for power and for the interests of his family, to which
national considerations were completely subordinate. He died
in January 1 5 57. By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only
surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew, 4th earl of
Lennox, and was mother of Lord Darnley. He was succeeded
by his nephew David, son of Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech.
Archibald Douglas, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555-
1 588), was the son of David, 7th earl. He succeeded to the title
and estates in 1558, being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl
of Morton, a Presbyterian. In 1573 he was made a privy
councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574 lieutenant-general
of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and steward
of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave
a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter,
made a vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of
high treason on the and of June 2581. He now entered into
correspondence with the English government for an invasion of
Scotland to rescue Morton, and on the latter's execution in June
went to London, where he was welcomed by Elizabeth. After
the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus returned to Scotland and was
reconciled to James, but soon afterwards the king shook off the
control of the earls of Mar and Cowrie, and Angus was again
banished from the court. In 1584 he joined the rebellion of
Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the insur-
gents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at
Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of
projects against the Scottish government, encouraged by
Elizabeth, who regarded the banished lords as friends of the
English and antagonists of the French interest. In February
1585 they came to London, and cleared themselves of the accusa-
tion of plotting against James's life; a plan was prepared for
their restoration and for the overthrow of James Stewart, earl
of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained an
easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king
in November, and secured from James the restoration of their
estates and the control of the government. In 1586 Angus was
appointed warden of the marches and lieutenant-general on the
border, and performed good services in restoring order; but he
was unable to overcome the king's hostility to the establishment
of Presbyterian government. In January 1586 he was granted
the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon him by his
uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1 588. He was succeeded in
the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the 5th carl.
(For the Morton title, see Morton, Jajies Douglas, 4th Earl or.)
William Douglas, xoth earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of
William, the 9th earl (1533-1501). He studied at St Andrews
University and joined the household of the earl of Morton.
Subsequently, while visiting the French court, he became a
Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on his return, dis-
inherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he succeeded
to his father's titles and estates in 1591, and though in 159a
he was disgraced for his complicity in Lord Both well's plot,
he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king's
lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however,
he was asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and
other lords against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and
protesting his absolute rejection of Spanish offers, while in
October he signed the Spanish Blanks (see Erroll, Francis
Hay, 9th Earl of) and was imprisoned (on the discovery of the
treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in January 1593.
He succeeded on the 13th in escaping by the help of bis countess,
joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north. They were
offered an act of "oblivion" or "abolition" provided they
renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these
conditions they were declared traitors and " forfeited." They
remained in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them
on Aberdeen roused James's anger. Huntly and Erroll were
subdued by James himself in the north, and Angus failed in an
attempt upon Edinburgh in concert with the earl of Bothwell.
Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced their religion, declared
themselves Presbyterians, and were restored to their estates
and honours. Angus was again included in the privy council,
and in June 1598 was appointed the king's lieutenant in southern
Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and conducted
the " Raid of Dumfries," as the campaign against the Johnstones
was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the advance-
ment of Huntly to a marquisate, recanted, resisted all the argu-
ments of the ministers to bring him to a " better mind," and
was again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 ne withdrew to
France, and died in Paris on the 3rd of March 161 1. He was
succeeded by his son William, as nth carl of Angus, afterwards
1st marquis of Douglas (1580-1660). The title isnow held by the
dukes of Hamilton.
Authorities.— The Douglas Book, by Sir W. Fraser (1885);
History of the House of Douglas and A ngus, by D. Hume of Godscroft
(1748, legendary in some respects); History of the House of Douglas,
by Sir H. Maxwell (1903).
ANGUSSOLA or Angussciola, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait
painter of the latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona
about 1535, and died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the
invitation of Philip II., she visited the court of Madrid, where
her portraits elicited great commendation. Vandyck is said
to have declared that he had derived more knowledge of the true
principles of his art from her conversation than from any other
source. She painted several fine portraits of herself, one of which
is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting are to be seen
at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who' were also
celebrated artists.
ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of
the German empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of
the two duchies Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt-Bernburg,
and comprising all the various Anhalt territories which were
sundered apart in 1603. The country now known as Anhalt
consists of two larger portions— Eastern and Western Anhalt,
separated by the interposition of a part of Prussian Saxony —
and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian territory, via.
Alsleben, Muhlingen,Dornburg,Gddnitzaiid Tilkerode-Abbcrode.
The eastern and larger portion of the duchy is enclosed by the
Prussian government district of Potsdam (in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merscburg
(belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western
ANHALT
45
r portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or Ballcnstcdt)
is also enclosed by the two Utter districts and, for a distance
of 5 m. on the west, by the duchy of Brunswick. The western
portion of the territory is undulating and in the extreme south-
west, where it forms part of the Harz range, mountainous, the
Romberg peak attaining a height of iooo ft. From the Harz
the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and between this
nver and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile country. The
portion of the duchy lying cast of the Elbe is mostly a flat
sasdy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at
intervals, by bog-land and rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief
river, and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from
east to west, receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The
navigable Saale takes a northerly direction through the western
portion of the eastern part of the territory and receives, on
the right, the Fuhne and, on the left, the Wippcr and the Bode.
The climate is on the whole mild, though somewhat inclement
in the higher regions to the south-west. The area of the duchy is
906 so. m., and the population in 1905 amounted to 328,007,
a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is
divided into the districts of Dessau, Cdthen, Zcrbst, Bernburg
and Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and
that of Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four,
til Dessau, Bernburg, Cdthen and Zerbst, have populations
exceeding 20,000. The inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly
belong to the upper Saxon race, are, with the exception of about
i2 r ooo Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews, members of the Evan-
ftfccal (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical authority
a the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members,
ekcted for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on
eternal matters touching the organization of the church. The
Roman Catholics arc under the bishop of Padcrborn. There
are within the duchy four grammar schools (gymnasia), five
semi-classical and modern schools, a teachers' seminary and
fejx high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole surface, land under
tftige amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and forest
» as %' Th« chief crops arc corn (especially wheat), fruit,
VTfetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops.
Tie land is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal
d-*mains and the large estates especially so. The pastures on
the bants of the Elbe yield cattle of excellent quality. The
forests are well stocked with game, such as deer and wild boar,
13d the open country is well supplied with partridges. The rivers
yxhl abundant fish, salmon (in the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys.
The country is rich in lignite, and salt works are abundant.
Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief are its sugar factories,
Ajifllcrics, breweries and chemical works. Commerce is brisk,
e.pcciaHy in raw products — corn, cattle, timber or wool. Coal
C^nitc), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of export The
trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads, its navig-
ibJe rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in con-
nexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of
commerce in Dessau.
Constitution. — The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law,
proclaimed on the 17th of September 1859 and subsequently
nodihed by various decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The
hike, who bears the title of " Highness," wields the executive
p*7wer while sharing the legislation with the estates. The diet
'butdtag) is composed of thirty-six members, of whom two ate
appointed by the duke, eight are representatives of landowners
faying the highest taxes, two of the highest assessed members
of the commercial and manufacturing classes, fourteen of the
other electors of the towns and ten of the rural districts. The
rrpresentatives are chosen for six years by indirect vote and
east have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duko governs
through a minister of state, who is the praeses of all the depart-
isents — finance, home affairs, education, public worship and
statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 1905-
1006 placed the expenditure of the estate at £1,323437 The
public debt amounted on the 30th of June 1004 to £126,300.
By convention with Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a
contingent of the Prussian army- Appeal from the lower
courts of the duchy lies to the appeal court at Naumburg in
Prussian Saxony.
History —During the nth century the greater part ol Anhalt
was included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 12th century
it came under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of Branden-
burg. Albert was descended from Albert, count of Ballenstedt,
whose son Esico (d. 1059 or 1060) appears to have been the first
to bear the title of count of Anhalt. Esico's grandson, Otto the
Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the father of Albert the Bear,
by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of Brandenburg.
When Albert died in n 70, his son Bernard, who received the
title of duke of Saxony in 1 180, became count of Anhalt. Bernard
died in 1212, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his
son Henry, who in 12 18 took the title of prince and was the real
founder of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death In 1252 his
three sons partitioned the principality and founded respectively
the lines of Aschersleben, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family
ruling in Aschersleben became extinct in 131 5, and this district
was subsequently incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of
HalberstadL The last prince of the line of Anhalt-Bernburgdied
in 1468 and his lands were inherited by the princes of the sole
remaining line, that of Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging
to this branch of the family had been divided in 1396, and after
the acquisition of Bernburg Prince George I. made a further
partition of Zerbst Early in the 16th century, however, owing
to the death or abdication of several princes, the family had
become narrowed down to the two branches of Anhalt-Cttthcn
and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of Anhalt*
CSthen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation,
and after the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 was placed under the
ban and deprived of his lands by the emperor Charjcs V. After
the peace of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality,
but as he was childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen
the princes of Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau
(d. 1 516) left three sons, John II., George III., and Joachim,
who ruled their lands together for many years, and who, like
Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed doctrines, which thus
became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three brothers
divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst,
Pldtzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only
temporary, as the acquisition of Cdthen, and a series of. deaths
among the ruling princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John
II., to unite the whole of Anhalt under his rule in 157a
Joachim Ernest died in 1586 and his five sons ruled the land
in common until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the
lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Pldtzkau, Zerbst and Cdthen were
refounded. The principality was ravaged during the Thirty
Years' War, and in the earlier part of this struggle Christian I.
of Anhalt-Bernburg took an important part. In 1635 an
arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt, which
gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family,
who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This
proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining
an appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European
politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Cttthcn became extinct,
and according to a family compact this district was inherited by
Lebrecht of Anhalt-Platzkau, who surrendered Pldtzkau to Bcrn-
burg,and took the titlcof prince of Anhalt -Co then. In the same year
the princes of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family
became extinct its lands should be equally divided between the
remaining branches. This arrangement was carried out after the
death of Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793, and Zerbst
was divided between the three remaining princes. During these
years the policy of the different princes was marked, perhaps
intentionally, by considerable uniformity. Once or twice
Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the house was
loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia provided
Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment
and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family
prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius
of Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II.,
and after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princ**
4 6
ANHALT-DESSAU
took this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807,
they supported Napoleon until 18 ij, when they transferred their
allegiance to the allies, in 181 5 they became members of the
Germanic Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluct-
antly, the Prussian Zollvercin.
Anhalt-Cothcn was ruled without division by a succession of
princes, prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was
both a soldier and a scholar, and after the death of Prince
Charles at the battle of Scmlin in 1789 it passed to his son
Augustus II. This prince sought to emulate the changes which
had recently been made in France by dividing Cothcn into two
departments and introducing the Code Napoleon. Owing to his
extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and
successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the
finances was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under
Louis's successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and
brought the Jesuits into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew
worse and led to the interference of the king of Prussia and. to
the appointment of a Prussian official. When the succeeding
prince, Henry, died in 1847, this family became extinct, and
according to an arrangement between the lines of Anhalt-Dessau
and Anhalt-Bernburg, Cothcn was added to Dessau.
Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its
prince? had added several districts to their lands; and in 1812,
an the extinction of a cadet branch, it was again united under a
single ruler. The feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became
duke in 1834, and the disturbed state of Europe in the following
decade, led to considerable unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was
occupied by Prussian troops. A number of abortive attempts
were made to change the government, and as Alexander Charles
was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau
took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually in 1859
a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau
jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were
united under the rule of Leopold.
Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 163a, but was quickly
reunited; and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I.
(see Anhalt-Dessau, Leopold I., Prince of), the famous soldier
who was generally known as the " Old Dessauer." The sons of
Leopold's eldest son were excluded from the succession on account
of the marriage of their father being morganatic, and the princi-
pality passed in 1747 to his second son, Leopold II. The unrest
of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the interference of the
Prussians and to the establishment of the new constitution in
1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 187 1, had the
satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his
rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one
Landtag for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for
Prussia against Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the posses-
sion of the ducal estates between the duke and the Landtag
broke the peace of the duchy, but this was settled in 187 a. In
187 x Anhalt became a state of the German Empire. Leopold IV.
was followed by his son Frederick I., and on the death of this
prince in roo* his son Frederick II. became duke of Anhalt.
Authorities.— F. Knoke, AnkaUische GesckichU (Dessau, 1893)*
C. Krause, Urkunden, Aktcnstiicke und Brief e zur Gcschichl*
dtr anhalttschen Lande und ih'rer FUrsten unlet dem Drucke des
. von Heinemann, Codex
); Siebigk, Das Her-
^ . . iUtiisttsck dargtstcUi
(Dcstau. 1867).
ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., Prince or (1076-1747),
called the "Old Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal
in the Prussian army, was the only surviving son of John George
II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676
at Dessau. From his earliest youth he was devoted to the pro-
fession of arms, for which he educated himself physically and
mentally. He became colonel of a Prussian regiment in 1693, and
in the same year his father's death placed him at the head of his
own principality; thereafter, during the whole of his long life, he
performed the duties of a sovereign prince and a Prussian officer.
His first campaign was that of 1695 in the Netherlands, in which
he was present at the siege of Namur. He remained in the field
to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs of the prindpaKty being ~
managed chiefly by his mother, Princess Henrietle Catherine ol ~
Orange In 1608 he married Anna Luise Fftse, an apothecary's '■
daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and earnest *
opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of a '
princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long '
and happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stem
nature of her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf ;'
of his subjects, and after the death of Leopold's mother she
performed the duties of regent when he was absent on campaign ~
Often, too, she accompanied him into the field. Leopold's career '
as a soldier in important commands begins with the outbreak of -
the War of the Spanish Succession. He had made many improve- v
ments in the Prussian army, notably the introduction of the iron •
ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the head of a
Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of Kaiserswerth :
and Venlo In the following year (i 703), having obtained the rank
of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn and dis-
tinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Hochstldt, in which
the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under
Marshal Villars (September 20, x 703). In the campaign of 1 704 the :
Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and sub-
sequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by
his conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian
corps to join Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the x6th of August
he displayed his bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano.
In the following year he added to his reputation in the battle of
Turin, where he was the first to enter the hostile entrenchments '
(September 7, 1706). He served in one more campaign in Italy,
and then went with Eugene to join Marlborough in the Netherlands,
being present in 1709 at the siege of Tournay and the battle of j
Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the command of the whole
Prussian contingent at the front, and in 171 2, at the particular
desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had served
with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal. j
Shortly before this he had executed a coup de main on the castle
of M5rs, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of
the king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected
with absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot
being fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William
I., the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members
of the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715)
he accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of
40,000 men, and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle
on the island of Rugen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of
Stralsund which followed was equally skilf ul,and the great results
of the war to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leader-
ship in the campaign. In the years of peace,and especially after
a court quarrel (1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he
devoted himself to the training of the Prussian army. The reputa-
tion it had gained in the wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave
no hint of its coming glory, and it was even in 1 740 accounted one
of the minor armies of Europe. That it proved, when put to the
test, to be by far the best military force existing, may be taken
as the summary result of Leopold's work. The " Old Dessauer "
was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age of stem discipline,
and the technical training of the infantry, under his hand, made
them superior to all others in the proportion of five to three (see
Austrian Succession, War or the). He was essentially an
infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but
he suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to
be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at
MollwiU. Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenf ried-
berg and Leuthcn himself, but had it not been for the incompar-
able infantry trained by the " Old Dessauer" he would never have
had the opportunity of doing so. Thus Leopold, heartily sup-
ported by Frederick William, who was himself called the great
drill-master of Europe, turned to good account the twenty yean
following the peace with Sweden. During this time two incident!
in his career caU for special mention: first, his intervention in trn
case of the crown prince Frederick, who was condemned to dcati
for desertion, and his continued and finally successful efforts ti
ANHYDRITE— ANILINE
47
mart Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian army, and
lecandly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on the Rhine,
vhere he served under his old chief Eugene and held the office of
£cd marshal of the Empire.
With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick
su-«.eeded to the Prussian throne, and a few months later took
i'.ict the invasion and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the long
S_.iian wars and the test of the work of the "Old DessauerV
lie Line. The prince himself was not often employed in the
Lira's own army, though his sons held high commands under
Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold, who was reputed,
% %;e the death ol Eugene, the greatest of living soldiers, somewhat
C. cult to manage, and the prince spent most of the campaigning
;rer& up to 1745 in command of an army of observation on the
Lion frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was now
&.-<r seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most
V- :.ant of his long career A combined effort of the Austrians
ni Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter
arpaign towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration of
ths Prussians. Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main
tray and hastened towards Dresden But before he had
arr »ed, Leopold, no longer in observation, had decided the war by
fc_. overwhelming victory of Kcsselsdorf (December 14, 1 74s) It
*ai at* habit to pray before battle, for he was a devout Lutheran.
rv. this last field his words were, " Lord God, let me not be
disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou wilt not help me, do not help
!hae scoundrels, but leave us to try it ourselves." With this
scat victory Leopold's career ended. He retired from active
ervke. and the short remainder of his life was spent at Dessau,
•acre he died on the 7th of April 1747.
He was succeeded by his son, Leopold II., Maximilian, Prince
ff Axbalt-Dessau (1700-1751), who was one of the best of
Frederick's subordinate generals, and especially distinguished
kj3*U by the capture of Glogau in 174 1, and his generalship at
M jflwiLz, Chotusitz (where he was made general field marshal on
&e field of battle), Hohenfricdbcrg and Soor.
Another son. Prince Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769),
«as also a distinguished Prussian general.
But the most famous of the sons was Prince Moritz or
/Uiurr -Dessau (171 2-1 760), who entered the Prussian army in
17:5. saw his first service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish
Succession (1734-35), and in the latter years of the reign of
Frtdrrkk William held important commands. In the Silesian
vzrsof Frederick II., MoriU, the ablest of the old Leopold's sons,
rwly distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Hohcn-
kiedberg (Striegau) , 1 745. At Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by
the young Prince Moritz that carried the Austrian lines and won
ir "Old Dessauer's" last fight. In the years of peace preceding the
Sc.tn Years' War. Moritz was employed by Frederick the Great
*s the colonizing of the waste lands of Pomerania and the Oder
Valley When the king took the field again in 1756. Moritz was
a command of one of the columns which hemmed in the Saxon
inay in the lines of Pima, and he received the surrender of
Itutow&ki's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at
tr! d. Next year Moritz underwent chaagesof fortune. At the
Utile of Kolin he led the left wing, which, through a misunder-
standing with the king, was prematurely drawn into action and
'^M hopelessly In the disastrous days which followed, Moritz
*2i under the cloud of Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious
* ctory of Leuthen (December 5. 1 7 57) put an end to this. At the
oW of that day, Frederick rode down the lines and called out to
General Prince Moritz, "I congratulate you. Herr Fcldmarschall!"
At Zorndorf he again distinguished himself, but at the surprise of
Hxhkirch fell wounded into the hands of the Austrians. Two
years later, soon after his release, his wound proved mortal.
AcTHOaiTlES.— Varnhagen von Ense. Preuss. biographisehe Denk*
malt. vol. U- (3rd ed., 187a); Militar Konvtrsatwns-Lexikon,
*-sl o. (Leipzig. 1833): Anon.. Fdrst Leopold I von An halt und seine
S*kw* (Doau. 180); C Pauli. Leben grosser Helden, vol. vi.
Orticb. Print MorUsvon A nkalt- Dessau (BerKn, 1842) : Crouutr,
HuWirwtke Denkunirdigkeiten des Fursten Leopold von AnhaU-Dessau
(1 57 5): supplements to Militdr WochenblaU (1878 and 1889);
Sietnjfc. Se&stbiegrophie des FArsten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau
(Dessau, i860 and 1876); Hasans, Zrn Biographic des FUrsUn
Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau (Dessau, 1876); Wurdig. Des Alien
Dessauers Leben und Tattn (3rd ed., Dessau. 1903); Brieje Konig
Friedrich Wilhelms I. an den Fursten L. (Berlin, 1905).
ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more
commonly occurring gypsum in containing no water of crystal-
lization, being anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaSOi- It crystal-
lizes in the orthorhombic system, and has three directions of
perfect cleavage parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is
not isomorphous with the orthorhombic barium and strontium
sulphates, as might be expected from the chemical formulae.
Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat rare, the mineral
usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The hardness
is 33 and the specific gravity 29. The colour is white, sometimes
greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the three
cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the
ordinary vitreous type
Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with
gypsum; it was, for instance, first discovered, ill 1794, in a salt
mine near Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical
specimens of the mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is
the same, are Stassf urt in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex
in Switzerland. At all these places it is only met with at some
depth; nearer the surface of the ground it has been altered to
gypsum owing to absorption of water.
From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as
crystals of gypsum, bat when the solution contains an excess of
sodium or potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is
one of the several methods by which the mineral has been
prepared artificially, and is identical with its mode of
origin in nature, the mineral having crystallized out in salt
basins.
The name anhydrite was given by A. G. Werner in 1804,
because of the absence of water, as contrasted with the presence
of water in gypsum. Other names for the species are muriacite
and karstcnite, the former, an earlier name, being given under
the impression that the substance was a chloride (muriate).
A peculiar variety occurring as contorted concretionary masses
is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular variety, from
Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the latter is
cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)
AMI (anc Abnteum), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in
Russian Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an
altitude of 4390 ft.. between the Arpa-chai (Harpasus) and a deep
ravine In 061 it became the capital of the Bagralid kings of
Armenia, and when yielded to the Byzantine emperor (1046) it
was a populous city, known traditionally as tho " city with the
looi churches." It was taken eighteen years later by the Seljuk
Turks, five times by the Georgians between 11 is and 1209, in
1739 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an earth-
quake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in
ruins, and amongst the remains are a " patriarchal " -church
finished in 1010, two other churches, both of the nth century,
a fourth built in 121s, and a palace of large size.
See Brosset, Les Ruines d'Ani (1 860-1861)
ANICETTJS, pope c. 154-167 It was during his pontificate
that St Polycarp visited the Roman Church.
AN1CHINI. LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a
native of Fcrrara, lived at Venice about 1550 Michelangelo
pronounced his " Interview of Alexander the Great with the
high-priest at Jerusalem," " the perfection of the arf " His
medals of Henry II of France and Pope Paul III are greatly
valued.
ANILINE, Prenylamine, or Aminobenzene, (C*H*NHi), an
organic base first obtained from the destructive distillation of
indigo in 1826 by O Unverdorben (Pogg Ann., 18:6, 8. p. 397),
who named it crystalline. In 1834. F Runge (Pogg Ann., 1834,
31, p. 65, 12. p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which
produced a beautiful blue colour on treatment with chloride of
lime; this he named kyanol or cyanol. In 1841,0 J Fritzsche
showed that by treating indigo with caustic potash it yielded an
oil, which he named aniline, from the specific name of one of the
+8
ANIMAL— ANIMAL HEAT
indigo-yielding plants, Indigoftra anil, anil being derived from
the Sanskrit nlla, dark-blue, and nlld, the indigo plant. About
the same time N. N. Zinin found that on reducing nitrobenzene,
a base was formed which he named benzidam. A. W. von
Hofmann investigated these variously prepared substances, and
proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took their
place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine.
Pure aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless,
melting at —8° and boiling at 184° C On exposure to air it
absorbs oxygen and rcsinifics, becoming deep brown in colour;
it ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses
a somewhat pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic
taste; it is a highly acrid poison.
Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids.
Aniline hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which
become greenish on exposure, it is the " aniline salt " of com-
merce. The sulphate forms beautiful white plates. Although
aniline is but feebly basic, it precipitates zinc, aluminium and
ferric salts, and on warming expels ammonia from its salts.
Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides to form secondary
and tertiary amines, boiled with carbon disulphide it gives
sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl t hi o- urea), CS(NHC*H»)t, which
may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, CtHtCNS, and
triphenyl guanidine, C«H»N: C(NHC*H») t . Sulphuric acid at
x8o° gives sulphanilic acid, NHrCJLjSOjH Anilidcs, com-
pounds in which the amino group is substituted by an acid
radical, are prepared by heating aniline with certain acids,
antifebrin or acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and
aniline. The oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated.
In alkaline solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid pro-
duces the violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid
converts it into qui none, while chlorates, in the presence of
certain metallic salts (especially of vanadium), give aniline black.
Hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potas-
sium permanganate in neutral solution oxidizes it to nitro-
benzene, in alkaline solution to azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic
acid, in acid solution to aniline black. Hypochlorous acid gives
para-amino phenol and para-arnino diphenylamine (E. Bam-
berger. Ber., 1898, ji, p. 1522).
The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness
with which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs.
The discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W. H. Pcrkjn was the
first of a scries of dyestuffs which arc now to be numbered by
hundreds. Reference should be made to the articles Dyeing,
Fuchsine, Satranine, Induunes, for more details on this
subject. In addition to dyestuffs, it is a starting-product for
the manufacture of many drugs, such as antipyrine, antifebrin,
&c Aniline is manufactured by reducing nitrobenzene with
iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the product.
The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the
benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In com-
merce three brands of aniline are distinguished— aniline oil for
blue, which is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of
equimolecular quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-tolui-
dincs; and aniline oil for safraninc, which contains aniline and
ortho-toluidine, and is obtained from the distillate {Cchappis) of
the fuchsine fusion. Monomcthyl and dimethyl aniline are
colourless liquids prepared by heating aniline, aniline hydro-
chloride and methyl alcohol in an autoclave at 220*. They arc
of great importance in the colour industry. Monomcthyl aniline
boils at 103-105 , dimethyl aniline at ioi*
ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul), a term first
used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used
to designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other
branch known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm,
and the scries of investigations by which il was established that
the cell was a fundamental structure essentially alike in both
animals and plants (see Cytology), there was a vague belief
that plants, if they could really be regarded as animated crea-
tures, exhibited at the most a lower grade of life. We know now
that in so far as life and living matter can be investigated by
science, animals and plants cannot be described as being alive
in different degrees. Animals and plants are extremely closely
related organisms, alike in their fundamental characters, and each
grading into organisms which possess some of the characters of
both classes or kingdoms (see Protista).' The actual boundaries
between animals and plants are artificial; they are rather due to
the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually resident in
objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that the animal
cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous material,
whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate
material — cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food
to repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material
which, by chemical change, may liberate the energy which
appears in the processes of life. The food is alike in both cases;
it consists of water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate
material and proteid material. Both animals and plants take
their water and inorganic salts directly as such. The animal
cell can absorb its carbohydrate and proteid food only in the
form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is dependent, in fact, on
the pre-existence of these organic substances, themselves the
products of living matter, and in this respect the animal is
essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life. The
plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing chloro-
phyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both
carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic
salts, if it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is de-
pendent on pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable
of absorbing, like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able
to build up its proteid food from material chemically simpler
than proteid. On these basal differences are founded most of
the characters which make the higher forms of animal and plant
life so different. The animal body, if it be composed of many
cells, follows a different architectural plan; the compact nature
of its food, and the yielding nature of its cell-walls, result in a
form of structure consisting essentially of tubular or spherical
masses of cells arranged concentrically round the food-cavity.
The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall,' and the attenu-
ated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and neces-
sary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed
to the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened
laminae and elongated branching growths. The distinctions
between animals and plants are ia fact obviously secondary
and adaptive, and point dearly towards the conception of a
common origin for the two forms of life, a conception which
is made still more probable by the existence of many low forms
in which the primary differences between animals and plants
fade out.
An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm
of which does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires
for its existence proteid material obtained from the living or
dead bodies of existing plants or animals. The common use of
the word animal as the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to
bird or reptile or fish, is erroneous.
The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the
article Zoology (P. C. M.)
ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the
physiology of the temperature of the animal body.
The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources
of heat, and also some mechanism by means of which both the
production and loss of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively
shown by the fact that both in summer and winter their mean
temperature remains the same. But it was not until the intro-
duction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature
of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local
differences were present, since heat production and heat loss
vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the
circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature
of the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the
temperature of those parts which most nearly approaches to
that oMhc internal organs. Also for such results to be compar-
able they must be made in the same situation. The rectum
gives most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in
women and some animals the vagina, uterus or bladder.
ANIMAL HEAT
49
Occasionally that of the urine at it leaves the urethra may be
of use. More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth,
axilla or groin.
Warm end CM Blooded Animals.— By numerous observations
upon men and animals, John Hunter snowed that the essential
difference be t ween the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded
animals lies in the constancy of the temperature of the former,
sad the variability of the temperature of the latter. Those
animals high in the scale of evolution, as birds and mammals,
have a high temperature almost constant and independent of
that of the surrounding air, whereas among the lower animals
there is much variation of body temperature, dependent entirely
on their surroundings. There are, however, certain mammals
which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer,
but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such
are the hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested
that two groups should be known as " animals of permanent
heat at all atmospheres " and " animals of a heat variable with
every atmosphere," but later Bergmann suggested that they
should be known as " homoiothermic " and " poikilothermic "
«"iwnh But it must be re-
membered there is no hard and "<""* c f «*'""* «rf «wfc
fast line between the two / ~ x ^
groups. Also, from work re- P reeiowtti a a a 5 e 7 a
cently done by J. O. Wakelin
Barratt, it has been shown that ***
coder certain pathological con- g^
ditkms a warm-blooded (homoi-
othermic) animal may become ****
for a time cold-blooded (poiki- mo
lothermic). He has shown
conclusively that this condition
has a much greater range than this, and is susceptible of wide
divergencies from comparatively slight causes.
Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that
appear to be cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits and puppies,
if removed from their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their
body heat until their temperature has fallen to within a few
degrees of that of the surrounding air. But such animals are at
birth blind, helpless and in some cases naked. Animals who are
born when in a condition of greater development can maintain
their temperature fairly constant. In strong, healthy infants
a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but in that of
weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary or
falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and
young immature animals is the imperfect development of the
nervous regulating mechanism.
The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty
and again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is
passed the temperature begins to rise again, and by about the
eightieth year is as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has
been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity,
Hours of rett and deep.
exists in rabbits suffering from oa-a
rabies during the last period of M4
their life, the rectal temperature
being then within a few degrees ** 3
of the room temperature and 994
varying with it. He explains
this condition by the assump- ° 78
tion that the nervous median- ere
ism of heat regulation has
The
paralysed. The re-
spiration and heart-rate being *7-2
also retarded during this period,
the resemblance to the condition
of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland Simpson has
shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal tends
to take the same temperature as that of its environment. He
demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized
with ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradu-
ally falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point
(about S5*C. in the monkey), the employment of an anaesthetic is
no longer necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and
incapable of being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact,
narcotised by cold, and is in a state of what may be called
" artificial hibernation." Once again this is explained by the
fact that the heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered
with. Similar results have been obtained from experiments on
cats. These facts— with many others— tend to show that the
power of maintaining a constant temperature has been a gradual
development, as Darwin's theory of evolution suggests, and that
anything that interferes with the due working of the higher
nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for the time being, on
to a lower plane of evolution.
Variations in Ike Temperature of Man and some other A nimais. —
As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is
maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal
conditions the temperature of man varies between 36° C and
3$° C, of if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between
36*25° C. and 57-5* C. In the mouth the reading would be from
'*S° C. to 1 -5° C. higher than this; and in the rectum some -o* C.
higher still. The temperature of infants and young children
it. 2
the maximum ranging from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., the minimum from
1 1 p.m. to 3 a.m. Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Galbraith have
recently done much work on this subject In their first experi-
ments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked and
regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by
reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed.
The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and
activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night;
in monkeys which are active during the night and resting during
the day, the body temperature is highest at night and lowest
through the day. They then made observations on the tempera-
ture of animals and birds of nocturnal habit, where the periods
of rest and activity are naturally the reverse of the ordinary
through habit and not from outside interference. They found
that in nocturnal birds the temperature is highest during the
natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period
of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is lower and the
range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That the
temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that
of man and other homoiothcrmal animals, except that the
maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum
earlier in the morning. Also that the curves obtained from
rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite similar to those from man.
The mean temperature of the female was higher than that of the
male in all the species examined whose sex had been determined.
Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight
oppression— alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise
Ira
50
ANIMAL WORSHIP
and variations of external temperature within ordinary limits
cause very slight change, as there are many compensating
influences at work, which are discussed later. Even from very
active exercise the temperature does not rise more than one
degree, and if carried to exhaustion a fall is observed. In
travelling from very cold to very hot regions a variation of less
than one degree occurs, and the temperature of those living in
the tropics is practically identical with those dwelling in the
Arctic regions.
Limits compatible with Life.— Then are limits both of heat and
cold that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider
limits that a cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live.
The effect of too extreme a cold is to lessen metabolism, and
hence to lessen the production of heat. Both katabolic and
anabolic changes share in the depression, and though less energy
is used up, still less energy is generated. This diminished
metabolism tells first on the central nervous system, especially
the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness. Both
heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished, drowsiness
supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the
sleep of death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set
in towards the end, and a death somewhat similar to that of
asphyxia takes place. In some recent experiments on cats
performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, they
found them unable to survive when the rectal temperature
was reduced below i6° C. At this low temperature respiration
became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually continued
after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular,
apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared
to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that
it had taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other
hand, too high a temperature hurries oil the metabolism of the
various tissues at such a rate that their capital is soon exhausted.
Blood that is too warm produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts
the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre. The rate of
the heart is quickened, the beats then become irregular and finally
cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected,
consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls into a comatose
condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All these
changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute
fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure
depends on many things, but no one can survive a temperature
of 45* C. (i 13° F.) or above for very long. Mammalian muscle
becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50 C., and obviously should
this temperature be reached the sudden rigidity of the whole
body would render life impossible. H. M. Vernon has recently
done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature
(temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that
animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very
similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined
being 38 $° C, Fishes 39°, Reptilia 45°, and various Molluscs 4 6°.
Also in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between
death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of
the body, Cestus having lowest death temperature and least
amount of solids in its body. But in the higher animals his
experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both
the chemical and physical characters of the protoplasm, and hence
greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life.
Regulation of Temperature. — The heat of the body is generated
by the chemical changes— those of oxidation— undergone not
by any particular substance or in any one place, but by the tissues
at large. Wherever destructive metabolism (katabolism) is
going on, heat is being set free. When a muscle docs work it
also gives rise to heat, and if this is estimated it can be shown
that the muscles alone during their contractions provide far
more heat than the whole amount given out by the body. Also
it must be remembered that the heart — also a muscle, — never
resting, does in the 34 hours no inconsiderable amount of work,
and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat.
From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of
the body is supplied by the muscles. These axe essentially the
" thermogenic tissues." Next to the muscles as heat generators
come the various secretory glands, especially the liver, which
appears never to rest in this respect The brain also must be
a source of heat, since its temperature is higher than that of the
arterial blood with which it is supplied. Also a certain amount
of heat is produced by the changes which the food undergoes
in the alimentary canal before it really enters the body. But
heat while continually being produced is also continually being
lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces. And it is by the constant
modification of these two factors, (1) heat production and (2)
heat loss, that the constant temperature of a warm-blooded
animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through the
faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from
the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following
are approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these
various channels (different authorities give somewhat different
figures): — faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin
(conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it
is clear the chief means of loss are the skin and the lung*. The
more air that passes in and out of the lungs in a given time,
the greater the loss of heat. And in such animals as the dog,
who do not perspire easily by the skin, respiration becomes
far more important.
But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin,
which regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and
also by the nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation of
the cutaneous vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood
through the skin, and so tends to cool the body, and wiu versa.
Also the special nerves of perspiration can increase or lessen
heat loss by promoting or diminishing the secretions of the
skin. There are greater difficulties in the exact determination
in the amount of heat produced, but there are certain well-
known facts in connexion with it. A larger living body naturally
produces more heat than a smaller one of the same nature, but
the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion to its
bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate.
Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the
smaller animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat.
And in the struggle for existence this has become so.
Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate
of production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is
reached from about the 6th to the 9th hour. If sugar be included
in the meal the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later.
Muscular work very largely increases the production of heat,
and hence the more active the body the greater the production
of heat.
But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the pro-
duction and loss of heat are themselves probably reguUted
by the central nervous system, there being a thermogenic centre
—situated above the spinal cord, and according to some observers
in the optic thalamus.
Authorities.— M. S. Pcmbrey. "Animal Heat." in Senator's 7>jrf-
book of Physiology (1898) ; C. R. Richet, " Chalcur," inaVictionnaire
de physiologic (Paris, 1 898); Hale White, Croonian Lectures, Lancet ,
London, 1897; Pcmbrey and Nicol, Journal of Physiology, vol.
xxiii., 1898-1899; H. M. Vernon, "Heat Rigor," Journal of Physio-
logy, xxiv., 1899: H. M. Vernon, "Death Temperatures, Journal
of Physiology, xxv., 1899; F. C. Eve, "Temperature on Nerve
Cells/ 1 Journal of Physiology, xxvt., 1900; G. Weiss, CompUs Rend us,
Soc. de Biol., lii.. 1 900; Swale Vincent and Thomas Lewis, " Heat
Rigor of Muscle, ' Journal of Physiology, 1901 : Sutherland Simpson
and Percy Herring, " Cold and Reflex Action." Journal of Physiology,
1905; Sutherland Simpson, Proceedings of Physiological Soc.. July
19, 1902; Sutherland Simpson and J. J. Calbraith, " Diurnal
Variation of Body Temperature," Journal of Physiology, 1905;
Transactions Royal Society Edinburgh, 19OS: Proc. Physiological
Society, p. xx., 1903; A. fc. Boycott and J. 5. Haldane, Effects of
High Temperatures on Man.
ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts
ranging from the worship of the real dfvine animal, commonly
conceived as a " god-body," at one end of the scale, to respect
for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful
name for the living animal at the other end. Added to this,
in many works on the subject we find reliance placed, especially
for the African facts, on reports of travellers who were merely
visitors to the regions on which they wrote.'
ANIMAL WORSHIP
5*
CUs*iJUaH*n.—Amm$l cults may be classified fn two ways:
(A) according to tlwir outward form; (B) according to their
inward meaning, which may of course undergo transformations.
(A) There are two broad divisions: (i) all animals of a given
species are sacred, perhaps owing to the impossibility of dis-
tinguishing the sacred few from the profane crowd; (*) one or
a fixed number of a species are sacred. It is probable that the
first of these forms is the primary one and the second in most
cases a development from it due to (i.) the influence of other
individual cults, (ii.) anthropomorphic tendencies, (Hi.) the
influence of chief tainship, hereditary and otherwise, (iv.) annual
sacrifice of the sacred animal and mystical ideas connected
therewith, (v.) syncretism, due either to unity of function or to
a philosophic unification, (vi.) the desire to do honour to the
species in the person of one of its members, and possibly other
less easily traceable causes.
(B) Treating cults according to their meaning, whicji is not
necessarily identical with the cause which first led to the deifica-
tion of the animal in question, we can classify them under ten
specific heads: (i.) pastoral cults; (ii.) hunting cults; (iii.) cults
of dangerous or noxious animals; (iv.) cults of animals regarded
as human souls -or their embodiment; (v.) totemistic cults;
(vi.) cults of secret societies, and individual cults of tutelary
~s; (viL) cults of tree and vegetation spirits; (viii.) cults of
animals; (ix.) cults, probably derivative, of animals
with certain deities; (x.) cults of animals used in
(I) The pastoral type falls into two sub-types, in which the species
(a) is spared and (b) sometimes receives special honour at intervals
in the person of aa individual. (Sec Cattle, Buffalo, below.)
(*L) In hunting cults the species is habitually killed, but (a)
occasionally honoured in the person of a single individual, or \b\
each slaughtered animal receives divine honours. (See Btar, below.)
(iii-) The cult of dangerous animals is doe (a) to the fear that the
soul of the slain beast may take vengeance on the hunter, (6) to a
desire to placate the rest of the species. (See Leopard, below.)
(iv.) Animals arc frequently regarded as the abode, temporary. or
permanent, of the souls of the dead, sometimes as the actual souls of
the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons: (a) the
kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead
relatives; (*) they wish at the same time to secure that their kinsmen
are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering. (See
Serpent, below.)
(v.) One of the* most widely' found modes of showing respect to
animals is known as totemism (see Totem and Totemism), but
except in decadent forms there is but little positive worship; in
Central Australia, however, the rites of the WoJIunqua totem group
are directed towards placating this mythical animal, and cannot be
termed anything but religious ceremonies.
(vL) In secret societies we find bodies of men grouped together
with a single tutelary animal; the individual, in the same way,
acquires the nagual or individual totem, sometimes by ceremonies
of the nature ol the bloodbond.
(viL) Spirits of vegetation in ancient and modern Europe and in
China are conceived in animal form. (See Goal, below.)
(viii.) The ominous animal or bird may develop into a deity. (Sec
Hatci, below.)
(ix.) It is commonly assumed that the animals associated with
certain deities are sacred because the god was originally thcrio-
morphic: this is doubtless the case in certain instances; but Apollo
Smintheus, Dionysus Bassareus and other examples seem to show
that the god may have been appealed to for help and thus become
associated with the animals from whom he protected the crops, &c.
(x.) The use of animals in magic may sometimes give rise to a kind
of respect for them, but. this is of a negative nature. See, however,
articles by Preuss in Globus, vol. Ixviu, in which he maintains that
animals of magical influence are elevated into divinities.
Bear. — The bear enjoys a large measure of respect from all
savage races that come in contact with it, which shows itself in
Amhmmt apologies and in festivals in its honour. The most
1 n , important developments of the cult are in East Asia
among the Siberian tribes; among the Ainu of Sak-
halin a young bear is caught at the end of winter and fed for
sons* pine months; then after receiving honours it is killed, and
the people, who previously show marks of grief at its approaching
fate, dance merrily and feast on its body. Among the Gilyaks a
similar festival is found, but here it takes the form of a celebration
in honour ol a recently dead kinsman, to whom the spirit of the
bear m scat. Whether this feature or a cult of the hunting type
was the primary form, is so far an open question. There is a
good deal of evidence to connect the Greek goddess Artemis
with a cult of the bear; girls danced as " bears" in her honour,
and might not marry before undergoing this ceremony. The
bear is traditionally associated with Bern in Switzerland, and in
1832 a statue of Artio, a bear goddess, was dug up there.
Buffalo.— The Todas of S. India abstain from the flesh of their
domestic animal, the buffalo; but once a year they sacrifice a
bull calf, which is eaten in the forest, by the adult males.
Cattle. — Cattle are respected by many pastoral peoples; they
live on milk or game, and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial
function. Conspicuous among Egyptian animal cults was that
of the bull, Apis. It was distinguished by certain marks, and
when the old Apis died a new one was sought; the finder was
rewarded, and the bull underwent four months' education at
Nilopolis. Its birthday was celebrated once a year; oxen,
which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it; women were
forbidden to approach it when once its education was finished.
Oracles were obtained from It in various ways. After death it
was mummified and buried in a rock-tomb. Less widespread
was the cult of the Mnevis, also consecrated to Osiris. Similar
observances are found in our own day on the Upper Nile; the
Nuba and Nucr worship the bull; the Angoni of Central Africa
and the Sakalava of Madagascar keep sacred bulls. In India
respect for the cow is widespread, but is of post-Vedlc origin;
there is little actual worship, but the products of the cow are
important in magic.
Crow.— The crow is the chief deity of the Thlinkit Indians of
N. W. America; and all over that region It is the chief figure in a
group of myths, fulfilling the office of a culture hero who brings
the light, gives fire to mankind, &c. Together with the eagle*
hawk the crow plays a great part in the mythology of S.E.
Australia.
Dog. — Actual dog- worship is uncommon; the Nosarii of
western Asia are said to worship a dog; the Kalangs of Java
had a cult of the red dog, each family keeping one in the house;
according to one authority the dogs are images of wood which
are worshipped after the death of a member of the family and
burnt after a thousand days. In Nepal it is said that dogs are
worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja. Among the
Harranians dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers of
the mystae.
Elephant. — In Slam it is believed that a white elephant may
contain the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha; when one
is taken the capturcr is rewarded and the animal brought to the
king to be kept ever afterwards; it cannot be bought or sold.
It is baptized and feted and mourned for like a human being at
its death. In some parts of Indo-China the belief is that the soul
of the elephant may injure people after death; it is therefore
feted by a whole village. In Cambodia it is held to bring luck
to the kingdom. In Sumatra the elephant is regarded as a
tutelary spirit. The cult of the white elephant is also found at
Ennarea, southern Abyssinia.
Fish. — Dagon seems to have been a fish-god with human head
and hands; his worshippers wore fish-skins. In the temples of
Apollo and Aphrodite were sacred fish, which may point to a
fish cult. Atargatis is said to have had sacred fi:h at Askclon,
and from Xenophon we read that the fish of the Chalus were
regarded as gods.
Goo/.— Dionysus was believed to take the form of a goat,
probably as a divinity of vegetation. Pan, Silcnus, the Satyrs
and the Fauns were cither capriform or had some part of their
bodies shaped like that of a goat. In northern Europe the wood
spirit, Ljcschc, is believed to have a goal's horns, cars and legs.
In Africa the Bijagos are said to have a goat as their principal
divinity.
Bare. — In North America the Algonquin tribes had as their
chief deity a •• mighty great hare " to whom they went at death.
According to one account he lived in the east, according to
another In the north. In his anthropomorphized form he was
known as Menabosho or Michabo.
Home.*— In North Borneo we seem to see the evolution of a
5*
ANIME
god in the three stages of the cult of the hawk among the Ken-
yans, the Kayans and the sea Dyaks. The Kenyans will not
kill it, address to it thanks for assistance, and formally consult
it before leaving home on an expedition; it seems, however,
to be regarded as the messenger of the supreme god BaUi Penya-
long. The Kayans have a hawk-god, Laki Neho, but seem to
regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, Laki Tenangan.
Singalang Burong, the hawk-god of the Dyaks, is completely
anthropomorphized. He is god of omens and ruler of the omen
birds; but the hawk is not his messenger, for he never leaves
his house; stories are, however, told of his attending feasts in
human form and flying away in hawk form when all was over.
Horse. —There is some reason to believe that Poseidon, like
other water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a
horse. In the cave of Phigalia Dcmeter was, according to
popular tradition, represented with the head and mane of a
horse, possibly a relic of the time when a non-specialized corn-
spirit bore this form. Her priests were called Poloi (colts) in
Laconia. In Gaul we find a horse-goddess, Epona; there are
also traces of a horse-god, Rudiobus. The Gonds in India
worship a horse-god, Koda Pen, in the form of a shapeless stone;
but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The
horse or mare is a common form of the corn-spirit in Europe.
Leonard. — The cult of the leopard is widely found in West
Africa. Among the Ewe a man who kills one is liable to be put
to death; no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed
leopard is worshipped. On the Gold Coast a leopard hunter
who has killed his victim is carried round the town behind the
body of the leopard; he may not speak, must besmear himself
so as to look like a leopard and imitate its movements. In
Loango a prince's cap is put upon the head of a dead leopard,
and dances are held in its honour.
Lion.— The lion was associated with the Egyptian gods R*
and Horus; there was a lion-god at Baalbek and a lion-headed
goddess Sekhet. The Arabs had a lion-god, Yaghuth. In
modern Africa wc find a lion-idol among the Balonda.
Lizard. — The cult of the lizard is most prominent in the
Pacific, where it appears as an incarnation of Tangaloa. In
Easter Island a form of the house-god is the lizard; it is also a
tutelary deity in Madagascar.
Mantis. — Cagn is a prominent figure in Bushman mythology;
the mantis and the caterpillar, Ngo, are his incarnations. It was
called the " Hottentots' god " by early settlers.
Monkey.— In India the monkey-god, Hanuman, is a prominent
figure; in orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm.
Monkeys are said to be worshipped in Togo. At Porto Novo, in
French West Africa, twins have tutelary spirits in the shape of
small monkeys.
Serpent.— The cult of the serpent is found in many parts of
the Old World; it is also not unknown in America; in Australia,
on the other hand, though many species of serpent are found,
there does not appear to be any species of cult unless wc include
the Waxramunga cult of the mythical Wollunqua totem animal,
whom they seek to placate by riles. In Africa the chief centre
of serpent worship was Dahomey; but the cult of the python
seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first
quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah the
Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent
worshippers, and ended by adopting from them the cult which
they at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a
serpent temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes; every python
of the danh-gbi kind must be treated with respect, and death is
the penalty for killing one, even by accident. Danh-gbi has
numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession
from which the profane crowd was excluded; a python was
carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony
for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ewe was also
conceived to have the form of a snake; his messenger was said
to be a small variety of boa; but only certain individuals, not
the whole species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa the
serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives;
among the Amaaulu, as among the Bctsileo of Madagascar,
certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes; the
Masai, on the other hand, regard each species at the habitat of a
particular family of the tribe.
In America some of the Amerindian tribes reverence the
rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to
give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi (Moqui) of
Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances. The
rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez temple of the sun;
and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a serpent-god. The tribes
of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca
days; and in Chile the Araucanians made a serpent figure in
their deluge myth.
Over a large part of India there are carved representations of
cobras (Nagas) or stones as substitutes; to these human food
and flowers are offered and lights are burned before the shrines.'
Among the Dravidians a cobra which is accidentally killed is
burned like a human being; no one would kill one intentionally;
the serpent-god's image is carried in an annual procession by a
celibate priestess.
Serpent cults were well known in ancient Europe; there does
not, it is true, appear to be much ground for supposing that
Aesculapius was a serpent-god in spite of his connexion with
serpents. On the other hand, we learn from Herodotus of the
great serpent which defended the citadel of Athens; the Roman
genius loci took the form of a serpent; a snake was kept and
fed with milk in the temple of Potrimpos, an old Slavonic god.
To this day there are numerous traces in popular belief, especially
in Germany, of respect for the snake, which seems to be a survival
of ancestor worship, such as still exists among the Zulus and
other savage tribes; the " house-snake," as it is called, cares
for the cows and the children, and its appearance is an omen of
death, and the life of a pair of house-snakes is often held to be
bound up with that of the master and mistress themselves.
Tradition says that one of the Gnostic sects known as the
Ophites caused a tame serpent to coil round the sacramental
bread and worshipped it as the representative of the Saviour.
See also Serpent- Worship.
Sheep.— Only in Africa do we find a sheep-god proper; Amnion
was the god of Thebes; he was represented as ram-headed;
his worshippers held the ram to be sacred; it was, however,
sacrificed once a year, and its fleece formed the clothing of the
idol.
Tiger.— The tiger is associated with Siva and Durga, but its
cult is confined to the wilder tribes; in Nepal the tiger festival
is known as Bagh Jatra, and the worshippers dance disguised aa
tigers. The Waralis worship Waghia the lord of tigers in the
form of a shapeless stone. In Hanoi and Manchuria tiger-gods
are also found.
Wolf.— Both Zeus and Apollo were associated with the wolf
by the Greeks; but it is not clear that this implies a previous
cult of the wolf. It is frequently found among the tutelary
deities of North American dancing or secret societies. The
Thlinkits had a god, Khanukh, whose name means "wolf," and
worshipped a wolf-headed image.
Authorities. — For a fuller discussion and full references to these
and other cults, that of the serpent excepted, see N. W. Thomas in
Hastings' Dictionary of Religions; Frazcr, Golden Bough; Camp-
bell's Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom: Maclcnnan's Studies (series
a); V. Gcnncp, Tabou el toUmisme a Madagascar. For the serpent.
sec Ellis. Ewe-speaking Peoples, p. 54; Internet. Archh, xvii. 113:
Tylor, Primitive Culture, 11. 239; Fcmtsson. Tree and Serpent
Worship: Mahly. Die Schlange im Mythusi Staniland Wake.
Serpent Worship. 6te.; tfith Annual Report of the American Bureau
of Ethnology, p. 373, and bibliography, p. 31a. For the bull, ftc, in
Egypt, see Egypt: Religion. (N. W. T.)
AIU1IB, an oleo-resin (said to be so called because in its
natural state it is infested with insects) which is exuded from the
locust tree, Hymenaea coumaril, and other species of Hymenaea
growing in tropical South America. It is of a pale brown colour,
transparent, brittle, and in consequence of its agreeable odour
is used for fumigation and in perfumery. Its specific gravity
varies from 1*054 to 1*057. It melts readily over the fire, and
softens even with the heat of the mouth; it is insoluble in
water, and nearly so in cold alcohol It is allied to copal in Its
ANIMISM
S3
, and b inoch used by varjush-makera.
s asahm given to Zanzibar copal («.*.).
I (from tiiuMtf, or swims, mind or soul), according
to the definition of Dr E. B. Tyior, toe doctrine of spiritual beings,
■a ludiug, hvman soab; in practice, however, the term is often
cifcndcd tomdude panlhrliini or animalism, the doctrine that
a, great port, if not the whole, of the inanimate kingdom, as well
as all animated beings, are endowed with reason, intelligence
and volition, identical with that of man. This latter theory,
which in many cases it equivalent to personification, though it
may be, like animism, a feature of the philosophy of peoples of
low cnltnre, should not be confused with it. But it is difficult
m practice to dotinguish the two phases of thought and no clear
account of animatism can yet be given, hugely on the ground
that no people has yet been discovered which has not already
d evel op ed to a greater or less extent an animistic philosophy.
On theoretical grounds it is probable that animalism preceded
animism; but savage thought is no more consistent than that
of cMhned man; and it may well be that animistic and panthe-
istic doctrines are held simultaneously by the same person. In
hx* manner one portion of the savage explanation of nature may
have been originally animistic, another part aniraatistic.
Qrigi*,—Ammnm may have arisen out of or simultaneously
with •»««»•*«— as a primitive explanation of many different
Dsxnomena; if animatism was originally applied to non-human
or inanimate objects, animism may from the outset have been in
vogoc as a theory of the nature of man. Lists of phenomena
from the contemplation of which the savage was led to believe
in «-*■"—» have been given by Dr Tylor, Herbert Spencer,
Mr Andrew Lang and others; an a nim a ted controversy arose
between the former as to the priority of their respective lists.
Among these phenomena are: trance (q.i.) and unconsciousness,
sk k orai , death, clairvoyance ($.».)> dreams (q.v), apparitions
(f j.) of the dead, wraiths, hallucinations ($.?.), echoes, shadows
and reflections.
Primitive ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time
the origin of them, are best illustrated by an analysis of the terms
applied to rU Readers of Dante know the idea that the dead
have no shadows; this was no invention of the poet's but a
piece of traditionary lore; at the present day among the Basutos
it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose
his life if his shadow falls on the water, for a crocodile may seize
it and draw him in; in Tasmania, North and South America
and *h~ir*i Europe is found the conception that the soul — <m&,
rnmhra — is somehow identical with the shadow of a man. More
familiar to the Anglo-Saxon race is the connexion between the
soul and the breath; this identification is found both in Aryan and
Semitic languages; in Latin we have spiritus, in Greek pntuma,
in Hebrew mack; and the idea is found extending downwards
to the lowest planes of culture in Australia, America and Asia.
For some of the Red Indians the Roman custom of receiving the
breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of
mmrint that his soul was transferred to a new body. Other
famiHir conceptions identify the soul with the fiver (see Omen)
or the heart, with the reflected figure seen in the pupQ of the eye,
and with the blood.. Although the soul is often distinguished from
the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of
unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul;
in South Australia wilyomarraba (without soul) is the word used
for ttt* <> " kU So too the autohypnotic trance of the magician
or sham** is regarded as due to his visit to distant regions or the
nether world, of which he brings back an account. Telepathy or
clairvoyance (?.».), with or without trance, must have operated
powerfully to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man,
for it seems probable that facts unknown to the automatist are
sometimes discovered by means of crystal-gazing (g.».), which
b widely found among savages, as among civilized peoples.
Sickness is often explained as due to the •absence of the soul;
and means are sometimes taken to lure back the wandering soul;
when a Chinese is at the point of death and his soul is supposed
to have already left his body, the patient's coat is held up on a
long bamboo while a priest endeavours to bringthe departedspirit
back into the coat by means of incanUtions. If the bamboo
begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed
to hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the moribund
has returned (see Automatism). More important perhaps than
all these phenomena, because more regular and norma), was the
daily period of sleep with its frequent concomitant of fitful and
incoherent ideas and images. The mere immobility of the body
was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that
of waking; when, in addition, the sleeper awoke to give an
account of visits to distant lands, from which, as modern
psychical investigations suggest, he may even have brought back
veridical details, the conclusion must have been irresistible
that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not the body.
In a minor degree revival of memory during sleep and similar
phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to
the same result. Dreams are sometimes explained by savages
as journeys performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid
by other persons, by animals or objects to him; hallucinations,
possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture, must have
contributed to fortify this interpretation, and the animistic
theory in general Seeing the phantasmic figures of friends at
the moment when they were, whether at the point of death or
in good health, many miles distant, must have led the savage
irresistibly to the dualistic theory. But hallucinatory figures,
both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of the
living; from the reappearance of dead friends or enemies
primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed
an incorporeal part of man which survived the dissolution of the
body. The soul was conceived to be a facsimile of the body,
sometimes no less material, sometimes more subtle but yet
material, sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible.
Animism and Esekatology. — Trie psychological side of animfom
has* already been dealt with; almost equally important in
primitive creeds is the eschatological aspect. .In many parts cf
the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than
one soul; in the island of Nias four are distinguished, the shadow
and the intelligence, which die with the body, a tutelary spirit,
termed begoe, and a second which is carried on the head. Similar
ideas are found among the Euahlayi of S.E. Australia, the
Dakotas and many other tribes. Just as in Europe the ghost
of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of
death, although more orthodox ideas may be held and enunciated
by the same person as to the nature of a future life, so the savage,
more consistently, assigns different abodes to the multiple souls
with which he credits man. Of the four souls of a Dakota, one
is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village, a third goes
into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls, where its
lot may depend on its rank in this life, its sex, mode of death
or sepulture, on the dueobservanceof funeral ritual, or many other
points (see Eschatology). From the belief in the survival of the
dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, &c, at the
grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety,
later as an act of worship (see Ancestor Worship). The simple
offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into
an elaborate system of sacrifice; even where ancestor-worship
is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the
future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, &c,
to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the
provision of the ferryman's toll, a coin put In the mouth of the
corpse to pay the travelling expenses of the-souL But all Is not
finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead;
the soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover
the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself; there is a wide-
spread belief that those who die a violent death become maHgnant
spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted
spot; the woman who dies in child-birth becomes a fontianak,
and threatens the life of human beings; and man resorts to
magical or religious means of repelling his spiritual dangers.
Development of Animism. — If the phenomena of dreams were,
as suggested above, of great importance for the development of
animism, the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine
of human psychology, cannot have failed to expand speed* 1
54
ANIMISM
a general philosophy of nature. Not only human beings but
animals and objects are seen in dreams; and the conclusion
would be that they too have souls; the same conclusion may have
been reached by another line of argument; primitive psychology
posited a spirit in a man to account, amongst other things, for his
actions; a natural explanation of the changes in the external
world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions
of spirits.
Animal Souls.— But apart from considerations of this sort, it is
probable that animals must, early in the history of animistic
beliefs, have been regarded as possessing souls. Education has
brought with It a sense of the great gulf between man and animals ;
but in the lower stages of culture this distinction is not adequately
recognized, if indeed it is recognized at all. The savage attributes
to animals the same ideas, the same mental processes as himself,
and at the same time vastly greater power and cunning. The dead
animal is credited with a knowledge of how its remains are treated
and sometimes with a power of taking vengeance on the fortunate
hunter. Powers of reasoning are not denied to animals nor even
speech, the silence of the brute creation may be put down to
their superior cunning. We may assume that man attributed a
soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he claimed one for
himself. It is therefore not surprising to find that many peoples
on the lower planes of culture respect and even worship animals
(see Totem; Animal Worship); though we need not attribute
an animistic origin to all the developments, it is clear that- the
widespread respect paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors,
and much of the cult- of dangerous animals, is traceable to this'
principle. With the rise of species, deities and the cult of in-
dividual animals, the path towards anthropomorphization and
polytheism is opened and the respect paid to animals tends to lose
its strict animistic character.
Plant Souls.— Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so
primitive man often credits trees and plants with souls m both
human or animal form. All over the world agricultural peoples
practise elaborate ceremonies explicable, as Mannhardt has
shown, on animistic principles. In Europe the corn spirit some-
times immanent in the crop, sometimes a presiding deity whose
life does not depend on that of the growing corn, is conceived in
some districts in the form of an ox, hare or cock, in others as an
old man or woman; in the East Indies and America the rice or
maize mother is a corresponding figure; in classical Europe and
the East we have in Ceres and Demcter, Adonis and Dionysus,
and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can readily
trace back to the rustic corn spirit. Forest trees, no less than
cereals, have their indwelling spirits; the fauns and satyrs of
classical literature were goat-footed and tfie tree spirit of the
Russian peasantry takes the form of a goat; in Bengal and the
East Indies wood-cutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the
tree which they cut down; and in many parts of the world trees
are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a
process of syncretism has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree
spirits tend to become detached from the trees, which are thence-
forward only their abodes; and here again animism has begun to
pass into polytheism.
Object Souls. — We distinguish between animate and inanimate
nature, but this classification has no meaning for the savage. The
river speeding on its course to the sea, the sun and moon, if not
the stars also, on their never-ceasing daily round, the lightning,
fire, the wind, the sea, all are in motion and therefore animate;
but the savage does not stop short here; mountains and lakes,
stones and manufactured articles, are for him alike endowed with
souls like his own; he deposits in the tomb weapons and food,
clothes and implements, broken, it may be, in order to set free
their souls; or he attains the same result by burning them, and
thus sending them to the Other World for the use of the dead man.
Here again, though to a less extent than in tree cults, the
tberiomorphic aspect recurs; in the north of Europe, in ancient
Greece, in China, the water or river spirit is horse or bull-shaped;
the water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found,
A ictly the spirit of the water. The spirit of syn-
itself in this department of animism too; the
immanent spirit of the earlier period becomes the presiding genius
or local god of later times, and with the rise of the doctrine of
separable souls we again reach the confines of animism pure and
simple.
Spirits in General.— Side by side with the doctrine of separable
souls with which we have so for been concerned, exists the belief
in a great host of unattached spirits; these are not immanent souk
which have become detached from their abodes, but have every
appearance of independent spirits. Thus, animism is in some
directions little developed, so far as we can see, among the
Australian-aborigines, but from those who know them best we
learn that they believe in innumerable spirits and bush bogies,
which wander, especially at night, and can be held at bay by
means of fire; with this belief may be compared the ascription
in European folk belief of prophylactic properties to iron. These
spirits are at first mainly malevolent; and side by aide with them
we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings. At a higher stage
the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly, nor yet all
non-human spirits; as fetishes (see Fetishism), naguals (see
Totem), familiars, gods or demi-gods (for which and the general
question see Demonolocy), they enter into relations with man.
On the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil
spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena of possession
(q.v.) , lycanthropy (q.v.) , disease, &c The fear of evil spirits has
given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see Exoicbm),
designed to banish them from the community.
Animism and Religion.— Animism is commonly described as
the most primitive form of religion; but properly speaking it is
not a religion at all, for religion implies, at any rate, some form of
emotion (see Reucion), and animism Is in the first instance an
explanation of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward
the cause of them, a philosophy rather than a religion. The term
may, however, be conveniently used to describe the early stage
of religion in which man endeavours to set up relations between
himself and the unseen powers, conceived as spirits, but differing
in many particulars from the gods of polytheism. As an example
of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the European belief
in the corn spirit, which is, however, the object of magical rather
than religious rites; Dr Frazer has thus defined the character of
the animistic pantheon, " they are restricted in their operations
to definite departments of nature; their names are general, not
proper; their attributes are generic rather than individual; in
other words, there {s an indefinite number of spirits of each class,
and the individuals of a class are much alike; they have no
definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions arc
current as to their origin, life and character." This stage of
religion is well illustrated by the Red Indian custom of offering
sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling spirits
connected with them; the rite is only performed in the neighbour-
hood of the object, it is an incident of a canoe or other voyage, and
is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past
the object in question; the spirit to be propitiated has a purely
local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited nature.
Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of
fetishism (q. v.), naguals or familiars, genii and even the dead who
receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods
comes the age of polytheism; the belief in elemental spirits may
still persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult.
Animism and Pte Origin of Religion.— Tvro animistic theories of
the origin of religion have been put forward, the one, often termed
the " ghost theory," mainly associated with the name of Herbert
Spencer, but also maintained by Grant Allen, Tefers the beginning
of religion to the cult of dead human beings; the other, put
forward by Dr E. B. Tylor, makes the foundation of all religion
animistic, but recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic
gods. Although ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the cult of
the dead, has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even
extinguished them, we have no warrant, even in these cases, for
asserting its priority, but rather the reverses not only so, but
in the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude
of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form, which bear no signs
of ever having been incarnate; sun gods and moon goddesses,
ANIMUCCIA— ANJOU
gods of fire, wind and water, gods of thtsea, and above all gods of
the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period
ia their history. They may,it is true, be associated with ghost
gods, bat in Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods
sre spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men;
they are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never
died; we have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the
desd as the origin of religion in this area; this conclusion is the
more probable, as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead
generally cannot be said to exist in Australia.
The more general view that polytheistic and other gods are the
elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds,
is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be
neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are
hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general
conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of
the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions
has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the
original form of the objects of religious emotion; in this connexion
it must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get
precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people
of low culture, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas
themselves are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed
out above, the conception of spiritual often approximates very
closely to that of material. Where the soul is regarded as no
more than a finer sort of matter, it will obviously be far from easy
to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material. Even,
therefore, if we can say that at the present day the gods are
entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible to maintain that they
have been spiritualized pari passu with the increasing importance
of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of
cschatcuogical beliefs. The animistic origin of religion is therefore
not proven.
Animism and Mythology.— But little need be said on the
relation of animism and mythology (q.v.). While a large part
of mythology has an animistic basis, it is possible to believe,
e,g. in a sky world, peopled by corporeal beings, as well mh by
spirits of the dead; the latter may even be entirely absent;
the mythology of the Australians relates largely to corporeal,
non-spiritual beings; stories of transformation, deluge and
doom myths, or myths of the origin of death, have not necessarily
any animistic basis. At the same time, with the rise of ideas as
to a future life and spiritual beings, this field of mythology is
immensely widened, though it cannot be said that a rich mytho-
logy is necessarily genetically sssoriatfd with or combined with
belief in many spiritual beings.
Animism in Philosophy.— -The term " animism " has been
applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to
describe Aristotle's view of the relation of soul and body held
also by the Stoics and Scholastics. On the other hand
monadology (Leibnitz) has also been termed animistic. The
name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a view mainly
associated with G. £. Stahl and revived by F. Bouillier (1813-
1S99). which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle
in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back
to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive
force which guides energy without altering its amount An
entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the
belief in the world soul, held by Plato, Scbelling and others.
BlBXiocaArHY.— Tylor. Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough:
Id. on Burial Customs in J. A. I. xv. ; Mannhardt, Baumkullus;
G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme; Koch on the animism of S. America
r Archie, xiii., Suppl.; Andrew Lang, Making of
MoUgion; Skcat. Malay Magic ; Sir G. Campbell, " Spirit Basis of
Belief and Custom," in Indian Antiquary, xxtii. and succeeding
; Spencer, Principles of Socio*
volume* : Folklore, HI. 389. xi. 162, ,
loty: Mtud (1877). t4i. 415 ** teg.
Stahl. Tkeorta. Bouilher. Dm Principe
For
vital.
in philosophy,
(N.W.T.)
AWTOCCIA, GIOVANNI, Italian musical composer, was born
at Florence f n the last years of the r 5th century. At the request
of St Filippo Neri he composed a number of Laudi, or hymns
of praise, to be sung after sermon time, which have given him
an accidental prominence in musical history, since their per-
55
formanoB in St Filippo r s Oratory eventually gave rise (on the
disruption of x6th century schools of composition) to those early
forms of " oratorio " that are not traceable to the Gregorian-
polyphonic "Passions." St Filippo admired Animucda so
warmly that he declared he had teen the soul of his friend fly
upwards towards heaven. In 15J5 Animucda was appointed
maestro di capella at St Peter's, an office which he held until his
death in 1571. He was succeeded by Falestrina, who bad been
his friend and probably his pupil. The manuscript of many of
Animucda 's compositions is still preserved in the Vatican
Library. His chief published works were M adrigoH e M oUtU a
quaUro e cinque voei (Ven. 1548) and // prime Libro di Messt
(Rom. 1567). From the latter Padre Martini has taken two
specimens for his Soggio di Contropunto. A mass from the
Prima Libro di Messe on the canto fermo of the hymn Conditor
aime siderum is published in modern notation in the Antkoiogio
des mattres religieux primiHfs of the Chonieurs de Saint Gervois.
It is solemn and noble in conception, and would be a great work
but for a roughness which » more careless than archaic
Paolo Amutocoa, a brother of Giovanni, was abo celebrated
as a compo se r; he is said by Fetis to have been maestro di
capdU at & Giovanni in Laterano from the middle of January
1550 until 155a, and to have died in 1565.
ANISE (PinpincUo Anisum), an umbelliferous plant found in
Egypt and the Levant, and cultivated on the continent of Europe
for medicinal purposes. The officinal part of the plant is the
fruit, which consists of two united carpels, called a cremocarp.
It is known by the name of aniseed, and has a strong aromatic
taste'and a powerful odour. By distillation the fruit yields the
volatile oil of anise, which is useful in the treatment of flatulence
and colic in children. Itmaybegivenas A^twAiuri.indosesof
one or more ounces, or as the Spiriius Anisi, in doses of 5-20
minims. The main constituent of the oil (up to 90 %) is anethol,
CutHisO or C«H«[i-4](OCH,)(CH:CHCHi.) It abo contains
methyl chavkol, anisic aldehyde, anisic add, and a terpene.
Most of the oil of commerce, however, of which anethol is also
the chief constituent, comes from IUicium verum (order Magna*
liacoae, sub-order Wintereae), indigenous in N.E. China, the
star-anise of liqueur makers., It receives its name from its*
flavour, and from its fruit spreading out like a star. The anise of
the Bible (Matt xxiii. S3) is Aneihum or Pcuc*danumgraveoUns t
i.e. dill (q.v.).
AN JAR, a fortified town of India, and the capital of a district
of the same name in the native state of Cutch, in the presidency
of Bombay. The country is dry and sandy, ani*ntirely depends
on well irrigation for its water supply. The town is situated
nearly xo miles from the Gulf of Cutch. It suffered severely
from an earthquake in 1819, which destroyed a large number of
houses, and occasioned the loss of several lives. In 1001 the
population was 18,014. The town and district of Anjar were
both ceded to the British in 2816, but in 182a they were again
transferred to the Cutch government in consideration of an
annual money payment. Subsequently it was discovered that
this obligation pressed heavily upon the resources of the native
state, and in 1832 the pecuniary equivalent for Anjar, both
prospectively and inclusive of the arrears which had accrued to
that date, was wholly remitted by the British government.
ANJOU, the old name of a French territory, the political
origin of which is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the Andes,
on the lines of which was organised, after the conquest by
Julius Caesar, the Roman civUas of the AndecaH. This was
afterwards preserved as an administrative district under the
Franks with the name first of pogus, then of contilaius, or count*
ship of Anjou. This countship, the extent of which seems to
have been practically identical with that of the ecclesiastical
diocese of Angers, occupied the greater part of what is now the
department of Maine-etrLoirc, further embracing, to the north,
Craon, Bazougcs (Chateau-Gontier), Le Lude, and to the east,
Chateau-la- Valliere and BourgueU, while to the south, on the
other hand, it induded neither the present town of MontreuU*
Bellay, nor Vihiers, Cholet, Beaupreau, nor the whole district
lying to the west of the Ironne and Thouet, on the left bank r
56
ANJOU
the Loire, which formed the territory of the Manges. It was
bounded on the north by the countship of Maine, on the east
by that of Touraine, on the south by that of Poitiers and by
the Mauges, on the west by the countship of Nantes.
From the outset of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity
of Anjou was seriously menaced by a two-fold danger: from
Brittany and from Normandy. Lambert, a former count of
Nantes, after devastating Anjou in concert with Nominoe, duke
of Brittany, had by the end of the year 851 succeeded in occupy-
ing all the western part as far as the Mayenne. The principality,
which he thus carved out for himself, was occupied, on his death,
by Erispoe, duke of Brittany; by him it was handed down to
his successors, in whose hands it remained till the beginning
of the 10th century. All this time the Normans had not ceased
ravaging the country; a brave man was needed to defend it,
and finally towards 86z, Charles the Bald entrusted it to Robert
the Strong (9.*,), but he unfortunately met with his death in
866 in a battle against the Normans at Brissarthe, Hugh
the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most
of his other duties, and on his death 086) it passed to Odo (?.«.),
the eldest son of Robert the Strong, who, on his accession to
the throne of France (888), probably handed it over to his brother
Robert In any case, during the last years of the 9th century,
in Anjou as elsewhere the power was delegated to a viscount,
Fulk the Red (mentioned under this title after 898), son of a
certain Ingelgerius.
In the second quarter of the xoth century Fulk the Red
had already usurped the title of count, which his descendants
kept for three centuries. He was succeeded first by has son
Fulk II. the Good (041 or 042-&. 060), and then by the son of
the latter, Geoffrey L GrisegmeUe (Grey tunic) (c. 960-2 1st of
July 987), who inaugurated a policy of expansion, having as
its objects the extension of the boundaries of the ancient count-
ship and the reconquest of those parts of it which had been
annexed by the neighbouring states; for, though western Anjou
had been recovered from the dukes of Brittany since the begin-
ning of the 10th century, in the east all the district of Saumur
had already by that time fallen into the hands of the counts
of Blois and Tours. Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making
the count of Nantes his vassal, and in obtaining from the duke
of Aquitaine the concession In fief of the district of Loudun.
Moreover, in the wars of king Lothaire against the Normans
and against the emperor Otto IL he distinguished himself by
feats of arms which the epic poets were quick to celebrate. His
son Fulk HL NuVra (q.v.) (21st of July 987-2 1st of June 1040)
found himself confronted on his accession with a coalition of
Odo I., count of Blois, and Conan I., count of Rennes. The latter
having seized upon Nantes, of which the counts of Anjou held
themselves to be suzerains, Fulk Nerra came and laid siege to it,
routing Conan '1 army at Conquereuil (27th of June 992) and
re-esUMishing Nantes under his own suzerainty. Then turning
his attention to the count of Blois, he proceeded to establish
a fortress at Langeais, a few miles from Tours, from which,
thanks to the intervention of the king Hugh Capet, Odo failed
to oust him. On the death of Odo I., Fulk seized Tours (996);
but King Robert the Pious turned against him and took the town
again (097). In 1016 a fresh struggle arose between Fulk and
Odo II., the new count of Blois. Odo II. was utterly defeated
at Pontlevoy (6th of July 1016), and a few years later, while
Odo was besieging Montboyau, Fulk surprised and took Saumur
(1026). Finally, the victory gained by Geoffrey Martel (q.v.)
(list of June 1 040- 1 4th of November 1060), the son and successor
of Fulk, over Theobald III., count of Blois, at Nouy (21st of
August 1044), assured to the Angevins the possession of the
countship of Touraine. At the same time, continuing in this
quarter also the work of his father (who in 1025 took prisoner
Herbert Wake-Dog and only set him free on condition of his
doing him homage), Geoffrey succeeded in reducing the countship
of Maine to complete dependence on himself. During his father's
life-time he had been beaten by Gervais, bishop of Le Mans
(1038), but now (1047 or 1048) succeeded in taking the latter
prisoner, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX.
at the council of Reims (October 1049). la spite, however.
of the concerted attacks of William the Bastard (the Conqueror) t
duke of Normandy, and Henry I., king of France, he was able
in 1051 to force Maine to recognize his authority, though failing
to revenge himself on William.
On the death of Geoffrey Martel (14th of November 1060) there
was a dispute as to the succession. Geoffrey Martel, having no
children, had bequeathed the countship to his eldest nephew,
Geoffrey III. the Bearded, son of Geoffrey, count of Gatinais,
and of Ermengarde, daughter of Fulk Nerra. But Fulk le
Rechin (the Cross-looking), brother of Geoffrey the Bearded,
who had at first been contented with an appanage consisting of
Saintonge and the ch&kttenie of Vihiers, having allowed Saintonge
to be taken in 106 a by the duke of Aquitaine, took advantage
of the general discontent aroused in the countship by the unskilful
policy of Geoffrey to make himself master of Saumur (25th of
February 1067) and Angers (4th of April), and cast Geoffrey
into prison at Sable. Compelled by the papal authority to release
him after a short interval and to restore the countship to him,
he soon renewed the struggle, beat Geoffrey near Brissac and
shut him up in the castle of Chinon (xo68). In order, however,
to obtain his recognition as count, Fulk IV. Rechin (106&-14U1
of April XX09) had to carry on a long struggle with his barons,
to cede Gitinais to King Philip I., and to do homage to the count
of Blois for Touraine. On the other hand, he was successful
on the whole in pursuing the policy of Geoffrey Martel in Maine:
after destroying La Fleche, by the peace of Blanchelande (io8x),
he received the homage of Robert " Courteheuse " (" Curthose "),
son of William the Conqueror, for Maine. Later, he upheld Elias,
lord of La Fleche, against William Rufus, king of England,
and on the recognition of Elias as count of Maine in xxoo,
obtained for Fulk the Young, his son by Bertrade de Montfort,
the hand of Eremburge, Elias's daughter and sole heiress.
Fulk V. the Young (14th of April xxoo-x X29) succeeded to the
countship of Maine on the death of Elias (nth of July sxxo);
but this increase of Angevin territory came into such direct
collision with the interests of Henry I., king of England, who was
also duke of Normandy, that a struggle between the two powers
became inevitable. In x 1 1 2 it broke out, and Fulk, being unable
to prevent Henry I. from taking Alencon and making Robert,
lord of BeDeme, prisoner, was forced, at the treaty of Pierre
Pecoulee, near Alencon (23rd of February 11x3), to do homage
to Henry for Maine. In revenge for this, while Louis VL was
overrunning the Vexin in n 18, he routed Henry's army at
Alencon (November), and in May 11x9 Henry demanded a peace,
which was sealed in June by the marriage of his eldest son,
William the Aetheling, with MatUda, Fulk's daughter. William
the Aetheling having perished in the wreck of the " White-
Ship 1 ' (25th of November n 20), Fulk, on his return from a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land (11*0-1121), married his second
daughter Sibyl, at the instigation of Louis VI., to William CJito,
son of Robert Courteheuse, and a claimant to the duchy of
Normandy, giving her Maine for a dowry (1 1 22 or 1 1 23). Henry
I. managed to have the marriage annulled, on the plea of kinship
between the parties (x x 23 or x x 24). But in x x 27 a new alliance
was made, and on the 22nd of May at Rouen, Henry I. betrothed
his daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., to
Geoffrey the Handsome, son of Fulk, the marriage being cele-
brated at Le Mans on the 2nd of June 1x29. Shortly after, on
the invitation of Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, Fulk departed
to the Holy Land for good, married Mclisinda, Baldwin's daughter
and heiress, and succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem (14th of
September 1131). His eldest son, Geoffrey IV. the Handsome
or " Plantagenet," succeeded him as count of Anjou (X129-
7th of September 1151). From the first he tried to profit by his
marriage, and after the death of Henry I. (1st of December 1 135),
laid the foundation of the conquest of Normandy by a series of
campaigns: about the end of 1135 or the beginning of 1x36 he
entered that country and rejoined his wife, the countess Matilda,
who had received the submission of Argentan, Dom front and
Exmes. Having been abruptly recalled into Anjou by a revolt
of bis barons, he returned to the charge in September x 136 with a
ANJOU
strong army, tndutfing in Its ranks WflNam, duke tf Aquitaine,
Geoffrey, count of Vendome, and William Talvas, count of
Ponthieu, but after a few successes was wounded in the foot at
the siege of Le Sap (October x) and had to fall back. In May
1137 began a fresh campaign In which he devastated the district
of Hiemois (round Exxnes) and burnt Basoches. In June 1x38,
with the aid of Robert of Gloucester, Geoffrey obtained the
submission of Bayeux and Caen; in October he devastated the
aeighbourfaood of Falaise; finally, in March 1141, on hearing of
tus wife's success in England, he again entered Normandy, when
he made a. triumphal procession through the country. Town
after town surrendered: in 1141, Verneuil, Nonancourt, Lisieux,
Falaise; in 1142, Mortain, Saint-Hilaire, Pontorson; in 1143,
Avcanchea, Saint-La, Cexences, Coutances, Cherbourg; in the
beginning of 1x44 he entered Rouen, and on the 19th of January
received the ducal crown in its cathedral. Finally, in x 149, after
crushing a last attempt at revolt, he handed over the duchy to
las son Henry " Curtmantel," who received the investiture at the
hands of the king of France.
All the while that Fulk the Young and Geoffrey the Handsome
were carrying on the work of extending the countship of Anjou,
they did not neglect to strengthen their authority at home, to
which the untidiness of the barons was a menace. As regards
Fulk the Young we know only a few isolated facts and dates:
about 1109 Done and L'tle Bouchard were taken; in xxxa
Brissac was besieged, and about the same time Eschivard of
Preuflry subdued; in 1114 there was a general war against the
barons who were in revolt, and in xxx8 a fresh rising, which was
put down after the siege of Montbason; in 11*3 the lord of Done"
•evoked, and in 1x24 Montreuil-Bellay was taken after a siege
of nine weeks. Geoffrey the Handsome, with his indefatigable
energy, was eminently fitted to suppress the coalitions of his
vassals, the most formidable of which was formed in 1x29.
Among those who revolted were Guy of Laval, Giraud of Mon-
treml-BeUay, the viscount of Thouars, the lords of Mirebeau,
Amboise, Parthcnay and Sable. Geoffrey succeeded in beating
them one after another, rased the keepof Thouarsand occupied
Mirebeau, Another rising was crushed in 1x34 by the destruction
of Caade and the taking of L'lle Bouchard. In 1x36, while the
count was in Normandy, Robert of Sabl6 put himself at the head
sf the movement, to which Geoffrey responded by destroying
BrioOay and occupying La Suae, and Robert of Sable 1 himself
was forced to beg humbly for pardon through the intercession of
the bishop of Angers. In 1139 Geoffrey took Mirebeau, and in
1x4s ChamptocrauT, but in 1145 * new revolt broke out, this
time under the leadership of Ehas, the count's own brother,
who, again with the issistsncf of Robert of Sable* , laid claim to
the countship of Maine. Geoffrey took Elias prisoner, forced
Robert of Sable* to beat a retreat, and reduced the other barons
to reason. In 1x47 he destroyed Doue" and Blaison. Finally
in 1 1 50 he was checked by the revolt of Giraud, lord of
Montreuil-Bellay: for a year he besieged the place till it had to
surrender; he then took Giraud prisoner and only released him
on the mediation of the king of France.
Thus, on the death of Geoffrey the Handsome (7th of Sep-
tember 1x51)* Ins son Henry found himself heir to a great
empire, strong and consolidated, to which his marriage with
Eleanor of Aquitaine (May 115a) further added Aquitaine.
At length on the death of King Stephen, Henry was recognised
as king of England (19th of December 1x54). But then his
brother Geoffrey, who had received as appanage the three
fortresses of Chinon, Loudun and Mirebeau, tried to seise upon
Anjou, on the pretest that, by the will of their father, Geoffrey
the Handsome, all the paternal inheritance ought to descend to
him, if Henry succeeded in obtaining possession of the maternal
inheritance. On hearing of this, Henry, although he had sworn
to observe this will, had himself released from his oath by the
pope, and hurriedly marched against his brother, from whom in
the beginning of 1x56 he succeeded in taking Chinon and Mire-
beau; and in July he forced Geoffrey to give up even his three
fortresses in return for an annual pension. Henceforward Henry
succeeded fax keeping the countship of Anjou all his life; for
57
though he granted it in 1168 to his son Henry " of the Short
Mantle," when the latter became old enough to govern it, he
absolutely refused to allow him to enjoy his power. After
Henry II. 'a death in 1189 the countship, together with the rest
of his dominions, passed to his son Richard I. of England, but
on the death of the latter in 1x99, Arthur of Brittany (born in
X187) laid claim to the inheritance, which ought, according to
him, to have fallen to his father Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II.,
in accordance with the custom by which " the son of the eldest
brother should succeed to his father's patrimony." He therefore
set himself up in rivalry with John Lackland, youngest son of
Henry II., and supported by Philip Augustus of France, and
aided by William des Roches, seneschal of Anjou, he managed
to enter Angers (x8th of April 1109) and there have himself
recognised as count of the three countships of Anjou, Maine and
Touraine, for which he did homage to the king of France. King
John soon regained the upper hand, for Philip Augustus having
deserted Arthur by the treaty of Le Goulet (sand of May 1200),
John made his way into Anjou; and on the x8th of June 1200
was recognized as count at Angers, In xaoa he refused to do
homage to Philip Augustus, who, in consequence, confiscated
all his continental possessions, including Anjou, which was
allotted by the king of France to Arthur. The defeat of the
latter, who was taken prisoner at Mirebeau on the xst of August
xaoa, seemed to ensure John's success, but he was abandoned
by William des Roches, who in 1203 assisted Philip Augustus in
subduing the whole of Anjou. A last effort on the part of John
to possess himself of it, in 12 14, led to the taking of Angers (17th
of June), but broke down lamentably at the battle of La Roche*
aux-Moines (and of July), and the countship was attached to the
crown of franco.
Shortly afterwards it wss separated from it again, when in
August 1246 King Louis DC gave it as an appanage to his son
Charles, count of Provence, soon to become king of Naples and
Sicily (see Naples). Charles L of Anjou, engrossed with his other
dominions, gave little thought to Anjou, nor did his son Charles IX
the Lame, who succeeded him on the 7th of January 1285. On
the x6th of August x 390, the latter married his daughter Margaret
to Charles of Valois, son of Philip III. the Bold, giving her Anjou
and Maine for dowry, in exchange for the kingdoms of Aragon
and Valentia and the countship of Barcelona given up by Charles.
Charles of Valois at once entered into possession of the countship
of Anjou, to which Philip IV. the Fair, in September 1397,
attached a peerage of France. On the x6th of December 1325,
Charles died, leaving Anjou to his eldest son Philip of Valois,
on whose recognition as king of France (Philip VI.) on the xst of
April 1338, the countship of Anjou was again united to the crown.
On the x 7th of February 133s, Philip VI. bestowed it on his son
John the Good, who, when he became king in turn (aand of
August 13 50), gave the countship to his second son Louis I.;
raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent
of the 25th of October 1360. Louis I., who became in time
count of Provence and king of Naples (see Louis I., king of Naples,)
died in 1384, and was succeeded by his son Louis II., who devoted
most of his energies to his kingdom of Naples, and left the ad-
ministration of Anjou almost entirely in the hands of his wife,
Yolande of Aragon. On his death (39th of April 14x7) she took
upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis IU.,
and In her capacity of regent defended the duchy against the
English. Louis HI., who also succeeded bis father as king of
Naples, died on the 15 th of November 1434, leaving no children.
The duchy of Anjou then passed to bis cousin Rent, second son
of Louis II. and Yolande of Aragon, and king of Naples and
Sicily (see Naples).
Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou,
Ren6 from 1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at
Angers became one of the most brilliant In the kingdom of
France. But after the sudden death of his son John in December
1470, Rent, for reasons which are not altogether dear, decided
to move his residence to Provence and leave Anjou for good.
After making an inventory of all bis possessions, he left the duchy
in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his
58
ANKERITE— ANKYLOSTOMIASIS
treasures. On the a and of July 1474 he drew up a will by which
he divided the succession between his grandson Ren* II. of
Lorraine and his nephew Charles II. , count of Maine. On hearing
this, King Louis XL, who was the son of one of King Rent's
sisters, seeing that his expectations were thus completely
frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not keep it very
long, but became reconciled to Rent in 1476 and restored it to
him, on condition, probably, that Rent should bequeath it to
him. However that may be, on the death of the latter (10th
of July 1480) he again added Anjou to the royal domain.
Later, King Francis I. again gave the duchy as an appanage
to his mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of the 4th of
February 1515. On her death, in September 1531, the duchy
returned into the king's possession. In 15s 2 it was given as
an appanage by Henry II. to his son Henry of Valois, who, on
becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry III., conceded it
to his brother Francis, duke of Alencon, at the treaty of Beaulleu
near Loches (6th of May x 576). Frauds died on the 10th of June
1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the
royal domain.
At first Anjou was included in the gostttrnemenl (or military
command) of Orleanais, but in the 17th century was made into
a separate one. Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which
King Henry IV. had in 1589 created an independent military
governor-generalship in favour of Duplessis-Mornay, continued
till the Revolution to form a separate gouvcrnement, which in-
cluded, besides Anjou, portions of Foitou and Mirebalais.
Attached to the gtntralitl (administrative circumscription) of
Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five
Sections (judicial districts) :— Angers, Beaugt, Saumur, Chatcau-
Gontier, Montreuil-Bellay and part of the elections of La Fleche
and Richelieu. Financially it formed part of the so-called pays
de grande goodie (see Gabelle), and comprised sixteen special
tribunals, or greniers d sd (salt warehouses): — Angers, Beaugt,
Beaufort, Bourgueil, Candt, Chateau-Gontier, Cholet, Craon,
La Fleche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, Ingrandes, Le Lude, Fouanct,
Saint-Remy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur. From the point
of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was subject
to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial
court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the s&ntckausslts
of Angers, Saumur, Beaugt, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu ;
there were besides presidial courts at Chateau-Gontier and La
Fleche. When the Constituent Assembly, on the 26th of
February 1790, decreed the division of France into departments,
Anjou and the Saumurois,with the exception of certain territories,
formed the department of Maine-et-Loirc, as at present con-
stituted.
Authorities. — (1) Principal Sources : The history of Anjou may
be told partly with the aid of the chronklera of the neighbouring
provinces, especially those of Normandy (William ©i Poitiers,
William of Tunueges, Ordericus Vitalis) and of Maine (especially
Actus pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degentium). For the 10th,
nth and nth centuries especially, there are some important texts
dealing entirely with Anjou. The most important is the chronicle
called Cesta consulum AmUgavorum, of which only a poor edition
exists (Chroniqucs des comtes d* Anjou, published by Marchegay and
Salmon, with an introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856-1871,
collection of the SociM de Vkistoire do France), See also with refer-
ence to this text Louis Halphen, Etude sur les chroniques des comtes
d'A niou et des seigneurs d'A mboise (Paris, 1906). The above may he
supplemented by some valuable annals published by Louis Halphen,
RecueU ^annates angeoines et vendomoises (Paris, 1903), (in the
series Collection de textes pour sereir a VHude et d fensetgnement de
rkistoire). For further details see Auguste Molinier, Les Sources de
riustoire de France (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276-1310, and the book of
Louis Halphen mentioned below.
(2) Works: The Art de verifier les dates contains a history of
Anjou which ta very much out of date, but has not been treated
elsewhere as a whole. The nth century only has been treated in
detail by Louis Halphen, in Le Comti d Anjou au XI* sikle (Paris,
1906), which has a preface with bibliography and an introduction
dealing with the history of Anjou in the 10th century. For the 10th,
nth and isth centuries, a good summary will be found in Kate
Noraate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887).
On Rene of Anjou, there is a book by A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Koi
Rent (a vols.. Paris, 1875). Lastly, the work of Celestin Port,
Dktionnaire historique, eiograpkique et biographique de Maitu-et-
Loire (3 vols., Paris and Angers, 1874-1878), and its small volume of
Prtikmmaim (including a summary of the history of Anjou), contain,
in addition to the biographies of the chief counts of Anjou, a mass
of information concerning everything connected with Angevin
history. (L. H.*)
ANKERITE, a member of the mineral group of rhombohedral
carbonates. In composition it is closely related to dolomite,
but differs from this in having magnesia replaced by varying
amounts of ferrous and maaganous oxides, the general formula,
being Ca(Mg,Fe,Mn)(COi)>. Normal ankerite is Cat MgFe(COs)4.
The crystallographic and physical characters resemble those
of dolomite and chalybite. The angle between the perfect
rhombohedral cleavages is 73° 48', the hardness 3} to 4, and the
specific gravity 2*9 to 3-1; but these will vary slightly with the
chemical composition. The colour is white, grey or reddish.
Ankerite occurs with chalybite in deposits of iron-ore. It
is one of the minerals of the dolomite-chalybite series, to which
the terms brown-spar, pearl-spar and bitter-spar are loosely
applied. It was first recognised as a distinct species by W. von
Haidinger in 182s, and named by htm after M. J. Anker of
Styria. (L. J. S.)
ANKLAH, or Anclam, a town of Germany in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the Peene, 5 m. from its mouth in the
Kleines Haff, and 53 m. N.W. of Stettin, by the railway to
Stralsund. Pop. (xooo) 14,602. The fortifications of Anklam
were dismantled in 1762 and have not since been restored, al-
though the old walls are still standing; formerly, however, it was
a town of considerable military importance, which suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' and the Seven Years' Wars;
and this fact, together with the repeated ravages of fire and of the
plague, has made its history more eventful than is usually the case
with towns of the same size. It does not possess any remarkable
buildings, although it contains several, private as well as public,
that are of a quaint and picturesque style of architecture. The
church of St Mary (iath century) has a modem tower, 335 ft.
high. The industries consist of iron-foundries and factories for
sugar and soap; and there is a military school. The Peene b
navigable up to the town, which has a considerable trade in its
own manufactures, as well as in the produce of the surrounding
country, while some shipbuilding is carried on in wharves on the
river.
Anklam, formerly Tanglim, was originally a Slav fortress; it
obtained civic rights in x 244 and joined the Hanseatic league, la
1648 it passed to Sweden, but in 1676 was retaken by Frederick
William I. of Brandenburg, and after being plundered by the
Russians in 17 13 was ceded to Prussia by the peace of Stockholm
in 1720.
ANKLE, or Ancle (a word common, in various forms, to
Teutonic languages, probably connected m origin with the Lat
angulus, or Gr. AyrfXct, bent), the joint which connects the
foot with the leg (see Joints).
ANKOBER, a town in, and at one time capital of, the kingdom
of Shoe, Abyssinia, 00 m. N.E. of Adis Ababa, in o° 34' N., 39* 54'
E., on a mountain about 8500 ft. above the sea. Ankober was
made (c. 1800) by Meqelek II. the place of detention of political
prisoners. Pop. about aooo.
ANKYLOSIS, or Anchylosis (from Or. eyrfXet, bent,
crooked) , a stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. The
rigidity may be complete or partial and may be due to inflamma-
tion of the tendinous or muscular structures outside the joint or
of the tissues of the joint itself. When the structures outside the
joint are affected, the term " false " ankylosis has been used in
contradistinction to " true " ankylosis, in which the disease is
within the joint When inflammation has caused the joint-ends of
the bones to be fused together the ankylosis is termed osseous or
complete. Excision of a completely ankylosed shoulder or elbow
may restore free mobility and usefulness to the limb. " Anky-
losis " is also used as an anatomical term, bones being said to
ankylose (or anchylose) when, from being originally distinct, they
coalesce, or become so joined together that no motion can take
place between there.
ANKYLOSTOMIASIS, or Anchylostowiasis (also called
helminthiasis, "miners' anaemia," and in Germany Wurmkrunk-
ANNA— ANNA COMNENA
59
Aof), a disease to which in recent yean much attention has been
paid, from its prevalence in the mining industry in England,
France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland and elsewhere.
This disease (apparently known in Egypt even in very ancient
limes) caused a great mortality among the negroes in the West
Indies towards the end of the 18th century; and through
descriptions sent from Brazil and various other tropical and
sub-tropical regions, it was subsequently identified, chiefly
through the labours of Bilharz and Griesinger in Egypt (1854), as
being due to the presence in the intestine of nematoid worms
{A nkylcstoma duodenalis) from one- third to half an inch long. The
symptoms, as first observed among the negroes, were pain in the
nomarh, capricious appetite, pica (or dirt-eating), obstinate
constipation followed by diarrhoea, palpitations, small and
unsteady pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the skin and mucous
membranes, diminution of the secretions, loss of strength and,
in cases running a fatal course, dysentery, haemorrhages and
dropsies. The parasites, which cling to the intestinal mucous
membrane, draw^ their nourishment from the blood-vessels of
their host, and as they are found in hundreds in the body after
death, the disorders of digestion, the increasing anaemia and the
consequent dropsies and other cachectic symptoms are easily
explained. The disease was first known in Europe among the
Italian workmen employed on the St Gotthard tunneL In 1 896,
though previously unreported in Germany, 107 cases were
registered there, and the number rose to 295 in 1000, and 2030 in
1 901. In England an outbreak at the Dolcoath mine, Cornwall,
in 190a, fed to an investigation for the home office by Di Haldane
F.R.S. (see especially the Parliamentary Paper, numbered Cd.
1843) , and since then discussions and inquiries have been frequent.
A committee of the British Association in 1904 issued a valuable
report on the subject. After the Spanish- American War American
physicians had also given it their attention, with valuable results;
see Stiles (HygUnic Laboratory Bulletin, No. 10, Washington,
1903). The American parasite described by Stiles, and called
Uncinaria americana (whence the name Uncinariasis for this
disease) differs slightly from the Ankylostoma. The parasites
thrive in an environment of dirt, and the main lines of precaution
are those dictated by sanitary science. Malefcrn, santoninc,
thymol and other anthelmintic remedies are prescribed.
ANKA, BALDASARRE, a painter who flourished during part
of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries. He was born at Venice, probably
about 1 560, and is said to have been of Flemish descent The date
of his death is uncertain, but he seems to have been alive in 1639.
For a number of years he studied under Leonardo Corona, and on
the death of that painter completed several works left unfinished
by Mm. His own activity seems to have been confined to the
production of pieces for several of the churches and a few private
houses in Venice, and the old guide-books and descriptions of the
city notice a considerable number of paintings by him. Scarcely
any of these, however, have survived.
ANNA (Hindustani ana), an Indian penny, the sixteenth part
of a rupee. The term belongs to the Mahommedan mone-
tary system (see Rupee). There is no coin of one anna, but
there are half-annas of copper and two-anna pieces of silver.
The term anna is frequently used to express a fraction. Thus an
Anglo-Indian speaks of two annas of dark blood (an octoroon),
a four-anna (quarter) crop, an eight-anna (half) gallop.
ANNA AHAUA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe- Weimar,
daughter of Charles I., duke of B runs wick- Wolf enbQttel, was
born at Wolfenbflttel on the 24th of October 1739, and married
Ernest, duke of Saxe- Weimar, 1756. Her husband died in 1 758,
leaving her regent for their infant son, Charles Augustus. During
the protracted minority she administered the affairs of the
docby with the greatest prudence, strengthening its resources
and improving its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven
Years' War. She was a patroness of art and literature, and
attracted to Weimar many of the most eminent men in Germany
Wietand was appointed tutor to her son; and the names of
Merrier, Goethe and SchiDer shed an undying lustre on her court.
In 177s she retired into private life, her son having attained his
majority. In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through
Italy, accompanied by Goethe. She died on the roth of April
1807. A memorial of the duchess is included in Goethe's works
under the title Zum Andenkcn da FUrslin Anna- Avidia,
See F. Bornhak, A una Amelia Hcnogin van Sax* Weimar-Eistuock
(Berlin. 1892).
ANNABERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
in the Erzgebirge, 1894 ft. above the sea, 6 m. from the Bohemian
frontier, 18 J m. S. by E. from ChemniU by raiL Pop. (1905)
x 6,81 1. It has three Evangelical churches, among them that of
St Anne, built 1499-1525, a Roman Catholic church, several
public monuments, among them those of Luther, of the famous
arithmetician Adam Riese, and of Barbara Uttmann. Anna-
berg, together with the neighbouring suburb, Buchhob, is the
chief seat of the braid and lace-making industry in Germany,
introduced here by Barbara Uttmann in 1561, and further
developed by Belgian refugees, who, driven from their country
by the duke of Alva, settled here in x 500. The mining industry,
for which the town was formerly also famous and which embraced
tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased. Annaberg has technical,
schools for lace-making, commerce and agriculture, in addition
to high grade public schools for boys and girls.
ANNABBRGITB, a mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel
arsenate, Nu(AsO«)a+8HiO, crystallizing in the monodinic
system and isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals
are minute and capillary and rarely met with, the mineral
occurring usually as soft earthy masses and encrustations. A
fine apple-green colour is its characteristic feature. It was long
known (since 1758) under the name nickel-ochre; the name
annabergite was proposed by H. J. Brooke and W. H. Miller in
1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the
mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product
of alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire,
in which a portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been
called dudgeonite, after P. Dudgeon, who found it (L. J.S.)
ANNA GOMNBNA, daughter of the emperor Alexius I.
Comnenus, the first woman historian, was born on the xst of
December 1083. She was her father's favourite and was care-
fully trained in the study of poetry, science and Greek philosophy.
But, though learned and studious, she was intriguing and
ambitious, and ready to go to any lengths to gratify her longing
for power. Having married an accomplished young nobleman,.
Nicephorus Bryennius, she united with the empress Irene in
a vain attempt to prevail upon her father during his last illness
to disinherit his son and give the crown to her husband. Still
undeterred, she entered into a conspiracy to depose her brother
after his accession; and when her husband refused to join in the
enterprise, she exclaimed that " nature had mistaken their
sexes, for he ought to have been the woman." The plot being
discovered, Anna forfeited her property and fortune, though, by
the clemency of her brother, she escaped with her life. Shortly
afterwards, she retired into a convent and employed her leisure
in writing the Alexiod-—* history, in Greek, of her father's life
and reign (1081-1118), supplementing the historical work of her
husband. It is rather a family panegyric than a scientific history,
in which the affection of the daughter and the vanity of the
author stand out prominently. Trifling acts of her father are
described at length in exaggerated terms, while little notice is
taken of important constitutional matters. A determined
opponent of the Latin church and an enthusiastic admirer of the
Byzantine empire, Anna Comnena regards the Crusades as a
danger both political and religious. Her models are Thucydides,
Polybius and Xenophon, and her style exhibits the striving after
Atticism characteristic of the period, with the result that the
language is highly artificial. Her chronology especially isdef ective.
Editions In Bonn Corpus Seriptorum Hist. Byt., by J. Sehopen
and A. Reiflencheid (1830-1878), with Du Canto's valuable com*
mentary ; and Teubaer series, by A. Rcinenchcid (1884). See abo
C. Krumbacher, Gcschickte der bysautinischen IMeratur (2nd ed.
" * ~ "" n, GritchisckeGeschickUckreiberimi '* Jakrkundtrlo
J7) • C Neumann, L. __ —
~})i E. Otter, Anna Komnena (Ra»utt, 1868-187 1); Gibbon,
'Decline and Fail, ch. 48; Fiiuay, H\sL of Cruet, iii. pp. 34 1**
(j 877), P. Adam. Princesses bytanltnes (i&93)j Sir Walter Scott.
Count Robert of Paris \L. du Sommerard, Anne Comnena .
de France (1907); C. Diehl, Figures byantines (1906).
Agnoe
6p
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA— ANNALISTS
AJ9HA LEOPOLDOVNA, sometimes called Anna Carlovna
"(17 18-1746), regent of Russia for a few months during the
minority of her son Ivan, was the daughter of Catherine, sister
of the empress Anne, and Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin. In 1739 snc married Anton Ulrich (d. 1775), *on of
Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and their son Ivan was
adopted in 1740 by the empress and proclaimed heir to the
Russian throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress
died, leaving directions regarding the succession, and appointing
her favourite Ernest Biren, duke of Courland, as regent. Biren,
however, had made himself an object of detestation to the
Russian people, and Anna had little difficulty in overthrowing
his power. She then assumed the regency, and took the title of
grand-duchess, but she knew little of the character of the people
with whom she had to deal, was utterly ignorant of the approved
Russian mode of government, and speedily quarrelled with her
principal supporters. In December 1741, Elizabeth, daughter
of Peter the Great, who, from her habits, was a favourite with
the soldiers, excited the guards to revolt, overcame the slight
opposition that was offered, and was proclaimed empress. Ivan
was thrown into prison, where he soon afterwards perished.
Anna and her husband were banished to a small island in the
river Dvina, where on the z8th of March 1746 she died in
childbed.
ANNALISTS (from Lat. annus, year; hence annates, sc.
libri, annual records), the name given to a class of writers on
Roman history, the period of whose literary activity lasted from
the time of the Second Punic War to that of Sulla. They wrote
the history of Rome from the earliest times (in most cases) down
to their own days, the events of which were treated in much
greater detail. For the earlier period their authorities were
state and family records*— above all, the annates maximi (or
annate pontificum), the official chronicle of Rome, in which the
notable occurrences of each year from the foundation of the city
were set down by the pontif ez maximus. Although these annals
were no doubt destroyed at the time of the burning of Rome by
the Gauls, they were restored as far as possible and continued
until the pontificate of P. Mucins Scaevola, by whom they were
finally published in eighty books. Two generations of these
annalists have been distinguished— an older and a younger.
The older, which extends to 150 B.C., set forth, in baW, un-
attractive language, without any pretensions to style, but with
a certain amount of trustworthiness, the most important events
of each successive year. Cicero {De Oratore, ii. x a. 53), comparing
these writers with the old Ionic logographers, says that they
paid no attention to ornament, and considered the only merits
of a writer to be intelligibility and conciseness. Their annals
were a mere compilation of tacts. The younger generation, in
view of the requirements and criticism of a reading public,
cultivated the art of composition and rhetorical embellishment
As a general rule the annalists wrote in a spirit of uncritical
patriotism, which led them to minimize or gloss over such
disasters as the conquest of Rome by Porsena and the compulsory
payment of ransom to the Gauls, and to flatter the people by
exaggerated accounts of Roman prowess, dressed up in fanciful
language. At first they wrote in Greek, partly because a national
style was not yet formed, and partly because Greek was the
fashionable language amongst the educated, although Latin
versions were probably published as well. The first of the
annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been called,
was Q. Fabius Pxctor (see Fabius Pictor); contemporary
with him was L. Cwaus Aumentus, who flourished during
the Hannibalic war. 1 Like Fabius Pictor, he wrote in Greek.
Be was taken prisoner by Hannibal (Livy xxi. 38), who is said
to have given him details of the crossing of the Alps. His work
embraced the history of Rome from its foundation down to his
own days. With M. Pokcius Cato (q.v.) historical composition
1 He ii not to be confused with L. Gndus, the author of various
political and antiquarian treatises {de Fastis, de Comitiis.de Priscis
Verbis), who lived in the Augustan age, to which period Mommsen.
considering them a later fabrication, refers the Greek aanab of
L. ductus Alimentus.
in Latin began, and a livelier interest was awakened in the
history of Rome. Among the principal writers of this class who
succeeded Cato, the following may be mentioned. L. Cassius
Heidna (about 146), in the fourth book of his Annals, wrote on
the Second Punic War. His researches went back to very early
times; Pliny (Nat. Hist. xiii. 13 [27]) calls him tetustissimus
auctor onnalium. L. Calpurnius Piso, surnamed Prugi (see
under Piso), wrote seven books of annals, relating the history
of the city from its foundation down to his own times. Livy
regards him as a less trustworthy authority than Fabius Pictor,
and Niebuhr considers him the first to introduce systematic
forgeries into Roman history. Q. Claudius Quadrigarjus
(about 80 B.C.) wrote a history, in at least twenty-three books,
which began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls and went
down to the death of Sulla or perhaps later. He was freely used
by Livy in part of his work (from the sixth book onwards). A
long fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius (ix. 13), giving an
account of the single combat between Manlius Torquatus and
the Gaul. His language was antiquated and his style dry, but
his work was considered important. Valerius Anitas, a
younger contemporary of Quadrigarius, wrote the history of
Rome from the earliest times, in a voluminous work consisting
of seventy-five books. He is notorious for his wilful exaggera-
tion, both in narrative and numerical statements. For instance,
he asserts the number of the Sabine virgins to have been exactly
527; again, in a certain year when no Greek or Latin writers
mention any important campaign, Antias speaks of a big battle
with enormous casualties. Nevertheless, Livy at first made use
of him as one of his chief authorities, until he became convinced
of his untrustworthiness. C. Lrcxraus Macer (died 66), who
has been called the last of the annalists, wrote a voluminous
work, which, although be paid great attention to the study of
his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the achieve-
ments of his own family. Having been convicted of extortion,
he committed suicide (Cicero, De Legibus/l 2, Brutus, 67;
Plutarch, Cicero, 9).
The writers mentioned dealt with Roman history as a whole;
some of the annalists, however, confined themselves to shorter
periods. Thus, L. Caeltus Amtipateb (about xao) limited
himself to the Second Punic War. His work was overloaded wi th
rhetorical embellishment, which he was the first to introduce
into Roman history. He was regarded as the most careful
writer on the war with Hannibal, and one who did not allow
himself to be blinded by partiality in considering the evidence
of other writers (Cicero, De Oratore, ii. is). Livy made great
use of him in his third decade. Sempronius Aseuio (about
100 B.C.), military tribune of Scipio Africanus at the siege of
Numantia, composed Rerun* Cestarum Libri in at least fourteen
books. As he himself took part in the events he describes, his
work was a kind of memoirs. He was the first of his class who
endeavoured to trace the causes of events, instead of contenting
himself with a bare statement of facts. L. Cornelius Sisenna
(ixQ-67), legate of Pompey in the war against the pirates, lost
his life in an expedition against Crete. He wrote twenty-three
books on the period between the Social War and the dictatorship
of Sulla. His work was commended by Sallust (Jugurtka, 95),
who, however, blames him for not. speaking out sufficiently.
Cicero remarks upon his fondness for archaisms {Brutus, 74.
359). Sisenna also translated the tales of Aristides of Miletus,
and is supposed by some to have written a commentary on
Plautus. The autobiography of Sulla may also be mentioned.
See C. W. Nitzsch. Die rdmische Annalistik (1873) ; H. Peter, Zur
itritih der Quellen der alteren rOmiscken Gesckichle (1879); L. O.
Blocker, Modern* QmeUenforscker und antike GeukicMtsekreiber
(1882); fragments in H. Peter, Historicorum Romamorum Retujuime
(1870, 1906), and Historicorum Romamorum Fragmenta (1883); also
articles Romb, History (ancient) ad fin., section Authorities," and
Livy, where the use made of the annalists by the historian is
discussed; Paury-Wissowa, Realencydop&die, art. *' Annales **;
histories of Roman Literature by M. Schanx and Teuffd-
the
Scbwabe: Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eog. tr.). bk. U. ch. 9, bk. Ui.
ch. 14. bk. Iv. ch. 13. bk. v. ch. 12; C. Wachsmuth. Eiuletfung in
das Stadium der alien GeschUhU (1895); H, Peter, bibliography of
the subject in Bttrsian's Jamnsbencht t cXKvl (1906). (J! H. F.)
ANNAL8— ANNAM
61
AmAU (Annates, from annus, a year), a concise historical
record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by
year. The chief sources of information in regard to the annals
of ancient Rome are two passages in Cicero (De Oratere, ii xa.
52) and in Servius (ad Aen.L 373) which have been the subject
of much discussion. Cicero states that from the earliest period
down to the pontificate of Pubtius Mucius Scaevola (c. 131 B.C.),
it was. usual for the ponlifex maximus to record on a white tablet
(album), which was exhibited in an open place at his house, so
that the people might read it, first, the name of the consuls and
other magistrates, and then the noteworthy events that had
occurred during the year (per singulos dies, as Servius says).
These records were called in Cicero's time the Annates Maximi.
After the pontificate of Publius, the practice of compiling annals
was carried on by various unofficial writers, of whom Cicero
names Cato, Pktor and Piso. The Annates have been generally
regarded as the same with the Commentarii Pontifieum dted by
livy, but there seems reason to believe that the two were dis-
tinct, the Commentarii being fuller and more circumstantial
The nature of the distinction between annals and history is a
subject that has received more attention from critics than its
intrinsic importance deserves. The basis of discussion is fur-
nished chiefly by the above-quoted passage from Cicero, and by
the common division of the work of Tacitus into Annates and
Histariae. Aulus Oelllus, in the Nodes A Meat (v. 18) , quotes the
grammarian Verrius Flaccus, to the effect that history, according
to its etymology (toropcfr, inspkere, to inquire in person), is a
record of events that have come under the author's own observa-
tion, while annals are a record of the events of earlier times
arranged according to years. This view of the distinction seems
to be borne out by the division of the work of Tacitus into the
Historic*, relating the events of his own time, and the Annates,
containing the history of earlier periods. It is more than
questionable, howsver, whether Tacitus himself divided his
work under these titles. The probability is, either that he called
the whole Annates, or that he used neither designation. (See
Tacitus, Cornelius.)
In the middle ages, when the order of the liturgical'feasts was
partly determined by the date of Easter, the custom was early
established in the Western Church of drawing up tables to
indicate that date for a certain number of years or even
centuries. These Paschal tables were thin books in which each
annual date was separated from the next by a more or less con-
siderable blank space. In these spaces certain monks briefly
noted the important events of the year. It was at the end
of the 7th century and among the Anglo-Saxons that the
compiling of these Annals was first begun. Introduced by
missionaries on the continent, they were re-copied, augmented
and continued, especially in the kingdom of Austrasia. In the
oih century, during the great movement termed the Carolingian
Rcnaisaanrr. these Annals became the usual form of contem-
porary history; it suffices to mention the Annates Einhardi, the
Annates Lanreshamenses (or M of Lorsch "), and the Annates S.
Bertini, officially compiled in order to preserve the memory of
the more interesting acts of Charlemagne, his .ancestors and
his successors. Arrived at this stage of development, the
Annals now began to lose their primitive character, and
henceforward became more and more indistinguishable from the
Chronicles.
In modern literature the title annals has been given to a
large number of standard works which adhere more or less strictly
to the order of years. The best known are the Annates Ecdt-
siastici, written by Cardinal Baronhis as a rejoinder to and
refutation of the Hisloria eeetesiasttca or " Centuries " of the
Protestant theologians of Magdeburg (12 vols., published at
Rome from 1788 to 1793; Baronius's work stops at the year
1107). In the 19th century the annalistic form waa once more
employed, either to preserve year by year the memory of passing
events (Annual Register, Annuake de la Revue des deux mondes,
Ac) or in writing the history of obscure medieval periods
(Jakrbtuker der deulseken Gesckickte, J akr bucket des deutscken
Reuke*, Rfchter's tUkhsannakn, &&). (C. B.*)
AKsTAsl, or Anav , a country of south-eastern Asia, now
forming a French protectorate, part of the peninsula of Indo*
Chlna. (See Indo-Qbika, Fkkngh). It is bounded N. by Toug-
hing, E. and S.E. by the China Sea, S.W. by Cochm-China, and
W. by Cambodia and Laos. It comprises a sinuous strip of
territory measuring between 750 and 800 m. in length, with an
approximate area of 52,000 sq. m. The population is estimated
at about 6,124,000
The country consists chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded
mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast
to a narrow band of plain varying between 12 and so m. in
breadth. The mountains are cut transversely by short narrow
valleys, through which run rivers, most of which are dry in
summer and torrential in winter. The Song-Ma and the Song*
Ca in the north, and the Song-Ba, Don-Nai and Se-Bang-Khan in
the south, are alone of any size. Tne chief harbour is that afforded
by the bay of Tourane at the centre of the coast-line. South of
this point the coast curves outwards and is broken by peninsulas
and indentations; to the north it is concave and bordered in
many places by dunes and lagoons.
Climate.— In Annam the rainy season begins during September
and lasts for three or four months, corresponding with the north-
east monsoon and also with a period of typhoons. During the
rains the temperature varies from 59° or even lower to 75° F.
June, July and August are the hottest months, the thermometer
often reaching 85° or 00°, though the heat of the day is to some
degree compensated by the freshness of the nights. The south-
west monsoon which brings rain in Cochin-China coincides with
the dry season in Annam, the reason probably being that the
mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries
retain the precipitation.
Ethnography. —The Annamese, or, to use the native term, the
Giao-chi, are the predominant people not only in Annam but in
the lowland and cultivated parts of Tongking and in Cochin-
China and southern Cambodia. According to their own annals
and traditions they once inhabited southern China, a theory
which is confirmed by many of their habits and physical character-
istics; the race has, however, been modified by crossings with
the Chams and other of the previous inhabitants of Indo-China.
The Annamese is the worst-built and ugliest of all the Indo-
Chinese who belong to the Mongolian race. He is scarcely of
middle height and is shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours.
His complexion is tawny, darker than that of the Chinese, but
dearer than that of the Cambodian; his hair is black, coarse
and long; his skin is thick; his forehead low; his skull slightly
depressed at the top, but well developed at the sides. His face is
flat, with highly protruding cheek-bones, and is lozenge-shaped
or eurygnathous to a degree that is nowhere exceeded. His nose
is not only the flattest, but also the smallest among the Indo-
Chinese; his eyes are rarely oblique; his mouth is large and
his lips thick; his teeth are blackened and his gums destroyed
by the constant use of ,tbe betel-nut, the areca-nut and lime,
His neck is short, his shoulders slope greatly, his body is thick-set
and wanting in suppleness. Another peculiarity is a separation
of the big toe from the rest, greater than is found in any other
people, and sufficiently general and well marked to serve as an
ethnographic test. The Annamese of Cochin-China are weaker
and smaller than those of Tongking, probably as a result of
living amid marshy rice-fields. The Annamese of both sexes
wear wide trousers, a long, usually black tunic with narrow
sleeves and a dark-coloured turban, or in the case of the lower
classes, a wide straw hat; they either go bare-foot or wear sandals
or Chinese boots. The typical Annamese dwelling is open to the
gaze of the passer-by during the day; at night a sort of partition
of bamboo is let down. The roof is supported on wooden pillars
and walls are provided only at the sides. The house consist*
principally of one large room opening on the front verandah
and containing the altar of the family's ancestors, a table in the
centre and couches placed against the wall. The chief elements
of the native diet are rice, fish and poultry; vegetables and pork
are also eaten. The family is the base of the social system
is Annam and Is ruled by its head, who is also priest and judg*-
*2
ANNAM
Polygamy is permitted but rarely practised, and the wife enjoys
a position of some freedom.
' Though fond of ease the Annamese are more industrious than
the neighbouring peoples. Theatrical and musical entertainments
are popular among them. They show much outward respect
for superiors and parents, but they are insincere and incapable
of deep emotion. They cherish great love of their native soil
and native village and cannot remain long from home, A
proneness to gambling and opium-smoking, and a tinge of vanity
and decritfulness, are their less estimable traits. On the whole
they are mild and easy-going and even apathetic, but the
facility with which they learn is remarkable. Like their neighbours
the Cambodians and the Chinese, the Annamese have a great
respect for the dead, and ancestor worship constitutes the national
religion. The learned hold the doctrine of Confucius, and
Buddhism, alloyed with much popular superstition, has some
influence. Like the Chinese the Annamese bury their dead.
Among the savage tribes of the interior there is scarcely any
idea of God and their superstitious practices can scarcely be
considered as the expression of a definite religious idea. Roman
Catholics number about 430,000. In the midst of the Annamese
live Cambodians and immigrant Chinese, the latter associated
together according to the districts from which they come and
carrying on nearly all the commerce of the country. In the
forests and mountains dwell tribes of savages, chiefly of
Indonesian origin, classed by the Annamese under the name
Afois or "savages." Some of these tribes show traces of
Malay ancestry. Of greater historical interest are the Chams,
who are to be found for the most nart in southern Annam and in
Cambodia, and who, judging from the numerous remains found
there, appear to have been the masters of the coast region of
Cochin-China and Annam till they succumbed before the pressure
of the Khmers of Cambodia and the Annamese. They are taller,
more- muscular, and more supple than the Annamese. Their
language is derived from Malay, and while some of the Chams
are Mussulmans, the dominant religion is Brahmanism, and more
especially the worship of Siva. Their women have a high
reputation for virtue, which, combined with the general bright
and honest character of the whole people, differentiates them from
the surrounding nations.
Evidently derived from the Chinese, of which it appears to be
a very ancient dialect, the Annamese language is composed of
monosyllables, of slightly varied articulation, expressing different
ideas according to the tone in which they arc pronounced. It is
quite impossible to connect with our musical system the utterance
of the sounds of which the Chinese and Annamese languages are
composed. What is understood by a" tone " in this language
Is distinguished in reality, not by the number of sonorous
vibrations which belong to it, but rather by a use of the vocal
apparatus special to each. Thus, the sense will to a native be
completely changed according as the sound is the result of an
aspiration or of a simple utterance of the voice. Thence the
difficulty of substituting our phonetic alphabet for the ideo-
graphic characters of the Chinese, as well as for the ideophonctic
writing partly borrowed by the Annamese from the letters of the
celestial empire. To the Jesuit missionaries is due the intro-
duction of an ingenious though very complicated system, which
has caused remarkable progress to be made in the employment of
phonetic characters. By means of six accents, one bar and a
crotchet it is possible to note with sufficient precision the indica-
tions of tone without which the Annamese words have no sense
for the natives.
Agriculture and other Industries.— The cultivation of rice,
which fs grown mainly in the small deltas along the coast and
in some districts gives two crops annually, and fishing, together
with fish-salting and the preparation of nuoc-mam, a sauce
made from decaying fish, constitute the chief industries of
Annam.
Silk spinning and weaving are carried on on antiquated lines,
and silkworms are reared in a desultory fashion. Besides rice,
theproductsof the countryinclude tea, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon,
precious woods and rubber; coffee, pepper, sugar-canes and
jute are cultivated to a minor extent The exports (total value
in 1905 £237,010) comprise tea, raw silk and small quantities of
cotton, rice and sugar-cane. The imports (£284,824 in 1005)
include rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium and cotton goods.
There are coal-mines at Nong-Son, near Touranc, and gold,
silver, lead, iron and other metals occur in the mountains.
Trade, which is in the hands of the Chinese, is for the most part
carried on by sea, the chief ports being Touranc and Qui-Nhon,
which are open to European commerce.
Administration. — Annam is ruled in theory by its emperor,
assisted by the " comat " or secret council, composed of the heads
of the six ministerial departments of the interior, finance, war,
ritual, justice and public works, who arc nominated by himself.
The resident superior, stationed at Hue, is the representative of
France and the virtual ruler of the country. He presides over
a council (Conseil de ProUctoral) composed of the chiefs of the
French services in Annam, together with two members of the
"comat "; this body deliberates on questions of taxation affecting
the budget of Annam and on local public works. A native
governor (long-doc or tuan-phu), assisted by a native staff,
administers each of the provinces into which the country is
divided, and native officials of lower rank govern the areas
into which these provinces are subdivided. The governors
take their orders from the imperial government, but they are
under the eye of French residents. Native officials arc appointed
by the court, but the resident superior has power to annul an
appointment. The mandarinate or official class is recruited
from all ranks of the people by competitive examination. In
the province of Tourane, a French tribunal alone exercises
jurisdiction, but it administers native law where natives are
concerned. Outside this territory the native tribunals
survive. The Annamese village is self-governing. It has its
council of notables, forming a sort of oligarchy which,
through the medium of a mayor and two subordinates, directs
the interior affairs of the community— policing, recruiting, the
assignment and collection of taxes, &c— and has judicial power
in less important suits and crimes. More serious cases come
within the purview of the an- sat, a judicial auxiliary of the
governor. An assembly of notables from villages grouped
together in a canton chooses a cantonal representative, who is
the mouthpiece of the people and the intermediary between the
government and its subjects. The direct taxes, which go to the
local budget of Annam, consist primarily of a poll-tax levied
on all males over eighteen and below sixty years of age, and of
a land-tax levied according to the quality and the produce of the
holding.
The following table summarises the local budget of Annam
for the years 1899 and 1904: —
—
Receipts.
Expenditure.
1899
1904
£203,082 (direct taxes, £171,160)
£247.435 ( .. .. £ai9.84i)
£i75."7
£232480
In 1004 the sum allocated to the expenses of the court, the
royal family and the native administration, the members of
which are paid by the crown, was £85,000, the chief remaining
heads of expenditure being the government house and residencies
(£39*709), the native guard (£32,609) and public works (£24,898).
Education is available to every person in the community.
The primary school, in which the pupils learn only Chinese
writing and the precepts of Confucius, stands at the base of this
system. Next above this is the school of the district capital,
where a half-yearly examination takes place, by means of which
are selected those eligible for the course of higher education
given at the capital of the province in a school under the direction
of a doe-hoc, or inspector of studies. Finally a great triennial
competition decides the elections. The candidate whose work
is notified as tris bicn is admitted to the examinations at Hu£,
which qualify for the title of doctor and the holding of administra-
tive offices. The education of a mandarin includes local history,
cognisance of the administrative rites, customs, laws and
prescriptions of the country, the ethics of Confucius, the rules
ANNAN— ANNAPOLIS
63
cf good breeding, the ceremonial of official and social life,
and the practical acquirements necessary to the conduct of public
or private business. Annamese learning goes no farther. It
includes no scientific Idea, no knowledge of the natural sciences,
and neglects even the most rudimentary instruction conveyed
in a European education. The complications of Chinese writing
greatly hamper education. The Annamese mandarin must bo
acquainted with Chinese, since he writes in Chinese characters.
But the character being ideographic, the words which express
them are dissimilar in the two languages, and official text is
read in Chinese by a Chinese, in Annamese by an Annamese.
The chief towns of Annam are Hue" (pop. about 42,000), seat
both of the French and native governments, Tourane (pop. about
4000), Pnan-Thiet (pop. about 20,000) in the extreme south,
Qui-Nhon, and Fai-Fo, a commercial centre to the south of
Tourane. A road following the coast from Cochin-China to
Tangoing, and known as the " Mandarin road," passes through or
near the chief towns of the provinces and forms the chief artery
of communication in the country apart from the railways
(see Ikdo-Chima, French).
H istory.— The ancient tribe of the Giao-chi, who dwelt on
the confines of S. China, and in what is now Tongking and
northern Annam, are regarded by the Annamese as their
ancestors, and tradition ascribes to their first rulers descent
from the Chinese imperial family. These sovereigns were suc-
ceeded by another dynasty, under which, at the end of the
3rd century b.c, the Chinese invaded the country, and eventually
established there a supremacy destined to last, with little
intermission, till the xoth century a.d. In 068 Dinh-Bo-Lanh
succeeded in ousting the Chinese and founded an independent
dynasty of Dinh. Till this period the greater part of Annam
had been occupied by the Chains, a nation of Hindu civilization,
which has left many monuments to testify to its greatness, but
the encroachment of the Annamese during the next six centuries
at last left to it only a small territory in the south of the country.
Three lines of sovereigns followed that of Dinh, under the last
of which, about 1407, Annam again fell under the Chinese yoke.
In 1428 an Annamese general Le-Loi succeeded in freeing the
country once more, and founded a dynasty which lasted till
the end of the 18th century. During the greater part of this
period, however, the titular sovereigns were mere puppets,
the reality of power being in the hands of the family of Trinh
in Tongking and that of Nguyen in southern Annam, which
in 1 568 became a separate principality under the name of Cochin-
China. Towards the end of the 1 8th century a rebellion over-
threw the Nguyen, but one of its members, Gia-long, by the aid
of a French force, in 180 1 acquired sway over the whole of Annam,
Tongking and Cbcbin-China. This force was procured for him
by Pigocau de Behaine, bishop of Adran, who saw in the political
condition of Annam a means of establishing French influence
in Indo-China and counterbalancing the English power in India.
Before this, in 2787, Gia-long had concluded a treaty with
Louis XVI., whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded
Tourane and Pulo-Condore to the French. That treaty marks
the beginning of French influence in Indo-China.
See also Legrand de la Liraye, Notes historiquts sur la nation
mmmmmiU (Paris, 1866?); C. GosseUn. V Empire d' Annam (Paris,
1904); E. Sorcbsthay, Cours de Ugislolion ct a" administratis
ennamius (Paris, 1898).
ANNAN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, on the Annan, nearly 2 m. from its mouth, 15 m. from
Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has a
station also on the Caledonian railway company's branch line
from Kirtlebridge to Bray ton (Cumberland), which crosses the
Solway Firth at Seafield by a viaduct, i\m. long, constructed of
iron pillars girded together by poles, driven through the sand and
gravel into the underlying bed of sandstone. Annan is a well-
built town, red sandstone being the material mainly used. Among
its public buildings is the excellent academy of which Thomas
Carlyle was a pupil. The river Annan is crossed by a stone bridge
of three arches dating from 1824, and by a railway bridge. The
Harbour Trust, constituted in 1897, improved the shipping
accommodation, and vessels of 300 torn approach dose to the
town. The principal industries include cotton arid' rope manu-
factures, bacon-curing, distilling, tanning, shipbuilding, sand-
stone quarrying, nursery-gardening and salmon-fishing. Large
marine engineering works are in the vicinity. Annan is a burgh
of considerable antiquity. Roman remains exist in the neighbour-
hood, and the Braces, lords of Annandale, the Baliols, and the
Douglases were more .or less closely associated with it During
the period of the Border lawlessness the inhabitants suffered
repeatedly at the hands of moss-troopers and through the feuds of
rival families, in addition to the losses caused by the English and
Scots wars. Edward Irving was a native of the town. With
Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and Sanquhar, Annan
unites in sending one member to parliament. Annan Hill com-
mands a beautiful prospect. Population (1001) 5805.
ANNA FBRBNNA, an old Roman deity of the circle or " ring "
of the year, as the name (per annum) clearly indicates. Her
festival fell on the full moon of the first month (March 15), and
was held at the grove of the goddess at the first milestone on the
Via Flaminia. It was much frequented by the city plebs> and
Ovid describes vividly the revelry and licentiousness of the*
occasion (Fdj/i,iii. 523 Coll.). From Macrobius we learn (SatX 1 2.
6) that sacrifice was made to her " ut annare perannarequc com-
mode liceat," i.e. that the circle of the year may be completed
happily. This is all wc know for certain about the goddess and
her cult; but the name naturally suggested myth-making, and
Anna became a figure in' stories which may be read in Ovid (I.e.)
and in Silius Italicus (8. 50 foil.) . The coarse myth told by Ovid,
in which Anna plays a trick on Mars when in love with Minerva,
is probably an old Italian folk-tale, poetically applied to the
persons of these deities when they became partially anthropo-
morphized under Greek influence. ( VV. W. F.*)
ANNAPOLIS, a city and seaport of Maryland, U.S.A., the
capital of the state, the county seat of Anne Arundel county, and
the seat of the United States Naval Academy; situated on the
Severn river about 2 m. from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay,
26 m. S. by E. from Baltimore and about the same distance E. by
N. from Washington. Pop. (1890) 7604; (1900) 8525, of whom
3002 were negroes; (19x0 census) 8609. Annapolis is served
by the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis (electric) and the
Maryland Electric railways, and by the Baltimore & Annapolis
steamship line. On an elevation near the centre of the city stands
the state house (the comer stone of which was laid in 1 772), with
its lofty white dome (900 ft.) and pillared portico. Close by are
the state treasury building, erected late in the 17th century for
the House of Delegates; Saint Anne's Protestant Episcopal
church, in later colonial days a state church, a statue of Roger B.
Taney (by W.H. Rinehart) , and a statue of Baron Johann de Kalb.
There are a number of residences of 1 6th century architecture, and
the names of several of the streets— such as King George's, Prince
George's, Hanover, and Duke of Gloucester— recall the colonial
days. The United States Naval Academy was founded here in
1845. Annapolis is the seat of Saint John's College, a non-
sectarian institution supported in port by the state; it was opened
in x 789 as the successor of King William's School, which was
founded by an act of (he Maryland legislature in 1696 and was
opened in 1701. .Its principal building, McDowell Hall, was
originally intended for a governor's mansion; although £4000
current money was appropriated for Hb erection in 1742, it was
not completed until after the War of Independence. In 1007 the.
college became the school of arts and sciences of the university
of Maryland.
Annapolis, at first called Providence, was settled in 1649 by
Puritan exiles from Virginia. Later it bore in succession the
names of Town at Proctor's, Town at the Severn, Anne Arundel
Town, and finally in 1694, Annapolis, in honour of Princess Anne,
who at the time was heir to the throne of Great Britain. In 1 604
also, soon after the overthrow of the Catholic government of the
lord proprietor, it was made the seat of the new government as
well as a port of entry, and it has since, remained the capital of
Maryland; but it was not until 1706 that it was incorporated as
I a city. From the middle of the 18th century until the War of
6+
ANNAPOLIS— ANNATES
Independence, Annapolis was noted for its wealthy and cultivated
society. The Maryland GaxctU, which became an important
weekly journal, was founded by Jonas Green in 1745; in 1760 a
theatre was opened; during this period also the commerce was
considerable, but declined rapidly after Baltimore, in 1780, was
made a port of entry, and now oyster-packing is the city's only im-
portant industry. Congress was in session in the state house here
from the 26th of November 1783 to the 3rd of June 1784, and it
was here on the 23rd of December 1783 that General Washington
resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental
Army. In 1786 a convention, to which delegates from all the
states of the Union were invited, was called to meet in Annapolis
to consider measures for the better regulation of commerce (see
Alexandria, Vs.); but delegates came from only five states
(New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, New Jersey, and Delaware),
and the convention — known afterward as the " Annapolis Con-
vention, "—without proceeding to the business for which it had
met, passed a resolution calling for another convention to meet
at Philadelphia in the following year to amend the articles of
confederation; by this Philadelphia convention the present
Constitution of the United States was framed.
See>D. Ridgety, Annals of Annapolis from 1649 until the War of
1812 (Baltimore, 1841); S. A. Shafer, "Annapolis, Ye Ancient
City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern Stales (New
York, 1900); and W. Eddis, Letters from America (London, 1792).
ANNAPOLIS, a town of Nova Scotia, capital of Annapolis
county and up to 1750 of the entire peninsula of Nova Scotia;
situated on an arm of the Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of the
Annapolis river, 95 m. W. of Halifax; and the terminus of the
Windsor & Annapolis railway. Pop. (xooi) xoxq. It is one of
the oldest settlements in North America, having been founded in
1604 by the French, who called it Port Royal. It was captured
by the British in 1 7 10, and ceded to them by the treaty of U credit
in 17x3, when the name was changed in honour of Queen Anne.
It possesses a good harbour, and the beauty of the surrounding
country makes it a favourite summer resort. The town is
surrounded by apple orchards and in May miles of blossoming
trees make a beautiful sight. The fruit, which is excellent in
quality, is the principal export of the region.
. ANN ARBOR, a city and the county-seat of Washtenaw
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Huron river, about 38 m.
W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9431; (1900) 14,509, of whom
2329 were foreign-born ; (1910) 14,817. It is served by the
Michigan Central and the Ann Arbor railways, and by an
electric line running from Detroit to Jackson and connecting
with various other lines. Ann Arbor is best known as the seat of
the university of Michigan, opened in 1837. The dty has many
attractive residences, and the residential districts, especially in
the east and south-east parts of the dty, command picturesque
views of the Huron valley. Ann Arbor is situated in a productive
agricultural and fruit-growing region. The river provides good
water-power, and among the manufactures are agricultural
implements, carriages, furniture (induding sectional book-cases),
pianos and organs, pottery and flour. In 1824 Ann Arbor was
settled, laid out as a town, chosen for the county-seat, and
named in honour of Mrs Ann Allen and Mrs Ann Rumsey, the
wives of two of the founders. It was incorporated as a village in
1833, and was first chartered as a dty in 1851.
ANNATES (Lat. annatae, from annus, " year "), also known
as " first-fruits " (Lat primitiae), in the strictest sense of the
word, the whole of the first year's profits of a spiritual benefice
which, in all countries of the Roman obedience, were formerly
paid into the papal treasury. This custom was only of gradual
growth. The jus deporluum, annalia or annatae, was originally
the right of the bishop to claim the first year's profits of the
living from a newly inducted incumbent, of which the first
mention is found under Pope Honorius (d. 1227), but which had
its. origin in a custom, dating from the 6th century, by which
those ordained' to ecclesiastical offices paid a fee or tax to the
ordaining bishop. The earliest records show the annate to have
been, sometimes a privilege conceded to the bishop for a term of
years, sometimes a right based on immemorial precedent In
course of time the popes, under stress of finandal crises, claimed
the privilege for themselves, though at first only temporarily.
Thus, in 1305, Clement V. claimed the first-fruits of all vacant
benefices in England and in 13x9 John XXII. those of all
Christendom vacated within the next two years. In those cases
the rights of the bishops were frankly usurped by the Holy See,
now regarded as the ultimate source of the episcopal jurisdic-
tion; the more usual custom was for the pope to claim the
first-fruits only of those benefices of which he had reserved the
patronage to himself. It was from these claims that the papal
annates, in the strict sense, in course of time developed.
These annates may be divided broadly into three classes,
though the chief features are common to all: (x) the servitia
communia or servitia Camera* Papae, ue. the payment into the
papal treasury by every abbot and bishop, on his induction, of
one year's revenue of his new benefice. The servitia communia
are traceable to the oblatio paid to the pope when consecrating
bishops as metropolitan or patriarch. When, in the middle of
the 13th century, the consecration of bishops became established
as the sole right of the pope, the oblations of all bishops of the
West were received by him and, by the dose of the 14th century,
these became fixed at one year's revenue. 1 A small additional
payment, as a kind of notarial fee, was added (servitia minuta).
(2) The jus deporluum, f rutins medii tern ports, or annalia, i.e.
the annates due to the bishop, but in the case of " reserved '*
benefices paid by him to the Holy See. (3) The quindennia, i.e.
annates payable, under a bull of Paul II. (1469), by benefices
attached to a corporation, every fifteen years and not at every
presentation.
The system of annates was at no time worked with absolute
uniformity and completeness throughout the various parts of
the church owning obedience to the Holy See, and it was never
willingly submitted to by the clergy. Disagreements and dis-
putes were continual, and the easy expedient of rewarding the
officials of the Curia and increasing the papal revenue by " re-
serving " more and more benefices was met by repeated protests,
such as that of the bishops and barons of England (the chief
sufferers), headed by Robert Grossetesteof Lincoln, at the council
of Lyons in 1245.* The subject, indeed, frequently became one
of national interest, on account of the alarming amount of spede
which was thus drained away, and hence numerous enactments
exist in regard to it by the various national governments. In
England the collection and payment of annates to the pope was
prohibited in 1531 by statute. At that time the sum amounted
to about £3000 a year. In x 534 the annates were, along with the
supremacy over the church in England, bestowed on the crown;
but in February 1704 they were appropriated by Queen Anne to
the assistance of the poorer dergy, and thus form what has since
been known as " Queen Anne's Bounty " (?.».). The amount to
be paid was originally regulated by a valuation made under the
direction of Pope Innocent IV. by Walter, bishop of Norwich, in
1254, later by one instituted under commission from Nicholas
III. in 1292, which in turn was superseded in x$35 by the valua-
tion, made by commissioners appointed by Henry VIII., known
as the King's Books, which was confirmed on the accession of
Elizabeth and is still that by which the dergy are rated In
France, in spite of royal edicts— like those of Charles VI., Charles
VII., Louis XI., and Henry II. — and even denunciations of the
Sorbonnc, at least the custom of paying the servitia communia
held its ground till the famous decree of the 4th of August during
the Revolution of 1789. In Germany it was dedded by the
concordat of Constance, in 1418, that bishoprics and abbacies
should pay the servitia according to the valuation of the Roman
chancery in two half-yearly instalments. Those reserved bene-
fices only were to pay the annalia which were rated above twenty-
four gold florins; and as none were so rated, whatever their
annual value may have been, the annalia fell into disuse. A
1 For cases see du Cange, Clossarium, s. Serviiium Camerae Pap*e\
J. C. L. Gieseler, Eccles. Hist., vol. iii. div. iti., notes to p. 181, Ac
(Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853). .
1 Durandus (Guillaume Durand), in his de modo teneralis concUii
cekbrandi, represents contemporary clerical hostile opinion and
attacks the corruptions of the officials of the Curia.
ANNE, QUEEN
*5
r convenient fiction alio led to their practical abrogation In
France, Spain and Belgium. The council of Basel (1431-1443)
wished to abolish the serrilia, but the concordat of Vienna (1448)
confirmed the Constance decision, which, in spite of the efforts
of the congress of Ems (1786) to alter it, still remains nominally
in force. As a matter of fact, however, the revolution caused by
the secularization of the ecclesiastical states in 1803 practically
put an end to the system, and the servitia have either been
commuted via gratioe to a moderate fixed sum under particular
concordats, or are the subject of separate negotiation with each
bishop on his appointment. In Prussia, where the bishops
receive salaries as state officials, the payment is made by the
government.
In Scotland annat or ann is half a year's stipend allowed by
the Act 1672, c 13, to the executors of a minister of the Church of
Scotland above what was due to him at the time of his death.
This is neither assignable by the clergyman during his life, nor
can it be seized by his creditors.
ATOB (1665-1 714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland, second
daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards James II., and of
Anne Hyde, daughter of the xst earl of Clarendon, was born
on the 6th of February 1665. She suffered as a child from an
affection of the eyes, and was sent to France for medical treat-
ment, residing with her grandmother, Henrietta Maria, and on
the fetter's death with her aunt, the duchess of Orleans, and
returning to England in 2670. She was brought up, together
with her sister Mary, by the direction of Charles II., as a strict
Protestant, and as a child she made the friendship of Sarah
Jennings (afterwards duchess of Marlborough), thus beginning
life under the two influences which were to prove the most
powerful in her future career. In 1678 she accompanied Mary of
ftfodena to Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents abroad and
afterwards in Scotland. On the 28th of July 1683 she married
Prince George of Denmark, brother of King Christian V., an
unpopular union because of the French proclivities of the
bridegroom's country, but one of great domestic happiness,
the prince and princess being conformable in temper and botji
preferring retirement and quiet to life in the great world. Sarah
Cburchfll became Anne's lady of the bedchamber, and, by the
tatter's desire to mark their mutual intimacy and affection, all
deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two ladies
called each other Mrs Morley and Mrs Freeman.
On the 6th of February 1685 James became king of England.
In 1687 a project of settling the crown on the princess, to the
exclusion of Mary, on the condition of Anne's embracing Roman
Catholicism, was rendered futile by her pronounced attachment
to the Church of England, and beyond sending her books and
papers James appears to have made no attempt to coerce his
daughter into a change of faith, 1 and to have treated her with
kindness, while the birth of his son on the roth of June 1688
made the religion of his daughters a matter of less political
importance. Anne was not present on the occasion, having gone
to Bath, and this gave rise to a belief that the child was spurious;
but it is most probable that James's desire to exclude all
Protestants from affairs of stale was the real cause. " I shall never
now be satisfied," Anne wrote to Mary, " whether the child be true
or false. It may be it is our. brother, but God only knows . . .
one cannot help having a thousand fears and melancholy thoughts,
but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find me firm
to my religion and faithfully yours." 1 In later years, however,
she had no doubt that the Old Pretender was her brother.
During; the events immediately preceding the Revolution Anne
kept in seclusion. Her ultimate conduct was probably influenced
by the Churchills; and though forbidden by James to pay Mary
a projected visit in the spring of 1688, she corresponded with her,
and was no doubt aware of William's plans. Her position was
now a very critical and painful one. She refused to show any
sympathy with the king after William bad landed in November,
and wrote, with the advice of the Churchills, to the prince,
1 See also Hist. MSS, Comm., MSS. of Duke of Rutland at Bdvoir,
u. 109.
• Dalrympfe's Memoirs, ii. 175.
declaring her approval of his action. 1 Churchill abandoned the
king on the 24th, Prince George on the 25th, and when James
returned to London on the 26th he found that Anne and her
lady-in-waiting had during the previous night followed their
husbands' examples. Escaping from Whitehall by a back
staircase they put themselves under the care of the bishop of
London, spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived
on the xst of December at Nottingham, where the princess first
made herself known and appointed a council. Thence she
passed through Leicester, Coventry and Warwick, finally entering
Oxford, where she met Prince George, in triumph, escorted by
a large company. Like Mary, she was reproached for showing
no concern at the news of the king's flight, but her justification
was that " she never loved to do anything that looked like an
affected constraint." She returned to London on the 19th of
December, when she was at once visited by William. Subse-
quently the Declaration of Rights settled the succession of the
crown upon her after William and Mary and their children.
Meanwhile Anne had suffered a series of maternal disappoint-
ments. Between 1684 and 1688 she had miscarried four times
and given birth to two children who died infants. On the 24th
of July 1689, however, the birth of a son, William, created duke
of Gloucester, who survived his infancy, gave hopes that heirs
to the throne under the Bill of Rights might be forthcoming.
But Anne's happiness was soon troubled by quarrels with the
king and queen. According to the duchess of Marlborough the
two sisters, who had lived hitherto while apart on extremely
affectionate terms, found no enjoyment in each other's society.
Mary talked too much for Anne's comfort, and Anne too little
for Mary's satisfaction* But money appears to have been the
first and real cause of ill-feeling. The granting away by William
of the private estate of James, amounting to £22,000 a year, to
which Anne had some claim, was made a grievance, and a
factious motion brought forward in the House to increase her
civil list pension of £30,000, which she enjoyed in addition to
£20,000 under her marriage settlement, greatly displeased
William and Mary, who regarded it as a plot to make Anne
independent and the chief of a separate interest in the state,
while their resentment was increased by the refusal of Anne to
restrain the action of her friends, and by its success. The
Marlboroughs had been active in the affair and had benefited by
it, the countess (as she then was) receiving a pension of £1000,
and their conduct was noticed at court. The promised Garter
was withheld from Marlborough, and the incensed "Mrs Morley".
in her letters to "Mrs Freeman" styled the king "Caliban",
or the "Dutch Monster." At the dose of 1691 Anne had
declared her approval of the naval expedition in favour of her
father, and expressed grief at its failure. 4 According to the
doubtful Life of James, she wrote to him on the 1st of December
a " most penitential and dutiful " letter, and henceforward kept
up with him a "fair correspondence." 1 The same year the
breach between the royal sisters was made final by the dismissal
of Marlborough, justly suspected of Jacobite intrigues, from all
his appointments. Anne took the part of her favourites with
great zeal against the court, though in all probability unaware
of Marlborough's treason; and on the dismissal of the countess
from her household by the king and queen she refused to part
with her, and retired with Lady Marlborough to the duke of
Somerset's residence at Sion House. Anne was now in disgrace.
She was deprived of her guard of honour, and Prince George, on
entering Kensington Palace, received no salute, though the
drums beat loudly on his departure. 9 Instructions were given
that the court expected no one to pay his respects, and no
attention in the provinces was to be shown to their rank. In
May, Marlborough was arrested on a charge of high treason which
subsequently broke down, and Anne persisted in regarding his
disgrace as apersonal injury to herself. In August 1693, however.
1 Dalrymple'i Memoirs, U. 249.
* Lord Ailcsbui
mry's Memoirs, 293.
1 Macpherson i. 241 ; Clarke* Life of James //., ii. 476. The
letter, which i» only printed in fragments, is not in Anne's style,
and if genuine was probably dictated by the Churchills.
' Luttrell ii. 366, 376.
66
ANNE, QUEEN
the two sisters were temporarily reconciled, end on the occasion
of Mary's last illness and death Anne showed an affectionate
consideration.
The death of Mary weakened William's position and made
it necessary to cultivate good relations with the princess. She
was now treated with every honour and civility, and finally
established with her own court at St James's Palace, At the
same time William kept her in the background and refrained
Trom appointing her regent during his absence. In March 1695
Marlborough was allowed to kiss the king's hands, and subse-
quently was made the duke of Gloucester's governor and restored
to his employments. In return Anne gave her support to
William's government, though about this time, in 1606— according
to James, in consequence of the near prospect of the throne-
she wrote to her father asking for his leave to wear the crown
at William's death, and promising its restoration at a convenient
opportunity. 1 The unfounded rumour that William contem-
plated settling the succession after his death on James's son,
provided he were educated a Protestant in England, may possibly
have alarmed her.' Meanwhile, since the birth of the duke of
Gloucester, the princess had experienced six more miscarriages,
and had given birth, to two children who only survived a few
hours, and the last maternal hope flickered out on the death of
the young prince on the 29th of July 1700. Henceforth Anne
signs herself in her letters to Lady Marlborough as " your poor
unfortunate " as well as " faithful Morley." In default of her
own issue, Anne's personal choice would probably have inclined
at this time to her own family at St Germains, but the necessity
of maintaining the Protestant succession caused the enactment
of the Act of Settlement in 1701, and the substitution of the
Hanoverian branch. She wore mourning for her father in 1 701 ,
and before his death James is said to have written to his daughter
asking for her protection for his family; but the recognition of his
son by Louis XIV. as king of England effectually prevented any
good offices to which her feelings might have inclined her.
On the 8th of March 1702 Anne became, by King William's
death, queen of Great Britain, being crowned on the 23rd of
April. Her reign was destined to be one of the most brilliant
in the annals of England. Splendid military triumphs crushed
the hereditary national foe. The Act of Union with Scotland
constituted one of the strongest foundations of the future
empire. Art and literature found a fresh renascence.
In her first speech to parliament, like George III. afterwards,
Anne declared her " heart to-be entirely English," words which
were resented by some as a reflection on the late king. A
ministry ,mostly Tory, with Godolphin at its head, was established.
She obtained a grant of £700,000 a year, and hastened to bestow
a pension of £100,000 on her husband, whom she created general-
issimo of her forces and lord high admiral, while Marlborough
obtained the Garter, with the captain-generalship and other
prizes, including a dukedom, and the duchess was made mistress
of the robes with the control of the privy purse. The queen
showed from the first a strong interest in church matters, and
declared her intention to keep church appointments in her own
hands. She detested equally Roman Catholics and dissenters,
showed a strong leaning towards the high-church party, and gave
zealous support to the bill forbidding occasional conformity.
In 1 704 she announced to the Commons her intention of granting
to the church the crown revenues, amounting to about £16,000 or
£17,000 a year, from tenths and first-fruits (paid originally by
the clergy to the pope, but appropriated by the crown in 1534),
for the increase of poor livings; her gift, under the name of
" Queen Anne's Bounty," still remaining as a testimony of her
piety. This devotion to the church, the strongest of all motives
in Anne's conduct, dictated her hesitating attitude towards
the two great parties in the state. The Tories had for this reason
her personal preference, while the Whigs, who included her power*
ful favourites the Marlboroughs, identified their interests with
1 Macphcraon i. 257; Clarke's Janus J J., ii. 559. See also
Shrewsbury's anonymous correspondent in Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser.;
MSS. Duke of BuuUugk at Montagu Houu, ii. 169. I
* Macaulay iv. 799 note » \
the war and its glorious successes, the queen slowly and un-
willingly, but inevitably, gravitating towards the latter.
In December, the archduke Charles visited Anne at Windsor
and was welcomed as the king of Spain. In 1 704 Anne acquiesced
in the resignation of Lord Nottingham, the leader of the high
Tory party. In the same year the great victory of Blenheim
further consolidated the power of the Whigs and increased the
influence of Marlborough, upon whom Anne now conferred the
manor of Woodstock. Nevertheless, she declared in November
to the duchess that whenever things leaned towards the Whigs,
" I shall think the church is beginning to be in danger." Next
year she supported the election of the Whig speaker, John Smith,
but long resisted the influence and claims of the Junto, as the
Whig leaders, Somers, Halifax, Orford, Wharton and Sunderland,
were named. In October she was obliged to appoint Cowpcr,
a Whig, lord chancellor, with all the ecclesiastical patronage
belonging to the office. Marlborough's successive victories,
and especially the factious conduct of the Tories, who in
November 1705 moved in parliament that the elcctress Sophia
should be invited to England, drove Anne farther to the side
of the Whigs. But she opposed for some time the inclusion in
the government of Sunderland, whom she especially disliked, only
consenting at Marlborough's intercession in December 1706,
when various other offices and rewards were bestowed upon
Whigs, and Nottingham with other Tories was removed from the
council. She yielded, after a struggle, also to the appointment
of Whigs to bishoprics, the most mortifying submission of all.
In 1708 she was forced to dismiss Harley, who, with the aid of
Mrs Masham, had been intriguing against the government and
projecting the creation of a third party. Abigail Hill, Mrs
Masham, a cousin of the duchess of Marlborough, had been
introduced by the latter as a poor relation into Anne's service,
while still princess of Denmark. The queen found relief in the
quiet and respectful demeanour of her attendant, and gradually
came to prefer her society to that of the termagant and tern*
pestuous duchess. Abigail, however, soon ventured to talk
" business," and in the summer of 1707 the duchess discovered
to her indignation that her protegee had already undermined
her influence with the queen and had become the medium of
Harley's intrigue. The strength of the Whigs at this time and
the necessities of the war caused the retirement of Harley,
but he remained Anne's secret adviser and supporter against
the faction, urging upon her " the dangers to the crown as well
as to the church and monarchy itself from their counsels and
actions," 3 while the duchess never regained her former influence.
The inclusion in the cabinet of Somers, whom she especially
disliked as the hostile critic of Prince George's admiralty
administration, was the subject of another prolonged struggle,
ending again in the queen's submission after a futile appeal
to Marlborough in October 1708, to which she brought herself
only to avoid a motion from the Whigs for the removal of the
prince, then actually on his deathbed. His death on the 28th of
October was felt deeply by the queen, and opened the way for
the inclusion of more Whigs. But no reconciliation with the
duchess took place, and in z 709 a further dispute led to an angry
correspondence, the queen finally informing the duchess of the
termination of their friendship, and the latter drawing up a
long narrative of her services, which she forwarded to Anne
together with suitable passages on the subject of friendship
and charity transcribed from the Prayer Book, the Whole Duty
of Man and from Jeremy Taylor. 4 Next year Anne's desire
to give a regiment to Hill, Mrs Masham's brother, led to another
ineffectual attempt in retaliation to displace the new favourite,
and the queen showed her antagonism to the Whig administra-
tion on the occasion of the prosecution of Sacheverell. She was
present at his trial and was publicly acclaimed by the mob as
his supporter, while the Tory divine was consoled immediately
on the expiration of his sentence with the living of St Andrew's.
Holborn. Subsequently the duchess, in a final interview which
she had forced upon the queen, found her tears and reproaches
' Swift's Mem. on the Change of the Ministry.
4 Conduct of the Duchess of Marlborough, p. 215.
ANNE, QUEEN
67
unavailing. In her anger the had told the queen she wished for
do answer, and she was now met by a stony and exasperating
silence, broken only by the words constantly repeated, "You
desired no answer and you shall have none."
The fall of the Whigs, now no longer necessary on account of
the successful issue of the war, to accomplish which Harley bad
long been preparing and intriguing, followed; and their attempt
to prolong hostilities from party motives failed. A friend of
Harley, the duke of Shrewsbury, was first appointed to office,
and subsequently the great body of the Whigs were displaced
by Tories, Harley being made chancellor of the exchequer and
Henry St John secretary of state. The queen was rejoiced
at being freed from what she called a long captivity, and the
new parliament was returned with a Tory majority. On the
17 th of January 1 711, in spite of Marlborough's efforts to ward
off the blow, the duchess was compelled to give up her key of
office. The queen was now able once more to indulge in her
favourite patronage of the church, and by her influence an act
was passed in 1712 for building fifty new churches in London.
Later, in x 7 14, she approved of the Schism Bill. She gave strong
support to Harley, now earl of Oxford and lord treasurer, in
the intrigues and negotiations for peace. Owing to the alliance
between the Tory Lord Nottingham and the Whigs, on the
condition of the support by the latter of the bill against occasional
conformity passed in December xyti, the defeated Whigs
maintained a majority in the Lords, who declared against any
peace which left Spain to the Bourbons. To break down this
opposition Marlborough was dismissed on the 31st from all his
employments, while the House of Lords was " swamped " by
Anne's creation of twelve peers, 1 including Mrs Masham's
husband. The queen's conduct was generally approved, for the
nation was now violently adverse to the Whigs and war party;
and the peace of Utrecht was finally signed on the 31st of March
171 j, and proclaimed on the 5th of May in London.
As the queen*s reign drew to its close, rumours were rife on the
great subject of the succession to the throne. Various Jacobite
appointments excited suspicion. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke
were in communication with the Pretender's party, and on the
*7th of July Oxford, who had gradually lost influence and
quarrelled with Bolingbroke, resigned, leaving the supreme
power in the hands of the latter. Anne herself had a natural
feeling for her brother, and had shown great solicitude concerning
his treatment when a price had been set on his head at the
time of the Scottish expedition in 1708. On the 3rd of March
1714 James wrote to Anne, Oxford and Bolingbroke, urging the
necessity of taking steps to secure his succession, and promising,
on the condition of his recognition, to make no further attempts
against the queen's government; and in April a report was
circulated in Holland that Anne had secretly determined to
associate James with her in the government. The wish expressed
br the Whigs, that a member of the electoral family should be
invited to England, had already aroused the queen's indignation
in 1708; and now, in 1714, a writ of summons for the electoral
prince as duke of Cambridge having been obtained, Anne forbade
the Hanoverian envoy, Baron Schiitz, her presence, and declared
all who supported the project her enemies; while to a memorial
on the same subject from the electress Sophia and her grandson
in May, Anne replied in an angry letter, which is said to have
caused the death of the electress on the 8th of June, requesting
them not to trouble the peace of her realm or diminish her
authority.
These demonstrations, however, were the outcome not of any
returning partiality for her own family, but of her intense dislike,
in which she resembled Queen Elizabeth, of any " successor,"
** it being a, thing I cannot bear to have any successor here
though but for a week "; and in spite of some appearances to
the contrary, it is certain that religion and political wisdom
kept Anne firm to the Protestant succession.' She had main-
tained a friendly correspondence with the court of Hanover since
1 For their names tee Hume and Smollett's Hist. (Hughes, 1854)
ral no.
* See also Hist. AfSS. Comm. Set. Rep. vii. App. 246b.
1705, and in 1706 had bestowed the Garter on- the electoral
prince and created him duke of Cambridge; while the Regency
Act provided for the declaration of the legal heir to the crown
by the council immediately on the queen's death, and a further
enactment naturalized the electress and her Issue. In 1708, on
the occasion of the Scottish expedition, notwithstanding her
solicitude for his safety, she had styled James in her speech
closing the session of parliament as " a popish pretender bred
up in the principles of the most arbitrary government." The
duchess of Marlborough stated in 17x3 that all the time she had
known " that thing" (as she now called the queen), " she had never
heard her speak a favourable word of him."' No answer appears
to have been sent to James's letter in 1714; on the contrary, a
proclamation was issued (June 23) for his apprehension in case
of his arrival in England. On the 47th of April Anne gave a
solemn assurance of her fidelity to the Hanoverian succession
to Sir William Dawes, archbishop of York; in June she sent
Lord Clarendon to Hanover to satisfy the elector.
The sudden illness and death of the queen now frustrated any
schemes which Bolingbroke or others might have been contem-
plating. On the 27th, the day of Oxford's resignation, the
discussions concerning his successor detained the council silting
in the queen's presence till two o'clock in the morning, and on
retiring Anne was instantly seized with fatal illness. Her ad-
herence to William in 1688 had been a principal cause of the
success of the Revolution, and now the final act of her life was
to secure the Revolution settlement and the Protestant succesi
sion. During a last moment of returning consciousness, and by
the advice of the whole council, who bad been joined on their
own initiative by the Whig dukes Argyll and Somerset, she placed
the lord treasurer's staff in the hands of the Whig duke of
Shrewsbury, and measures were immediately taken for assuring
the succession of the elector. Her death took place on the 1st
of August, and the security felt by the public, and perhaps the
sense of perils escaped by the termination of the queen's life,
were shown by a considerable rise in the national stocks. She
was buried on the south side of Henry VII.'s chapel in West-
minster Abbey, in the same tomb as her husband and children.
The elector of Hanover, George Louis, son of the electress
Sophia (daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.), peacefully
succeeded to the throne as George L (q.v.).
According to her physician Arbuthnot, Anne's life was
shortened by the " scene of contention among her servants. I
believe sleep was never more welcome to a weary traveller than
death was to her." By character and temperament unfitted to
stand alone, her life had been unhappy and tragical from its
isolation. Separated in early years from her parents and sister,
her one great friendship had proved only baneful and ensnaring.
Marriage had only brought a mournful series of infant funerals.
Constant ill-health and suffering had darkened her career. The
claims of family attachment, of religion, of duty, of patriotism
and of interest, had dragged her in opposite directions, and her
whole life had been a prey to jealousies and factions which closed
around her at her accession to the throne, and surged to their
height when she lay on her deathbed. The modern theory of the
relations between the sovereign and tho parties, by which the
former identifies himself with the faction for the time in power
while maintaining his detachment from all, had not then been
invented; and Anne, like her Hanoverian successors, maintained
the struggle, though without success, to rule independently,
finding support in Harley. During the first year of her reign
she made known that she was " resolved not to follow the
example of her predecessor in making use of a few of her subjects
to oppress the rest. She will be queen of all her subjects, and
would have all the parties and distinctions of former reigns ended
and buried in hers." 4 Her motive for getting rid of the Whigs
was not any real dislike of their administration, but the wish to
escape from the domination of the party, 1 and on the advent
> Ibid. Portland MSS. v. 338.
4 Sir J. LcvcsonGowcr to Lord Rutland, Hist. MSS. Comm.,
Duke •/ Rutland: $ MSS. it. 173.
• Sec Bolingbrokcs Utter to Sir W. Wyndkam,
68
ANNE, EMPRESS
to power of the Tories she carefully left some Whigs in their
employments, with the aim of breaking up the party system and
acting upon what was called " a moderate scheme." She
attended debates in the Lords and endeavoured to influence
votes. Her struggles to free herself from the influence of factions
only involved her deeper; she was always under the domination
of some person or some party, and she could not rise above them
and show herself the leader of the nation like Elizabeth.
Anne was a woman of small ability, of dull mind, and of that
kind of obstinacy which accompanies weakness of character.
According to the duchess she had " a certain knack of sticking
to what had been dictated to her to a degree often- very dis-
agreeable, and without the least sign of understanding or judg-
ment." l " I desire you would not have so ill an opinion of me,"
Anne writes to Oxford, " as to think when I have determined
anything in my mind I will alter it." * Burnet considered that
" she laid down the splendour of a court too much," which was
" as it were abandoned." She dined alone after her husband's
death, but it was reported by no means abstemiously, the royal
family being characterized in the lines: —
" King William thinks all,
Queen Mary talks all,
Prince George drinks all,
And Princess Anne eats all." *
She took no interest in the art, the drama or the literature of
her day. But she possessed the homely virtues; she was deeply
religious, attached to the Church of England and concerned for
the efficiency of the ministry. One of the first acts of her reign
was a proclamation against vice, and Lord Chesterfield regretted
the strict morality of her court. Instances abound of her kind-
ness and consideration for others. Her moderation towards
the Jacobites in Scotland, after the Pretender's expedition in
1708, was much praised by Saint Simon. She showed great
forbearance and generosity towards the duchess of Marlborough
in the face of unexampled provocation, and her character was
unduly disparaged by the latter, who with her violent and coarse
nature could not understand the queen's self-restraint in sorrow,
and describes her as " very hard " and as " not apt to cry."
According to her small ability she served the state well, and was
zealous and conscientious in the fulfilment of public duties, in
which may be included touching for the king's evil, which she
revived. Marlborough testifies to her energy in finding money
for the war. She surrendered £ 1 0,000 a year for public purposes,
and in 1706 she presented £30,000 to the officers and soldiers
who had lost their horses. Her contemporaries almost unani-
mously record her excellence and womanly virtues; and by
Dean Swift, no mild critic, she is invariably spoken of with
respect, and named in his will as of " ever glorious, immortal
and truly pious memory, the real nursing-mother of her king-
doms." She deserves her appellation of " Good Queen Anne,"
and notwithstanding her failings must be included among the
chief authors and upholders of the great Revolution settlement.
Her person was described by Spanheim, the Prussian ambassador,
as handsome though inclining to stoutness, with black hair, blue
eyes and good features, and of grave aspect.
Anne's husband, Prince George (1653-1708), was the second
son of Frederick III., king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne
he had been a candidate for the throne of Poland. He was
created earl of Kendal and duke of Cumberland in 1689.
Some censure, which was directed against the prince in his
capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his death.
In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his
qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a
soldier or a statesman.
Bibliography.— Did. of Nat. Biography (Dr A. W. Ward);
A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England (1852), somewhat
uncritical ; an excellent account written by Spanheim for the king
of Prussia, printed in the Eng. Hist. Rev. ti. 757: histories of Stan-
hope. Lecky, Ranke, Macaulay, Boyes, Burnet, Wyon, and Sorner-
ville; F. E. Morris, The Age of Anne (London, 1877); Correspondence
1 Prhate Correspondent*, ii. 12a
* Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Mara, of Balk at Longleat, I 337.
1 Notes and Queries, xi. 354.
and Diary of Lord Clarendon (1828): Haiion Correspondence (Camden
Soc., 1878): Evelyn's Diary; Sir J. Dalrymple's Memoirs (1700);
N. Luttrell's Brief Hist. Relation (1857); Wentworth Papers (1883);
W. Coxe, Mem. of the Duke of Marlborough 0847); Conduct of the
Dowager Duchess of Marlborough (1742); Ralph, the other Side of the
Question (1742); Private Correspondence of Sarah Duchess of Marl-
Borough (1838); A. T.Thomson, Mem. of 'ti "* " " "
Queen Anne (1839); J. S. Clarke's Lift .
Macpherson's Original Papers (I77S): Swift's Some Considerations
upon the Consequences from the Death of the Queen, An Inquiry into
the Behaviour of the Queen's last Ministry, Hist, of the Four
Last Years of Queen Anne, and Journals and Letters; The Lockhart
Papers (1817), i.; F. Salomon, Ceschichte des leteten Ministeriums
A. T. Thomson, Mem. of the Duchess and the Court of
~ S. Clarke's Life of [James IT. (1816); J.
Kbnigin^Annas (1894); Marchtnont Papers, ia. (i8ji); W. Stchel,
treasury; Hist7 MSS. Comm. Series', MSS. of rfuke of Portland]
Life of Bolintbroke (1901-1902); Mem. of Thomas i
(Roxburghe C" ' v " "" ' "
Royal Hist.
„ . , _, lof AHesbury
(Roxburghe Club, 1890); Eng. Hist. Rev. i. 470, 756, viii. 740;
~ Soc. Trans. N7S. xiv. 6qj Col. of State Papers;
including the Harley Papers, Duke of Bucdeugk at Montagu House,
Lord Kenyon, Mara, of Bath at Longleal; Various Collections, it. 146,
Duke of Rutland at Belvoir, 7/i Rep. abp., and H. M. the King {Stuart
Papers, I); Stowe MSS. in Bnt. Museum; Sir J. Mackintosh's
Transcripts. Add. MSS. in Brit. Museum, 34, 487-526; Edinburgh
Rev., October 1835, p. r; Notes and Queries, vii. ser. iii. 178. viii.
ser. i. 72, xii. 368. ix, ser. iv. 282, xi, 254; C. Hodgson, An Account
of the Augmentation of Small Livings by the Bounty of Queen Ann*
(1843) ; Observations of the Governors of Queen A nne s Bounty (1867) ;
Somers Tracts, xii. xtit. (1814-181$); H. Paul, Queen Anne (London.
1907). (P C. Y.)
ANNE ( 1 693-1 740), empress of Russia, second daughter of Tsar
Ivan V., Peter the Great's imbecile brother, and Praskovia
Saltuikova. Her girlhood was passed at Ismailovo near Moscow,
with her mother, an ignorant, bigoted tsaritsa of the old school,
who neglected and even hated her daughters. Peter acted as a
second father to the Ivanovs, as Praskovia and her family were
called. In 17x0 he married Anne to Frederick William, duke of
Courland, who died of surfeit on his journey home from St
Petersburg. The reluctant young widow was ordered to proceed
on her way to Mittau to take over the government of Courland,
with the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuxhev,as her adviser.
He was subsequently her lover, till supplanted by Biren (?•»-).
Anne's residenceat Mittau wasembittered by the utter inadequacy
of her revenue, which she keenly felt. It was therefore with joy
that she at once accepted the Russian crown, as the next heir,
after the death of Peter II. (January 30, x 730), when it was offered
to her by the members of the supreme privy council, even going
so far as to subscribe previously nine articles which would have
reduced her from an absolute to a very limited monarch. On
the 26th of February she made her public entry into Moscow under
strict surveillance. On the 8th of March a coup d'itat, engineered
by a party* of her personal friends, overthrew the supreme privy
council and she was hailed as autocrat. Her government, on the
whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was
undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular.
This was due in the main to the outrageous insolence of her all-
powerful favourite Biren, who hated the Russian nobility and
trampled upon them mercilessly. Fortunately, Biren was
sufficiently prudent not to meddle with foreign affairs or with the
army, and these departments in the able hands of two other
foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with Russia,
Andrei Ostcrman (q.v.) and Burkhardt Munnich (q.v.) did great
things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the
period were the War of the Polish Succession and the second *
Crimean War. The former was caused by the reappearance of
Stanislaus Lcszczynski as a candidate for the Polish throne after
the death of Augustus II. (February 1, 1733)- The interests of
Russia would not permit her to recognize a candidate dependent
directly on France and indirectly upon Sweden and Turkey, all
three powers being at that time opposed to Russia's "system."
She accordingly united with Austria to support the candidature of
the late king's son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia was con-
cerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much
more important was the Crimean War of 1 736-39. This war marks
the beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to
recover her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted
4 Vastly Golitsuin's expedition under the regency of Sophia was
the first Crimean War (1687-89).
ANNE OF BRITTANY— ANNE OF DENMARK
69
four yean and a half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and
Bullions of roubles; and though invariably successful, she had to
be content with the acquisition of a single city (Azov) with a small
district at the mouth of the Don. Yet more had been gained than
was Immediately apparent. In the first place, this was the only
war hitherto waged by Russia against Turkey which had not ended
to crushing disaster. Munnkh had at least dissipated the illusion
of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian soldier that
100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair field, for
half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second place
the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the third
place Russia's signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had
immensely increased her prestige on the continent. " This court
begins to have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe,"
remarked the English minister, Sir Claudius Rondeau, a year later.
The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to
strengthen the position of the heir to the throne, the baby
cesarevich Ivan, afterwards Ivan VL> the son of the empress's
niece, Anna Leopoldovna, against the superior claims of her
cousin the cesarevna Elizabeth. The empress herself died three
months later (a8th of October 1740). Her last act was to
appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew.
Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as well*
meaning as ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be.
But she had much natural good sense, was a true friend and, in
her more cheerful moments, an amiable companion. Lady
Rondeau's portrait of the empress shows her to the best advan-
tage. She is described as a large woman, towering above all the
cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy and
graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awful-
ness in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her.
See R. Niabet Bain, The Pupils of Peter Ike Crest (London. 1897) ;
Letters from a lady who resided some years in Russia (ue. Lady
Rondeau) (London, 1775); Christoph Hermann Manstein, Mimot'res
tmr la Rustic (Amsterdam, 1771; English edition. London, 1856);
Gerhard Anton von He\em .Lebenssehretbung des Peldm.B. C.Graf envon
Mwmricn (Oldenburg, 1*03) : Claudius Romtew.Diptomattc Despatches
from Russia. 17*6-1739 (St Petersburg, 1889-1892). (R. N. B.)
ANN1 OP BRlTFAJfY (1477*1514)1 daughter of Francis II.,
duke of Brittany, and Marguerite de Four. She was scarcely
twelve years old when she succeeded her father as duchess on
the 9th of September 1488. Charles VIII. aimed at establishing
his authority over her; Alain d'Albret wished to marry her;
Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy ; and her guardian, the marshal
de Rieiix, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In 1489
the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her
independence, Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of
Austria, and soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But
Maximilian was incapable of defending her, and in 1491 the young
duchess found herself compelled to treat with Charles VIII. and
to marry him. The two sovereigns made a reciprocal arrangemen t
15 to their rights and pretensions to the crown of Brittany, but
in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne undertook to marry
the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after the conspiracy
of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the duchy
to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of
Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of
paying only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented.
After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children,
Anne exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1409
she married Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France.
The marriage contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the
independence of Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should
revert to the second son or to the eldest daughter of the two
sovereigns, and, failing issue, to the natural heirs of the duchess.
Until her death Anne occupied herself personally with the
administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the treaty of
Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter,
Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor,
CharlesV.), and promised him the possession of Brittany,Burgundy
and the county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken ,
tad the queen had to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis
of Angoultme, who in 15x5 became king of France as Francis I.
Thus the definitive reunion of Brittany and France was prepared.
See A. de la Borderie, Chcix de documents inidits sur le regno de la
duckesse Anne en Bretagne (Rennes, 1866 and 1902) — extracts from
the Memoires de la SocUti Archioloturu* du dSpartement d'Ille~et*
Vitaine, vols. iv. and vi. f 1866 and 1868) ; Leroux de Uney, Viedela
reins Anne de Bretagne (1860-1861); A. Dupuy, La Reunion de la
Bretagne & la France (1880) ; A. de la Boruene, La Bretagne aux
demiers sHcles du moyen Age (1893), and La Bretagne aux temps
medemes (1894)- <H. Se.)
ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1 557), fourth wife of Henry VIII,,
king of England, daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and Mary,
only daughter of William, duke of Juliers, was born on the 22nd
of September 1515. Her father was the leader of the German
Protestants, and the princess, after the death of Jane Seymour,
was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry VIII.
She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no
language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no
dowry, her only recommendations being her proficiency in
needlework, and her meek and gentle temper. Nevertheless her
picture, painted by Holbein by the king's command (now in the
Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased Henry and the
marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th of
September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of
December; Henry met her at Rochester on the 1st of January
1540, and was so much abashed at her appearance as to forget
to present the gift he had brought for her, but nevertheless
controlled himself sufficiently to treat her with courtesy. The
next day he expressed openly his dissatisfaction at her looks;
" she was no better than a Flanders mare." The attempt to
prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine broke
down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice.
On the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1540, he
declared that no earthly thing would have induced him to marry
her but the fear of driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of
the emperor. Shortly afterwards Henry had reason to regret
the policy which had identified him so closely with the German
Protestantism, and denied reconciliation with the emperor.
Cromwell's fall was the result, and the chief obstacle to the
repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the
marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did
not scruple to cast doubts on his wife's honour. On the 9th of
July the marriage was declared null and void by convocation,
and an act of parliament to the same effect was passed immedi-
ately. Henry soon afterwards married Catherine Howard. On
first hearing of the king's intentions, Anne swooned away, but on
recovering, while declaring her case a very hard and sorrowful
one from the great love which she bore to the king, acquiesced
quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which
she received lands to the value of £4000 a year, renounced the
title of queen for that of the king's sister, and undertook not to
leave the kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by
Gardiner by the king's direction, she acknowledged the unreality
of the marriage and the king's kindness and generosity. Anne
spent the rest of her life happily in England at Richmond or
Bietchingley, occasionally visiting the court, and being described
as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every dayl An
attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine
Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that
she had given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed
father. She was present at the marriage of Henry with Catherine
Parr and at the coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of
July 1 557 at Chelsea, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
See Lives of the Queens of England, by A. Strickland, iii. (1851) ;
The Wmes of Henry VIII., by M. Hume (1905)? Henry VIII., by
A. F. Pollard (1905); Pour Original Documents relating to the
Marriage of Henry VIII. to A nne of Cleves. ed. by E. and G. Coldsnrid
(1886); for the pseudo Anne of Cleves see AUgemeine deutscke
Biogropkie, i. 467. (P. C. Y.)
ANNE OF DENMARK (1574-16x9), queen of James I. of
England and VI. of Scotland, daughter of King Frederick II. of
Denmark and Norway and of Sophia, daughter of Ulric III. , duke
of Mecklenburg, was bom on the x 2th of December 1 574. On the
20th of August 1589, in spite of Queen Elisabeth's opposition
70
ANNE OF FRANCE— ANNEALING
she was married by proxy to King James, without dower, the
alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to
the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was
interrupted by a violent storm— for the raising of which several
Danish and Scottish witches were burned or executed— which
drove her on the coast of Norway, whither the impatient James
came to meet her, the marriage taking place at Opslo (now
Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple, after
visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May x 590. The position
of queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous
one, and Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals
and deeds of violence, her share in which, however, is supported
by no evidence. The birth of an heir to the throne (Prince
Henry) in 1504 strengthened her position and influence; but
the young prince, much to her indignation, was immediately
withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of the
earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave
a written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give
up the prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen.
The king's intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the
prince against the unruly nobles, though the queen's Roman
Catholic tendencies were probably another reason for his decision.
Brought up a Lutheran, and fond of pleasure, she had shown
no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and soon incurred rebukes on
account of her religion, " vanity," absence from church, " night
waking and balling." She had become secretly inclined to
Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king's conniv-
ance. On the death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March
1603, James .preceded her to London. Anne took advantage
of his absence to demand possession of the prince, and, on the
" flat refusal " of the countess of Mar, fell into a passion, the
violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and endangered her
1 ife. In June she followed the king to England (after distribu ting
all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the prince
and the coffin containing the body of bcr dead infant, and
reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms
of good fortune she entered into the possession of Queen
Elizabeth's 6000 dresses.
On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her
refusal to take the sacrament according to the Anglican use
created some sensation. She communicated on one occasion
subsequently and attended Anglican service occasionally; but
she received consecrated objects from Pope Clement VIII.,
continued to bear mass, and, according to Galluzzi, supported
the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of
England, and for the prince's marriage with a Roman Catholic
princess, which collapsed on his death in 161 2. She was claimed
as a convert by the Jesuits. 1 Nevertheless on her deathbed,
when she was attended by the archbishop of Canterbury and the
bishop of London, she used expressions which were construed
as a declaration of Protestantism. Notwithstanding religious
differences she lived in great harmony and affection with the
king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart She helped to
raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained
friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and
control of the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at
first favourably inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter
Elizabeth's marriage with the elector palatine, and supported
the Spanish marriages for her sons, but subsequently veered
round towards France. She used all her influence in favour of
the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for
protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save
his life. " She carrieth no sway in state matters," however, it
was said of her in 1605, " and, praetor rem uxoriam, hath no great
reach in other affairs." " She does not mix herself up in affairs,
though the king tells her anything she chooses to ask, and loves
and esteems her."' Her interest in state matters was only
occasional, and secondary to the pre-occupations of court
festivities, masks, progresses, dresses, jewels, which she much
enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson— whose severity cannot
1 Fasti S. /., by P. Joanna Drew (pub. 1723)* Pw 16*.
• Col. of St. Pap.— Venetian, x. 513.
entirety suppress his admiration— -" a contiaued maskarades
where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides,
appeared ... to the ravishment of the beholders," and " made
the night more glorious than the day." Occasionally she even
joined in the king's sports, though here her only recorded exploit
was her accidental shooting of James's " most principal and
special hound," Jewel. Her extravagant expenditure, returned
by Salisbury in 1605 at more than £50,000 and by Chamberlain
at her death at more than £84,000, was unfavourably contrasted
with the economy of Queen Elisabeth ; m spite of large allowances
and grants of estates whkh included Oatlands, Greenwich House
and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts in 1616
being reckoned at nearly £10,000, while her jewelry and her
plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne
died after a long illness on the 2nd of March 16x9, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey. She was generally regretted. The
severe Wilson, while rebuking her gaieties, allows that she was
" a good woman," and that her character would stand the most
prying investigation. She was intelligent and tactful, a faithful
wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides several
children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales,
who died in 161 2, Charles, afterwards King Charles L, and
Elizabeth, elect ress palatine and queen of Bohemia.
Bibliography.— See Dr A. W. Ward's article in the Diet of If at.
Biography, with authorities; Lives of the Queens of England, by
A. Strickland (1844), vii.; " Life and Reign of King James I.," by
A. Wilson, in History of England (1706); Istoria da Cranducato di
Toscana, by R. Galluzzi (1781), lib. vt. cap. ii. , Col. of Stale Papers —
Domestic and Venetian; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series. MSS. of Marq.
of Salisbury, iii. 420, 438, 454. ix. X4i Harleian MSS. 5176, art. 22,
293, art. 106. Also sec bibliography to the article on James I.
(P. C. Y.)
ANNE OP FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the
eldest daughter of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI.
betrothed her at first to Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards
offered her hand successively to Charles the Bold, to the duke
of Brittany, and even to his own brother, Charles of France.
Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger brother of.
the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XL entrusted
to Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire cbanje of his son,
Charles VIII., a lad of thirteen; and from 14S3 to 1492 the
Beau jeus exercised a virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter
of Louis XI. Energetic, obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous,
she inherited, too, her father's avarice and rapacity. Although
they made some concessions, the Beaujeus succeeded in main-
taining the results of the previous reign, and in triumphing over
the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from the meeting
of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the " Mad
War " (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite
of the efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage
of Charles VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a
short lime afterwards the king disengaged himself completely
from their tutelage, to the great detriment of the kingdom,
In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the Bourbon na is,
the last great 6ef of France. He died in 1 503 , but Anne survived
him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and
Chan telle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously
to defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's
only daughter, Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles
of Bourbon, count of Montpensier, the future constable; and
the question of the succession of Suzanne, who died in 1521,
was the determining factor of the treason of the constable
de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on
the 14th of November 1522.
See P. Pelicier, Essai sur k goupenummt da la Dam da Beaujeu
(Chartres, 1882). (J. f)
ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing
(from the prefix an, and the old English ailan, to burn or bake;
the meaning has probably also been modified from the French
nicler, to enamel black on gold or silver, from the med. Lat.
nigellare, to make black; cf. niello) is a process of treating m
metal or alloy by heat with the object of imparting to it a certain
condition of ductility, extensibility, or a certain grade of softness
or hardness, with all that is involved in and follows from those
ANNEALING
7'
conditions. The effect- may be mechanical only, or a chemical
change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious,
in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual
facts, and the immense importance of this operation as well as
of the related ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes,
there is no question.
When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there
can be no reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct,
namely, that the metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular
rearrangement of some kind. When it is of a chemical character,
the process is one of cementation, due to the occlusion of gases
In the molecules of the metals.
Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrange-
ment might be selected from the extensive range of workshop
operations. .The following are a few only: — when a boiler-
maker bends the edges of a plate of steel or iron by hammer
blows (flagging), he does so in successive stages (heats), at each
of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable cooling
down during the time work is being done upon it. The result
is that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have
been subjected to this treatment; and this brittlcness is not
uniformly distributed, but is localized, and is a source of weakness,
inducing a liability to crack. If, however, the plate when
finished is raised to a full red heat, and allowed to cool down
away from access of cool air, as in a furnace, or underneath wood
ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The plate has been annealed,
and is as safe as it was before it was flanged. Again, when a
sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very widely
different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by
drawing out in a press — a cartridge case being a familiar ex-
ample — it is necessary to anneal it several times during the
progress of the operation. Without such annealing it would
never arrive at the final stage desired, but would become torn
asunder by the extension of its metallic fibres. Cutting tools
are made of steel having sufficient carbon to afford capacity
for hardening. Before the process is performed, the condition
in which the carbon is present renders the steel so hard and tough
as to render the preliminary turning or shaping necessary in
many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation. To lessen
this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is brought
to a low red heat, and allowed to coot away from the air. It
can then be machined with comparative case and be subsequently
hardened or tempered. When a metallic structure has endured
long service a state of fatigue results. Annealing is, where
practicable, resorted to in order to restore the original strength.
A familiar illustration is that of chains which arc specially liable
to succumb to constant overstrain if continued for only a year
or two. This is so well known that the practice is regularly
adopted of annealing the chains at regular intervals. They
are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red heat,
continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the
furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the
annealing the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than
afterwards.
In these examples, and others of which these are typical,
two conditions are essential, one being the grade of temperature,
the other the cooling. The temperature must never be so high
as to cause the metal to become overheated, with risk of burning,
nor so low as to prevent the penetration of the substance with
a good volume of heat. It must also be continued for sufficient
time. More than this cannot be said. Each particular piece
of work requires its own treatment and period, and nothing
but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The
cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results
from removing the source of beat, as by drawing a furnace fire,
or covering with non-conducting substances.
The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed
in the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process,
castings are made of white iron,— a brittle quality which has
its carbon wholly in the combined state. These castings, when
•objected to heat for a period of ten days or a fortnight, in closed
b?*es, in the presence of substances containing oxygen, become
highly ductile. This change is due to the absorption of the carbon
by the oxygen in the cementing material, a comparatively pure
soft iron being left behind. The result is that the originally
hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a
knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without
fracturing.
The distinction between hardening and tempering is one of
degree only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing.
Hardening, in the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece
of steel about as hard as it can be made — " glass hard " — while
tempering indicates some stage in an infinite range between
the fully hardened and the annealed or softened condition.
As a matter of convenience only, hardening is usually a stage
in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first, and " let
down " to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat
for tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due
to the long established practice of estimating temperature by
colour tints; but this is being rapidly invaded by new methods
in which the temper heat is obtained in furnaces provided with
pyrometers, by means of which exact heat regulation is readily
secured, and in which the heating up is done gradually. Such
furnaces arc used for hardening balls for bearings, cams, small
toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering
springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But
for the cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers'
shops, the colour test is still generally retained.
In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour,
experience is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees
of light; steels of different brands require different treatment
in regard to temperature and quenching; and steels even of
identical chemical composition do not always behave alike when
tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has,, therefore, to be
treated at first in a tentative and experimental fashion in order
to secure the best possible results. The larger the masses of
steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent
parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Ex-
cessive length and the presence of keen angles increase the
difficulties of hardening* The following points have to be
observed in the work of hardening and tempering.
A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the
purpose for which it has to be used. There are a number of such
grades, ranging from about 1} to } % content of carbon, and
each having its special utility. Overheating must be avoided,
as that burns the steel and injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never
to heat any grade of steel to a temperature higher than that at
which experience proves it will take the temper required. Heat-
ing must be regular and thorough throughout, and must therefore
be slowly done when dealing with thick masses. Contact with
sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of lead
and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required,
and when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the
gas furnaces have the same advantages in a more handy form.
Quenching is done in water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures,
and sometimes in solids. Rain water is the principal hardening
agent, but various saline compounds are often added to intensify
i ts action. Water that has been long in use is preferred to fresh.
Water is generally used cold, but in many cases it is warmed to
about 80" F., as for milling cutters and taps, warmed water
being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil is preferred
to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters. Mer-
cury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and
so does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates,
and in the spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the
steel. This is the reason why long and large objects are moved
vertically about in the water during quenching, to bring them
into contact with fresh cold water.
There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the
hardeners, who are very particular about the composition of
their baths, various oils and salts being used in an infinity Of
combinations. Many of these are the result of long and successful
experience, some are of the nature of " fads." A change of bath
may involve injury to the steel. The most difficult articles to
72
ANNECY— ANNELIDA
harden are springs, milling cutters, taps, reamers. It would be
easy to give scores of hardening compositions.
Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly
the quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however,
especially milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the
difference of temperature on the outside and in the central body
of metal. Rapid hardening is impracticable in such objects.
This is the cause of the distortion of long taps and reamers, and
of their cracking, and explains why their teeth are often protected
with soft soap and other substances.
The presence of the body of heat in a tool b taken advantage
of in the work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped,
a length of i in. or more being thus hardened and blackened.
It is then removed, and a small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of
grindstone, observations being made of the changing tints which
gradually appear as the heat is communicated from the hot
shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes equalized, and at
the same time the approximate temperature for quenching for
temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint; at that
instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite
cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required.
" Blazing off " is a particular method of hardening applied to
small springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats,
or tallow, which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the
ashes of the forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened,
reheated and tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is
repeated for heavy springs. The practice varies almost infinitely
with dimensions, quality of steel, and purpose to which the
Springs have to be applied.
The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale
straw or yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corres-
ponding range of temperatures is about 43©* F. to 530° F.,
respectively. " Spring temper " is higher, from dark purple to
blue, or 550° F. to 630 F. In many fine tools the range of
temperature possible between good and poor results lies within
from 5 to io° F.
There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial
character only-— "case hardening." It is employed in cases
where toughness has to be combined with durability of surface.
It is a cementation process, practised on wrought iron and mild
steel, and applied to the link motions of engines, to many pins
and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The articles are hermetically luted
in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous and saline substances
such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and salt. The box is
placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods of from
twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of the
metal, to a depth of -fa to tV in., is penetrated by the cement-
ing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown
into water and quenched.
A muffle furnace, employed for annealing, hardening and
tempering is shown in fig. 1; the heat being obtained by means
Fie. 1.— Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace.
of petroleum, which is contained in the tank A, and is kept under
pressure by pumping at intervals with the wooden handle, so
that when the valve B is opened the oil is vaporized by passing
through a heating coil at the furnace entrance, and when ignited
burns fiercely as a gas flame. This passes into the furnace
through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up around the
muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway b dosed by
two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over aooo° F. can be
obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under
perfect control.
A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 3, differs
from the oil furnace in having the flames brought down through
the roof, by pipes A,A,A, playing on work laid on the fireclay
slab B, thence passing under this and out through the dbow-
I
Fig. 2. — Reverberatory Furnace,
pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a full opening to the interior
of the furnace. It will be noticed in both these furnaces (by
Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron casing is a
mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to retain the
heat effectively. (J- C. H.)
ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie
in France. Pop. (1006) 10,763. It is situated at a height of
1470 ft., at the northern end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m.
by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains. The surrounding country presents
many scenes of beauty. The town itself is a pleasant residence,
and contains a 16th century cathedral church, an 18th century
bishop's palace, a 14th- 1 6th century castle (formerly the resi-
dence of the counts of the Gcnevois), and the reconstructed
convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St
Francois de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1567;
died at Lyons in 162a), who held the see from 160a to i6aa.
There is also a public library, with 20,000 volumes, and various
scientific collections, and a public garden, with a statue of the
chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who was born not far off. The
bishop's sec of Geneva was transferred hither in 1535, after the
Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived in 182a.
There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of fdt hats,
paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux.
This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself
was in the 10th century the capital of the counts of the Gcnevois,
from whom it passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became
French in i860 on the annexation of Savoy.
The Lake of Annecy is about 9 m. in length by 2 m. in
breadth, its surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea.
It discharges its waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the
Fier, a tributary of the Rhone. (W. A. B. C.)
ANNELIDA, a name derived from J. B. P. Lamarck's term
Annllides, now used to denote a major phylum or division of
coelomate invertebrate animals. Annelids are segmented worms,
and differ from the Arthropoda (?.«.), which they closely resemble
in many respects, by the possession of a portion of the coelom
traversed by the alimentary canal. In the latter respect, and in
the fact that they frequently develop by a metamorphosis, they
approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from that group
notably in the occurrence of mctameric segmentation affecting
many of the systems of organs. The body-wall is highly muscular
and, except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses
chitinous spines, the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm
and are embedded in pits of the skin. They possess a modi-
fied anterior end, frequently with special sense organs, forming
a head, a segmented nervous system, consisting of a pair
of anterior, dorsiily-placed ganglia, a ring surrounding the
ANNET— ANNEXATION
73
aEnsentary anal, and a double ventral gangiionated chain, a
definite vascular system, an excretory system consisting of
nephridia, and paired generative organs formed from the coelomic
epithelium. They are divided as follows: (i) Haplodrili (?.*.)
or Archiannelida; (2) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (q.v.),
probably degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinea (see Chaetopoda
'and Leech) ; (5) E chiuroidea (q.v.). (P. C. M.)
aUR, PETER (1603-1769), English deist, is said to have been
born at Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became
prominent owing to his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his
membership of a semi-theological debating society, the Robin
Hood Society, which met at the " Robin Hood and Little John "
in Butcher Row. To him has been attributed a work called A
History of (Ac Man after God' sown Heart (1 761), intended to show
that George II. was insulted by a current comparison with David.
The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's Saul. It is also
attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook). In z 763 he was
condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the Free
Enquirer (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small
school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (175&-
1832), who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the 18th
of January 1769. He stands between the earlier philosophic
debts and thelater propagandists of Paine's school, and " seems
to have been the first freethought lecturer " (J. M. Robertson);
his essays (A Collection of the Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer,
1739-1745) are forcible but lack refinement. He invented a
system of shorthand (and ed., with a copy of verses by Joseph
Priestley).
ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining), in interna-
tional law, the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions ;
the term is also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The
assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of
influence, is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the
complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government
or state by which it was previously ruled. Annexation may be
the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another,
or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or of
mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or of* conquest. The
cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France, although
brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of interna*
tional law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 17 th of
December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of
Madagascar, a French protectorate was established over this
island. In x 806 this protectorate was converted by France into
an annexation, and Madagascar then became " French territory."
The formal annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5,
1908) was an unauthorized conversion of an " occupation "
authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which had, however,
for years operated as a de facto annexation. A recent' case of
conquest was that effected by the South African War of 1899-
1002, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free
Sute were extinguished, first de facto by occupation of the whole
of their territory, and then dejure by terms of surrender entered
Into by the Boer generals acting as a government.
By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state
takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations
attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying
conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however,
are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of
the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and
Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of
the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own
existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous
ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing
to the de facto British occupation, of raising money by taxation,
the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain
securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South
African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British
government repudiated these sales as having been made by a
government which the British government had already displaced.
The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state
succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early
as the 6th of January xooo, the high commissioner at Cape Town
issued a proclamation giving notice that H. M. government would
" not recognize as valid or effectual " any conveyance, transfer
or transmission of any property made by the government of the
Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the xoth
of October 1899, the date of the commencement of the war. A
proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might
still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously
bind only those subject to the- authority of the state issuing it.
Like paper blockades (see Blockade) and fictitious occupations
of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by interna-
tional jurists as not being jure gentium. The proclamation was
succeeded, on the 9th of March xooo, by another of the high
commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining
it to " lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on the xst
of September 1900 Lord Roberts proclaimed at Pretoria the
annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the
British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years
after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexa-
tion was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the
South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government
was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British
government of the total capital of the company from the different
groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, Law
Quarterly Review, July 1905; and Professor Westlake, in the same
Review, October 1005).
In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in
X899 (Coote v. Sprigg, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made
an important distinction as regards the obligations of state
succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the
crown, represented by the government of Cape Colony. It was
made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern
Pondoland from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up
their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape
Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant
on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession
conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore
could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself.
The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the
allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state
and that " no municipal court had authority to enforce such an
obligation " as the duty of the new government to respect existing
titles. " It is no answer. said Lord Halsbury, " to say that by
the ordinary principles of international law private property is
respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes
the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with
respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All
that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the
well- understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty
by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal
tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if
there is either an express of a well-understood bargain between
the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is
made that private property shall be respected, that is only a
bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in
the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an editorial note
on this case the Law Quarterly Review of Jan. 1900 (p. x),
dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no
municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation,"
the writer observes that " we can read this only as meant to lay
down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable
cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the
annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although
the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private
rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any
court must or indeed can take notice." So construed the doctrine
is not only contrary to international law, but according to so
authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock,
there is no warrant for it in English common law.
An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen
out of the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through
the fact that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the
74
ANNICERIS— ANNONA
exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are
vested in the British parliament. The sole authority for the
powers of the federal congress is a written constitution with
defined powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null
and void. The Supreme Court of the United States, on the other
hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a government is
ordained and established " for the United States of America "
and not for countries outside their limits (Ross's Case, 140 U.S.
453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed
territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed
by the president of the United States (Field v. Clark, 143 U.S. 649,
692). Every detail connected with the administration of the
territories acquired from Spain under the treaty of Paris
(December 10, 1808) has given rise to minute discussion.
See Carman F. Randolph, Law and Policy of A nnexation (New York
and London, 1901) ; Charles Henry Butler, Trcaty»makini Power of
the United States (New York, 1902), voL L p. 79 et seq. (T. Ba.)
ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school.
There is no certain information as to his date, but from the
statement that he was a disciple of Paraebatcs it seems likely
that he was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. A follower of
Aristippus, he denied that pleasure is the general end of human
life. To each separate action' there is a particular end, namely
the pleasure which actually results from it Secondly, pleasure
is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death ends all
pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however,
an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love
of country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will
have pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even
fatal consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction
of our needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains
further, in opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that
wisdom or prudence alone is an insufficient guarantee against
error. The wise man is he who has acquired a habit of wise
action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any moment.
Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are
right in placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century,
it is clear that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who,
according to Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer.
ANNING, MARY (1790-1847), English fossil-collector, the
daughter of Richard Arming, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme
Regis in May 1799. Her father was one of the earliest collectors
and dealers in fossils, obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that
famous locality. When but a child in 181 1 she discovered the
first specimen of Ichthyosaurus which was brought into scientific
notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new saurian, the
P Us iosaur us, and in 1828 she procured, for the first time in England,
remains of a pterodactyl (DimorpJiodon). She died on the 9th
of March 1847.
ANNISTON, a city and the county scat of Calhoun county,
Alabama, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, about
63 m. E. by N. of Birmingham. Pop. (1890) 0908; (i9°o)»
9695, of whom 3669 were of negro descent: (iqio census)
12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the Seaboard
Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is
situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue
Ridge, and is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute
(for girls), established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1 834-1888), a
wealthy iron-founder, and of the Alabama Presbyterian College
for Men (1005). There are vast quantities of iron ore in the
vicinity of the city, the Coosa coal- fields being only 25 m. distant.
Anniston is an important manufacturing city, the principal
industries being the manufacture of iron, steel and cotton. In
1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,525,455.
An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston during the
Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in 1865;
and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was
founded in 1872 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron
Company, organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler
(1799-1882); but it was not opened for general settlement until
twelve years later. It was chartered as a city in 1879.
ANNO, or Hanno, SAINT (c. ioto-xo7s),*rehbishap of Cologne,
belonged to a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg.
He became confessor to the emperor Henry III., who appointed
him archbishop of Cologne in 1056. He took a prominent part in
thegovernmentof Germany during the minority of King Henry I V.,
and was the leader of the party which in 1062 seized the person
of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress Agnes, of
power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in
the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of
Henry's education and the title of magister. The office of
chancellor of the kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as
an appanage of the archbishopricof Cblogne,and this was probably
the reason why Anno had a considerable share in settling -the
papal dispute in 1064. He declared Alexander IL to be the
rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May 1064, and took
other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to Germany,
he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he was
disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and
regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from
power in 1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against
his authority in Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had
allied himself with William the Conqueror, king of England,
against the emperor. Having cleared himself of this charge,
Anno took no further part in public business, and died at Cologne
on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the monastery of
Siegburg and was canonized in 1183 by Pope Lucius III. He
was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated
clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man
of great energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander
II. was of the utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for
Germany.
nonis, written about Iioo, by a monk of Sieg-
bi slight value. It appears in the Monumenta
d Scripiores, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin,
ifl 1 an "Epi&tola ad monachos Malmundariensea"
ta us Archiv der Cesellschaft fur dlUre dtulsck*
Git xiv. (Hanover, 1876 scq.). See also the
Ai oetae Teutonict rhythmus de 5. Annone, written
at itcd by J. Kchrein (Frankfort. 1865); Th.
Li r Hetlige, Erxbischof von Koln (Leipzig. 1869).
ANNOBON, or Anno Bom, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in
i° 24' S. and 5 35* E., belonging to Spain. It is no m. S.W. of
St Thomas. Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its
area 6} sq. m. Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above
the sea, it presents a succession of beautiful valleys and
steep mountains, covered with rich woods and luxuriant
vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number, are negroes
and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The
chief town and residence of the governor is called St Antony
(San Antonio de Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and
passing vessels take advantage of it in order to obtain water
and fresh provisions, of which Annobon contains an abundant
supply. The island was discovered by the Portuguese on the
1st of January 1473, fr° m which circumstance it received its
name (=«Ncw Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was
ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1 7 78. The islanders revolted
against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading,
it is averred, to an arrangement by which the bland was adminis-
tered by a body of five natives, each of whom held the office of
governor during the period that elapsed till ten ships touched at
the island. In the latter part of the 19th century the authority
of Spain was re-established.
ANNONA (from Lat. annus, year), in Roman mythology, the
personification of the produce of the year. She is represented
in works of art, often together with Ceres, with a cornucopia
(horn of plenty) in her arm, and a ship's prow in the back-
ground, indicating the transport of grain over the sea. She
frequently occurs on coins of the empire, standing between a
modi us (corn-measure) and the prow of a galley, with ears of corn
in one hand and a cornucopia in the other; sometimes she holds
a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has various mean-
ings: (z) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means of
ANNONAY— ANNUITY
75
subsistence especially grain stored jn the public granaries for
provisioning the city; (3) the market-price of commodities,
especially corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican
times in several provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times
for distribution amongst officials and the support of the soldiery.
In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to be
sold at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from
Umbria, Etruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the
empire, the care of the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's
duties, although in 440 B.C. (if the statement in Livy iv. 12, 13
is correct, which is doubtful) the senate appointed a special
officer, called praefcclus annonat, with greatly extended powers.
As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman agriculture
was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily and
Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the
supply of corn; a tax of one-tenth was imposed on it, and its
export to any country except- Italy forbidden. The price at
which the com was sold was always moderate; the corn law of
Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.)
bestowed it gratuitously. The number of the recipients of this
free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar and Augustus were
obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the end of
the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a
monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000.
In the 3rd century, bread formed the dole. A ptaejectus annonac
was appointed by Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he
was assisted by a large staff in Rome and the provinces, and had
jurisdiction in all matters connected with the corn-market. The
office lasted lill the latest times of the empire.
AXNOHAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the
department of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons
railway. Pop. (1006) 15,403. Annonay is built on the hill
overlooking the meeting of the deep gorges of the Deome and the
Cancc, the waters of which supply power to the factories of the
town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an affluent of the
Deome, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is provided,
in which an additional supply of water, for both Industrial and
domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk
in honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon,
who were natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board
of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and
chambers of commerce and of arts and manufactures are among
the public institutions. Annonay is the principal industrial
centre of its department, the chief manufactures being those of
leather, especially for gloves, paper, sQk and silk goods, and
flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate and
candles are also produced.
AJfMOY (like the French ennui, a word traced by etymologists
to a Lat phrase, in oiio ease, to be " in hatred " or hateful of
someone), to vex or affect with irritation. In the sense of
"nuisance/ 1 the noun "annoyance," apart from its obvious
•meaning, Is found in the Bigliah "Jury of Annoyance"
appointed by an act of 1754 to report upon obstructions in the
highways.
ANNUITY (from Lat. annus, a year), a periodical payment,
made annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed
term of years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a com-
bination of lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be
payable for an assigned status, this being a general word chosen
is preference to such words as " time," " term " or " period,"
because it may include more readily either a term of years
certain, or a life or combination of lives. The magnitude of the
annuity is the sum to be paid (and received) in the course of each
year. Thus, if £100 is to be received each year by a person, he is
said to have M an annuity of £100." If the payments are made
ball-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has " a half-yearly
annuity of £100 "; but to avoid ambiguity, ft is more commonly
said he has an annuity of £100, payable by half-yearly instal-
ments. The former expression, if clearly understood, is prefer-
able on account of its brevity. So we may have quarterly,
monthly, weekly, daily annuities, when the annuity is payable
by quarterly, monthly, weekly ot daily instalments. An annuity
is considered as accruing during each instant of the status foe
which it is enjoyed, although it is only payable at fixed intervals.
If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the lapse
of a certain number of years, the annuity is said to be deferred.
If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year,
half-year, &c, is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due.
If an annuity is payable for a term of years independent of
any contingency, it is called an annuity certain; if it is to con-
tinue for ever, it is called a perpetuity; and if in the latter case
it is not to commence until after a term of years, it is called a
deferred perpetuity. An annuity depending on the continuance
of an assigned life or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity;
but more commonly the simple term " annuity " is understood
to mean a life annuity, unless the contrary is stated. A life
annuity, to cease in any event after a certain term of years, is
called a temporary annuity. The holder of an annuity is called
an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity depends
is called the nominee.
If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity
is payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is
sometimes called) is £1. It is, however, customary to consider
the annual payment to be, not £1, but simply 1, the reader
Supplying whatever monetary unit he pleases, whether pound,
dollar, franc, Thaler, &c.
The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and
received), and is so understood by all writers on the subject;
but some have also used the word to denote an individual
payment (orient), speaking, for instance, of the first or second
year's annuity,— a practice which is calculated to introduce
confusion and should therefore be carefully avoided.
Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public
stocks in England, France and some other countries. Thus,
although it is usual to speak of £100 consols, the reality is the
yearly dividend which the government pays by quarterly instal-
ments. The practice of the French in this, as in many other
matters, is more logical. In speaking of their public funds (rentes)
they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but speak of the
annuity or annual payment that is received by the public
creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived
from the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu-
duties commonly payable on house property in Scotland. The
number of years' purchase which the perpetual annuities granted
by a government or a railway company realize in the open
market, forms a very simple test of the credit of the various
governments or railways.
Terminable Annuities are employed in the system of British
public finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (qv.).
This result is attained by substituting for a perpetual annual
charge (or one lasting until the capital which it represents can
be paid off en bloc), an annual charge of a larger amount, but
lasting for a short term. The latter is so calculated as to pay off,
during its existence, the capital which it replaces, with interest
at an assumed or agreed rate, and under specified conditions.
The practical effect of the substitution of a terminable annuity
for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the present genera-
tion of citizens to increase its own obligations in the present and
near future in order to diminish those of its successors. This
end might be attained in other ways; for instance, by setting
aside out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and
cancellation of debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing
the annual debt charge at a figure sufficient to provide a margin
for reduction of the principal of the debt beyond the amount
required for interest (Sir Stafford Northcote's method), or by
providing an annual surplus of revenue over expenditure (the
" Old Sinking Fund "), available for the same purpose. All
these methods have been tried in the course of British financial
history, and the second and third of them arc still employed;
but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been
the one preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parlia-
ment.
Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government,
fall under two heads:— (a) Those issued to, or held by private
7 6
ANNUITY
persons; (b) those held by government departments or by funds
under government control. The important difference between
these two classes is that an annuity under (a), once created ,
cannot be modified except with the holder's consent, i.e. is
practically unalterable without a breach of public faith; whereas
an annuity under (6) can, if necessary, be altered by inter-
departmental arrangement under the authority of parliament.
Thus annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the
system as explained above; while those of class (6) have the
advantage that in times of emergency their operation can be
suspended without any inconvenience or breach of faith, with
the result that the resources of government can on such occasions
be materially increased, apart from any additional taxation.
For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as a charge on the
income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller) perpetual charge
which was originally replaced by the (larger) terminable charge,
whereupon the difference between the two amounts is temporarily
released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended for
a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of
class (a) were first instituted in z8o8, but are at present mainly
regulated by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for
a specified life, or two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years;
and the consideration for them may take the form either of cash
or of government stock, the latter being cancelled when the
annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by government departments
date from 1863. They have been created in exchange for per-
manent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal opera-
tions having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, x8}4, 1883 and
1809. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all,
except of course in their effect on the market for government
securities. They are merely financial operations between the
government, in its capacity as the banker of savings banks and
other funds, and itself, in the capacity of custodian of the national
finances. Savings bank depositors are not concerned with the
manner in which government invests their money, their rights
being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of
deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however,
different as regards forty millions of consols (included in the
above figures), belonging to suitors in chancery, which were
cancelled and replaced by a terminable annuity in 1883. As the
liability to the suitors in that case was for a specified amount of
stock, special arrangements were made to ensure the ultimate
replacement of the precise amount of stock cancelled.
Annuity Calculations.— The mathematical theory of life
annuities is based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality
among mankind in general, or among the particular class of
persons on whose lives the annuities depend. It involves a
mathematical treatment too complicated to be dealt with fully
in this place, and in practice it has been reduced to the form of
tables, which vary in different places, but which are easily
accessible. Theliistory of the subject may, however, be sketched.
Abraham Demoivre, in his Annuities on Lives, propounded a very
simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86
children born alive, 1 wfll die every year until the last dies
between the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well
at the middle ages of life with the mortality deduced from the
best observations of his time; but, as observations became more
exact, the approximation was found to be not sufficiently close.
This was particularly the case when it was desired to obtain the
value of joint life, contingent or other complicated benefits.
Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of practical utility.
No simple formula has yet been discovered that will represent
the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy.
The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, In practice
usually determined by a series of figures deduced from observa-
tion; and the value of an annuity at any age is found from these
numbers by means of a series of arithmetical calculations. The
mortality table here given is an example of modern use.
The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on
correct mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was
Jan De Witt, grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland.
Our knowledge of his writings on the subject is derived from two
papers contributed by Frederick Hendriks to the Asturancm
Magazine, vol. ii. p. 222, and vol. iii. p. 93. The former of these
contains a translation of De Witt's report upon the value of life
annuities, which was prepared in consequence of the resolution
passed by the states-general, on the 25th of April 1671, to nego-
tiate funds by life annuities, and which was distributed to the
members on the 30th of July 1671. The latter contains the
translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt to
Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670
to October 1671. The existence of De Witt's report was well
known among his contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a
number of extracts from various authors referring to it; but the
Table op Mortality— Hu, Healthy Lives— Mali.
Number Living
and Dying
at each Age, out of 10,000
entering at Age 10.
Age.
Living.
Dying.
Age.
Living.
Dying.
10
10,000
79
54
6791
129
11
9.9a 1
H
6662
153
12
l%\
40
6509
150
13
35
1*
6359
I5»
U
9,846
40
6207
156
\l
9.806
9.784
22
8
6051
5898
X9
9.784
41
61
5714
5528
5337
180
9i6l6
8
62
63
191
200
30
C
64
5137
206
21
9.560
u
4931
215
22
9.493
59
4716
220
23
24
9.434
9.361
Z 3
4
u
4496
4276
220
237
11
9.297
?
69
4039
246
9.249
9.1*5
64
60
70
71
3793
358o
213
222
9.125
I 4
72
3358
268
29
30
8$
73
74
3090
2847
243
300
3i
Ann
65
U
2547
*4t
3*
74
2306
245
33
li
11
2061
3
34
1837
51
71
B-
1611
219
I?
1392
196
• 3
81
1 196
191
SI
81
82
1005
173
39
40
S 3
&
172
119
41
-t--r-
»5
85
541
"7
4«
8,057
! 7
86
424
92
43
44
?:?£
84
93
S
332
260
72
St
8
7.793
97
«9
186
7.696
96
90
150
si
3
7.600
107
91
116
7.493
7.387
106
92
80
36
49
113
93
44
29
50
7.274
120
94
15
51
7.»54
124
$
15
5
5*
7.030
120
IO
10
53
6,910
119
report is not contained in any collection of his works extant, and
had been entirely lost for 180 years, until Hendriks discovered it
among the state archives of Holland in company with the letters
to Hudde. It is a document of extreme interest, and (notwith-
standing some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of very great merit,
more especially considering that it was the very first document
on the subject that was ever written.
It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for
life annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the con-
stant proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock:
that is to say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6 %, they
would be willing to grant a life annuity at 12 %, and so on.
De Witt states that "annuities have been sold, even in the
present century, first at six years' purchase, then at seven and
eight; and that the majority of all life annuities now current
at the country's expense were obtained at nine years' purchase ";
but that the price had been increased in the course of a few
years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to
ANNUITY
77
He also states that the rate of Interest had been
successively reduced from 6J to 5%, and then to 4%. The
principal object of his report is to prove that, taking interest at
4%, a life annuity was worth at least sixteen years 1 purchase;
and, in fact, that, an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the
life of a young and healthy nominee at sixteen years' purchase,
made an excellent bargain. It may be mentioned that he argues
that it is more to the advantage, both of the country and of the
private investor, that the public loans should be raised by way of
grant of life annuities rather than perpetual annuities. It appears
conclusively from De Witt's correspondence with Hudde, that
the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his calculations
was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that had
actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities
had been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have
come to the conclusion that the probability of death is the
same in any half-year from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that
in the next ten years, from 53 to 63, the probability is greater
in the ratio of 3 to a; that in the next ten years, from 63 to 73,
It is greater in the ratio of a to x ; and in the next seven years,
from 73 to 80, it is greater in the ratio of 3 to z; and he ptaces
the limit of human life at 80. If a mortality table of the usual
form is deduced from these suppositions, out of aia persons
alive at the age of 3, a will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of
the ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from
63 to 73, and 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to 80,
when afi will be dead.
De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following
way. Assume that annuities on xo,ooo lives each ten years of
age, which satisfy the Hm mortality table, have been purchased.
Of these nominees 79 will die before attaining the age of n,
and no annuity payment will be made in respect of them; none
will die between the ages of xx and xa, so that annuities will be
paid for one year on 9931 lives; 40 attain the age of x 2 and
die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect
to these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities
on 35 of the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40
for four years, and so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the
table, 15 nominees attain the age of 95, 5 of whom die before
the age of 96, so that 85 payments will be paid in respect of
these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before attaining the age
of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be payable for 86
years. Having previously calculated a table of the values of
annuities certain for every number of years tip to 86, the value
of all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by
taking 40 times the value of an annuity for a years, 35 times
the value of an annuity for 3 years, and so on— the last term
being the value of xo annuities for 86 years— and adding them
together; and the value of an annuity on one of the nominees
wfll then be found by dividing by 10,000. Before leaving the
subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in the corre-
spondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that
bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the
37th of October 167 1 (Ass. Mag. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a
"provisional hypothesis " suggested by Hudde, that out of
80 young Uvea (who, from the context, may be taken as of the
age 6) about x dies annually. In strictness,' therefore, the law
in question might be more correctly termed Hudde's than
Dernoivre's.
' De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished
state paper, although it contributed to its author's reputation,
did not contribute to advance the exact knowledge of the
subject; and the author to whom the credit must be given of
first showing how to calculate the value of an annuity on correct
principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first approximately
correct mortality fable (deduced from the records of the numbers
of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau) , and showed how
it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on
the life of a nominee of any age (see PkiL Trans. 1693; Ass.
Hf. vol. xviii.).
Previously to Haley's time, and apparently for many years
subsequently, all dealings with life annuities were bated upon
mere conjectural estimates. The earliest known reference to
any estimate of the value of life annuities rose out of the require*
ments of the Falddmn law, which (40 B.C.) was adopted in the
Roman empire, and which declared that a testator should not
give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, to that
at least one-fourth must go to his legal representatives. It is
easy to see how it would occasionally become necessary, while
this law was in force, to value life annuities charged upon a
testator's estate. Aemilius Macer (a.o. 130) states that the
method which had been in common use at that time was as
follows:— From the earnest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase,
and for each age after 30 deduct x year. It is obvious that no
consideration of compound interest can have entered into this
estimate; and it is easy to see that it is equivalent to assuming
that all persons who attain the age of 30 will certainly live to
the age of 60, and then certainly die. Compared with this esti-
mate, that which was propounded by the praetorian prefect
Uxpian was a great improvement His table is as follows:—
Age.
Years'
Purchase.
Age.
Years'
Purchase.
Birth to ao
«o„»5
*5 1. 30
30 .. 35
35.. 40
40 „4«
41 » 4*
4*., 43
43.. 44
44.. 45
30
38
25
as
ao
3
\l
15
45 to 46
46., 47
47 .. 48
48 ., 49
49 *. SO
50 .. 55
. 60 and 1
upwards 1
14
13
IS
IX
10
9
7
5
Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of
interest was taken into consideration; and the assumption,
that between the ages of 40 and 50 each addition of a year to the.
nominee's age diminishes the value of the annuity by one year's
purchase, is equivalent to assuming that there is no probability
of the nominee dying between the ages of 40 and 50. Con-
sidered, however, simply as a table of the average duration of
life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more
correct estimate appears to have been arrived at until the dose
of the 17th century.
The mathematics of annuities has been very fuDy treated in
Dernoivre's Treatise on Annuities (1735): Simpson's Doctrine of
Annuities and Reversions (174a); P. Gray, Tables and Formulae;
Baily's Doctrine of Life Annuities; there are also innumerable
compilations of Valuation Tables and Interest Tables, by means of
which the value of an annuity at any age and any rate of interest
may be found. See also the article 1 nteubst, and especially that on
Insurance.
Commutation tables, aptly so named in 1840 by Augustus
De Morgan (see his paper " On the Calculation of Single Life
Contingencies," Assurance Magazine, xii. 328), show the propor-
tion in which a benefit due at one age ought to be changed,
so as to retain the same value and be due at another age. The
earliest known specimen of a commutation table is contained
in William Dale's Introduction to the Study of the Doctrine of
Annuities, published in 177a. A full account of this work is
given by F. Hcndriks in the second number of the Assurance
Magazine, pp. x 5-1 7. William Morgan's Treatise on Assurances,
1770, also contains a commutation table. Morgan gives the
table as furnishing a convenient means of checking the correct-
ness of the values of annuities found by the ordinary process.
It may be assumed that he was aware that the table might be
used for the direct calculation of annuities; but he appears to
have been ignorant of its other uses.
The first author who fully developed the powers of the table
was John Nicholas Tetens, a native of Schleswig, who in 1785,
while professor of philosophy and mathematics at Kiel, published
in the German language an Introduction to the Calculation of
Life Annuities and Assurances. This work appears to have been
quite unknown in England until F. Hendriks gave, in the first
number of the Assurance Magazine, pp. x-ao (Sept. 1850), an
account of it, with a translation of the passages describing the
construction and use of .the commutation table, and a sketch
7 8
ANNULAR— ANNUNZIO
of the author's life and writings, to which* we refer the reader
who desires fuller information. It may be mentioned here that
Tetens also gave only a specimen table, apparently not imagining
that persons using his work would find it extremely useful to
have a series of commutation tables, calculated and printed
ready for use.
The use of the commutation table was independently developed
in England — apparently between the years 1768 and xSiz —
by George Barrett, of Petworth, Sussex, who was the son of a
yeoman farmer, and was himself a village schoolmaster, and
afterwards farm steward or bailiff. It has been usual to consider
Barrett as the originator in England of the method of calculating
the values of annuities by means of a commutation table, and
this method, is accordingly sometimes called Barrett's method.
(It is also called the commutation method and the columnar
method.) Barrett's method of calculating annuities was ex-
plained by him to Francis Baily in the year 181 1, and was first
made known to the world in a paper written by the latter and
read before the Royal Society in x8r*.
By what has been universally considered an unfortunate
error of judgment, this paper was not recommended by the
council of the Royal Society to be printed, but it was given by
Baily as an appendix to the second issue (in 1813) of his work
on life annuities and assurances. Barrett had calculated exten-
sive tables, and with Baily 's aid attempted to get them published
by subscription, but without success; and the only printed
tables calculated according to his manner, besides the specimen
tables given by Baily, are the tables contained in Babbage's
Comparative View of Ike various Institutions for ike Assurance 0/
Lives, 1826.
In the year 1825 Griffith Davies published his Tables of Life
Contingencies, a work which contains, among others, two tables,
which are confessedly derived from Baily's explanation of
Barrett's tables.
Those who desire to purine the subject further can refer to the
appendix to Baily's Lift Annuities and Assurances, De Morgan's
Sper " On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," Assurance
agazine, xii. 348-349: Gray's Tables and Formulae, chap. viii. ;
the preface to Daviess Treatise on Annuities; also Hcndriks's
papers in the Assurance Magazine. No. z, p. I, and No. a, p. 12;
and in particular De Morgan's Account of a Correspondence
between Mr George Barrett and Mr Francis Baily," in the Assurance
Magazine.vol. iv. p. 185.
The principal commutation tables published in England are
contained in the following works : — David Tones, Value ofAnnuities
and Reversionary Payments, issued in parts by the Useful Knowledge
Society, completed in 1843; Jenkin Jones, New Rate of Mortality.
1843; G. Davies, Treatise on Annuities, 182$ (issued 1855); David
Chisholm, Commutation Tables, 1858; Neison's Contributions to
Vital Statistics, 1857; Tardine Henry, Government Life Annuity
Commutation Tables, 1866 and 1873; Institute of Actuaries Life
Tables, 1872: R. P. Hardy, Valuation Tables, 1873; and Dr William
Farr's contributions to the sixth (1844), twelfth (1849), and twentieth
(1857) Reports of the Registrar General in England (English Tables,
1. a), and to the English Life Table, 1864.
The theory of annuities may be further studied in the discussions
In the English Journal of the Institute of Actuaries. The institute
was founded in the year 1848. the first sessional meeting being held
in January 1849. Its establishment has contributed in various ways
to promote the study of the theory of life contingencies. Among
these may be specified the following:— Before it was formed, students
of the subject worked for the most part alone, and without any
concert ; # and when any person had made an improvement in the
theory, it had little chance of becoming publicly known unless be
wrote a formal treatise on the whole subject. But the formation of
the institute led to much greater interchange of opinion among
actuaries, and afforded # them a ready means of making known to
their professional associates any improvements, real or supposed,
that they thought they had made. Again, the discussions which
follow the reading of papers before the institute have often served,
irst, to bring out into bold relief differences of opinion that were
previously •unsuspected, and afterwards to soften down those differ-
ences,— to correct extreme opinions in every direction, and to bring
about a greater agreement of opinion On many Important subjects.
In no way, Drobably, have the objects of the institute been so
effectually advanced as by the publication of its JournaL The first
number of this work, which was originally called the Assurance
Magazine, appeared 10 September 1850, and it has been continued
quarterly down to the present time. It was originated by the public
spirit of two well-known actuaries (Mr Charles JeHicoe and Mr
Samuel Brown), and was adopted as the organ of the Institute of J
Actuaries in the year 1852, and called the Assurance Magazine and
Journal of the Institute of A ctuaries, Mr Jetlkoe continuing to be the
editor,— a post he held until the year 1867, when he was succeeded
by Mr T. B. Sprague (who contributed to the Oth edition of this
Encyclopaedia an elaborate article on " Annuities," on which the
above account is based). The name was again changed in 1866, the
words " Assurance Magazine " being dropped; but In the following
year it was considered desirable to resume these, for the purpose of
showing the continuity of the publication, and it is now called the
Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and A ssurance Magazine, This
work contains not only the papers read before the Institute (to which
have been appended of late years short abstracts of the discussions on
them), and many original papers which were unsuitable for reading,
together with correspondence, but also reprints of many papers
published elsewhere, which from various causes had become difficult
of access to the ordinary reader, among which may be specified
various papers which originally appeared in the Philosophical
Transactions, the Philosophical Magazine, the Mechanics' Magazine,
and the Companion to the Almanac, also translations of variotsi
papers from the French, German, and Danish. Among the useful
objects which the continuous publication of the Journal of the
institute has served, we may specify in particular two:— that any
supposed improvement In the theory was effectually submitted to
the criticisms of the whole actuarial profession, and its real value
speedily discovered; and that any real improvement, whether
great or small, being placed on record, successive writers have been
able, one after the other, to take it up and develop it, each com-
mencing where the previous one had left off.
ANNULAR, ANNULATE, &c. (Lat annutus, a ring), ringed.
" Annulate " is used in botany and zoology in connexion with
certain plants, worms, &c (see Annelida), either marked with
rings or composed of ring-like segments. The word " annuls ted "
is also used in heraldry and architecture. An annulated cross
is one with the points ending in an "annulet " (an heraldic ring,
supposed to be taken from a coat of mail), while the annulet in
architecture is a small fillet round a column, which encircles the
lower part of the Doric capital immediately above the neck or
trachelium. The word "annulus" (for "ring") is itself used tech-
nically in geometry, astronomy, &c, and the adjective " annular "
corresponds. An annular space is that between an Inner and outer
ring. The annular finger is the ring finger. An annular eclipse it
an eclipse of the sun in which the visible part of the latter com-
pletely encircles the dark body of the moon; for this to happen,
the centres of the sun and moon, and the point on the earth
where the observer is situated, must be collinear. Certain
nebulae having the form of a ring are also called "annular*"
ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel
Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i.
ao-38). The Feast of the Annunciation in the Christian Church
is celebrated on the 25th of March. The first authen tic allusions
to it are in a canon of the council of Toledo (656), and another
of the council of Constantinople " in Trullo " (692), forbidding
the celebration of all festivals in Lent, excepting the Lord's day
and the Feast of the Annunciation. An earlier origin has been
claimed for it on the ground that it is mentioned in sermons of
Athanasius and of Gregory Thaumaturgus, but both of these
documents are now admitted to be spurious. A synod held at
Worcester, England (1140), forbade all servile work on this
feast day. See further Lady Day.
ANNUNZIO, GABRI8LR IV (1863 ), Italian novelist and
poet, of Dalmatian extraction, was bora at Pescara (Abruszi) in
1863. The first years of his youth were spent in the freedom of
the open fields; at sixteen he was sent to school in Tuscany.
While still at school he published a small volume of verses ^ 1L H
Prima Vera (1879), in which, side by side with some almost
brutal imitations of Lorenso Stecchetti, the then fashionable
poet of Postuma, were some translations from the Latin, dis-
tinguished by such agile grace that Giuseppe Chiarini on reading
them brought the unknown youth before the public in an enthusi-
astic article* The young poet then went to Rome, where he
was received as one of their own by the Cronaca Biaantina group
(see Caioccci). Here he published Canto Nuovo (1882), Terra
Vergme (i88s), V Intermezzo di Rim (1883), II Libra delta
Vergmi (1884), aid the greater part of the short stories that were
afterwards collected under the general title of Sam PantaUone
(1886). In Cam* Nuovo ws have admsnble poems full of
pulsating youth and U* promise of power, some desedptive
ANOA— ANOINTING
79
of the sea and tome of the Abruxei landscape, commented on
and completed in proee by Terra Virgin*, Che latter a collection
of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant life
of the author's native province. With the Intemuao di Rim* we
have the beginning of d'Annunsio's second and characteristic
manner. His conception of style was new, and he chose to
express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Both
style and contents began to startle his critics; some who had
greeted him as an enfant prodige—Chiasud amongst others-
rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst others
haded him as one bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse
of a new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto
Meanwhile the Review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the
midst of scandal, and his group of young authors found itself
dispersed. Some entered the teaching career and were lost to
literature, others threw themselves into journalism. Gabriele
d'Ajmimsio took this latter course, and joined the staff of the
Tribune. For this paper, under the pseudonym of " Duca
Minima," he did some of his most brilliant work, and the articles
he wrote during that period of originality and exuberance would
well repay being collected. To this period of greater maturity and
deeper culture belongs // Libro d' Isotta (1886), a love poem, in
.which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern
sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance.
// Libro d* Isotta is interesting also, because in it we find most
of the germs of his future work, just as in Intermeuo meHco and
in certain ballads and sonnets we find descriptions and emotions
which later went to form the aesthetic contents of II Piacere, II
Trionfo deUa Mart*, and Elegit Romane (1899).
D' Annunzio's first novel // Piacere (1880)— translated into
English as The Child of Pleosttre—mi followed in 1891 by
V Innocent* (The Intruder), and in 1802 by Giovanni Epixopo.
These three novels created a profound impression. V Innocent*,
admirably translated into French by. Georges Here&e, brought
its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. His next
work, // Trionfo delta Morte {The Triumph of Death) (1894).
was followed at a short distance by Le Vergini delta Roccio
(1806) and // Puoco (xooo), which in its descriptions of Venice
is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any
language.
D' Annunsio's poetic work of this period, in most respects
his finest, is represented by II Potma Paradisiaco (1893), the
Odi NavaH (1803), * superb attempt at civic poetry, and Laudi
(xooo).
A later phase of d' Annuneio/s work is his dramatic production,
r ep r e sen ted by II Sogno di un mailino di frimavera (1897), a
lyrical fantasia in one act; his CiUa liorta (1898), written for
Sarah Bernhardt, which- is certainly among the meat daring
and original of modern tragedies, and the only one which by its
unity, persistent purpose, and sense of fate seems to continue
in a measure the traditions of the Greek theatre. In 1898
he wrote his Sogno di sm» Ponmiggio o? Autunno and La
Gieamdai in the succeeding year La Gloria, an attempt at
contemporary political tragedy wbkh met with no success,
probably through the audacity of the personal and political
allusions in some of its scenes; and then Francesca da Rimini
(xooi), a perfect reconstruction of medieval atmosphere
and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by one of the
most authoritative Italian critics— Edoerdo Boutet— to be the
first real although not perfect tragedy which has ever been given
to the Italian theatre.
The work of d' Anmmrio, although by many of the younger
generation injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost
the most important literary work given to Italy since the days
when the great classics welded her varying dialects into a fixed
language. The psychological inspiration of his novels has come
to him from many sources— French, Russian, Scandinavian,
German— and in much of his earlier work there is little
fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and
searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are
little snore than one same type monotonously facing a different
problem at a different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his
style and the wealth of his language have been approached by
none of bis contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat
paralysed. In his later work, when he begins drawing his inspira-
tion from the traditions of bygone Italy in her glorious centuries,
a current of real life seems to run through the veins of his
personages. And the lasting merit of d' Annunsio, his real value
to the literature of his country, consists precisely in that he opened
up the closed mine of its former life as a source of inspiration
for the present and of hope for the future, and created a language,
neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source and district
suited to the requirements of modem, thought, yet absolutely
classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the thought
it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As
his sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as ex-
aggerations, affectations, and moods dropped away from his con-
ceptions, his work became more and more typical Latin work,
upheld by the ideal of an Italian Renaissance.
ANOA, the native name of the small wild buffalo of Celebes,
Bos (Bubalus) depressicornis, which stands but little over a
yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild
cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing
the same reversal of the direction of the hair-on the back. The
horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative
straightness, although they have the same triangular section as
in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below
the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and
back; and the absence or presence of these white markings
may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are
very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain
extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik
Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to
resemble the Indian buffalo.
ANODYaTB (from Gr. &*-, privative, and osfrv, pain), a.cause
which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines
which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such
as morphia, &c
ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat, or melted butter, a
process employed ritually in all religions and among all races,
civilised or savage, partly aa a mode of ridding persons and
things of dangerous influences and diseases, especially of the
demons (Persian drug, Greek a^pes, Armenian dev) which are or
cause those diseases; and partly as a means of introducing into
things and persons a Sacramental or divine influence, a holy
emanation, spirit or power. The riddance of an evil influence is
often synonymous with the introduction of the good principle,
and therefore it is best to consider first the use of anointing in
consecrations.
The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed
could be transferred to survivors if the latter rubbed themselves
with his caul-fat. So the Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves
with lion's fat in order to gain courage and inspire the animals
with awe of themselves. Such rites are often associated with the
actual eating of the victim whose virtues are coveted. Human
fat is a powerful charm all over the world; for, as R. Smith
points out, after the blood the fat was peculiarly the vehicle
and seat of life. This is why fat of a victim was smeared on a
sacred stone, not only in acts of homage paid to it, but in the
actual consecration thereof. In such cases the influence of the
god, communicated to the victim, passed with the unguent into
the stone. But the divinity could by anointing be transferred
into men no less than into stones; and from immemorial an*
tiquity, among the Jews as among other races, kings were
anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of the victims which,
like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the common votaries*
Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of
animals, is used for anointing in the Hindu religion. A newly-
built house is smeared with it, so are demoniacs, care being taken
to smear the latter downwards from head to foot.
In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices,
together with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given
up, it is usual to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with
8o
ANOMALY— ANQUETIL DUPERRON
•pedal prayers and exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the
altar has a peculiar virtue of its own, perhaps because it can be
burned to give light, and disappears to heaven in doing so. In
any case oil has ever been regarded as the aptest symbol and
vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit. For this reason the
catechumens are anointed with holy oil both before and after
baptism; the one act (of eastern origin) assists the expulsion
of the evil spirits, the other (of western origin), taken in con-
junction with imposition of hands, conveys the spirit and
retains it in the person of the baptized. In the postbaptismal
anointing the oil was applied to the organs of sense, to the head,
heart, and midriff. Such ritual use of oil as a a+oayls or seal
may have been suggested in old religions by the practice of
keeping wine fresh in jars and amphorae by pouring on a top
layer of oil; for the spoiling of wine was attributed to the action
of demons of corruption, against whom many ancient formulae
of aversion or exorcism still exist.
The holy oil, chrism, or uboow, as the Easterns call it, was
prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday, and in the
Gelasian sacramentary the formula used runs thus: "Send
forth, O Lord, we beseech thee, thy Holy Spirit the Paraclete
from heaven into this fatness of oil, which thou hast deigned to
bring forth out of the green wood for the refreshing of mind and
body; and through thy holy benediction may it be for all who
anoint with it, taste it, touch it, a safeguard of mind and body,
of soul and spirit, for the expulsion of all pains, of every infirmity,
of every sickness of mind and body. For with the same thou
hast anointed priests, kings, and prophets and martyrs with this
thy chrism, perfected by thee, O Lord, blessed, abiding within
our bowels in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."
In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to
guard them against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten
to take possession of dead bodies and live in them. In the
Armenian church, as formerly in many Greek churches, a cross
is not holy until the Spirit has been formally led into it by means
of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A new church is anointed
at its four comers, and also the altar round which it is built;
similarly tombs, church gongs, and aO other instruments and
utensils dedicated to cultual uses. In churches of the Greek
rite a little of the old year's chrism is left in the jar to communicate
its sanctity to that of the new. (F. C. C.)
ANOMALY (from Gr. ow/iaXfe, unevenness, derived from
d>-, privative, and 6)10X61, even), a deviation from the common
rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a
body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving.
Let AB be the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the
focus or centre of motion, P the position of the body. The
anomaly is then the angle BFP which the radius vector makes
with the major axis. This is the actual or true anomaly. Mean
anomaly is the anomaly which the
body would have if it moved from
the pericentre around F with a
uniform angular motion such that
its revolution would be completed
in its actual time (see Omit).
Eccentric anomaly is defined thus: —
Draw the circumscribing circle of
the elliptic orbit around the centre C
of the orbit. Drop the perpendicular
RPQ through P, the position of
the planet, upon the major axis.
Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly.
In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the
angular distance of the planet from the point of the farthest
recession from the earth.
Kepler's Problem, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a
planet at a given time, which is equivalent— given the mean
anomaly— to that of determining the true anomaly, was solved
approximately by Kepler, and more' completely by Wallis,
Newton and others.
The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body
b the revolution between two consecutive passages through the
Anorthite.
pericentre. Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the
return to the pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an
actual revolution; but if it moves the anomalistic revolution
is greater or less than a complete circumference.
An Anomalistic year is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes,
48 seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other
planet) passes from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given
value of the anomaly to the same again. Owing to the precession
of the equinoxes it is longer than a tropical or sidereal year by
2$ minutes and 3*3 seconds. An Anomalistic month a the time
in which the moon passes from perigee to perigee, &&
For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E. W. Brown,
Lunar Theory (Cambridge 1896). or the work of Watson or off
Bauschinger on Theoretical Astronomy.
AHORTHITB, an important mineral of the felspar group, being
one of the end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a
calcium and aluminium silicate, CaAUSi«0», and crystallises
in the anorthic system. Like all the felspars, it possesses two
cleavages, one perfect and the other less so, here inclined to one
another at an angle of 85° 50'. The colour is white, greyish or
reddish, and the crystals are trans-
parent to translucent. The hard-
ness is 6-6 J, and the specific gravity
a-75.
Anorthite is an essential con-
stituent of many basic igneous
rocks, such as gabbro and basalt,
also of some meteoric stones. The
best developed crystals are those
which accompany mica, augite,
sanidine, &c, in the ejected blocks
of metamorphosed limestone from
Monte Somma, the ancient portion
of Mount Vesuvius; these are
perfectly colourless and transparent, and are bounded by
numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly developed crystals are
also met with in the basalts of Japan, but axe usually rare at
other localities.
The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by
G. Rose in 1833, on account of its anorthic crystallisation, The
species had, however, been earlier described by the comte dc
Bournon under the name indianite, this name being applied to a
greyish or reddish granular mineral forming the matrix of corun-
dum from the Carnatic in India, Several unimportant varieties
have been distinguished. (L. J. S.)
ANQUK1L, LOUIS PIKRRB (1793-1808), French historian,
was born in Paris, on the 21st of February 1723* He entered the
congregation of Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and
became professor of theology and literature. Later, he became
director of the seminary at Reims, where he wrote his Hutoire
civile et politique de Reims (3 vols., 1756-1757)1 perhaps his best
work. He was then director of the college of Senlis, where he
composed his Esprit de la Ligue on histoire politique des troubles
delaFronde pendant U XVI* etle XVW slides (1767). During
the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St Laare; there he
began his Precis de V histoire uniterscUe, afterwards published in
nine volumes. On the establishment of the national institute he
was elected a member of the second group (moral and political
sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office of the
ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write Ms
Motifs des guerres et des traitis de paix sous Louis XI K., Louis X V.
et Louis X VI. He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to
write his Histoire de Prance (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compila-
tion at second or third hand, with the assistance of de Mexeray
and of Paul Francois Velly (1700-1750). This work, nevertheless,
passed through numerous editions, and by it his name is remem-
bered. He died on the 6th of September 1808.
ANQUBTIL DUPERROK, ABRAHAM HYACIHTHY (1731-
1805), French orientalist, brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the
historian, was born in Paris on the 7th of December 1731. He
was educated for the priesthood in Paris and Utrecht, but Ms taste
for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other languages of the East
ANSA— ANSELM
developed into a pastion, and be discontinued his theological
course to devote himself entirely to them. Hk diligent attend-
ance at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper
of the manuscripts, the Abbe Saltier, whose influence procured
for him a small salary as student of the oriental language. He
had lighted on some fragments of the Vendidad Sad*, and formed
the project of a voyage to India to discover the worksof Zoroaster.
With this end in view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the and
of November 1754, in the Indian expedition which was about to
start from the port of L 'Orient Hb friends procured his dis-
charge, and he was granted a free passage, a seat at the captain's
table, and a salary, the amount of which was to be fixed by the
governor of the French settlement in India. After a passage of
six months, Anquetil landed, on the 10th of August 175s* at
Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern
Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit.
Just then war was declared between France and England;
Chandernagore was taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry
by land. He found one of his brothers at Pondicherry, and
embarked with him for Surat; but, with a view of exploring the
country, he landed at Mahe* and proceeded on foot. At Surat he
succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse with
the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend
and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called tbtVemUdad
Sade and some other works. Thence be proposed going to
Benares, to study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of
the Hindus; but the capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit
India. Returning to Europe in an English vessel, he spent some
lime in London and Oxford, and then set out for France. Ho
arrived in Paris on the 14th of March 176a in p o ss essio n of one
hundred and eighty oriental manuscripts, besides other curiosities.
The Abbe Barthilemy procured for him a pension, with the
appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal
Library. In X763 he was elected an associate of the Academy of
Inscriptions, and began to arrange for the publication of the
materials he had collected during his eastern travels. In 1771 he
published his Zend-Avesta (3 vols.), containing collections from
the sacred writings of the fire-worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and
fragments of works ascribed to him. In 1778 he published at
Amsterdam his Ligislaiion orientate, in which he endeavoured to
prove that the nature of oriental despotism had been greatly
misrepresented. His Rcckerekes kistoriqucs et giograpkiques sw
Find* appeared in 1786, and formed part of Thieffenthaler's
Ceopaphy of India. The Revolution seems to have greatly
affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and
lived in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1708 he
published VInde en rapport one V Europe (Hamburg, a vols.),
which contained much invective against the English,and numerous
misrepresentations. In 1802-2804 he published a Latin transla-
tion (a vols.) from the Persian of the Oupnek'hal or Upaniskada.
It is a curious mixture of Latin, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and
Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the 17th of January 1805.
See Biopapkie umooneBe; Sir William Tones, Works (vol. x.,
1807); and the MisaUaaies of the Philobiblon Society (vol. itt.,
1856-1857). For a last of his scattered writings see Querard, La
. (from Lat ansa, a handle), in astronomy, one of the
apparent ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in- perspective from
the earth: so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked
Eke handles projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word
b applied to nervous structures which resemble loops. In
archaeology it is used for the engraved and ornamented handle
of a vase, which has often survived when the vase itself , being less
durable, has disappeared.
AXSBACH, or Amspach, originally OneUback, a town of
Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Reset, 17 m. by rail
S.W. of Nuremberg, and 00 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (xooo)
1 7»555' It contains a palace, once the residence of the margraves
of Anspach, with fine gardens; several churches, the finest of
which are those dedicated to St John, containing the vault of
the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a
picture gallery; a municipal museum and a special technical
81
its to the poets August,
Count von Platen-Hallermund, and Johann Peter Us, who were
born here, and to Xaspar Hauser, who died here. The chief
manufactures are machinery, toys, woollen, cotton, and half-silk
stuffs, embroideries, earthenware, tobacco, cutlery and playing
cards. There is considerable trade in grain, wool and flax. In
1791 the last margrave of Anspach sold his principality to
Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was transferred by
Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed by the
congress of Vienna in 18x5.
ANSDELL, RICHARD (18x5-1885), English painter, was
born in Liverpool, and first exhibited at the Royal Academy
in 1840. He was a painter of genre, chiefly animal and sporting,
pictures, and be became very popular, being elected A.R.A. in
i86x and R.A. in 187a His " Stag at Bay " (1846), " The
Combat " (1847), and " Battle of the Standard " (1848), repre-
sent his best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower
of Landseer.
ANSELM (c. 1033-1100), archbishop of Canterbury, was born
at Aosta in Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and
was possessed of considerable property. Gundulph, his father,
was by birth a Lombard, and seems to have been a man of harsh
and violent temper; his mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and
virtuous woman, from whose careful religious training the young
Anselm derived much benefit At the age of fifteen be desired
to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent.
Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery from
which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to
have plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his
mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable.
He left home, and with only one attendant crossed the Alps,
and wandered through Burgundy and France. Attracted by
the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then prior of Bee, he
entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at Avranches,
settled at the monastery of Bee. There, at the age of twenty-
seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc
was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior.
This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the
death of Herlwin, the warrior monk who had founded the
monastery, he was made abbot Under his rule Bee became the
first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not more to his
intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his
noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet
years at Bee that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and re-
ligious works, the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two
celebrated treatises, the Monologion and Proslogion.
Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well
as in reputation, and had acquired considerable property in
England, which it became the duty of Anselm occasionally to
visit By his mildness of temper and unswerving rectitude,
he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon
and desired as the natural successor to Lanfranc, then archbishop
of Canterbury. But on the death of that great man, the ruling
sovereign, William Rufus, seized the possessions and revenues
of the see, and made no new appointment About four years
after, in xooa, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm
with some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop,
crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly
four months, and when about to return, was refused permission
by the king. In the following year William fell ill, and thought
his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for bis sin
with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the
vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept
the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from
his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He
demanded of the king, as the conditions of his retaining office,
that be should give up all the possessions of the see, accept his
spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition
to the anti«pope, Clement He only obtained a partial consent
to the first of these, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty
with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration
I of metropolitans could not be completed without their receivinr
82
ANSELM
the pallium from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly,
insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pall. But
William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban,
and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknow-
ledged by an English subject without his permission. A great
council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter,
advised Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome
his mild and patient firmness. The matter was postponed,
and William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome,
who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate
to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial recon-
ciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was com-
promised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the
altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it
Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king,
and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel
of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained a
reluctant permission to leave, and in October 1097 he set out
for Rome. William immediately seized on the revenues of the
see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with
high honour by Urban, and at a great council held at Bar!, he
was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the
Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church.
But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of
England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial
result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the
little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the
atonement, Cur Dcus homo, and then retired to Lyons.
In zioo William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once
recalled Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again
receive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop,
thus making the dignity entirely dependent on the royal
authority. Now, the papal rule in the matter was plain; all
homage and lay investiture were strictly prohibited. Anselm
represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish
a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the
matter should be bid before the Holy See. The answer of the
pope reaffirmed the law as to investiture. A second embassy
was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained
firm, and at last, in 1x03, Anselm and an envoy from the king
set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal, reaffirmed strongly the
rule of investiture, and. passed sentence of excommunication
against all who had infringed the law, except Henry. Practically
this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received
a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the
king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if
Paschal would not take stronger measures. At last, in 1105,
he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention
was made known to the king through his sister, and it seriously
alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting
was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In
xxo6 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope
to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally
invested churchmen. In x 107 the long dispute as to investiture
was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The
remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties
of his archbishopric He died on the 21st of April 1109. He
was canonized in 1404 by Alexander VI.
Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scho-
lastic philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor,
Scotus Erigena, had more of the speculative and mystical
element than is consistent with a schoolman; but in Anselm
are found that recognition of the relation of reason to revealed
truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith,
which form the special characteristics of scholastic thought.
His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the Christian
consciousness dear to reason, and to develop the intelligible
truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary
preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian conscious-
ness. " He who does not believe will not experience; and he
who has not experienced will not understand." That faith must
precede knowledge is reiterated by him. " Negue enim quaero
intettigere uS credom, sed credo ut bUeUigom. Nam et hoc credo,
quia, nisi credidero, non intelligent." (" Nor do I seek to under-
stand-that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand.
For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not under-
stand.") But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be
made to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe.
It is wrong not to do so. "Ncgligentiae mihi esse videtur, si,
poslquam confirmati sumus in Me, non studemus quod credimus,
inteUigere" ("I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have
become steadfast in the faith we do not strive to understand
what we believe.") To such an extent does he carry this demand
for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as if he claimed
for unassisted intelligence the power of penetrating even to the
mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the
qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are
always, he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (Cur Dcus homo,
i. a and 38; De Fide Trin. a.)
The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in
the tract De Verilate, in which, from the consideration of truth
as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirma-
tion of an absolute truth, in which all other truth participates.
This absolute truth is God himself, who is therefore the ultimate
ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion
of God comes thus into the foreground of the system; before
all things it is necessary that it should be made dear to reason,
that it should be demonstrated to have real existence. This
demonstration is the substance of the Monclogion and Proslogion.
In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of
realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of
Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and
fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways
and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some
absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative
goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as great,
just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very
existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by
whom they are. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice,
greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with
this reasoning; it started from a posteriori grounds, and con-
tained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have
some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he
presented in the Proslogion; it is his celebrated ontologies!
proof. God is that being than whom none greater can be
conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater can be
conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the
absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality.
It follows, then, thai the being than whom nothing greater can
be conceived, *.e. God, necessarily has real existence. This
reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian
philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed
at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his Liber pro InsipienU, an
the ground that we cannot pass from idea to reality. The same
criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others
by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant advances against all
ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in
his Liber Apologeticus. The existence of God being thus held
proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian
doctrines ot creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this
last, he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after
the analogy of his creatures; and the special analogy used is
the self-consciousness of man, its peculiar double nature, with
the necessary elements, memory and intelligence, representing
the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these
two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another,
symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of
man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the Mono-
logion, partly in other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest
work, Cur Dcus homo, he undertakes to make plain, even to
infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the
atonement. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfac-
tion is necessary on account of God's honour and justice; that
such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality
AN8ELM— ANSON
83
of the God-man; that inch tttfaf action fa really give* by the
voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The demo*
stration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men arc due to the
furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if God's
honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction.
But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult
to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be
infinite, *.«. it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty
can only be paid by God himself, and, as a penalty for man,
must be paid under the form of man. , Satisfaction is only possible
through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is exempt
from the punishment of sin; His passion is therefore voluntary,
not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; God's
justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man.
This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of
church doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic
theory, in so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and
Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of God; but
it puts the whole relation on a merely legal footing, gives it no
ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the
individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts un-
favourably with the later theory of Abelard.
Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages,
the respect and attention justly their due. This was probably
due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts
or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like
the great works of Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have,
however, a freshness and philosophical vigour, which more than
makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far
above t."
BiBLi Ira
sad hb 1 w,
edited b Tn
work fa nd
Saint A ire
by A. M 19;
bug. tra vn
GmUi+t me
4* Canto m,
Work* of
Docn G 12;
iecorpof ix.
(Paris, 1 rtir
Deuska Jtt
(Loader in
booooTi fey
fToaroa :h»
(Louval .. _, _ . w _. he
Meditaiumes, many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselra. have
been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's Library
ef Devotion (London, loot).
The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works fa by J. M.
Rkg (London, 1896), and Doroet de Vorgcs {Grands Philosophes
aeries, Paris, too 1 )- For * complete bibliography, see A. Vacant'*
Dictumnaire de tkeolefie.
ANSBLM, of Laon (d. 1117), French theologian, was born of
very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the tith
century. He is said to have studied under St Anserm at Bee
About 1076 he taught with great success at Paris, where, as the
associate of William of Champeaux, he upheld the realistic side
of the scholastic controversy. Later he removed to his native
place, where his school for theology and exegetics rapidly became
the most famous in Europe. He died in 11x7. His greatest
work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the
great authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently
reprinted. Other commentaries apparently by him have been
ascribed to various writers, principally to the great Anselm. A
list of them, with notice of Anselm's hit, fa contained in the
Histoid liUeeaire it la Prance, z. 170-180.
The works are collected in Migne's Potrelona Latino, tome 162;
tone unpublished Sentential were edited by G. Lefevre (Milan, 1894).
on which see Haureau in the Journal des savants for 1895.
AJffELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-1604),
French genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625. As a layman his
name was Pierre Guibours. He entered the order of the bare-
footed Augustinians on the 31st of March 1644, and it was in
their monastery (called the Convent des Petits Peres, near the
church of Notre-Dame des Victoires) that he died, on the 17 th
of January 1604. He devoted his entire life to genealogical
studies. In 1663 he published Le Palais de Vkonncur, which
besides giving the genealogy of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy,
fa a complete treatise on heraldry, and in 1664 Le Palais de la
gloire, dealing with the genealogy of various illustrious French
and European families. These books made friends for him, the
most intimate among whom, Honors Caille, seigneur du Fourny
(1630-17x3), persuaded him to publish his Histoire gtntdogique
de la mauon royaie de France, et des frauds officiers de
la couronne (1674, 2 vols. 4); after Father Anselme's death,
Honor* Caille collected his papers,and brought out a new edition
of this highly important work in 17x2. The task was taken up
and continued by two other friars of the Couvent des Petits
Peres, Father Ange de Sainte-Rosalie (Francois Raffard, 1655-
X726), and Father Siroplicicn (Paul Lucas, 1683-1759), who
published the first and second volumes of the third edition in
1726. This edition consists of nine volumes folio; it is a genea-
logical and chronological history of the royal house of France,
of the peers, of the great officers of the crown and of the king's
household, and of the ancient barons of the kingdom. The notes
were generally compiled from original documents, references
to which are usually given, so that they remain useful to the
present day. The work of Father Anselme, his collaborators
and successors, is even more important for the history of
France than is Dugdale's Baronage of England for the history
of England. (C. B.*)
ANSON,GBORGE ANSON. Bason (1697-1762), British admiral,
was born on the 23rd of April 1697. He was the son of
William Anson of Snugborough in Staffordshire, and his wife
Isabella Carrier, who was the sister-in-law of Lord Chancellor
Macclesfield, a relationship which proved very useful to the
future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February
17x2, and by rapid steps became lieutenant in X716, commander
in 1733, and post-captain in 1724. In this rank he served twice
on the North American station as captain of the " Scarborough "
and the " Squirrel" from 1724 to 1730 and from 1733 to 1735.
In X737 he was appointed to the " Centurion," 60, on the eve of
war with Spain, and when hostilities had begun be was chosen
to command as commodore the squadron which was sent to attack
her possessions in South America in 1740. , The original scheme
was ambitious, and was not carried out. Anson s squadron,
which sailed later than had been intended, and was very ill-fitted,
consisted of six ships, which were reduced by successive disasters
to his flagship the " Centurion." The lateness of the season
forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy weather, and the
navigating instruments of the time did not allow of exact observa-
tion. Two of his vessels failed to round the Horn, another, the
" Wager," was wrecked in the Golfo de Panas on the coast of
Chile. By the time Anson reached the island of Juan Feroandes
in June 1741, his six ships had been reduced to three, while the
strength of his crews had fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence
of any effective Spanish force on the coast he was able to harass
the enemy, and to capture the town of Paita on the 13th- 15th
of November 1741. The steady diminution of his crew by sick-
ness, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts, compelled
him at last to collect all the survivors in the " Centurion." He
rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macao
in November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the
Chinese, he sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise
for one of the richly laden galleons which conducted the trade
between Mexico and the Philippines. The indomitable per-
severance he had shown during one of the most arduous voyages
in the history of sea adventure was rewarded by the capture of
an immensely rich prise, the " Nuestra Senora de Covadonga*"
which was met off Cape Esptritu Santo on the 20th of June x 743-
Anson took his prise back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese,
keeping the specie, and sailed for England, which he reached by
the Cape of Good Hope on the 15th of June 1744* 'Hie prize-
money earned by the capture of the galleon had made him a rich
man for life, and under the Influence of irritation caused by the
«4
ANSON— ANSTEY
refusal of the admiralty to confirm a captain's commission he
had given to one of his officers, Anson refused the rank of rear-
admiral, and was prepared to leave the service. His fame would
stand nearly as high as it does if he had done so, but he would be
a far less important figure in the history of the navy. By the
world at large he is known as the commander of the voyage of
circumnavigation, in which success was won by indomitable
perseverance, unshaken firmness, and infinite resource. But he
was also the severe and capable administrator who during years
of hard work at the admiralty did more than any other to raise
the navy from the state of corruption and indiscipline into
which it had fallen during the first half of the eighteenth century.
Great anger had been caused in the country by the condition of
the fleet as revealed in the first part of the war with France and
Spain, between 1 739 and 1747* The need for reform was strongly
felt, and the politicians of the day were conscious that it would
not be safe to neglect the popular demand for it. In 1745 the
duke of Bedford, the new first lord, invited Anson to join the
admiralty with the rank of rear-admiral of the white. As
subordinate under the duke, or Lord Sandwich, and as first lord
himself, Anson was at the admiralty with one short break from
1745 till his death in 1762. His chiefs in the earlier years left
him to take the initiative in all measures of reform, and supported
him in their own interest. After x 751 he was himself first lord,
except for a short time in 1756 and 1757. At his suggestion, or
with his advice, the naval administration was thoroughly over-
hauled. The dockyards were brought into far better order, and
though corruption was not banished, it was much reduced. The
navy board was compelled to render accounts, a duty it had long
neglected. A system of regulating promotion to flag rank, which
has been in the main followed ever since, was introduced. The
Navy Discipline Act was revised in 1749, and remained unaltered
till z 865. Courts martial were put on a sound footing. Inspec-
tions of the fleet and the dockyards were established, and the
corps of Marines was created in 1 7 5 5. The progressive improve-
ment which raised the navy to the high state of efficiency it
attained in later yean dates from Anson's presence at the
admiralty. In 1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the
board, commanded the Channel fleet which on the 3rd of May
scattered a large French convoy bound to the East, and West
Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre. Several men-of-war
and armed French Indiamen were taken, but the overwhelming
superiority of Anson's fleet (fourteen men-of-war, to six men-of-
war and four Indiamen) in the number and weight of ships
deprives the action of any strong claim to be considered remark-
able. In society Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn.
The sneers of Horace Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett
in The Adventures of an Atom, are animated by personal or
political spite. Yet they would not have accused him of defects
from which he was notoriously free. In political life he may
sometimes have given too ready assent to the wishes of powerful
politicians. He married the daughter of Lord Chancellor
Hardwicke on the 17th of April 1748. There were no children of
the marriage. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given
him in 1747, but became extinct on his death. The title of
Viscount Anson was, however, created in 1806 in favour of his
great-nephew, the grandson of his sister Janetta and Mr Sam-
brook Adams, whose father had assumed the name and arms of
Anson. The earldom of Lichfield was conferred on the family
in the next generation. A fine portrait of the admiral by
Reynolds is in the possession of the earl of Lichfield, and there
are copies in the National Portrait Gallery and at Greenwich.
Anson's promotions in flag rank were: rear-admiral in 1745,
vice-admiral in 1746, and admiral in 1748. In 1749 he became
vice-admiral of Great Britain, and in 1761 admiral of the fleet.
He died on the 6th of Tune 1762.
. A life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in aome details but valuable and
interesting, was published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The
standard account of hit voyage round the world it that by hia
chaplain Richard Walter, 1748, often reprinted. A share io the
work has been claimed on dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins,
the mathematician. Another and much inferior account waa
published in ,1745 by Paaooe Thomas, the schoolmaster of the
6 Centurion." (D. H.)
AK30W. SIR WILLIAM REYXELL, Bakt. (1843- )•
English jurist, waa born on the 14th of November 1843, at
Walberton, Sussex, son of the second baronet. Educated at
Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he took a first class in the final
classical schools in 1866, and was elected to a fellowship of All
Souls in the following year. In 1669 he was called to the bar,
and went the home circuit until 1873, when he succeeded to the
baronetcy. In 1874 he became Vinerian reader in English
law at Oxford, a post which he held until he became, in 188 1,
warden of All Souls College. He identified himself both with
local and university interests; he became an alderman of the
city of Oxford in 189a , chairman of quarter sessions for the county
in 1S04, was vice-chancellor of the university in 1808- 1800,
and chancellor of the diocese of Oxford in 1809. In that year
he was returned, without opposition, as M.P. for the university
in the Liberal Unionist interest, and consequently resigned the
vice-chancellorship. In parliament he preserved an active
interest in education, being a member of the newly created
consultative committee of the Board of Education in 1900,
and in 1902 he became parliamentary secretary. He took an
active part in the foundation of a school of law at Oxford,
and his volumes on The Principles of the English Law of Contract
(1884, xzth ed. xoo6), and on The Lew and Custom of the Constitu-
tion in two parts, M The Parliament " and " The Crown " (1886-
1892, 3rd ed. X907, pt. Lvol. ii.), are standard works.
ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
coextensive with the township of the same name, on the Nauga-
tuck river, immediately N. of Derby and about is m. N.W. of
New Haven. It is served by the New York, New Haven 8c
Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines running
N., S. and E. Pop. (1900) 12,681, of whom 4296 were foreign
born; (19x0 census) 15,15s. Land area about 5-4 sq. m.
The city has extensive manufactures of heavy m a chine ry,'
electric supplies, brass and copper products and silk goods.
In 1905 the capital invested in manufacturing was $7,625,864,
and the value of the products was $191132,455. Ansonia,
Derby and Shelton form one of the most important industrial
communities in the state. The dty, settled in 1840 and named
in honour of the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green
Phelps (1781-1853), was originally a part of the township of
Derby; it was chartered as a borough in 1864 and as a dty in
1 893, when the township of Ansonia, which had been incorporated
in 1889, and the dty were consolidated.
ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS (1814-1880), English geologist,
waa born in London on the 5th of February 1814. He was
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, and after taking his degree
of M.A. in 1839 was elected to a fellowship of the college. In-
spired by the teachings of Adam Sedgwick, his attention was
given to geology, and in 1840 he waa elected professor of geology
in King's College, London, a post which he hdd until 1853.
Meanwhile he became a fdlow of the Royal Sodety in 1844,
and from that date until 1847 he was vice-secretary of the
Geological Society and edited its Quarterly Journal. The
practical side of geology now came to occupy his chief attention,
and he visited various parts of Europe and the British Islands
as a consulting geologist and mining engineer. He was also
in x868 and for many years examiner in physical geography
to the science and art department He died at Melton near
Woodbridge, on the 13th of May 1880.
Publications.— Geology, Introductory, Descriptive and Practical
(2 vols., 1844); The Ionian Islands (1863); 7V Applications of
Geology to the Arts and Manufactures (1865); Physical Geography
(1867); Water and Water Supply (Surface Water) (1878); and The
Channel Islands (with R. G. Latham) (186a).
AX8TEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, was the
son of the rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, where he was born
on the 31st of October 1724. He was educated at Eton and
King's College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself for
his Latin verses. He became a fdlow of his college (1745), but
the degree of M.A. was withhdd from him, owing to the offence
caused by a speech made by him beginning: " Doctores sine
doctrina, magistri artium sine artibus, ct baccalaurd baculo
potius quam lauro digni." In 1754 he succeeded to the family
ANSTRUTHER— ANT
»5
estates tad left Cambridge; And two years later he married
the daughter of Felix Calvert of Albory Hall, Herts. For some
time Anstey published nothing of any note, though he cultivated
letters as well as his estates. Some visits to Bath, however,
where later, in 1770, he made his permanent home, resulted in
1766 in his famous rhymed letters, The New Balk Guide or
Memoirs of Ike B . . . r . . .d [Blunderhead] Family . . .,
which had immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised
for its original kind of humour by Walpote and Gray. The
Section Ball, in Poetical Letters from Mr inkle at Batk to ku
Wife at Gloucester (1776) sustained the reputation won by the
Guide. Anstey's other productions in verse and prose are now
forgotten. He died on % the 3rd of August 1805. His Poetical
Worki were collected in 1868 (a vols.) by the author's son John
(i i$iq), himself author of The Pleader's Guide (1796), in the
same vei n with the New Batk Guide.
AMSTKUl HKH (locally pronounced Ansler), a seaport of Fife-
shire, Scotland. It comprises the royal and police burghs of
Anstruther Easter (pop. 1100), Anstruther Wester (501) and
Kflrcnny (2542). and lies m. S.S.E. of St Andrews, having a
station on the North British railway company's branch line from
Thornton Junction to St Andrews. The chief industries Include
coast and deep-sea fisheries, shipbuilding, tanning, the making
of cod-liver oO and fish-curing. The harbour was completed in
1877 st a cost of £80,000. The two Anstruthers are divided
only by a small stream called Dreel Barn. James Melville
(1556-1614), nephew of the more celebrated reformer, Andrew
Mdvflle, who was minister of Kilrenny. has given in his Diary
a graphic account of the arrival at Anstruther of a weather-
bound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of the intermixture
of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still prevails in the district
Anstruther fair supplied William Tennant (1784- 1848), who
was bom and buried in the town, with the subject of his poem
of " Ansler Fair." Sir James Lumsden, a soldier of fortune
under Gustavus Adolphus, who distinguished himself in the
Thirty Years' War, was bom in the parish of Kilrenny about
1508. David Martin (1737-1708), the painter and engraver;
Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), the great divine; and John
Goodsir (1814-1867), the anatomist, were natives of Anstruther.
Little more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police
burgh of Pittenweem (Gaelic, *' the hollow of the cave "), a
quaint old fishing town (pop. 1863). with the remains of a priory.
About a m. still farther westwards is the fishing town of St
Honans or Abcrcromby (pop. 1808) . with a fine old Gothic church,
picturesquely perched on the rocky shore. These fisher towns
on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Fifeshire furnish
artists with endless subjects. Archibald Constable (1774-1837),
Sir Walter Scott's publisher, was born in the parish of Carnbee,
about 3 m. to the north of Pittenweem. The two Anstruthers,
Kflzenny and Pittenweem unite with St Andrews, Cupar and
CraQ. in sending one member to parliament
AH5WKR (derived from and, against, and the same root as
tutor), originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or
something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence,
a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.
In English law, the " answer " in pleadings was, previous to the
Judicature Acts 1873-1875, the statement of defence, especially
as regards the facts and not the law. Its place is now taken by a
" statement of defence." " Answer " is the term still applied in
divorce proceedings to the reply of the respondent (see Pleading).
The famous Latin Res ponsaPruden turn (" answers of the learned")
were the accumulated views of many successive generations of
Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became
authoritative. In music an " answer " is the technical name in
counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a
theme proposed by another.
ANT (O. Eng. atmete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan,
cut or bite off, U. " the biter off "; aimete in Middle English
became differentiated in dialect use to atnde, then amte, and so
out, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only
used provinciaOy, " ant " being the general literary form). The
tact that the name of the ant has come down in English from a
thousand years ago shows that this class of insects impressed the
old inhabitants of England as they impressed the Hebrew* and
Greeks. The social instincts and industrious habits of ante have
always made them favourite objects of study, and a vast amount
of literature has accumulated on the subject of their structure and
their modes of life.
Characters.— An ant is easily recognised both by the casual
observer and by the student of insects. Ants form a distinct and
natural family (Fermuidac) of the great order Hymenoptera, to
whK h bees, wasps and sa wflies also belong. The insects of this
order have mandibles adapted for biting, and two pairs of mem-
branous wings are usually present; the first abdominal segment
(propodeum) becomes closely associated with the fore-body
(thorax), of which it appears to form a part. In all ants the second
(apparently the first) abdominal segment is very markedly
constricted at its front and hind edges, so that it forms a " node "
at the base of the hind-body (fig 1), and in many ants the third
abdominal segment is simnariy " nodular " in form (fig. 3, b, c ,).
It is this peculiar " waist " that catches the eye of the observer,
and makes the insects so easy of recognition. Another con-
spicuous and well-known feature of ants is the wingless condition
of the " workers," as the specialized females, with undeveloped
ovaries, which form the largest proportion of the population of
ant-communities, are called. Such " workers " are essential to
the formation of a social community of Hymenoptera, and their
wingless condition among the ants shows that their specialization
has been carried further in this family than among the wasps and
bees. Further, while among wasps and bees we find some solitary
and some social genera, theants as a family are soda], though some
a * •» * s
Fig. i.— Wood Ant (Formica rufa). I, Queen; a, male; 3, worker.
aberrant species are dependent on the workers of other ants. It
is interesting and suggestive that in a few families of digging
Hymenoptera (such as the Mutiltidae), allied to the ants, the
females are wingless. The perfect female or " queen " ante (figs.
1,1,3, a) often cast their wings (fig. 3,6) after the nuptial flight;
in a few species the females, and in still fewer the males, never
develop wings. (For the so-called " white ants,' "which belong to
an order far removed from the Hymenoptera, see Tmmite.)
Structure.— The head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers,
each consisting of a minute basal and an elongate second segment,
forming the stalk or " scape," while from eight to eleven short
segments make up the terminal " flageUum." These segments
are abundantly supplied with elongate tooth-like projections
connected with nerve-endings probably olfactory in function.
The brain is well developed and its " mushroom-bodies " are
eiceptionally large. The mandibles, which are frequently used
for carrying various objects, are situated well to the outside of
the maxillae, so that they can be opened and abut without
interfering with the latter. The peculiar form and arrangement
of the anterior abdominal segments have already been described.
The fourth abdominal segment is often very large, and forms
the greater part of the hind-body; this segment is markedly
constricted at its basal (forward) end, where it is embraced by the
small third segment In many of those ants whose third abdom-
inal segment forms a second " node," the basal dorsal region of
the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of very fine
transverse striations; over these the sharp hinder edge of the
third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a
stridulating organ which gives rise to a note of very high pitch.
For the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators,
the antsare furnished with delicate organs of hearing (chordotonal
organs) in the head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal
segments and In the shins of the legs.
86
ANT
The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens
and workers resemble those of other stinging Hymenoptera, But
there are several subfamilies of ants whose females have the
lancet* of the sting useless for piercing, although the poison-glands
art functional, their secretion being ejected by the insect, when
occasion may arise, from the greatly enlarged reservoir, the
reduced sting acting as a squirt.
AVrt* —The nests* of different kinds of ants are constructed in
very different situations, many species (Last us, for example)
make underground nests, galleries and chambers being hollowed
out in the soil, and opening by small holes on the surface, or
protected above by a Urge stone. The wood ant (Formica rufa,
fig. i) piles up a heap of leaves, twigs and other vegetable refuse,
so arranged as to form an orderly series of galleries, though the
structure appears at first sight a chaotic heap. Species of
Camponotus and many other ants tunnel in wood. In tropical
countries ants sometimes make their nests in the hollow thorns
of trees or on leaves; species with this habit are believed to make
a return to the tree for the shelter that it affords by protecting it
from the ravages of other insects, including their own leaf-cutting
relations.
Early Stages.—The larvae of ants (fig. 3, e) are legless and
helpless maggots with very small heads (fig. 3, /), into whose
mouths the requisite food has to be forced by the assiduous
"nurse" workers. The maggots are tended by these nurses with the
greatest care, and carried to those parts of the nest most favour-
able for their health and growth. When fully grown, the maggot
spins an oval silken cocoon within which it pupates (fig. 3, g ).
These cocoons, which may often be seen carried between the
mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as food for
fish and pheasants. Tfce workers of a Ceylonese ant (QecopkyUa
smaragdina) are stated by D. Sharp to hold the maggots between
their mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of
trees from which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have
no silk-producing organs.
Origin of Societies. — Ant-colonies are founded cither by a single
female or by several in association. The foundress of the nest
lays eggs and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of
which develop into workers. C. Janet observed that in a nest of
Lasius aiienus, established by a single female, the first workers
emerged from their cocoons on the 102nd day. These workers
then take on themselves the labour of the colony, some collecting
food, which they transfer to their comrades within the nest whose
duty is to tend and feed the larvae. The foundress-queen is now
iraited on by the workers, who supply her with food and spare her
all cares of work, so that henceforth she may devote her whole
energies to egg-laying. The population of the colony increases
fast, and a well-grown nest contains several " queens " and males,
besides a large number of workers. One of the most interesting
features of ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that
may often be seen among the workers, the same species being
represented by two or more forms. Thus the British " wood ant "
(Formica rufa) has a smaller and a larger race of workers
(" minor " and " major " forms), while in Ponera we find a blind
race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in AUa,
£c&m andother genera, fourorfive for msof workers are produced,
the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant
mandibles, are known as the " soldier " caste. The development
of such diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified
females which show none of their peculiarities raises many points
of difficulty for students in heredity. It is thought that the
differences are, in part at least, due to differences in the nature of
the food supplied to larvae, which are apparently all alike. But
the ovaries of worker ants are in some cases sufficiently developed
for the production of eggs, which may give rise parthenogenetic-
ally to male, queen or worker offspring.
Foorf.— Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances
which they use for food. Honey forms the staple nourishment
of many ants, some of the workers seeking nectar from flowers,
working it up into honey within their stomachs and regurgitating
it so as to feed their comrades within the nest, who, in their turn,-
pass it on to the grubs. A curious specialization of certain
workers in connexion with the transference of honey has been
demonstrated by H. C McCook in the American genus Myrme-
cocystur, and by later observers in Australian and African
species of Plagiolepis and allied genera. The workers in question
remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as
living honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the
supplies of honey poured into their mouths by their foraging
comrades that their abdomens become sub-globular, the pale
intersegmental membrane being tightly stretched between the
widely-separated dark sclerites. The " nurse " workers in the
nest can then draw their supplies from these " honey-pots."
Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such as
the British " red ants " with well-developed stings (Myrmica
rubra), and the notorious " driver ants" of Africa and America,
the old-world species of which belong to Dorylus and allied genera,
and the new-world species to Eciton (fig. a, 2, 8). In these ants
the difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females,
and the small, long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various
forms of the same species have been often referred to distinct
genera; in Eciion, for example, the female has a single petiolate
abdominal segment, the worker two. The workers of these
ants range over the country in large armies, killing and carrying
off all the insects and spiders that they find and sometimes
attacking vertebrates. They have been known to enter
human dwellings, removing all the verminous insects contained
therein. These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in
Fig. a.— Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants. 1, AUa cephahu;
2, Eciton drepanopkora; 3, Ecilon trratica.
hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen,
according to T. Belt, " clustered together in a dense mass like
a great swarm of bees hanging from the roof."
The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known,the
subterranean store-houses of Mediterranean species of Apkaeno-
gasler having been described by J. T. Moggridge and A. Forcl,
and the complex industries of the Texan Pogonomyrmex barbatus
by H. C. McCook and W. M. Wheeler. The colonies of Apkacno-
gaster occupy nests extending over an area of fifty to a hundred
square yards several feet below the surface of the ground. Into
these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of grasses and
other plants of which they accumulate large stores. The species
of Pogonomyrmex strip the husks from the seeds and carry (hem
out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance. The
seeds are harvested from various grasses, especially from
ArUtida oliganlha, a species known as " ant rice," which often
grows in quantity close to the site selected for the nest, but 'the
statement that the ants deliberately sow this grass is an error,
due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting of germinating seeds
which the ants have turned out of their store-chambers.
Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the
genus AUa, — the leaf -cutting ants of tropical America (fig. a, /).
There are several forms of worker in these species, some with
enormous heads, which remain in the underground nests, while
their smaller comrades scour the country in search of suitable
trees, which they ascend, biting off small circular pieces from the
leaves, and carrying them off to the nests. Their labour often
results in the complete defoliation of the tree. The tracks along
which the ants carry the leaves to their nests are often in part
subterranean. H. C. McCook describes an almost straight tunnel,
nearly 450 ft. long, made by AUafenens.
Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments
and gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy masa,
which — according to the researches of A. Mollcr— serves as the
substratum for a special fungus (Roxites gongytopkota), the staple
food of the ants. The insects cultivate their fungus, weeding oat
ANT
87
mould and bacterial growths, and causing the appearance* on the
surface of their " mushroom garden/' of numerous small white
bodies formed by swollen ends of the fungus hyphae. When
the fungus is grown elsewhere than in the ants' nest it produces
gonidia instead of the white masses on which the ants feed,
hence it seems that these masses are indeed produced as the
result of some unknown cultural process. Other genera of
South American ants — A ptcro stigma and Cypkomyrmcx — make
similar fungal cultivations, but they use wood, grain or dung
as the substratum instead of leaf fragments. Each kind of ant
is so addicted to its own particular fungal food that it refuses
disdainfully, even when hungry, the produce of an alien nest.
Guests of Ants.— Many ants feed largely and some almost
entirely on the saccharine secretions of other insects, the best
known of which are the Aphides (plant-lice or " green-fly ").
This consideration leads us to one of the most remarkable and
fascinating features of ant-communities — the presence in the
nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are tended
and cared for by the ants as their " guests," rendering to the ants
in return the sweet food which they desire. The relation between
ants and aphids has often been compared to that between men
and milch cattle. Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) states that
the common British yellow ants (Lasius fiavus) collect flocks of
root-feeding aphids in their underground nests, protect them,
bafld earthen shelters over them, and take the greatest
care of their eggs. Other ants, such as the British black garden
species (L. niger), go after the aphids that frequent the shoots of
plants. Many species of aphid migrate from one plant t& another
at certain stages in their life-cycle when their numbers have
very largely increased, and F. M Webster has observed ants,
foreseeing this emigration, to carry aphids from apple trees to
grasses. It has been shown by M. Bilsgcn that the sweet secretion
(honey-dew) of the aphids is not derived, as generally believed,
from the paired cornicles on the fifth abdominal segment, but
from the intestine, whence it exudes in drops and is swallowed
by the ants.
Besides the aphids, other insects, such as scale insects (Coccidae),
caterpillars of blue butterflies (Lycaenidae), and numerous
beetles, furnish the ants with nutrient secretions. The number
of species of beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly
Urge, and most of these arc never found elsewhere, being blind,
helpless and dependent on the ants' care for protection and
food; these beetles belong for the most part to the families
Psdapkidae, Paussidae and Staphylinidae. Spring-tails and
bristle- tails (order After a) of several species also frequent ants'
nests. While some of these " guest " insects produce secretions
that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless inmates
of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing
in return. Others again play the part of thieves in the ant
society; C. Janet observed a small bristle- tail (Lcpismima)
to lurk beneath the heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed
food to the other, in order to steal the drop of nourishment and
to make off with it The same naturalist describes the associa-
tion with Lasius of small mites {Antennophorus) which are carried
about by the worker ants, one of which may have a mite beneath
her mouth, and another on either side of her abdomen. On patting
their carrier or some passing ant, the mites are supplied with food,
do service being rendered by them in return for the ants' care.
Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests the
same satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals. Recent
advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is
doe principally to E. Wasmann, who has compiled a list of nearly
1500 species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting
nuts' nests. The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the
nests, due both to the fresh supplies brought in by the ants and
to the large amount of waste matter that accumulates, must
prove strongly attractive to the various *' guests." Some of the
inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of preying upon the
ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of relations between
the owners of the nests and their companions, from mutual benefit
to active hostility
Among these associations or guests other species of ants are
not wanting. For example, a minute species {SeUnofsis fugax)
lives in a compound nest with various species of Formica,
forming narrow galleries which open into the larger galleries
of its host The Solenofsis can make its way into the territory
of the Formica to steal the larvae which serve it as food, but the
Formica is too large to pursue the thief when it .returns to its own
galleries.
Slaves.— Several species of ants are found in association with
another species which stands to them in the relation of slave to
master. Formica sanptineo is a well-known European slave-
making ant that inhabits England; its workers raid the nests of
F. fusca and other species, and carry off to their own nests pupae
from which workers are developed that live contentedly as
slaves of their captors, F. songuimta can live either with or
without slaves, but another European ant {Poiyergus rufescens)
is so dependent on its slaves— various species of Formica— ihtX
its workers are themselves unable to feed the larvae. The
remarkable genus Aner gates has no workers, and its wingless
males and females are served by communities of Tetramorium
cespitum (fig. $\
Fio. 3.— Ant, Tt
b, female after lorn
g. pupa,
of wings; c, male
(Linn.), a,
d, worker; e,
Female;
larva;
.. .- r ~- f, head of larva more highly
magnified. After Marlatt, Bull. 4 (n.i.) Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agn-
Culture.
Senses and Intelligence of Ants. — That ants possess highly
developed senses and the power of communicating with one
another has long been known to students of their habits; the
researches of P. Huber and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on
these subjects arc familiar to all naturalists. The insects are
guided by light, being very sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and also
by scent and hearing. Recent experiments by A. M. Fidde
show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent exercised
by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates of
her nest by a sense of smell resident in the eleventh segment, is
guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which the has to tend,
by sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and
appreciates the general smell of the nest itself by means of organs
in the twelfth segment Lubbock's experiments of inducing
ants to seek objects that had been removed show that they are
guided by scent rather than by sight, and that any disturbance
of their surroundings often causes great uncertainty in their
actions. Ants invite one another to work, or ask for food from
88
ANTAE— <ANTARA IBN SHADDAD
one another, by means of pats with the feelers; and they respond
to the solicitations of their guest-beetles or mites, who ask for
food by patting the ants with their feet. In all probability the
actions of ants are for the most part instinctive or reflex, and some
observers, such as A. Bcthe, deny them all claim to psychical
qualities. But it seems impossible to doubt that in many cases
ants behave in a manner that must be considered intelligent,
that they can learn by experience and that they possess memory.
Lubbock goes so far as to conclude the account of his experiments
with the remark that " It is difficult altogether to deny them
the gift of reason . . . their mental powers differ from those of
men, not so much in kind as in degree." Wasmann considers
that ants are neither miniature human beings nor mere reflex
automata, and most students of their habits will probably accept
this intermediate position as the most satisfactory. C. L.
Morgan sums up a discussion on Lubbock's experiments in which
the ants failed to utilize particles of earth for bridge-making,
with the suggestive remark that " What these valuable experi-
ments seem to show is that the ant, probably the most intelligent
of all insects, has no claim to be regarded as a rational being."
Nevertheless, ants can teach " rational beings " many valuable
lessons.
Bibliography.— The literature on ants is so vast that it is only
possible to refer the reader to a few of the most important works on
the family. Pierre Huber's Tratti des maturs desjourmu indigenes
(Geneve, 1810) is the most famous of the older memoirs. H. W.
Bates, A Naturalist on the Amazons-, T. Belt, A Naturalist in
Nicaragua; H. C McCook, Agricultural Ant of Texas (Philadelphia.
1880); and A. ^Oiler's papci in Botan. Mitt, aus den Tropen,
(1893). contain' classical observations on American species. Sir 1.
Lubbock's (Lord Avebury) Ants, Bus and Wasps (London, 1882),
dealing with British and European species, has been followed by
numerous important pajpers by A. Forcl and C. Emery in various
Swiss and German periodicals, and especially by C. Janet in his
Eludes sur Us fourmis. Us guipes et Us abeiUes (Paris, &c, 1893-
1904). Forel (Ann. Soc. Ent. Bdg. xlvit., 1893, Journ. Bomnay N. //.
Soc. 1900-190;}, and Biologia Cent. Americana) and Emery {Zool.
Jahrb. Syst. viii., 1896) have written on the classification of the
Formicusae. Among recent American writers on habit may be
mentioned W. M. Wheeler {American Naturalist, 1900-1902) and
A. M. Fielde (Proc. Acad. Set. Philadelphia, 1901); E. Wasmann
(Krtlisches Veruickniis der myrmecophiUn und UrmitophiUn Arthro-
poden, Berlin, 1894, and y Congres Intern. Zool. 1895) is the great
authority on ant-guests and associates. D. Sharp's general account
of ants in the Cambridge Nat. Hist. (vol. vi., 1898) is excellent. For
discussions on intelligence see A. Bcthe, Journ. f. d. ges. Physiol.
lxx. (1898); Wasmann. Die psycktscken Fdktgketten der Ameisen
(Stuttgart, 1899) ; C. LI. Morgan, Animal Behaviour (London, 1900.)
(G. H. C.)
ANTAB (a Lat. plural word, possibly from ante, before), an
architectural term given to slightly projecting pilaster strips
which terminate the winged walls of the naos of a Greek temple.
They owe their origin to the vertical posts of timber employed
in the primitive palaces or temples of Greece, as at Tiryns and in
the Heraeum at Olympia, to carry the roof timbers, as no reliance
could be placed on the walls built with unburnt brick or in rubble
masonry with clay mortar. When between these winged walls
there are columns to carry the architrave, so as to form a porch,
the latter is said to be jn-antis. (See Temple.)
ANTAEUS, in Greek mythology, a giant of Libya, the son of
Poseidon and Gaea. He compelled all strangers passing through
the country to wrestle with him, and as, when thrown, he derived
fresh strength from each successive contact with his mother
earth, he proved invincible. With the skulls of those whom he
had slain he built a temple to his father. Heracles, in combat
with him, discovered the source of his strength, and lifting him
up from the earth crushed him to death (ApoUodorus ii. 5;
Hygtnus, Fab. 31). The struggle between Antaeus and Heracles
b a favourite subject in ancient sculpture.
ANTALCIDAS, Spartan soldier and diplomatist In 393 (or
392 b.c) he was tent to Tlribazus, satrap of Sardis, to undermine
the friendly relations then existing between Athens and Persia
by offering to recognixe Persian claims to the whole of Asia Minor.
The Athenians sent an embassy under Conon to counteract his
efforts. ^ Tlribazus, who was favourable to Sparta, threw Conon]
into prison, but Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) disapproved and
recalled his satrap. In 388 Antalddas, then commander of the
Spartan fleet, accompanied Tiribaxus to the Persian court, and
secured the active assistance of Persia against Athens. The
success of his naval operations in the neighbourhood of the
Hellespont was such that Athens was glad to accept terms of
peace (ihb " Peace of Antalcidas "), by which (1) the whole of
Asia Minor, with the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus, was
recognized as subject to Persia, (2) all other Greek dties— so far
as they were not under Persian rule — were to be independent,
except Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which were to belong, as
formerly, to the Athenians. The terms were announced to the
Greek envoys at Sardis in the winter 387-386, and were finally
accepted by Sparta in 386. Antalcidas continued in favour with
Artaxerxes, until the annihilation of Spartan supremacy at
Leuctra diminished his influence. A final mission to Persia,
probably in 367, was a failure, and Antalcidas, deeply chagrined
and fearful of the consequences, is said to have starved himself
to death. (See Sparta.)
ANTANANARIVO, i.e. ."town of a thousand" (Fr. spelling
Tananarive), the capital of Madagascar, situated centrally as
regards the length of the island, but only about 90 m. distant
from the eastern coast, in 18 8 5s' S., 47° 30' E. It is 135 m.
W.S.W. of Tamatave, the principal seaport of the island, with
which it is connected by railway, and for about 60 m. along the
coast lagoons, a service of small steamers. The city occupies a
commanding position, being chiefly built on the summit and slopes
of a long and narrow rocky ridge, which extends north and south
for about 2 J m., dividing to the north in a Y-shape, and rising at
its highest point to 690 ft above the extensive rice plain to the
west, which is itself 4060 ft. above sea-level. For long only the
principal village of the Hova chiefs, Antananarivo advanced
in importance as those chiefs made themselves sovereigns of
the greater part of Madagascar, until it became a town of some
80,000 inhabitants. Until 1869 all buildings within the city
proper were of wood or rush, but even then it possessed several
timber palaces of considerable size, the largest being 120 ft.
high. These crown the summit of the central portion of the ridge ;
and the largest palace, with its lofty roof and towers, is the most
conspicuous object from every point of view. Since the intro-
duction of stone and brick, the whole city has been rebuilt and
now contains numerous structures of some architectural pre-
tension, the royal palaces, the houses formerly belonging to the
prime minister and nobles, the French residency, the Anglican
and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several stone churches, as well
as others of brick, colleges, schools, hospitals, courts of justice
and other government buildings, and hundreds of good dwelling-
houses. Since the French conquest in 1895 good roads have been
constructed throughout the city, broad flights of steps connect
places too steep for the formation of carriage roads, and .the
central space, called Andohalo, has become a handsome place,
with walks and terraces, flower-beds and trees. A small park has
been laid out near the residency, and the planting of trees and
the formation of gardens in various parts of the city give it a
bright and attractive appearance. Water is obtained from
springs at the foot of the hill, but it is proposed to bring an
abundant supply from the river Ikopa, which skirts the capital
to the south and west The population, including that of the
suburbs, is 69,000 (1907). The city is guarded by two forts
built on hills to the cast and south-west respectively. Including
an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral, there are about
fifty churches in the city and its suburbs, as well as a Mahom-
medan mosque. (J. Si.*)
'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD, Arabian poet and warrior.of the
6th century, was famous both for his poetry and his adventurous
life. His chief poem is con tained in the Mo , aUakdt. The account
of his life forms the basis of a long and extravagant romance.
His father Shaddfld was a soldier, his mother Zabftba a negro
slave. Neglected at first, he soon claimed attention and respect
for himself, and by his remarkable personal qualities and courage
in battle he gained his freedom and the acknowledgment of nix
father. He took part in the great war between the related
tribes of Abs and Dhubytn, which began over a contest of
horses and was named after them the war of Dials and Ghabrm.
ANTARCTIC— ANTELOPE
89
He <fied hi ft fight against the tribe of Jul. His poems, which
are chiefly concerned with fighting or with his love for Able,
are published in W. Ahtwardt'a The Diwatu of the six ancient
Arabic Poets (London, 1870); they have also been published
separately at Beirut (1888). As regards their genuineness, ct
W. Ahlwnrdt's Bemerkungen Hber die Aechtheit dor alien arcbi*
tcken CedidUe (Greirswald, 187s), pp.50 ff. The Romance of *Antar
(Sbmt 'Antar ibn Shaddid) is a work which was long handed
down by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions
and has been published in 3s vols, at Cairo, 1307 (aj>. 1880),
and in. 10 vols, at Beirut, 1871. It was partly translated by
Terrkk Hamilton under the title 'Antar, a Bedoneen Romance
(4 vols., London, 1820).
For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbcckes,
AwSarah, mu veristemiuhns QickUr (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the Booh
of SemgM (mo AauLrASAj), vol viL pp. 148-153- (G. W. T.)
AITABCIIC (Gr. drrt, opposite, and eprrot, the Bear, the
northern constellation of Ursa Major), the epithet applied to
the region (including both the ocean and the lands) round the
South Pole, The Antarctic circle is drawn at 66° 30' S., but
polar conditions of climate, Jtc., extend considerably north of
the area thus enclosed. (See Polar Regions.)
AMTIATKR, a term applied to several mammah, but (eco-
logically at any rate) specially indicating the tropical American
anteatexs of the family Myrmecopkagidae (see Edentata).
The typical and largest representative of the group is the great
anteater or ant-bear (Myrmecophagojubata), an animal measuring
4 ft. in length without the tail, and a ft, in height at the shoulder.
Its prevailing colour is grey, with a broad black band, bordered
with white, commencing on the chest, and passing obliquely
over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it ap-
proaches the loins, where it ends in a point. It is extensively
distributed in the tropical parts of South and Central America,
frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers,
and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant.
Its food consists mainly of termites, to obtain which it opens
their nests with its powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the
insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws
them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly
moving tongue covered with glutinous saliva. The great
anteater is terrestrial in habits, not burrowing underground like
armadillos. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when
attacked it can defend itself vigorously and effectively with its
sabre-like anterior daws. The female produces a single young
at a birth. The tamandua anteaters, as typified by Tamandua
(of UroUptes) tttradactyla, are much smaller than the great
anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being
mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests
of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish*
white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole
of the side of the body.
The little or two-toed anteater (Cyclopes or Cycloturus didac-
ryins) is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central
America, and about the size ot a rat, of a general yellowish colour,
and exclusively arboreal in its habits. The name scaly anteater
b applied to the pangolin (q.v.); the banded anteater (Myrmo-
tebius fasdatus) is a marsupial, and the spiny anteater (Echidna)
a one of the monotremes (see Maksupialxa and Monotremata).
ANTS-CHAPEL, the term given to that portion of a chapel
which tie* on the western side of the choir screen. In some of
the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge the ante-chapel is carried
north and south across the west end of the chapel, constituting
a western transept or narthex, This model, based on Merton
College chapel (13th century), of which only chancel and tran-
sept were built though a nave was projected, was followed at
Wadham, New and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford, in the new
chapel of St John's College, Cambridge, and in Eton College.
In Jesus College, Cambridge, the transept and a short nave
constitute the ante-chapel; in Clare College an octagonal
vestibule serves the same purpose; and in Christ's, Trinity and
King's Colleges, Cambridge, the ante-chapel is a portion of the
main chapel, divided off from, the chancel by the choir screen.
AVTB-CHOIR, the term given to the space enclosed in a
church between the outer gate or railing of the rood screen and
the door of the screen; sometimes there is only one rail, gate or
door, but in Westminster Abbey it is equal in depth to one bay
of the nave. The ante-choir is also called the " fore choir."
ANTB-FIXAH (from LaL onkfigtre, to fasten before), the
vertical blocks which terminate the covering tiles of the roof of
a Greek temple; as spaced they take the place of the cymatium
and form a cresting along the sides of the temple. The face of
the ante-fixae was richly carved with the anthemion (q.vj
ornament.
ANTELOPE, a zoological name which, so far as can be deter-
nuned,appears to trace itsorigin, through the Latin, to Panthohps,
the old Coptic, and Anthohps, the late Greek name of the fabled
unicorn. Its adoption by the languages of Europe cannot
apparently be traced farther back than the 4th century of our
era, at which date it was employed to designate an imaginary
animal living on the banks of the Euphrates. By the earlier
English naturalists, and afterwards by Buffon,it was, however,
applied to the Indian blackbuck, which is thus entitled to rank
as the antelope. It follows that the subfamily typified by this
species, in which are included the gazelles, is the one to which
alone the term antelopes should be applied if it were employed
in a restricted and definable sense.
Although most people have a general vague idea of what
constitutes an " antelope," yet the group of animals thus
designated is one that does not admit of accurate limitations or
definition. Some, for instance, may consider that the chamois
and the so-called white goat of the Rocky Mountains are entitled
to be included in the group; but this is not the view held by the
authors of the Book of Antelopes referred to below; and, as a
matter of fact, the term is only a vague designation for a number
of more or less distinct groups of hollow-horned ruminants
which do not come under the designation of cattle, sheep or
goats; and in reality there ought to be a distinct English group-
name for each subfamily into which "antelopes" are sub-
divided.
The great majority of antelopes, exclusive of the doubtful
chamois group (which, however, will be included in the present
article), are African, although the gazelles are to a considerable
extent an Asiatic group. They include ruminants varying in
size from a hare to* an ox; and comprise about 150 species,
although this number is subject to considerable variation accord-
ing to personal views as to the limitations of species and races.
No true antelopes are American, the prongbuck (AntUocapro),
which is commonly called " antelope " in the United States,
representing a distinct group; while, as already mentioned, the
Rocky Mountain or white goat stands on the borderland between
antelopes and goats.
The first group, or Ttogclophinae, is represented by the African
elands (Tourotrogus), bongo (Bodcercus), kudus (Strepsiceros) and
bushbucks or harnessed antelopes ( Tragetaphns), and the Indian
nilgai (Bosdephus). Except in the bongo and elands, horns are
present only in the males, and these are angulated and generally
spirally twisted, and without rings. The muzzle is naked, small
glands are present on the face below the eyes, and the tail is
comparatively long. The colours are often brilliant; white
spots and stripes being prevalent The harnessed antelopes, or
bushbucks, are closely allied to the kudus, from which they chiefly
differ by the spiral formed by the horns generally having fewer
turns. They include some of the most brilliantly coloured of all
antelopes; the ornamentation taking the form of vertical white
lines and rows of spots. Usually the sexes differ in colour.
Whereas most of the species have hoofs of normal shape, in some,
such as the nakong, or situtunga (Tragtlaphus speheQ, these are
greatly elongated, in order to be suited for walking in soft mud,
and these have accordingly been separated as JAmnctragns. The
last-named species spends most of its time in water, where it may
be observed not infrequently among the reeds with all but its
head and horns submerged. The true or smaller bushbucks,
represented by the widely spread Tragtlaphus scriptus, with
several local races (fig. x) ate sometimes separated as Syhicopra,
go
ANTELOPE
leaving the genus Tragelaphus to be represented by the larger
T. angasi and its relatives. The genus Strepskerot is represented
by the true or great kudu (S. capensis or S. strepsiceros), fig. a,
ranging from the Cape to Somaliland, and the smaller S. imbcrbis
of North-East Africa, which has no throat-fringe. The large and
brightly coloured bongo (Bodeercus turyceros) of the equatorial
forest-districts serves in some respects to connect the bushbucks
with the elands, having horns in both sexes, and a tufted tail,
but a brilliant orange coat
with vertical white stripes. Still
)£> larger are the elands, of which
the typical Taurolragus oryx of
the Cape is uniformly sandy-
coloured, although stripes ap-
pear in the more northern T.
o. livings tone i; while the black-
necked eland (T* derbianus) of
Senegambia and the Bahr-el-
Ghazal district is a larger and
more brilliantly coloured ani-
mal. The small horns and
bluish-grey colour of the adult
bulls serve to distinguish the
Indian nilgai (q.v.), Bosclaphus Iragocomelus, from the other
members of the subfamily.
The second group, which is mainly African, but also repre-
sented in Syria, is that of the Hippotraginae, typified by the
sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) and roan &ntclopc(H. equinus),
but also including the oryxes (Oryx) and addax. These are for
the most part large antelopes, with long cylindrical horns, which
are present in both sexes, hairy muzzles, no face-glands, long
tufted tails and tall thick molars of the ox-type. In Hippo-
tragus the stout and thickly ringed horns rise vertically from a
ridge above the eyes at an obtuse angle to the plane of the lower
part of the face, and then sweep backwards in a bold curve;
while there arc tufts of long white hairs near the eyes. The sable
antelope is a southern species in which both sexes are black or
Fig. i. — Female Bushbuck
{Tragelaphus scriptus).
Fig. a. — Male Kudu (Slrgpsiceros capensis),
blackish when adult; while the lighter-coloured and larger roan
antelope has a much wider distribution. The South African
blauwbok (H. kucophatus) is extinct. In the addax (Addax
nasomaculatus), which is a distinct species common to North
Africa and Syria, the ringed horns form an open spiral
ascending in the plane of the face, and there is long, shaggy,
dark hair on the fore-quarters in winter. The various species
of oryx differ from Hippotragus by the absence of the white
eye-tufts, and by the horns sloping backwards in the plane of
the face. In the South African gemsbuck (Oryx gaxellc), fig. 3,
the "East African bcisa or true oryx (O. bcisa), and the white
Arabian (O. beoirix) the horns are straight, but in the North
African white oryx or algaxel (O. Uucoryx or 0. algqxal) they are
scimitar-shaped; the colour of this species being white and
pale chestnut (see Addax, Oryx, and Sable Antelope).
The third subfamily is the Antilopinae, the members of which
have a much wider geographical range than cither of the fore-
going groups. The subfamily is characterized by the narrow
crowns of the molars, which are similar to those of sheep, and
the hairy muzzle. Generally there are face-glands below the
eyes; and the tail is moderate or short. Pits are present in
the forehead of the skull, and the horns are ringed for part of
their length, with a compressed base; their form being often lyrate,
but sometimes spiral. Lateral hoofs are generally present .
Gazelles (Gaulla), which form by far the largest genus of the
subfamily, are inhabitants of open and frequently more or less
desert districts. They are mostly of a sandy colour, with dark
and light markings on the face, and often a dark band on the
flanks. The horns are more or less lyratcand generally developed
in both sexes; there are frequently brushes of hair on the knees.
Gazelles may be d ivided in to groups. The one to which the North
African G. donas belongs is characterized by the pr ese n c e of
Fig. 3.— Gemsbuck, or Cape Oryx (Oryx gaulla).
lyrate or sub-lyrate horns in both sexes, and by the white of
the buttocks not extending on to the haunches. Nearly allied
is the group including the Indian G. bennctli and the Arabian
G. arabica, in which the horns have a somewhat S-shaped
curvature in profile. In the group represented by the African
G. grand, G. thomsoni, G. mohr, &c, the white of the buttocks
often sends a prolongation on to the flanks, the horns are long
and the size is large. Lastly, the Central Asian G. guitar 01a,
G. subgullurosa and G. picticaudala form a group in which the
females are hornless and the face-markings inconspicuous or
wanting.
The South African springbuck (Antidorcas euchore) is nearly
related to the gazelles, from which it is distinguished by the
presence on the middle line of the loins of an evertible pouch,
lined* with long white hairs capable of erection. It has also one
premolar tooth less in the lower jaw. Formerly these beautiful
antelopes existed in countless numbers on the plains of South
Africa, and were in the habit of migrating in droves which com-
pletely filled entire valleys. Now they are comparatively rare.
The dibatag or Clarke's gazelle (A mmodorcas clarkci) , of Somali-
land, forms a kind of connecting link between the true gazelles
and the gerenuk, this being especially shown in the skull. The
face has the ordinary gazelle-markings; but the rather short
horns— which are wanting in the female — have a peculiar upward
and forward curvature, unlike that obtaining in* the gazelles
ANTELOPE
9*
and somewhat resembling that of the reedbuck. The neck is
longer and more slender than in ordinary gazelles, and the tail
is likewise relatively long. Although local, these animals are
fairly common in the interior of Somaliland, where they are
known by the name of dibatag. In running, the head and neck
•re thrown backwards, while the tail is turned forwards over
the back.
The East African gerenuk (q.v.), or Waller's gazelle (Litho-
cranius waller*), of which two races have been named, is a very
remarkable ruminant, distinguished not only by its exceedingly
elongated neck and limbs, but also by the peculiar hooked form
of the very massive horns of the bucks, the dense structure and
straight profile of the skull, and the extreme slenderness of the
lower jaw.
A still moreaberrant gazelle is a small North-East African species
known as the beira (Dorcatragus melanotis), with very short horns,
large hoofs and a general appearance recalling that of some of the
members of the subfamily Neotrapnae, although in other respects
gazelle-like. The blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra or A . baoartica)
of India, a spedes taking its name from the deep black coat
assumed by the adult bucks, and easily recognized by the graceful,
spirally twisted horns ornamenting the heads of that sex, is
now the sole representative of the genus Antilope, formerly
taken to embrace the whole of the true antelopes. Large face-
stands are characteristic of the species, which inhabits the open
plains of India in large herds. They leap high in the air, like
the springbuck, when on the move.
With the palla (q.v.) , or rmpala(/l epycer os melampus) , we reach
an exclusively African genus, characterized by the lyrate horns
of the bucks, the absence of lateral hoofs, and the presence of
a pair of glands with black tufts of hair on the hind-feet.
The sheep-like saiga (q.v.) , Saiga tatarica , of the Kirghiz steppes
stands apart from all other antelopes by its curiously puffed
and trunk-Kke nose, which can be wrinkled up when the animal
is feeding and has the nostrils opening downwards. More or
less nearly related to the saiga is the chjru (q.v.), Pantkohps
hodgstmi, of Tibet, characterized by the long upright black horns
of the bucks, and the less convex nose, in which the nostrils
open anteriorly instead of downwards.
The Neotrapnae (or Nanotraginae) form an exclusively
African group of small-sized antelopes divided into several,
for the most part nearly related, genera. Almost the only
characters they possess in common are the short and spike-like
horns of the bucks, which are ringed at the base, with smooth
tips, and the large size of the face-gland, which opens by a
circular aperture. Neotragus is represented by the pigmy royal
antelope (N. pygmaeus) of Guinea; Hyhrnus includes one species
from Cameroon and a second from the Semliki forest; while
Ncsotragus comprises the East African suni antelopes, N.
meschahts and N. livingstonionu*. All three might, however,
well be included in Neotragus. The royal antelope is the smallest
of the Bovidae.
The steinbok (Rhaphiceros campestris) and the grysbok (R.
wulanctis) are the best-known representatives of a group char-
acterized by the vertical direction of the horns and the small
gland-pit in the skull; lateral hoofs being absent in the first-
named and present in the second. A bare gland-patch behind
the ear serves to distinguish the oribis or ourebis, as typified by
Oribia Montana of the Cape; lateral hoofs being present and
the face-pit large.
From all the preceding the tiny dik-diks (Madoqua) of North-
East Africa differ by their hairy noses, expanded in some' species
into short trunks; while the widely spread klipspringer (q.v.),
Oreotragus soltator, with its several local races, is unfailingly
distinguishable by its rounded blunt hoofs and thick, brittle,
golden-necked hair.
In some respects connecting the last group with the Cervi-
caprinae is the rhebok, or vaal-rhebok (Pelt* capreotus), a grey
antelope of the size of a roebuck, with small upright horns in the
bucks recalling those of the last group, and small lateral hoofs,
but no face-glands. In size and several structural features it
approximates to the more typical Cervicaprinae, as represented
by the reedbuck (Cervicapra^ and the waterbucks and kobs
(Cobus or Kobus), all of which are likewise African. These are
medium-sized or large antelopes with naked muzzles, narrow
sheep-like upper molars, fairly long tails, rudimentary or no
face-glands, and pits in the frontal bones of the skull. Reedbuck
(q.v.), or rietbok (Cervicapra), are foxy-red antelopes ranging
in size from a fallow-deer to a roe, with thick bushy tails, for-
wardly curving black horns, and a bare patch of glandular skin
behind each ear. They keep to open country near water. The
waterbuck (q.v.), Cobus, on the other hand, actually seek refuge
from pursuit in the water. They have heavily fringed necks,
tufted tails, long lyrate horns in the bucks (fig. 4) but no glandular
car-patches. The true waterbuck (C. ellipsiprymnus), and the
defassa or sing-sing (C. dc fossa), are the two largest spedes,
equal in size to red deer, and grey or reddish in colour. Of the
smaller forms or kobs, C. maria and C. leucotis of the swamps of
the White Nile arc characterized by the black coats of the adult
bucks; the West African C. cob, and its East African repre-
sentative C. tkomasi, are wholly red antelopes of the size of
Fie. 4.— Waterbuck (Cobus eliipsiprymnus).
roedeer; the lichi or lechwe (C. lichi) is characterized by its
long horns, black fore-legs and superior size; while the puku
(C. vardoni), which is also a swamp-loving spedes from South-
Central Africa, differs from the three preceding spedes by the
fore-legs being uniformly foxy.
The duikers, or duikerboks (Cephalophus), of Africa, which
range in size from a large hare to a fallow-deer, typify the sub-
family Ccpkolopkinoe, characterized by the spike-like horns of
the bucks, the dongated aperture of the face-glands, the naked
muzzle, the relatively short tail, and the square-crowned upper
molars; lateral hoofs being present. In the duikers themselves
the single pair of horns is set in the midst of a tuft of long hairs,
and the face-gland opens In a long naked line on the side of the
face above the muzzle. The group Is represented in India by the
chousingha or four-horned antelope (Tetraccrot quadrieornis),
generally distinguished by the feature from which it takes its
name (see Duiker).
The last section of the true antelopes is the Bubalinae, repre-
sented by the hartebeest (q.v.), Bubalis, blesbok and sassaby
(Damatiscus), and the gnu (q.v.) or wildebeest (ConnockaeUs, also
called Catoblepas), all being African with the exception of one or
two hartebeests which range into Syria. All these are large and
generally more or less uniformly coloured antelopes with horns
in both sexes, long and more or less hairy tails, high withers,
small face-glands, naked muzzles, tall, narrow upper molars, and
the absence of pits in the frontal bones. -The long face, high
crest for the horns, which are ringed, lyrate and more or less
strongly angulated, and the moderately long tail, are the
distinctive features of the hartebeests. They are large red
9 2
ANTEMNAE— ANTENOR
antelopes (fig. 5) , often with black markings on the face and limbs.
In Damaliscus, which includes, among many other species, the
blcsbok and bontebok (D. albifrons and D. Pygargus) and the
sassaby or bastard hartebeest (D. lunatus), the face is shorter,
and the horns straighter and set on a less elevated crest. The
colour, too, of these antelopes tends in many cases to purple,
with white markings. From, the hartebeest the gnus (fig. 6)
Fig. 5.— Cape Hartebeest (Bubalis coma).
differ by their smooth and outwardly or downwardly directed
horns, broad bristly muzzles, heavy manes and long horse-like
tails. There are two chief types, the white-tailed gnu or black
wildebeest (Connochaetes gnu) of South Africa, now nearly
extinct (fig. 6), and the brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (C.
laurinus), which, with some local variation, has a large range in
South and East Africa.
Fig. 6— White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (Connochaetesgnu).
In concluding this survey of living antelopes, reference may
be made to the subfamily Rupieaprinae (typified by the European
chamois), the members of which, as already stated, are in some
respects intermediate between antelopes and goats. They are
all small or medium-sized mountain ruminants, for the most part
European and Asiatic, but with one North American repre-
sentative. They are heavily built ruminants, with horns of
nearly equal size in both sexes, short tapering tails, large hoofs,
narrow goat-like upper molars, and -usually small face-glands.
The horns are generally rather small, upright, ringed at the base,
and more or less curved backwards, but in the takin they are
gnu-like. The group is represented by the European chamois
or gemse (Rupicapra tragus or R. rupicapra), broadly distin-
guished by its well-known hook-like horns, and the Asiatic gorals
(Urotragus) and serows {Nemorhaedus), which are represented by-
numerous species ranging from Tibet, the Himalaya, and China,
to the Malay Peninsula and islands, being in the two latter areas
the sole representatives of both antelopes and goats. In the
structure of its horns the North American white Rocky Mountain
goat (Qreamnus) is very like a serow, from which it differs by
its extremely short cannon-bones. In the latter respect this
ruminant resembles the takin (Budorcas) of Tibet, which, as
already mentioned, has horns recalling those of the white-tailed
gnu. Possibly the Arctic musk-ox (Ovibos) may be connected
with the takin by means of certain extinct ruminants, such as
the North American Pleistocene Euceralherium and the European
Pliocene Criollicrium (sec Chamois, Gokal, Snow, Rocky
Mountain Goat and Takin).
Extinct Antelopes. — Only a few lines can be devoted to extinct
antelopes, the earliest of which apparently date from the Euro-
pean Miocene. An antelope from the Lower Pliocene of Northern
India known as Bubalis, or Damaliscus, palaeindicus indicates
the occurrence of the hartebeest group in that country. Cebus
also occurs in the same formation, as does likewise Hippotragus.
Palacoryx from the corresponding horizon in Greece and Samoa
is to some extent intermediate between Hippotragus and Oryx,
Gazelles are common in the Miocene and Pliocene of both Europe
and Asia. Elands and kudus appear to have been represented
in India during the Pliocene; the European Palaeareas of the
same age seems to be intermediate between the two, while
Protragdaphus is evidently another European representative of
the group. Helicophora is another spiral-horned European
Pliocene antelope, but of somewhat doubtful affinity; the same
being the case with the large Criotherium of the Samos Pliocene,
in which the short horns are curiously twisted. As already
stated, there is a possibility of this latter ruminant being allied
both to the takin and the musk-ox. Palaeotragus and Tragoctros,
of the Lower Pliocene of Greece, at one time regarded as antelopes,
are now known to be ancestors of the okapi.
For antelopes in general, see P. L. Sclater and O. Thomas. Th§
Book of Antelopes (4 vols., London, 1894-1900). (R. L.*)
ANTEMNAE (Lat ante amnem, sc Anienem; Varro, Ling.
Lot. v. 28), an ancient village of Latium, situated on the W. of
the Via Salaria, 2 m. N. of Rome, where the Anio falls into the
Tiber. It is said to have been conquered by Romulus after the
rape of the Sabine women, and to have assisted the Tarquins.
Certainly it soon lost its independence, and in Strabo's time was
a mere village. The site is one of great strength, and is now
occupied by a fort, in the construction of which traces of the outer
walls and of huts, and several wells and a cistern* all belonging
to the primitive village, were discovered, and also the remains
of a villa of the end of the Republic
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School of Rome. ill. 14.
ANTENOR, an Athenian sculptor, of the latter part of the
6th century B.C. He was the author of the group of the tyran-
nicides Harmodius and Aristogekon, set up by the Athenians on
the expulsion of the Peisistratidae, and carried away to Persia
by Xerxes. A basis with the signature of Antenor, son of
Eumares, has been shown to belong to one of the dedicated
female figures of archaic style which have been found on the
Acropolis of Athens.
See Greek Art ; and E. A. Gardner's Handbook of Greek Sculpture,
1. p. 182.
ANTENOR, in Greek legend, one of the wisest of the Trojan
elders and counsellors. He advised his fellow-townsmen to send
Helen back to her husband, and showed himself not unfriendly
to the Greeks and an advocate of peace. In the later story,
according to Dares and Dictys, he was said to have treacherously
opened the gates of Troy to the enemy; in return for which, at
the general sack of the city, his house, distinguished by a panther's
skin at the door, was spared by the victors. Afterwards,
ANTEQUERA— ANTHESTERIA
93
secerding to virions versions of the legend, he either rebuilt a
city on the site of Troy, or settled at Cyrene, or became the
founder of Patavium.
Homer, Iliad, iii. 148, vii. 347; Horace. Epp. I a. 9; Livy'L 1;
Pindar. Pytkia, v. 83; Virgil, Aen, i. 24a.
AJTEQUHRA (the ancient Anticaria), a town of southern
Spun, in the province of Malaga; on the Bobadilla-Granada
railway. Pop. (1000) 31,600. Antequera overlooks the fertile
valley bounded on the S. by the Sierra de los Torcales, and on
the N. by the river Guadalhorce. It occupies a commanding
position, while the remains of its walls, and of a fine Moorish
castle oa a rock that overhangs the town, show how admirably
its natural defences were supplemented by art. Besides several
interesting churches and palaces, it contains a fine arch, erected
in 159s hi honour of Philip II., and partly constructed of in*
scribed Roman masonry. In the eastern suburbs there is one of
the largest grave-mounds in Spain, said to be of prehistoric date,
and with subterranean chambers excavated to a depth of 65 ft.
The Pefia de los Enamorados, or " Lovers' Peak,!' is a conspicuous
crag which owes its name to the romantic legend adapted by
Robert Southey (1774-1843) in his Laila and Manuel. Woollen
fabrics are manufactured, and the sugar industry established in
1800 employs several thousand hands; but the majority of the
inhabitants are occupied by the trade in grain, fruit, wine and
ofl. Marble is quarried; and at El Torcal, 6 m. south, there is
a very curious labyrinth of red marble rocks. Antequera was
captured from the Moors in 1410, and became until 1492 one of
the most important outposts of the Christian power in Spain.
See C. Fernandez, Histerin de Antequera, desde su Jondacien
(M alaga. 1 842).
AJrTBR06» pope for some weeks at the end of the year 335.
He died on the 3rd of January 236. His original epitaph was
discovered in the Catacomb*.
AJrTHEUOM (late Gr. di4i?tof, opposite the sun), the
luminous ring or halo sometimes seen in Alpine or polar regions
surrounding the shadow of the head of an observer cast upon a
bank of cloud or mist. The halo diminishes in brightness from
the centre outwards, and is probably due to the diffraction of
light. Under favourable conditions four concentric rings may
be seen round the shadow of the observer's head, the outermost,
which seldom appears, having an angular radius of 40°.
ANTHEM, derived from the Gr. iunLdyova, through the Saxon
anlefn, a word which originally had the same meaning as anti-
phony (?.*.). It is now, however, generally restricted to a form
of church music, particularly in the service of the Church of
England, in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the
third collect at both morning and evening prayer, " in choirs and
places where they sing." It is just as usual in this place to have
an ordinary hymn as an anthem, which is a more elaborate
composition than the congregational hymns. Several anthems
are included in the English coronation service. The words are
selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy,
and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that
of psalm or hymn tunes. Anthems may be written for solo
voices only, for the full choir, or for both, and according to this
distinction are called respectively Verse, Full, and Full 'with Verse.
Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the
motet of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches, both being
written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as
a musical form essentially English in its origin and development.
The English school of musicians has from the first devoted its
chief attention to this form, and scarcely a composer of any note
can be named who has not written several good an thems. Tallis,
Tye, Byrd, and Fan-ant in the 16th century; Orlando Gibbons,
Blow, and Purcell in the 17th, and Croft, Boyce, James Kent,
James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold in the 18th
were famous composers of anthems, and in more recent times
the names are too numerous to mention.
AJfTHEMIOM (from the Gr. arOkpuov, a flower), the conven-
tional design of flower or leaf forms which was largely employed
by the Greeks to decorate (1) the fronts of ante-fixae, (2) the
upper portion of the stele or vertical tombstones, (3) the necking
of the Ionic columns of the Erechtheum and its continuation as a
decorative frieze on the walls of the same, and (4) the cymatium
of a cornice. Though generally known as the honeysuckle
ornament, from its resemblance to that flower, its origin will be
found in the flower of the acanthus plant.
ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who pro-
duced, under the patronage of Justinian (a.d. 532), the original
and daring plans for the church of St Sophia in Constantinople,
which strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignor-
ance. He was one of five brothers — the sons of Stcphanus, a
physician of Trallcs — who were all more or less eminent in their
respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's pro-
fession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the
most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply
versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Mctrodorus was one of the
distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital. It is
related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door
neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a
number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix
among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno
entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature
earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he
simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zcno's
eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain
it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of
this was published under the title Utfl npaM^uv jAnxaynjiarwi'
by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-
second volume of the Hist, de VAcad. da Inscr.; A. Wcstermann
gave a revised edition of it in his Hapaio$oypa4<* (Scriptora
rerum mirabilium Graeci), 1839. In the course of constructions
for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point (1) all rays in
whatever direction passing through another point, (2) a set of
parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not
found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a
focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given
the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to
obtain any number of points on a parabola — the first instance on
record of the practical use of the directrix.
On Anthemius generally, see Procopiaa, De Aedifie. i. 1 ; Agathiat,
Hist. v. 6-9; Gibbon's Decline and Fall, cap. xL (T. L. H.)
ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour
of Dionysus, held annually for three days(nth-z3th) in the month
of Anthestcrion (February-March). The object of the festival was
to celebrate the maturing of the wine stored at the previous
vintage, and the beginning of spring. On the first day, called
PUhoigio (opening of the casks), libations were offered from the
newly opened casks to the god of wine, all the household, includ-
ing servants and slaves, joining in the festivities. The rooms and
the drinking vessels in them were adorned with spring flowers, as
were also the children over three years of age. The second day,
named Chots (feast of beakers), was a time of merrymaking The
people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise of the
mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of
visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off
matches, the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly.
Others poured libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On
the part of the state this day was the occasion of a peculiarly
solemn and secret ceremony in one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus
in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of the year was dosed. The
basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon basileus for the time,
went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine god, In which
she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called gnaerae,
chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on which
the Pithoigia and Choes were celebrated were both regarded as
aro^pato (nefasli) and niopof (" defiled "), necessitating ex-
piatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up from
the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of
whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect them-
selves from evil. But at least in private circles the festive
character of the ceremonies predominated. The third day was
named Chytri (feast of pots, from x^*P°*. a pot), a festival of the
dead. Cooked pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of a
94
ANTHIM— ANTHOLOGY
god of the lower world, and to the souls of the dead. Although
no performances were allowed at the theatre, a sort of rehearsal
took place, at which the players for the ensuing dramatic festival
were selected.
The name Anthesteria, according to the account of it given
above, is usually connected with Aitiof ("flower/' or the
" bloom " of the grape), but A. W. Verrall (Journal of Hellenic
Studies , xx., 1000, p. 115) explains it as a feast of "revocation"
(from 6y*Btooao€ax t to " pray back " or " up "), at which the
ghosts of the dead were recalled to the land of the living (cp. the
Roman mitndus patef). J. £. Harrison (ibid. 100,109, and Prolego-
mena) > regarding the Anthesteria as primarily a festival of all
souls, the object of which was the expulsion of ancestral ghosts
by means of placation, explains riBoiyia as the feast of the
opening of the graves (vlBos meaning a large urn used for burial
purposes), x*« as the day of libations, and xbrpoi as the day of
the grave-holes (not " pots," which is xfrrp°*)» in point of
time really anterior to the nBotyia. E. Rohde and M. P. Nilsson,
however, take the yirrpa. to mean" water vessels," and connect
the ceremony with the Hydrophoria, a libation festival to pro-
pitiate the dead who had perished in the flood of Deucalion.
See F. Hitler von Gartringen in Pauly-Wissowa's Rtalencydopadie
(s.v.);J. Girard in Darembcrg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquiUs
(a*. "Dionywa ") ; and F. A. Voigt in Roscher's Lexihon der
Mythelogie {s.v. " Dionyso*'" * "* " " '
Study 0] Greek Religion (1003);
~° 'xhisi '
sche Feste (1006); G. F. Schfimann,
(ed. J. H. Lipsius, 1902), p. 516; A.
then (1808) ; E. Rohde, Psyche (4th ed.,
. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the
.„ . - ■ ,- # . I. P. Nilsson, Studia de Dionysiis
Atticis (1900) and Grieehisei " ' ' x " "*
Griechische AUerth&mer, ii. (e
Momrasen, Feste der Stadi Athen
1907), p. 237.
ANTHIM THB IBERIAN, 8 notable figure in the ecclesiastical
history of Rumania. A Georgian by birth, he came to Rumania
early in the second half of the 17th century, as a simple monk.
He became bishop of Ramnicu in 1705, and in 1708 archbishop
of Walachia. Taking a leading part in the political movements of
the time, he came into conflict with the newly appointed Greek
hospodars, and was exiled to Rumelia. But on his crossing the
Danube in 1 716 he was thrown into the water and drowned,
as it is alleged, at the instigation of the prince of Walachia.
He was a man of great talents and spoke and wrote many
Oriental and European languages. Though a foreigner, he soon
acquired a thorough knowledge of Rumanian, and was instru-
mental in helping to introduce that language into the church
as its official language. He was a master printer and an artist
of the first order. He cut the wood blocks for the books which
he printed in Ttrgovishtea, RAmnicu, Snagov and Bucharest.
He was also the first to introduce Oriental founts of type into
Rumania, and he printed there the first Arabic missal for the
Christians of the East (Ramnicu, 1702). He also trained
Georgians in the art of printing, and cut the type with which
under his pupil Mihail Ishtvanovitch they printed the first
Georgian Gospels (Tiflis, 1709). A man of great oratorical
power, Anthim delivered a series of sermons (Didahii), and some
of his pastoral letters are models of style and of language as
well as of exact and beautiful printing. He also completed a
whole corpus of lectionaries, missals, gospels, fa.
See M. Garter. ChresUmaOm rounmno (1881), and "Geach.
d. rumanischen Litteratur," in Grober, Grundriss d. torn. Philo-
logy, voL ii. (1899); and E. Picot, Notice sur Anthim d'Jvir (Paris,
I&6). (M.G.)
ANTHOLOGY. The term "anthology," literally denoting
a garland or collection of flowers, is figuratively applied to any
selection of literary beauties, and especially to that great body
of fugitive poetry, comprehending about 4500 pieces, by upwards
of 300 writers, which is commonly known as the Greek Anthology*
Literary History of the Greek Anthology. — The art of occasional
poetry had been cultivated in Greece from an early period, —
less, however, as the vehicle of personal feeling, than as the
recognized commemoration of remarkable individuals or events,
on sepulchral monuments and votive offerings. Such com-
positions were termed epigrams, i.e. inscriptions. The modern
use of the word is a departure from the original sense, which
simply indicated that the composition was intended to be en-
graved or inscribed. Such a composition must necessarily be
brief, and the restraints attendant upon its publication concuned
with the simplicity of Greek taste in prescribing conciseness of
expression, pregnancy of meaning, purity of diction and single-
ness of thought, as the indispensable conditions of excellence
in the epigrammatic style. The term was soon extended to
any piece by which these conditions were fulfilled. The transition
from the monumental to the purely literary character of the
epigram was favoured by the exhaustion of more lofty forms of
poetry, the general increase, from the general diffusion of culture,
of accomplished writers and tasteful readers, but, above all,
by the changed political circumstances of the times, which in-
duced many who would otherwise have engaged in public affairs
to addict themselves to literary pursuits. These causes came
into full operation during the Alexandrian era, in which we
find every description of epigrammatic composition perfectly
developed. About 60 B.C., the sophist and poet, Meleager of
Gadara, undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his
predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections
of monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects,
had previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others;
but Meleager first gave the principle a comprehensive application.
His selection, compiled from forty-six of his pred ece ssors, and
including numerous contributions of his own, was entitled
The Garland (Xrk^asns) ; and in an introductory poem each poet
is compared, to some flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to
his genius. The arrangement of his collection was alphabetical,
according to the initial letter of each epigram.
In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to
others) the work of Meleager was continued by another epigram-
matist, Philippus of Thcssalonica, who first employed the term
anthology. His collection, which included the compositions of
thirteen writers subsequent to Meleager, was also arranged
alphabetically, and contained an introductory poem. It was of
inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat later, under Hadrian,
another supplement was formed by the sophist Diogenianus
of Heracleia (2nd century a.d.), and Strato of Sardis compiled
his elegant but tainted Moftra UaibuHi (Musa Puerilis) from
his productions and those of earlier writers. No further collection
from various sources is recorded until the time of Justinian,
when epigrammatic writing, especially of an amatory character,
experienced a great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina,
the historian, Paulus SQentiarius, and their drde. Their in-
genious but mannered productions were collected by Agathias
into a new anthology, entitled The Circle (KfaXot); it was the
first to be divided into books, and arranged with reference to
the subjects of the pieces.
These and other collections made during the middle ages are
now lost. The partial incorporation of them into a single body,
classified according to the contents in 15 books, was the work
of a certain Constantinus Cephalas, whose name alone is preserved
in the single MS. of his compilation extant, but who probably
lived during the temporary revival of letters under Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, at the beginning of the 10th century. He
appears to have merely made excerpts from the existing antho-
logies, with the addition of selections from Lurillius, Palladas,
and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been published
separately. His arrangement, to which we shall have to recur,
is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds
to that adopted by Agathias. His principle of selection is un-
known; it is only certain that while he omitted much that he
should have retained, he has preserved much that would other-
wise have perished. The extent of our obligations may be ascer-
tained by a comparison between his anthology and that of the
next editor, the monk Maximus Planudes (a.d. 1320), who has
not merely grievously mutilated the anthology of Cephalas by
omissions, but has disfigured it by interpolating verses of his
own. We are, however, indebted to him for the preservation
of the epigrams on works of art, which seem to have been
accidentally omitted from our only transcript of Cephalas.
The Planudean (in seven books) was the only recension of the
anthology known at the revival of classical literature, and was first
published at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued
ANTHOLOGY
95
to be the only accessible coHeetlon, for although the Palatine MS.,
the sole extant copy of the anthology of Ccphaias, was discovered
.— —._-. -. "-" «Pl
included in Brunch's AnaUcta VeUrum Poetarum Cnucorum. The
In the Palatine library at Heidelberg, and copied by Saumaise
(Salmasius) in 1606, it was not published until 1776, when it was
MS. itself had frequently changed its quarters. In 1623. having
been taken in the sack of Heidelberg in the Thirty Years' War, it
was sent with the rest of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present
from Maximilian I. of Bavaria to Gregory XV., who had it divided
into two parts, the first of which was by far the larger; thence it
was taken to Paris in 1797. In 1816 it went back to Heidelberg, but
in an incomplete state, the second part remaining at Paris. It is
now represented at Heidelberg by a photographic facsimile. Brunch's
edition was superseded by the standard one of Friedrich Jacobs
(1704-1814, 13 vols.), the text of which was reprinted in a more
convenient form in 181 v-1817, and occupies three pocket volumes in
the Tauchnitz series of the classics. The best edition for general
purposes is perhaps that of Ddbner in Didot's Biblictheca (1864-
1872), which contains the Palatine Anthology, the epigrams of the
Planudean Anthology not comprised in the former, an appendix of
pieces derived from other sources, copious notes selected from all
Eers, a literal Latin prose translation by Boissonadc, Bolhe, and
ume and the metrical Latin versions of Hugo Grotius. A third
ne, edited by E. Cougny, was published in 1800. The best
edition of the Planudean Anthology is the splendid one by van
Bosch and van Lennep (1795-1822).
edition of the text by Stadtmuller *
There is also a complete
in the Tcubner series.
Arrangement.— The Palatine MS., the archetype of the present
text, was transcribed by different persons at different times,
and the actual arrangement of the collection does not correspond
with that signalised in the index. It is as follows: Book 1.
Christian epigrams; 2. Christodorus's description of certain
statues; 3. Inscriptions in the temple at Cyzicus; 4. The pre-
faces of Mcleager, Philippus, and Agathias to their respective
collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive inscriptions;
7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory of Naiianzus; 9.
Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; zo. Ethical pieces; ix.
Humorous and convivial; ia. Strata's Musa Puerilis; 13.
Metrical curiosities; 14. Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Mis-
cellanies. The epigrams on works of art, as already stated, are
missing from the Codex Palatinus, and must be sought in an
appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean Anthology.
The epigrams hitherto recovered from ancient monuments and
similar sources form appendices in the second and third volumes
of Dubner's edition.
StyU and Value. — One of the principal claims of the Anthology
to attention is derived from its continuity, its existence as a
living and growing body of poetry throughout all the vicissitudes
of Greek civilization. More ambitious descriptions of. com-
position speedily ran their course, and having attained their
complete development became extinct or at best lingered only
in feeble or conventional imitations* The humbler strains of the
epigrammatic muse, on the other hand, remained ever fresh and
animated, ever in intimate union with the spirit of the generation
that gave them birth. To peruse the entire collection, accord-
ingly, is as it were to assist at the disinterment of an ancient dty,
where generation has succeeded generation on the same site, and
each stratum of soil enshrines the vestiges of a distinct epoch, but
where all epochs, nevertheless, combine to constitute an organic
whole, and the transition from one to the other is hardly percep-
tible. Four stages may be indicated: — x . The Hellenic proper, of
which Simonidcs of Ceos (c. 556-469 B.C.), the author of most of
the sepulchral inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars,
is the characteristic representative. This is characterized by a
simple dignity of phrase, which to a modern taste almost verges
upon baldness, by a crystalline transparency of diction, and by
an absolute fidelity to the original conception of the epigram.
Nearly ail the pieces of this era arc actual bona fide inscriptions
or addresses to real personages, whether living or deceased;
narratives, literary exercises, and sports of fancy are exceedingly
rare. a. The epigram received a great development in its second
or Alexandrian era, when its range was so extended as to include
anecdote, satire, and amorous longing; when epitaphs and votive
inscriptions were composed on imaginary persons and things,
and men of taste successfully attempted the same subjects in
mutual emulation, or sat down to compose verses as displays of
their ingenuity. The result was a great gain in richness of style
and general interest, counterbalanced by a falling off In purity of
diction and sincerity of treatment. The modification— a perfectly
legitimate one, the resources of the old style being exhausted —
had its real source in the transformation of political life, but may
be said to commence with and to find its best representative in
the playful and elegant Leonidas of Tarentum, a contemporary
of Pyrrhus, and to close with Antipater of Sidon, about 140 B.C.
(or later). It should be noticed, however, that Caltimachus, one
of the most distinguished of the Alexandrian poets, affects the
sternest simplicity in his epigrams, and copies the austerity of
Simonidcs with as much success as an imitator can expect.
3. By a slight additional modification in the same direction, the
Alexandrian passes into what, for the sake of preserving the
parallelism with eras of Greek prose literature, we may call
the Roman style, although the peculiarities of its principal
representative are decidedly Oriental. Mcleager of Gadara was a
Syrian; his taste was less severe, and bis temperament more
fervent than those of his Greek predecessors; his pieces are
usually erotic, and their glowing imagery sometimes reminds us of
the Song of Solomon. The luxuriance of his fancy occasionally
betrays him into far-fetched conceits, and the lavishness of his
epithets is only redeemed by their exquisite felicity. Yet his
effusions are manifestly the offspring of genuine feeling, and his
epitaph on himself indicates a great advance on the delusive-
ness of antique Greek patriotism, and is perhaps the first dear
enunciation of the spirit of universal humanity characteristic
of the later Stoic philosophy. His gaiety and licentiousness
are imitated and exaggerated by his somewhat later contem-
porary, the Epicurean Philodcmus, perhaps the liveliest of all
the epigrammatists; his fancy reappears with diminished
brilliancy in Philodemus's contemporary, Zonas, in Crinagoras,
who wrote under Augustus, and in Marcus Argentarius, of un-
certain date; his peculiar gorgcousness of colouring remains
entirely his own. At a later period of the empire another
genre, hitherto comparatively in abeyance, was developed, the
satirical. Lucillius, who flourished under Nero, and Ludan, more
renowned in other fields of literature, display a remarkable
talent for shrewd, caustic epigram, frequently embodying moral
reflexions of great cogency, often lashing vice and folly with
signal effect, but not seldom indulging in mere trivialities, or
deformed by scoffs at personal blemishes. This style of com-
position is not properly Greek, but Roman; it answers to the
modern definition of epigram, and has hence attained a celebrity
in excess of its deserts. It is remarkable, however, as an almost
solitary example of direct Latin influence on Greek literature.
The same style obtains with Palladas, an Alexandrian gram-
marian of the 4th century, the last of the strictly classical epi-
grammatists, and the first to be guilty of downright bad taste.
His better pieces, however, are characterized by an austere
ethical impressiveness, and his literary position is very interesting
as that of an indignant but despairing opponent of Christianity.
4. The fourth or Byzantine style of epigrammatic composition
was cultivated by the btaux-tsprits of the court of Justinian. To
a great extent this is merely imitative, but the circumstances
of the period operated so as to produce a species of originality.
The peculiarly ornate and recherchi diction of Agathias and Ms
compeers is not a merit in itself, but, applied for the first time,
it has the effect of revivifying an old form, and many of their
new locutions are actual enrichments of the language. The
writers, moreover, were men of genuine poetical feeling, ingenious
in invention, and capable of expressing emotion with energy
and liveliness; the colouring of their pieces is sometimes highly
dramatic.
It would be hard to exaggerate the substantial value of the
Anthology, whether as a storehouse of facts bearing on antique
manners, customs and ideas, or as one among the influences
which have contributed to mould the literature of the modern
world. The multitudinous votive inscriptions, serious and
sportive, connote the phases of Greek religious sentiment, from
pious awe to irreverent familiarity and sarcastic scepticism; the
moral tone of the nation at various periods is mirrored with cor-
responding fidelity; the sepulchral inscriptions admit us into
9 6
ANTHON— ANTHONY
the inmost sanctuary of family affection, and reveal a depth and
tenderness of feeling beyond the province of the historian to
depict, which we should not have surmised even from the
dramatists; the general tendency of the collection is to display
antiquity on its most human side, and to mitigate those contrasts
with the modern world which more ambitious modes of com-
position force into relief. The constant reference to the details
of private life renders the Anthology an inexhaustible treasury
for the student of archaeology; art, industry and costume
receive their fullest illustration from its pages. Its influence on
European literatures will be appreciated in proportion to the
inquirer's knowledge of each. The further his researches extend,
the greater will be his astonishment at the extent to which the
Anthology has been laid under contribution for thoughts which
have become household words in all cultivated languages, and at
the beneficial effect of the imitation of its brevity, simplicity,
and absolute verbal accuracy upon the undisciplined luxuriance
of modern genius.
Translations, Imitations, fire. — The best versions of the Anthology
ever made are the Latin renderings of select epigrams by Hugo
Grotius. They have not been printed separately, but will be found
in Bosch and Lenncp's edition of the Planudean Anthology, in the
Didot edition, and in Dr Welleslcy's Anthohgia Polyglotta. The
number of more or less professed imitations in modern languages
is infinite, that of actual translations less considerable. French and
Italian, indeed, are ill adapted to this purpose, from their incapacity
of approximating to the form of the original, and their poets have
usually contented themselves with paraphrases or imitations, often
exceedingly felicitous. F. D. Deheque's French prose translation,
however (1863), is most excellent and valuable. The German
language alone admits of the preservation of the original metre — a
circumstance advantageous to the German translators, Herder and
Jacobs, who have not, however, compensated the loss inevitably
consequent upon a change of idiom by any added beauties of their
own. Though unfitted to reproduce the precise form, the English
language, from its superior terseness, is better adapted to preserve
the spirit of the original than the German; and the comparative
ill success of many English translators must be chiefly attributed to
the extremely low standard of fidelity and brevity observed by
them. Bland, Mcrivale, and their associates (1806-1813), are often
intolerably diffuse and feeble, from want, not of ability, but of
taking pains. Archdeacon Wrangham's too rare versions are much
more spirited ; and John Sterling s translations of the inscriptions
of Simonides deserve high praise. Professor Wilson (Blackwood's
Magazine, 1 833-1835) collected and commented upon the labours of
these and other translators, with his accustomed critical insight and
exuberant geniality, but damaged his essay by burdening it with
the indifferent attempts of William Hay. In 1849 Dr Wcllesley,
principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford, published his Anthologia Poly-
glotta, a most valuable collection of the best translations and imita-
tions in all languages, with the original text. In this appeared some
admirable versions by Gold win Smith and Dean Mcrivale, which,
with the other English renderings extant at the time, will be found
accompanyifi- ' L ~ ,: " — ' •— •— -* the p^^ School
Selections, ex for Bonn's Classical
Library (185 he editor's notes arc
worthless. 1 Miblished an almost
complete tra c whose stupendous
industry and il mediocrity of the
execution, j ett (1869, reprinted
1892 in the ( ransfations or imita-
tions, with s tame style. Recent
translations < Meet Epigrams from
the Greek A , notes, and prose
translation), ng volume; Graham
R. Tomson ms from the Creek
Anthology (1 Greek Song (1899);
L. C. Perry, , York, 189O; wTr.
Paton, Love Epigrams (1898). An agreeable little volume on the
Anthology, by Lord Neaves, is one of Collins's series of Ancient
Classics for Modern Readers. The earl of Cromer, with all the cares
of Egyptian administration upon him, found time to translate and
publish an elegant volume of selections (1903). Two critical con-
tributions to the subject should be noticed, the Rev. James Davics's
essay on Epigrams in the Quarterly Review (vol. cxvii.). especially
valuable for its lucid illustration of the distinction between Greek
and Latin epigram ; and the brilliant disquisition in J. A. Symonds's
Studies of the Creek Poets (1873; 3rd ed., 1893).;
Latin Anthology.— The Latin Anthology is the appellation
bestowed upon a collection of fugitive Latin verse, from the age
of Ennius to about a.d. xooo, formed by Peter Burmann the
Younger. Nothing corresponding to the Greek anthology is
known to have existed among the Romans, though professional
epigrammatists like Martial published their volumes on their
own account, and detached sayings were excerpted from authors
like Ennius and Publius Syrus, while the Priapeia were probably
but one among many collections on special subjects. The first
general collection of scattered pieces made by a modern scholar
was Scaliger's Catalecta veierum Poetarum (1573), succeeded by
the more ample one of Pithoeus, Epigrammata et Poemata e
Codicibus et Lapidibus collecta (1500). Numerous additions*
principally from inscriptions, continued to be made, and in
1 7 59-1773 Burmann digested the whole into his Antkologia
veierum Lalinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum. This, occa-
sionally reprinted, was the standard edition until 1869, when
Alexander Riese commenced a new and more critical recension,
from which many pieces improperly inserted by Burmann are
rejected, and his classified arrangement is discarded for one
according to the sources whence the poems have been derived.
The first volume contains those found in MSS., in the order of
the importance of these documents; those furnished by inscrip-
tions following. The first volume (in two parts) appeared in
1869-1870, a second edition of the first part in 1894, and the
second volume, Carmina Epigraphica (in two parts), in 1895-
1897, edited by F. Bucheler. An Anlhologiae Latinae Supple-
ments, in the same series, followed. Having been formed by
scholars actuated by no aesthetic principles of selection, but
solely intent on preserving everything they could find, the Latin
anthology is much more heterogeneous than the Greek, and
unspeakably inferior. The really beautiful poems of Petronius
and Apuleius are more properly inserted in the collected editions
of their writings, and more than half the remainder consists of
the frigid conceits of pedantic professional exercises of gram-
marians of a very late period of the empire, relieved by an
occasional gem, such as the apostrophe of the dying Hadrian to
his spirit, or the epithalamium of Gallienus. The collection is
also, for the most part, too recent in date, and too exclusively
literary in character, to add much to our knowledge of classical
antiquity. The epitaphs are interesting, but the genuineness of
many of them is very questionable. (R. G.)
ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classical scholar,
was born in New York city on the 19th of November 1797.
After graduating with honours at Columbia College in 1815, he
began the study of law, and in 1819 was admitted to the bar,
but never practised. In 1820 he was appointed assistant pro-
fessor of Greek and Latin in his old college, full professor ten
years later, and at the same time headmaster of the grammar
school attached to the college, which post he held until 1864.
He died at New York on the 29th of July 1867. He produced
for use in colleges and schools a large number of classical works,
which enjoyed great popularity, although his editions of classical
authors were by no means in favour with schoolmasters, owing to
the large amount of assistance, especially translations, contained
in the notes.
ANTHONY, SAINT, the first Christian monk, was born in
Egypt about 350. At the age of twenty he began to practise an
ascetical life in the neighbourhood of his native place, and after
fifteen years of this life he withdrew into solitude to a mountain
by the Nile, called Pispir, now Der el Memun, opposite Arsinoe*
in the Fayum. Here he lived strictly enclosed in an old fort for '
twenty years. At last in the early years of the 4th century he
emerged from his retreat and set himself to organise the monastic
life of the crowds of monks who had followed him and taken up
their abode in the caves around him. After a time, again in
pursuit of more complete solitude, he withdrew to the mountain
by the Red Sea, where now stands the monastery that bears his
name (Der Mar Antonios). Here he died about the middle of
the 4th century. His Life states that on two occasions he went
to Alexandria, to strengthen the Christians in the Diocletian
persecution and to preach against Arianism. Anthony is
recognised as the first Christian monk and the first organizer
and father of Christian monachism (sceMoNASTicisu). Certain
letters and sermons are attributed to him, but their authenticity
is more than doubtful. The monastic rule which bears his name
was not written by him, but was compiled out of these writings
ANTHONY OF PADUA— ANTHOZOA
97
•ad cut of discourses and utterances put into his mouth in the
Life and the Afvpktkegmata Potrum. According to this rule
five a number of Coptic Syrian and Armenian monks to this day.
The chief source of information about St Anthony is the Life,
attributed to St Athanasius. This attribution, as also the
historical character of the book, and even the very existence of
St Anthony, were questioned and denied by the sceptical criticism
of thirty years ago; but such doubts are no longer entertained
by critical scholars.
The Greek Vila is among the works of St Athanasius: the almost
contemporary Latin translation is among Roswcyd's Vitae Pa/rum
(Migne. Patrol. LaU lnriii.); an English translation is in the Athan-
asfta volume of the M Nicene and Post-Nicene Library." Accounts
of St Anthony are given by Card. Newman, Church of the Fathers
(Historical Sketches) and Alban Butler, Lives of the Saints (Jan. 17).
Discussions of the historical and critical questions raised will be
found in E. C. Butler's Lausiac History of PaUadius (1898, 1004),
Part L pp. 107, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xri. (E. C. B.)
AsTTHONY OP PADUA, SAINT (2105-1 231), the most cele-
brated of the followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, was born at
Lisbon on the 1 5th of August x 195. In his fifteenth year he entered
the Augustinian order, and subsequently joined the Franciscans
in 1220. He -wished to devote himself to missionary labours in
North Africa, but the ship in which he sailed was cast by a storm
on the coast of Sicily, whence he made his way to Italy. He
taught theology at Bologna, Toulouse, Montpellier and Padua,
and won a great .reputation as a preacher throughout Italy. He
was the leader of the rigorous party in the Franciscan order
against the mitigations introduced by the general Elks. His
death took place at the convent of Ara Coeli, near Padua, on the
13th of June 1 23 1. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in the
following year, and his festival is kept on the 13th of June. He
b regarded as the patron saint of Padua and of Portugal, and
is appeal e d to by devout clients for finding lost objects. The
meagre accounts of his life which we possess have been supple-
mented by numerous popular legends, which represent him
as a continuous worker of miracles, and describe his marvellous
eloquence by pictures of fishes leaping out of the water to
hear him. There are many confraternities established in his
honour throughout Christendom, and the number of "pious"
biographies devoted to him would fill many volumes.
St Antotne de Padoue (Paris, 1895 ; Eng. trans., London, 1896). His
works, consisting of sermons and a mystical commentary on the
Bible, were published in an appendix to those of St Francis, in the
Annates Minorum of Luke Wadding (Antwerp, 1623), and are also
reproduced by Horoy, Medii aevi bibliotheca patruttea (1880, vi.
- ,5 ec sqq.) ; see art. " Antonius von Padua " in Herzog-Hauck,
AVTHOMY. SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1006), American
reformer, was born at Adams, Massachusetts, on the 15th of
February 1820, the daughter of Quakers. Soon after her birth,
her family moved to the state of New York, and after 1845 she
lived in Rochester. She received her early education in a school
maintained by her father for his own and neighbours' children,
and from the time she was seventeen until she was thirty-two
she taught in various schools. In the decade preceding the
outbreak of the Civil War she took a prominent part in the
anti-slavery and temperance movements in New York, organizing
in 185a the first woman's state temperance society in America, and
in 1856 becoming the agent for New York state of the American
Anti-slavery Society. After 1854 she devoted herself almost
exclusively to the agitation for woman's rights, and became
recognized as one of the ablest and most zealous advocates,
both as a public speaker and as a writer, of the complete legal
equality of the two sexes. From x86& to 1870 she was the
proprietor of a weekly paper, The Revolution, published in New
York, edited by Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and having for
its motto, " The true republic—men, their rights and nothing
more; women, their rights and nothing less." She was vice-
prestdent-at-large of the National Woman's Suffrage Association
from the date of its organization in 1869 until 1892, when she
became president For casting a vote in the presidential election
of 1872, as, she asserted, the Fourteenth Amendment to the
Federal Constitution entitled her to do, she was arrested and
fined $100, but she never paid the fine. In collaboration with
Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mrs Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Mrs
Ida Husted Harper, she published The History of Women
Suffrage (4 vols. , New York, 1 884-1 887). She died at Rochester,
New York, on the 13th of March 1906.
See Mrs Ida Husted Harper's Lift and Work of Susan B. Anthony
(3 vols., Indianapolis, 1898-1908).
ANTHOZOA (U. " flower-animals "), the zoological name
for a class of marine polyps forming " coral " (q.v.). Although
corals have been familiar objects since the days of antiquity,
and the variety known as the precious red coral has been for a
long time an article of commerce in the Mediterranean, it was only
in the x8th century that their true nature and structure came to
be understood. By the ancients and the earlier naturalists
of the Christian era they were regarded either as petrifactions or
as plants, and many supposed that they occupied a position
midway between minerals and plants. The discovery of the
animal nature of red coral is due to J. A. de Peyssonel, a native
of Marseilles, who obtained living specimens from the coral
fishers on the coast of Barbary and kept them alive in aquaria.
He was thus able to see that the so-called " flowers of coral "
were in fact nothing else than minute polyps resembling sea-
anemones. His discovery, made in 1727, was rejected by the
Academy of Sciences of France, but eventually found acceptance
at the hands of the Royal Society of London, and was published
by that body in x 75 1. The structure and classification of polyps,
however, were at that time very imperfectly understood, and
it was fully a century before the true anatomical characters
and systematic position of corals were, placed on a secure basis.
The hard calcareous substance to which the name coral is
applied is the supporting skeleton of certain members of the
Anihotoa, one of the classes of the phylum Coelentera. The most
familiar Anthozoan is the common sea-anemone, Actinia equina,
L., and it will serve, although it does not form a skeleton or
coralhm, as a good example of the structure of a typical Antho-
zoan polyp or zooid. The individual animal or zooid of Actinia
equina has the form of a column fixed by one extremity, called
the base, to a rock or other object, and bearing at the opposite
extremity a crown of tentacles. The tentacles surround an area
known as the peristome, in* the middle of which there is an
elongated mouth-opening surrounded by tumid lips. The mouth
does not open directly into the general cavity of the body, as
is the case in a hydrozoan polyp, but into a short tube called
the stomodaeum, which in its turn opens below into the general
body-cavity or coelenteron. In Actinia and its allies, and most
generally, though not invariably, in Antbozoa,the stomodaeum
is not circular, but is compressed from side to side so as to be
oval or slit-like in transverse section. At each end of the oval
there is a groove lined by specially long vibratile cilia. These
grooves are known as the sulcus and sulculus, and will be more
particularly described hereafter. The elongation of the mouth
and stomodaeum confer a bilateral symmetry on the body of the
zooid, which is extended to other organs of the body. In Actinia,
as in all Anthozoan zooids, the coelenteron is not a simple cavity,
as in a Hydroid, but is divided by a number of radial folds or
curtains of soft tissue into a corresponding number of radial
chambers. These radial folds are known as mesenteries, and
their position and relations may be understood by reference
to figs, z and 2. Each mesentery is attached by its upper
margin to the peristome, by its outer margin to the body-wall,
and by its lower margin to the basal disk. A certain number of
mesenteries, known as complete mesenteries, are attached by
the upper parts of their internal margins to the stomodaeum,
but below this level their edges hang in the coelenteron. Other
mesenteries, called incomplete, are not attached to the stomo-
daeum, and their internal margins are free from the peristome
to the basal disk. The lower part of the free edge of every
mesentery, whether complete or incomplete, is thrown into
numerous puckers or folds, and is furnished with a glandular
thickening known as a mesenterial filament. The reproductive
9 8
ANTHOZOA
organs or gonads are borne on the mesenteries, the germinal
cells being derived from the inner layer or endoderm.
In common with all Coelenterate animals, the walls of the
columnar body and also the tentacles and peristome of Actinia
are composed of three layers of tissue. The external layer,
or ectoderm, is made up
of cells, and contains
» also muscular and ner-
vous elements. The pre-
ponderating elements of
the ectodermic layer arc
elongated columnar
cells, each containing a
nucleus, and bearing
cilia at their free ex-
trcmitics. Packed in
among these arc glattd
cells, seme cells, and
cnidoblasts. The last-
named art specially
Fig. i.— Diagrammatic longitudinal numerous on the ten-
section of an Anthozoan zooid. tacles and on some other
m. Mesentery. Im, Longitudinal regions of the body, and
t, Tentacles. muscle. produce the well-known
*, Stomodaeum. d, Diagonal "thread cells," or
u, Sulcus. muscle. «*««#^..„«. .~ -u«»
r, Rotteken's muscle, go. Gonads. nemalocysts so char-
*, Stoma. actenstic of the Coe-
lentera. The inner
layer or endoderm is also a cellular layer, and is chiefly
made up of columnar cells, each bearing a cilium at its free ex-
tremity and terminating internally in a long muscular fibre.
Such cells, made up of epithelial and muscular components, are
known as epithelio-imis-
cular or myo-epitbelial
cells. In Actinians the
epithelio- muscular cells of
the endoderm are crowded
with yellow spherical
bodies, which arc unicellu-
lar plants or Algae, living
symbiotically in the
tissues of the zooid. The
endoderm contains in
addition gland cells and
nervous elements. The
middle layer or mesogloea
is not originally a cellular
layer, but a gelatinoid
structureless substance,
secreted by the two cellular
If layers. In the course of
^ development, however,
cells from the ectoderm
and endoderm may mi-
grate into it. In Actinia.
F»c. 2.-1, Portion of epithelium ^«»~ the mesogloea con-
from the tentacle of an Actinian, sisU of fine fibres imbedded
showing three supporting cells and one in a homogeneous matrix,
sense cell (*); 2, a cnidoblaat with an <i between the fibres
enclosed nematocyst from the same _„ -.:„„»- k~»„,.i„w4 ~*
specimen; 3 and 4. two forms of ttre J? 1 ™* branched or
gland cell from the stomodaeum; spindle-shaped cells. For
5a, 56, epithelio-muscular cells from further details of the
the tentacle in different states of con- structure of Actinians,
antes £ &s&%££s%i *• »«* *•«« «-«*
symbiotic zooxanthella: 6, a ganglion the work of O. and K.
cell from the ectoderm of the peristome* Hertwig.
(After O. and R. Hertwig.) Th c Anthozoa are divis-
ible into two sub-classes, sharply marked of! from one another
by definite anatomical characters. These are the Alcyonaria
and the Zoantharia. To the first-named belong the precious
red coral and its allies, the sea- fans or Gorgoniae; to the
second belong the white or Madreporarian corals.
AicTooarU.— In this sub-class the sooid (fig. 3) has very constant
anatomical characters, differing in some important respects from the
Actinian zooid, which has been taken as a type. There b only one
ciliated groove, the sulcus, in the stomodaeum. There are always
eight tentacles, which are hollow and fringed on their sides, with
hollow projections or pinnae; and always eight mesenteries, all of
which are complete, i.e. inserted on the stomodaeum. The mesen-
teries are provided with well-developed longitudinal retractor
muscles, supported on longitudinal folds or plaits of the mesogloea,
so that in cross-section they have a branched appearance. These
muscle-banners, as they ^
arc called, have a
highly characteristic
arrangement; they are
all situated on those
faces of the mesenteries
which look towards the
sulcus (fig. 4). Each
mesentery has a fila-
ment ; but two of them,
namely, the pair
farthest from the sul-
cus, are longer than the
rest, and have a differ- .
cnt form of filament. X
It has been shown that
these asukar filaments \
are derived from the I
ectoderm, the re- 3
mainder from the en-
doderm. The only *
exceptions to this
structure are found in
the arrested or modified
zooids, which occur in Fig. 3.— An expanded Alcyonarian zooid,
many of the colonial showing the mouth surrounded by eight
Alcyonaria. In these pinnate tentacles, st, Stomodaeum in the
the tentacles are centre of the transparent body; m, mes-
stuntcd or suppressed eateries; asm, asukar mesenteries; B,
and the mesenteries are spicules, enlarged,
ill-developed, but the
sulcus is unusually large and has long cilia. Such modified zooids are
called siphonozooids, their function being to drive currents of fluid
through the canal-systems of the colonies to which they belong.
With very few exceptions a calcareous skeleton is present in all
Alcyonaria; it usually consists of spicules of carbonate of lime, each
spicule being formed within an ectodermic cell (fig. 3, B). Most
commonly the spicule-forming cells pass out of the ectoderm and are
imbedded in the mesogloea, where they may remain separate from
one another or may be fused together to form a strong mass. In
addition to the spicular skeleton an organic horny skeleton is fre-
quently present, either in —
the form of a horny ex-
ternal investment (Cor-
nularia), or an internal
axis (Corgonia), or it may
form a matrix in which
spicules are imbedded
(Keroeides, Mdilodis). ,
Nearly all the Alcyonaria f
arc colonial. Four solitary h
species have been de- R 1
scribed, viz. II aim e a fj
Juncbris and H. hyaltna, f
Hartea elegans, and A/an- K
oxenia Darurinti; but it is I
doubtful whether these are
not the young forms of
colonies. For the present
the solitary forms may be
placed in a grade, Protal-
cyonauai and the colonial
forms may be grouped in
another grade, Synalcyon-
acta. Every Alcyonarian Fic 4 ._ T ransvcr9e section of an
colony is developed, by A | cyo naruin zooid. mm. Mesenteries:
budding from a single ^ ^^ banners; sc, sulcus; U.
parent zooid. The buds $tomodacum .
are not direct outgrowths »' v * u "««'" u
of the body-wall, but are formed on the courses of hollow out-
growths of the base or body-wall, called solenia. These form a
more or less complicated canal system, lined by endoderm, and
communicating with the cavities of the zooids. The most simple
form of budding is found in the genus CornuUtria, in which the
mother zooid gives off from ifs base one or more simple radkaform
outgrowths. Each outgrowth contains a single tube or solenium,
and at a longer or shorter distance from the mother zooid a
daughter zooid is formed as a bud. This gives off new outgrowths,
and these, branching and anastomosing with one another, may form
a network, adhering to stones, corals, or other objects, from which
ANTHOZOA
99
zooids anil at intervals. Id C7aiafariis md its •fli rt tw h w
contains several solenia. and the outgrowths may take the Torm of
flat expansions, composed of a number of sofenial tubes felted
together to form a lamellar surface of attachment. Such outgrowths
arc called stolons, and a stolon may be simple, ix. contain only one
solcnium. as in Comularia, or may be complex and built up of many
solenia. as in Clavularia. Further complications arise when the
lower walls of the mother zooid become thickened and interpene-
trated with solenia, from which buds are developed, so that lobosc,
tufted, or branched colonics
are formcd.Tbc chief orders
of the Synalcyonacea are
founded upon the different
architectural features of
1 colonies produced by differ-
ent modes of budding. We
recognize six orders — the
[ Stolonifeka, Alcyon-
4 \ ACBA,PSEUDAXOMA,AxiF-
> bra, Stslechotokva, and
CoEXOTHECALIA.
In the order Stolonife ra
t he zooids spring at intervals
* from branching or lamellar
/ stolons, and arc usually free
from one another, except at
their bases, but in some cases
horizontal solenia arising
at various heights from
the body-wall may place
the more distal portions
of the zooids in commu-
nication with one another.
In the genus Tubipora these
Fig. 5. horizontal solenia unite to
comprises 1
nulariidae,
B. Diagrammatic longitudinal section ^3/a!S&# »«T
of a coraUite, showing two platforms, LT^tlu c
P*»* *«BK«"* cup-shaped tabulae.l. SJ^JhaSunlS
Syrintoporidae,
ind Favosi-
first- named
Ji>" ^ ;-f h^w««« --.---■--- the zooids are united only by
lAfterS-J.Hicksoa.) . their bases and the skeleton
consists of loose spicules. In the Tubiporidae the spicules of the
proximal part of the body-wall are fused together to form a firm
tube, the corallite, into which the distal part of the zooid can be
retracted. The corallites are connected at intervals by horizontal
platforms containing solenia, and at the level of each platform the
cavity of the corallite is divided by a transverse calcareous partition,
either flat or cup-shaped, called a tabula. Formerly all corals in
which tabulae are present were classed together as Tabulata, but
Tubipora is an undoubted Alcyonarian with a lamellar stolon, and
the structure of the fossil genus Svringopora, which has vertical
coralhtes united by horizontal solenia, clearly shows its affinity to
Tubipora. The Favosi-
tidae, a fossil family from
the Silurian and Devonian,
have, a massive corallum
composed of numerous
polygonal corallites closely
packed together. The
cavities of adjacent coral-
lites communicate by
means of numerous per-
forations, which appear to
represent solenia, and
numerous transverse tab-
ulae are also present. In
PavosiUs hemtsfikaerka a
number of radial spines,
projecting into the cavity
Fig. 6.— Portion of a colony of Coral- ©* the corallite, give it the
Hum rmbrum, showing expanded and appearance ol a madrepor-
contracted zooids. In the lower part of ■"»" ©oral- .
the figure the cortex has been cut away '« ">e order Alcyon-
to show the axis, ax, and the longi- \ CE * th « colon y consists
tudioal canals, U. surrounding it. « lindrt^aookta* w £ose
proximal portions are united by solenia and compacted, by fusion
of their own walls and those of the solenia. into a fleshy mass
called the coenenchyma. Thus the ooenenchyma forms a stem,
sometimes branched, from the surface of which the free portions of
the zooids project The skeleton of the Alcyonacea consists of
separate calcareous spicules, which are often, especially in the
Ncphtbytdae. so abundant and so closely interlocked as to form a
tolerably firm and hard armour. The order comprises the families
Xeniidat. A Uyoniiae and Ncphlhyidae. A Icyonium digitctum, a pink
dijitate form popularly known as " dead men's fingers," b common
In iojo fathoms of water off the English toasts.
la the order Psiudaxomia the colonies are upright and brancbedt
consisting of a number of short zooids whose proximal ends are im-
bedded in a coenenchyma containing numerous ramifying solenia
and spicules. The coenenchyma is further differentiated into a
medullary Dortion and a cortex. The latter contains the proximal
moieties of the zooids and numerous but separate spicules. The
medullary portion is densely crowded with spicules of different
sh * " "
cc
th
to
th. , , _
found at depths varying FlO. 7.— The sea-fan (Gorgonia
from 15 to 120 fathoms in cavoltuii).
the Mediterranean Sea, chiefly on the African coast. It owes its
commercial value to the beauty of its hard red calcareous axis which
in life is covered by a cortex in which the proximal moieties of the
zooids are imbedded. CoraUium rttbrum has been the subject of a
beautifully-illustrated memoir by de Lacaze-Duthiers, which should
be consulted for details of anatomy.
The Axifbra comprise those corals that have a horny or calcined
axis, which in position corre-
sponds to the axis of the
Pseudaxonia, but, unlike it,
is never formed of fused
spicules; the most familiar
example is the pink sea-fan,
Gorgonia cavolxnii, which is
found in abundance in 10-25
fathoms of water off the
English coasts (fig. 7). In
this order the axis is formed
as an ingrowth of the ecto-
derm of the base of the
mother zooid of the colony,
the cavity of the ingrowth
being filled by a horny sub-
stance secreted by the ecto-
derm. In Gorgonia the axis
remains horny throughout
life, but in many forms it is
further strengthened by a
deposit of calcareous matter.
In the family Isidinat the
axis consists of alternate
segments of horny and cal-
careous substance, the latter
being amorphous. The
order contains six families —
the Dasygorgiiae, Isidae,
Prtmnoidait iiuriceidae,
PUxauridat, and Gorgonidae.
In the order Stelbcho-
tokca the colony consists of
a stem formed by a greatly-
elongated mother zooid, and
the daughter zooids are
borne as lateral buds on the
stem. In the section
A sipkonacea the colonies are
upright and branched,
springing from membranous
or ramifying stolons. They
resemble and are closely
allied to certain families of
the Cornulariidae, differing
from them only in mode of
budding and in the disposi-
tion of the daughter zooids
round a central, much-elongated mother zooid. The section contains
two families, the TeUstidat and the Cbctogorgidae. The second section
Comprises the Pennaiulacea or sea-pens, which are remarkable from
the tact that the colony is not fixed by the base to a rock or other
Fie. 8.
A, Colony of Pennahtla phospkon*
from the metarachidial aspect, p, The
peduncle.
B. Section of the rachis bearing a
single pinna, a. Axis; b, metaracnt-
dial; c, prorachidial ; d, pararachidial
stem canals.
lOO
object, but is imbedded in sand or mud by the proximal portion of
the stem known as the peduncle. In the typical genus, Fennatula
(fig. 8), the colony looks like a feather having a stem- divisible into
an upper moiety or rachis, bearing lateral central leaflets (pinnae),
and a lower peduncle, which is sterile and imbedded in sand or mud.
The stem r epresents a greatly enlarged and elongated mother zooid.
It js divided longitudinally by a partition separating a so-called
" ventral " or prorachidial canal from a so-called dorsal " or
metarachidial canal. A rod-like supporting axis of peculiar texture
is developed in the longitudinal partition, and a longitudinal canal
is hollowed out on either side of the axis in the substance of the
longitudinal partition, so that there are four stem-canals in all.
The prorachidial and metarachidial aspects of the rachis are sterile,
but the sides or pararachides bear numerous daughter zooids of
two kinds — (i) fully-formed autotooids, (2) small stunted siphono-
zooids. The pinnae are formed by the elongated autotooids, whose
{>roximal portions arc fused together to form a leaf-like expansion,
rom the upper edge of which the distal extremities of the zooids
project. The siphonozooids are very numerous and lie between the
bases of the pinnae on the pararachides; they extend also on the
prorachidial and metarachidial surfaces. The calcareous skeleton
of the Pennatulacea consists of scattered spicules, but in one species,
Protocaulon tnoUe, spicules are absent. Although of great interest
the Pennatulacea do not form an enduring skeleton or "coral,"
and need not be considered in detail in this place.
The order Coenothec alia is represented by a single living species,
Heliopora coerulta, which differs from all recent Alcyonaria in a the
fact that its skeleton is not composed of spicules, but is formed as
a secretion from a layer of cells called calicoblasts, which originate
from the ectoderm. The corallum of Heliopora is of a blue colour,
and has the form of broad, upright, lobed, or digitate masses flattened
from side to side. The surfaces are pitted all over with perforations
of two kinds, viz. larger star-shaped cavities, called calius, in
which the zooids arc lodged, and very numerous smaller round or
polygonal apertures, which in life contain as many short unbranched
ANTHOZOA
A Fig. 9. B
A, Portion of the surface of a colony of Heliopora coeruka magni-
fied, showing two caliccs and the surrounding coenenchymal tubes.
B, Single zooid with the adjacent soft tissues as seen after removal
of the skeleton by decalcification. Z', the distal, and Z>, the proximal
or tntracalicular portion of the zooid: ec, ectoderm; ct, coenen-
chymal tubes; sp, superficial network of solatia.
tubes, known as the coenenchymal tubes (fig. 9, A). The walls of the
calices and coenenchymal tubes arc formed of flat plates of calcite,
which are so disposed that the walls of one tube enter into the com-
position of the walls of adjacent tubes, and the walls of the calices
are formed by the walls of adjacent coenenchymal tubes. Thus the
architecture of the Hclioporid colony differs entirely from such forms
as Tubipora or Favosites, in which each corallite has its own distinct
and proper wall. The cavities both of the caliccs and coenenchymal
tubes of Heliopora are closed below by horizontal partitions or
tabulae, hence the genus was formerly included in the group Tabulata,
and was supposed to belong to the madreporarian corals, both
because of its lamellar skeleton, which resembles that of a Madrepore,
and because each calicle has from twelve to fifteen radial partitions
or septa projecting into its cavity. The structure of the zooid of
Heliopora, however, is that of a typical Air * — — J **- ->ta
have only a resemblance to, but no real how rly
named structures in madreporarian corah is
found between tide-marks on the shore pi; ds.
The order was more abundantly reprcsente by
the HelialUidae from the Upper and Lower Si in.
and by the Thecidae from the Wcnlock li Ites
porosus the colonies had the form of -sphen ces
were furnished with twelve pscudosepta, nal
tubes were more or less regularly hexagonal.
Zoantharia. — In this sub-class the arrangement of the mesenteries
b subject to a great deal of variation, but all the types hitherto
observed may be referred to a common plan, illustrated by the
living genus Edwardsia (fig. 10. A, B). This is a small solitary
Zoantharian which lives embedded in sand. Its body is divisible
into three portions, an upper capitulum bearing the mouth and
tentacles, a median scapus covered by a friable cuticle, and a terminal
physa which is rounded. Both capltulum and physa can be retracted
within the scapus. There are from sixteen to thirty-two simple
tentacles, but only eight mesenteries, alt of which are complete.
The stomodaeum is compressed laterally, and is furnished with two
longitudinal grooves, a sulcus and a sulculus. The arrangement of
the muscle- banners on the mesenteries is characteristic On six of
the mesenteries the muscle-banners have the same position as io
the Alcyonaria, namely, on the sulcar faces; but in the two remain-
ing mesenteries, namely, those which are attached on either side
of the sulcus, the muscle-banners are on the opposite or sulculat
faces. It is not known whether all the eight mesenteries of Ed-
wardsia are developed simultaneously or not, but in the youngest
Cap, capitulum; jc.
Fig. 10.
A, Edwardsia dipartdii (after A. Andres),
scapus; ph, physa.
B, Transverse section of the same, showing the arrangement of the
mesenteries, s, Sulcus; sJ, sulculus.
C, Transverse section of Hakampa, d,4, Directive m esen t eri es;
st, stomodaeum.
form which has been studied all the eight mesenteries were present,
but only two of them, namely the sulco-laterals, bore mesenterial
filaments, and so it is presumed that they are the first pair to be
developed. In the common sea-anemone, Actinia equina (which
has already been quoted as a type of Anthozoan structure), the
mesenteries are numerous and are arranged in cycles. The mesen-
teries of the first cycle are complete (i.e. are attached to the stomo-
daeum), are twelve in number, and arranged in couples, distinguish-
able by the position of the muscle-banners. In the four couples o
mesenteries which are attached to the sides of the elongated stomo
daeum the muscle-banners of each couple are turned towards one
another, but in the sulcar and sulcular couples, known as t he directive
d
IV
Fig. ti. — A, Diagram showing the sequence of mesenterial devel-
opment in an Actmian. B, Diagrammatic transverse section of
Conactinia prafifera.
mesenteries, the muscle-banners are on the outer faces of the mesen-
teries, and so are turned away from one another (see fig. 10, C}.
The space enclosed between two mesenteries of the same couple is
called an entocoeU; the space enclosed between two mesenteries of
adjacent couples is called an exocoeU. The second cycle of mesen-
teries consists of six couples, each formed in an exocoelc of the
primary cycle, and in each couple the muscle-banners are vis-i-tis
The third cycle comprises twelve couples, each formed in an exocode
between the primary and secondary couples, and so on, it being^ a
general rule (subject, however, to exceptions) that new mesenterial
couples are always formed in the exocoeles, and not in theentocoelcs.
While the mesenterial couples belonging to the second and each
successive cycle are formed simultaneously, those of the first cycle
ANTHOZOA
an formed 2a tweeasfae pairs, etch roeimWof a pair being: placed
en opposite side* of the stomodaeum. Hence the arrangement in
six couples ia a secondary and not a primary feature, la meet
Actinians the mesenteries appear in the following order: — At the
thne when the stomodaeum is formed, a single pair of mesenteries,
narked 1, 1 In the diagram (fig. 1 1, A), makes its appearance, dividing
the eoelenteric cavity into a smaller sulcar and a large sulcular
chamber. The muscle-banners of this pair are placed on the sulcar
faces of the mesenteries. Next, a pair of mesenteries, marked 11,11
in the diagram, is developed in the sulcular chamber, its muscle*
banners facing the same way aa those of I, I. The third pair is
formed in the sulcar chamber, in dose connexion with the sulcus,
and in this case the muscle-banners are on the sulcular faces. The
fourth pair, having its muscle-banners on the sulcar faces, is devel-
oped at the opposite extremity of the stomodaeum in close connexion
with the sulculus. There are now eight mesenteries present, having
exactly the same arrangement as in Edwardsia. A pause in the
development follows, during which no new mesenteries are formed,
and then the six-rayed symmetry characteristic of a normal Actinian
aooid b completed by the formation of the mesenteries V, V in the
lateral chambers, and VI, VI in the sulcotateral chambers, their
muscle-banners being so disposed that they form couples respectively
with 11,11 and 1,1. In Actinia equina the Edwardsia stage is arrived
at somewhat differently. The mesenteries second in order of forma-
tion form the sulcular directives, those fourth in order of formation
form with the fifth the sulculo-lateral couples of the adult.
As far as the anatomy of the xooid is concerned, the majority of
the stony or madreporarian corals agree exactly with the soft-bodied
Actinia nn, such as Actinia equina, both in the number and arrange-
FlC, 12.
A, Zoanthid colony, showing the expanded sooids.
B, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in a young
Zoanthid.
C, Diagram showingthe arrangement of mesenteries in an adult
Zoanthid. 1, 2, 3, 4, Edwardsian mesenteries.
roent of the adult mesenteries and in the order of development of
the first cycle. The few exceptions will be dealt with later, but it
may be stated here that even in these the first cycle of six couples
of mesenteries is always formed, and in all the cases which have
been examined £he course of development described above is followed.
There are, however, several groups of Zoantharia in which the
mesenterial arrangement of the adult differs widely from that just
describe/1. But it is possible to refer all these cases with more or
less certainty to the Edwardsian type.
The order Zoanthidba comprises a number of soft-bodied Zoan-
tharians generally encrusted with sand. Externally they resemble
ordinary sea-anemones, but there b only one ciliated groove, the
sulcus, in the stomodaeum, and the mesenteries are arranged on a
peculiar pattern. The first twelve mesenteries arc disposed in
couples, and do not differ from those of Actinia except in size. The
mesenterial pairs I, 11 and III are attached to the stomodaeum,
and are called macromesenterics (fig. 12, B), but IV, V and VI are
much shorter, and are called micromesenteries. The subsequent
development is peculiar to the group. New mesenteries are formed
only in the suko-lateral exocoetes. They are formed in couples,
each couple consisting of a macromesentery and a micromesentery.
d is posed so that the former b nearest to the sulcar directives. The
derivation of the Zoanthidca from an Edwardsia form is sufficiently
obvious.
TheorderCERiAirniioeAcomprisesa fewsoft'bodled Zoantharians
with rounded aboral extremities pierced by pores. They have two
circlets of tentacles, a labial and a marginal, and there is only one
ciliated groove in the stomodaeum, whkn appears to be the sulculus.
The mesenteries are numerous, and the longitudinal muscles, though
distinguishable, are so feebly developed that there are no muscle-
banners. The larval forms of the type genus Cerianthus float freely
in the sea. and were once considered to belong to a separate genus,
Arachnactis. In thb larva four pairs of mesenteries having the
typical Edwardsian arrangement are developed, but the fifth and
snth pairs, instead of forming couples with the first and second,
arise in the sulcar chamber, the fifth pair inside the fourth, and the
IOI
sixth pair inside the fifth. New mesenteries are continually added
in the sulcar chamber, the seventh pair within the sixth, the eighth
pair within the seventh, and so on (fig. 13). In the Cerianthidea,
as in the Zoanthidea, much as the adult arrangement of mesenteries
differs from that of Actinia, the derivation from an Edwardsia stock
b obvious.
The order Amtipatbidba b a well-defined group whose affinities
Fig. 13.
A, Cerianihus solilarius (after A. Andres).
B, Transverse section of the. stomodaeum, showing the sulculus,*/,
and the arrangement of the mesenteries.
C, Oral aspect of Arachnactis brachiotata, the larva of Cerianihus,
with seven tentacles.
D, Transverse section of an older larva. The numerals indicate
the order of development of the mesenteries.
are more obscure. The type form, Aniipalhes iicholoma (fig. 14),
forms arborescent colonies consisting of numerous sooids arranged
in a single series along one surface of a branched horny axis. Each
zooid has six tentacles; the stomodaeum b elongate, but the sulcus
and sulculus are very feebly represented. There are ten mesenteries
in which the musculature is so little developed as to be almost
indistinguishable. ' The sulcar and sulcular pairs of mesenteries are
Fig. 14,
A, Portion of a colony of Antipathes dichotoma.
B, Single xooid and axis of the same magnified, m, Mouth; as/,
mesenterial filament ; ax, axis.
C, Transverse section through the oral cone of A'nlipalkeUa minor,
st, Stomodaeum ; *», ovary.
short, the sulco-lateral and sulculo-lateral pairs are a little longer,
but the two transverse arc very large and are the only mesenteries
which bear gonads. As the development of the Antipathidea is
unknown, H is impossible to say what is the sequence of the mesen-
terial development, but in Leiopathn thberrima, a genus with twelve
mesenteries, there are distinct indications of an Edwardsia stage.
There are, in addition to these croups, several genera, of Actinians
whose mesenterial arrangement differs from the normal type. Of
102
these perhaps the most interesting is GonaetitUa pralifero (fig. II, B),
with eight macromescnteries arranged on the Edwardsian plan.
Two pairs of micromescnteries form couples with the first and
second Edwardsian pairs, and in addition there is a couple of micro-
mesenterjes in each of the sutculo-latcral exocoeles. Only the first
and second pairs of Edwardsian macromescnteries are fertile, i.e.
bear gonads.
. The remaining forms, the Actiniidea, are divisible into the
Malacactiniae, or soft-bodied sea-anemones, which have already
been described sufficiently in the course of this article, and the
Scleractiniae ( - Madreporaria) or true corals.
All recent corals, as has already been said, conform so closely
to the anatomy of normal Actinians that they cannot be classified
apart from them, except that they are distinguished by the
possession of a calcareous skeleton. This skeleton is largely
composed of a number of radiating plates or septa, and it differs
both in origin and structure from the calcareous skeleton of all
Alcyonaria except Heliopora. It is formed, not from fused
spicules, but as a secretion of a special layer of cells derived from
the basal ectoderm, and known as calicoblasls. The skeleton or
corallum of a typical solitary coral — the common Devonshire cup-
coral Caryophyllia smithii (fig. 15) is a good example — exhibits
the fallowings parts: — (1) The basal plate, between the zooid and
the surface of attachment, (a) The septa, radial plates of
ANTHOZOA
Fig. 15. — Corallum of Caryophyllia ; semi-diagrammatic, tk, Thcca :
c, costae; sp, septa; p, palus; col, columella.
caldte reaching from the periphery nearly or quite to the centre
of the coral-cup or calicle. (3) The thcca or wall, which in many
corals is not an independent structure, but is formed by the con-
joined thickened peripheral ends of the septa. (4) The columella,
a structure which occupies the centre of the calicle, and may
arise from the basal plate, when it is called essential, or may be
formed by union of trabecular offsets of the septa, when it is called
unessential. (5) The costae, longitudinal ribs or rows of spines
on the outer surface of the theca. True costae always correspond
to the septa, and are in fact the peripheral edges of the latter.
(6) EpUheca, an offset of the basal plate which surrounds the
base of the theca in a ring-like manner, and in some corals may
take the place of a true theca. (7) Pali, spinous or Wade-like
upgrowths from the bottom of the calicle, which project between
the inner edges of certain septa and the columella. In addition
to these parts the following structures may exist in corals: —
Dissepiments are oblique calcareous partitions, stretching from
septum to septum, and closing the interseptal chambers below.
The whole system of dissepiments in any given calicle is often
called enioUuca. Synapticulae are calcareous bars uniting adjacent
septa. Tabulae are stout horizontal partitions traversing the
centre of the calicle and dividing it into as many superimposed
chambers. The septa in recent corals always bear a definite
relation to the mesenteries, being found either in every entococlc
or in every entocoele and exocoele. Hence in corals in which
there is only a single cycle of mesenteries the septa are corre-
spondingly few in number; where several cycles of mesenteries
are present the septa are correspondingly numerous. la torn*
cases— e.g. in some species of Madrepore — only two septa are
fully developed, the remainder being very feebly represented.
Though the corallum appears to live within the zooid, it is
morphologically external to it, as is best shown by its develop-
mental history. The larvae of corals are free swimming ciliated
forms known as planulae, and they do not acquire a corallum
until they fix themselves. A ring-shaped plaCe of caldte,
secreted by the ectoderm, is then formed, lying between the
embryo and the surface of attachment. As the mesenteries are
Pio. 16. — Tangential section of a larva of Astroides calieularis
which has fixed itself on a piece of cork, ec, Ectoderm ; en, endo-
derm; mg, mesogloea; m,.m, mesenteries; s, septum; b, basal plate
formed of ellipsoids of carbonate of lime secreted by the nasal
ectoderm; ep, epitheca. (After von Koch.)
formed, the endoderm of the basal disk lying above the basal
plate is raised up in the form of radiating folds. There may be
six of these folds, one in each entocoele of the primary cycle of
mesenteries; or there may be twelve, one in each exocoele and
entocoele. The ectoderm beneath each fold becomes detached
from the surface of the basal plate, and both it and the mesogloea
are folded conformably with the endoderm. The cells forming
the limbs of the ectodermic folds secrete nodules of caldte, and
these, fusing together, give rise to six (or twelve) vertical radial
plates or sepia. As growth proceeds new septa are formed
simultaneously with the new couples of secondary mesenteries.
In some corals, in which all the septa are entocoelic, each new
system is embraced by a mesenteric couple; in others.in which the
septa are both entocoelic and exocoelic, three septa are formed in
Fig. 17. — Transverse section through a sooid of Cladocora. The
corallum shaded with dots, the mesogloea represented by a thick line.
Thirty-two septa are present, six in the entocoele* of the primary
cycle of mesenteries, I; six in the entocoeles of the secondary cycle
of mesenteries, II; four in the entocoeles of the tertiary cycle of
mesenteries, 111, only four pairs of the latter being developed; and
sixteen in the entocoeles between the mesenterial pairs. D, D,
Directive mesenteries; st, stomodaeum. (After Ducrden.)
every chamber between two primary mesenterial couplcs,one in the
entocoele of the newly formed mesenterial couple of the secondary
cyde, and one in each exocoele between a primary and a secondary
couple. These latter are in turn embraced by the couples of the
tertiary cyde of mesenteries, and new septa are formed in the
exocoeles on either side of them, and so forth.
It is evident from an inspection of figs. 16 and x; that every
ANTHOZOA
septum is. covered by a fold of endoderm, mesogloea, and
ectoderm, and is in fact pushed into the cavity of the zooid from
without. The zooid then is, as it were, moulded upon the
coralhim. When fully extended, the upper part of the zooid
projects for some distance out of the calide, and its wall is
reflected for some distance over the Up of the latter, forming a
fold of soft tissue extending to a greater or less, distance over the
theca, and containing in most cases a cavity continuous over the Up
of the calide with the coelenteron. This fold of tissue is known as
the edge -zone. InsOmecoralsthescptaaresoHdimperforateplatcsof
calcite, and their peripheral ends are either firmly welded together,
or are united by interstitial pieces so as to form imperforate
theca. In others the peripheral ends of the septa are united only
by bars or trabecular, so that the theca is perforate, and in many
such perforate corab the septa themselves are pierced by
numerous perforations. In the former, which have been called
IO3
Fio. 18. -tv -
A. Schematic longitudinal section through a zooid and bud of
Styiopkora digitate. In A, B, and C the thick black lines represent
the soft tissues; the corallum is dotted. J, Stomodaeum; c, €,
coenosarc ; col, columella ; T tabulae.
B. Similar section through a single zooid and bud of Astroides
coiictdaris.
C. Similar section through three corallites of Lophoheha proHfera.
a. Edge-zone.
D. Diagram illustrating the process of budding by unco.ua! division.
E» Section through a dividing calide of Afusta, showing the union
of two septa in the plane of division, and the origin of new septa at
right angles to them.
(C original; the rest after von Koch.)
aporose corals, the only communication between the cavity of
the edge-zone and the general cavity of the zooid is by way of the
Up of the calicle; in the latter, or perforate corab, the theca is
permeated by numerous branching and anastomosing canals
lined by endoderm, which place the cavity of the edge-zone in
communication with the general cavity of the zooid.
A large number of corab, both aporose and perforate, are
colonial. The colonies are produood by either budding or divi-
sion In the former case the young daughter zooid, with its
corallum. arises wholly outside the cavity of the parent zooid,
and the component parts of the young corallum, septa, theca,
columella, &c, are formed anew fn every individual produced.
In division a vertical constriction divides a zooid into two equal
or unequal parts, and the several parts of the two corab thus
produced are severally derived from the corresponding parts of
the dividing corallum. In colonial corab a bud is always formed
from the edge-zone, and this bud develops into a new zooid
with its corallum. The cavity of the bud in an aporose coral
(fig, 18, A, O does not communicate directly with that of the
parent form, but through the medium of the edge-zone. As
growth proceeds, and parent and bud become separated farther
from one another, the edge-zone forms a sheet of soft tissue,
bridging over the space between the two, and resting upon
projecting spines of the corallum. This sheet of tissue b calied
the coenosarc. Its lower surface b clothed with a layer of
ealicoblasts which continue to secrete carbonate of lime, giving
rise to a secondary deposit which more or less filb up the spaces
between the individual coralla, and b distinguished as coetten-
chymc. This coenenchyme may be scanty, or may be so abundant
that the individual corallites produced by budding seem to be
immersed in it. Budding takes place in an analogous manner
in perforate corab (fig. 18, B), but the presence of the canal
system in the perforate theca leads to a modification of the pro-
cess. B uds arise from the edge-zone which already communicate
with the cavity of the zooid by the canals. As the buds develop
the canal system becomes much extended, and calcareous tissue
is deposited between the network of canals, the confluent* edge*
zones of mother zooid and bud forming a coenosarc. Aa the
process continues a number of calides are formed, imbedded in
a spongy tissue m which the canals ramify, and it b impossible
to say where the theca of one coralh'te ends and that of another
begins. In the formation of colonies by division a constriction
at right angles to the long axis of the mouth involves first the
mouth, then the peristome, and finally the calyx itself, so that
the previously single coralh'te becomes divided into two (fig. 18,
E). After division the corallites continue to grow upwards, and
their zooids may remain united by a bridge of soft tissue or
coenosarc. But in some cases, as they grow farther apart, thb
continuity b broken, each corallite has its own edge-zone, and
internal continuity b abo broken by the formation- of dissepi-
ments within each calicle, all organic connexion between the
two zooids being eventually lost. Massive meandrine corab are
produced by continual repetition of a process of incomplete
division, involving the mouth and to some extent the peristome:
the calyx, however, does not divide, but elongates to form a
characteristic meandrine channel containing several zooid mouths.
Corals have been divided into A porosa and Perforata, according
as the theca and septa are compact and solid, or are perforated
by pores containing canab Uned by endoderm. The division
b in many respects convenient for descriptive purposes, but
recent researches show that it does not accurately represent the
relationships of the different families. Various attempts have
been made to classify corals according to the arrangement of the
septa, the characters of the theca, the microscopic structure of
the corallum, and the anatomy of the soft parts. The last-
named method has proved little more than that there is a remark-
able similarity between the zooids of all recent corals, the
differences which have been brought to light being for the most
part secondary and valueless for classificatory purposes. On the
other hand, the study of the anatomy and development of the
zooids has thrown much light upon the manner in which the
corallum b formed, and it b now possible to infer the structure
of the soft parts from a microscopical examination of the septa,
theca, &c, with the result that unexpected relationships have
been shown to exbt between corab previously supposed to
stand far apart Thb has been particularly the case with the
group of Palaeozoic corab formerly daased together as Rmgosa.
In many of these so-called rugose forms the septa have a char-
acteristic arrangement, differing from that of recent corab
chiefly in the fact that they show a tetrameral instead of a
hexameral symmetry. Thus in the family Stavridat there are
four chief septa whose Inner' ends unite in the middle of the
calide to form a false columella, and in the Zaphrentidae there
are many instances of an arrangement, such as that depicted
in fig. 19, which represents the septal arrangement of Streptelasma
corniculum from the lower Silurian. In thb coral the calicle b
divided into quadrants by four prindpal septa, the main septum,
counter septum, and two alar septa. The remaining septa are so
disposed that in the quadrants abutting on the chief septum
they converge towards that septum, whibt In the other quadrants
they converge towards the alar septa. The secondary septa show
a regular gradation in size, and, assuming that the smallest were
the most recently formed, It will be noticed that in the chief
quadrants the youngest septa lie nearest to the main septum,
104
ANTHOZOA
Fig. io. — Diagram of the arrange-
ment of the septa in a Zaphrentid coral.
m. Main septum;
f, J, alar septa.
, counter septum;
in the other quadrants the youngest sept* lie nearest to the alar
septa. This arrangement, however, is by no means characteristic
even of the Zaphrentidae, and in the family Cyathophyllidae
most of the genera exhibit a radial symmetry in which no trace
of the bilateral arrangement described above is recognizable,
and indeed in the genus Cyatkophyllum itself a radial arrangement
is the rule. The connexion between the Cyathophyllidae and
modern Astraeidae is shown by MoseUya latisUllata, a living
reef-building coral from Torres Strait. The general structure
of this coral -leaves no doubt that it is closely allied to the
Astraeidae, but in the young calicles a tetrameral symmetry
is indicated by the presence of four large septa placed at right
angles to one another. Again, in the family Ampkiaslraeidae
there is commonly a single septum much larger than the rest,
and it has been shown that in the young calicles, e.g. of Thccidio-
smilia, two septa, corresponding to the main- and counter-septa
of Streptelasma, are first
formed, then two alar
septa, and afterwards
the remaining septa,
the latter taking on a
generally radial arrange-
t ment, though the original
bilaterality is marked
by the preponderance of
the main septum. As
the microscopic char-
acter of the corallum of
these extinct forms
agrees with that of re-
cent corals, it may be
assumed that the anat-
omy of the soft parts
also was similar, and
the tetrameral arrange-
ment, when present,
may obviously be referred to a stage when only the first two
pairs of Edwaidsian mesenteries were present and septa were
formed in the intervals between them.
Space forbids a discussion of the proposals to classify corals
after the minute structure of their coralla, but it will suffice
to say that it has been shown that the septa of all corals are built
up of a number of curved bars called trabeculae, each of which
is composed of a number of nodes. In many secondary corals
(Cyclolites, Thamnaslrcea) the trabeculae are so far separate
that the individual bars are easily recognizable, and each looks
something like a bamboo owing to the thickening of the two
ends of each node. The trabeculae are united together by these
thickened intercedes, and the result is a fenestrated septum,
which in older septa may become solid and aporose by continual
deposit of caltite in the fenestrae. Each node of a trabecula
may be simple, i.e. have only one centre of calcification, or may
be compound. The septa of modern perforate corals are shown
to have a structure nearly identical with that of the secondary
forms, but the trabeculae and their nodes are only apparent on
microscopical examination. The aporose corals, too, have a
practically identical structure, their compactness being due to
the union of the trabeculae throughout their entire lengths in-
stead of at intervals, as in the Perforata. Further, the trabeculae
may be evenly spaced throughout the septum, or may be grouped
together, and this feature is probably of value in estimating the
affinities of corals. (For an account of coral formations see
CORAL-REEFS.)
In the present state of our knowledge the Zoantharia in which
a primary cycle of six couples of mesenteries is (or may be inferred
to be) completed by the addition of two pairs to the eight
Edwardsian mesenteries, and succeeding cycles are formed in
the exococles of the pre-existing mesenterial cycles, may be classed
in an order Actiniidea, and this may be divided into the sub-
orders Malacoctinioe, comprising the soft-bodied Aclinians,
such as Actinia, Sogarlia, Bunodes, to:., and the Scleractiniae,
comprising the corals. The Sderactiniae may best be divided
into groups of families which appear to be most closely related
to one another, but it should not be forgotten that there is great
reason to believe that many if not most of the extinct corals
must have differed from modern Actiniidea in mesenterial
characters, and may have only possessed Edwardsian mesenteries,
or even have possessed only four mesenteries, in this respect
showing close affinities to the Stauromedusae. Moreover,
there are some modern corals in which the secondary cycle
of mesenteries departs from the Actinian plan. For example,
J. E. Duerden has shown that in PoriUs the ordinary zooids
possess only six couples of mesenteries arranged on the Actinian
plan. But some zooids grow to a larger size and develop a number
of additional mesenteries, which arise either in the sulcar or.
the sulcular entocoele, much in the same manner as in Cerianthus.
Bearing this in mind, the following arrangement may be taken
to represent the most recent knowledge of coral structure.-—
Family f. Zaphrbntidab.— Solitary Palaeozoic corals with an
epithecai wall. Septa numerous, arranged. pinnately with regard to
four principal septa. Tabulae present. One or more pits or fossulae
present in the calicle. Typical genera— Zaphrentis.Ktt. AmpUxms,
M. Ed*-, and H. Streptelasmo, Hall. Ompkymo. Raf.
Family 2. Turdi noli dab. —Solitary, rarely colonial corals, with
radially arranged septa and without tabulae. Typical genera—
FUxbdfum, Lesson. Twbindia. M. Edw. and H. CaryophyUia,
Lamarck. SphenolrocKus, Moseley, Ac,
Family x. Amphiastrabidab.— Mainly colonial, rarely solitary
corals, wito radial septa, but bilateral arrangement indicated by
persistence of a main septum. Typical genera — Ampkiastraea,
Etallon. Thtcidiosmilui.
Family 4. Styldhdae.— Colonial corals allied to the Amphi-
astracidae, but with radially symmetrical septa arranged in cycles.
Typical genera — StyHna. Lamarck (Jurassic). Comexastrota, D Orb.
(Jurassic). Isastraea, M. Edwi and H. (Jurassic). Ogilvie refers the
modern genus Galaxta to this family.
Oroup*.
Family 5. Oculinidae.— Branching or massive aporose corals*
the calices projecting above the level of a compact coenenchyme
formed from the coenosarc which covers the exterior of the corallum.
Typical genen—Lopkohelio, M. Edw. and H. Oculina, M. Edw.
Family 6. Pocilloporidab. — Colonial branching aporose corals,
... " - - ~ ' ulae 1
trger septa, an axial and abaxuu, are always .
traces of ten smaller septa. Typical genera — Pocwopora, Lamarck.
two larger septa, an axial and
enenchyr
abaxiaJ,
i present, and
> present, with
Serialobora, Lamarck.
Family 7. Madrbporidab. — Colonial branching or palmate
perforate corals, with abundant trabecular coenenchyme. Theca
porous; septa compact and reduced in number. Typical genera—
Madrepora, Linn. Turbinario, Oken. Monlipora, Quoy and G.
Family 8. Poritidab. — Incrusting or massive colonial perforate
corals; calices usually in contact by their edges, sometimes disjunct
and immersed in coenenchyme. Theca and septa perforate. Typical
genera— Forties, M. Edw. and H. Coniopora, Quoy and G. Mud*'
rata, M. Edw. and H.
Family 9. Cyathophyllidae —Solitary and colonial aporose
corals. Tabulae and vesicular endotheca present. Septa numerous,
Snerally radial, seldom pinnate. Typical genera— CyothopkyUu at,
>ldfuss (Devonian and Carboniferous). Moseleya, Quekh (recent).
Family 10. Astraeidae. — Aporose, mainly colonial corals,
massive, branching, or macanaroid. Septa radial; dissepiments
f>rescnt ; an epitheca surrounds the base of massive or maeandrotd
orms, but only surrounds individual corallites in simple or branching
forms. Typical genera — Goniastraea, M. Edw. and H. HtUastroca,
M. Edw. and H. Matandrina, Lam. Coeloria, M. Edw. and H.
Favia, Oken.
Family 11. Fungi dab.— Solitary and colonial corals, with
numerous radial septa united by synaptkulae. Typical genera—
Lophoicru, M. Edw. and H. Tkammastrata, Le Sauvage. Lepto-
pkytlta, Reuaft (Jurassic and Cretaceous). Fu*gia, Dana. Stder-
aslrata, Blainv.
OroupD.
Family 13. Eupsammidae.— Solitary or colonial perforate corals,
branching, massive, or encrusting. Septa radial ; the Drimary septa
usually compact, the remainder perforate. Theca perforate. Synap-
licula present in some genera. Typical genern—SttpkonophyUui*
Mkhcho. Eupsammia, M. Edw. and H. Astroides, Blainv. Rhodop-
sammia, M. Edw. and H. DcndrophyUia, M. Edw. and H.
OteupE.
Family 13. Cystiphylltd as.— Solitary corals with rudimentary
septa, and the calicle filled with vesicular endotheca. Genera—
ANTHRACENE— ANTHRACITE
Cy^kyOutm, Lonsdale (Saurian and Devonian). G***pkyllum,
M. Edw. and H. (In this Silurian genua the calyx is provided with a
movable operculum, consisting of four paired triangular pieces, the
bases of each being attached to the sides of the calyx, and their apices
■ fetin g in the middle when the operculum is dosed). Caueda,
Lam. (In this Devonian genus there is a single semicircular oper-
culum furnished with a stout median septum and numerous feebly
dc nJo oed secondary septa. The calyx is triangular in section,
pointed below, and the operculum is attached to it by hinge-like
leech.)
Autboutxb he
more importai ad
classification ol liy
the works marl es,
Fkttaa mnd ft* d,
" Catalogue of >),
«. (1897); *C r.
Trtatu* 0U Zt tt-
Uufer Report! it.
MadrepL Corah >rt
' i Nc ix.
E. nd
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AJITHRACBfB (from the Greek Arfpag, coal), CuHu, a
hydrocarbon obtained from the fraction of the coal-tar distillate
boiling between 270° and 400° C. This high boiling fraction is
allowed to stand for some days, when it partially solidifies. It is
then separated in a centrifugal machine, the low melting-point
imparities are removed by means of hot water, and the residue
b finally hot-pressed. The crude anthracene cake is purified
by treatment with the higher pyridine bases, the operation being
carried oat in large steam-jacketed boilers. The whole mass
dissolves on heating, and the anthracene crystallizes out on
cooling. The crystallised anthracene is then removed by a
centrifugal separator and the process of solution in the pyridine
bases is repeated. Finally the anthracene is purified by sub-
limation.
Many synthetical processes for the preparation of anthracene
and its derivatives are known. It Is formed by the condensation
of acetylene tetrabromide with benzene in the presence of
fjnminii im chloride?—
io S
BrCHBr
QH.+ I +C,rWHBr+C,H
Br-CHBr
<2> gh *
and similarly from methylene dibromide and benzene, and also
when benzyl chloride is heated with aluminium chloride to
300* C. By condensing ortho-brombenzyl bromide with sodium,
C. L. Jackson and J. F. White (Ber., 1879, 12, p. 1965) obtained
dihydro-anthracene
OH4<g I » Br +4Na+ BrC gj>CJf4-4NaBr-K«H4<^{};>C,H*.
Anthracene has also been obtained by heating ortho-tolylphenyl
ketone with zinc dust
q <^h7 h * +gh, <S> c ' h '-
Anthracene crystallises In colourless monodinic tables which
show a fine blue fluorescence. It melts at 213* C. and boils
at 3 51* C. It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol
and ether, but readily soluble In hot benzene. It unites with
C*H.<Q >C*HjOH (o) and (/J).
picric add to form a picrate, C M H»C.B, (NO,)rOH, which
crystallizes in needles, melting at 138° C. On exposure to
sunlight a solution of anthracene in benzene or xylene
deposits para-anthracene (Ci«H M )t, which melts at 244° C.
and passes back into the ordinary form. Chlorine and
bromine form both addition and substitution products with
anthracene; the addition product, anthracene dichloride,
CmHmCI*, being formed when chlorine is passed into a cold
solution of anthracene in carbon bisulphide. On treatment
with potash, it forms the substitution product, monochlor-
anthracene, CmH#C1. Nitro-anthracenes are not as yet
known. f The mono-osyanthracenes (anthfols), CuHsOH or
resemble the phenols, whilst
C * H< \ r L /€***• (?) (anthranol) is a reduction product of
anthraquinone. 0-anthrol and anthranol give the corresponding
amino compounds (anthramtnes) when heated with ammonia.
Numerous sulphonic acids of anthracene arc known, a mono-
sulphonic add being obtained with dilute sulphuric add, whilst
concentrated sulphuric add produces mixtures of the anthracene
disulphonic adds. By the action of sodium amalgam on an
alcoholic solution of anthracene, an anthracene dihydride,
C M Hu, is obtained, whilst by the use of stronger rcduting agents,
such as hydriodic add and amorphous phosphorus, hydrides
of composition C M H,« and Ci«H M arc produced.
Methyl and phenyl anthracenes are known; phenyl anthranol
(phthalidin) being somewhat dosdy related to the phcnol-
phthaJeins (q.v.). Oxidizing agents convert anthracene into
anthraquinone (q.v.); the production of this substance by oxidiz-
ing anthracene in gladal acetic add solution, with chromic acid,
is t he us ual method employed for the estimation of anthracene.
ANTHRACITE (Gr. MpaZ, coal), a term applied to those
varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon
vapours when heated below thrir point of ignition; or, in other
words, which burn with a smokeless and nearly non-luminous
flame. Other terms having the same meaning are, " stone coal "
(not to be confounded with the German Steinkohlc) or " blind
coal " in Scotland, and " Kilkenny coal " in Ireland. The im-
perfect anthradte of north Devon, which however is only used
as a pigment, is known as culm, the same term being used in
geological dassification to distinguish the strata in which it is
found, and similar strata in the Rhenish hill countries which are
known as the Culm Measures. In America, culm is used as an
equivalent for waste or slack in anthradte mining.
Physically, anthradte differs from ordinary bituminous coal by
its greater hardness, higher density, 1-3-1 -4, and lustre, the latter
being often semi-metallic with a somewhat brownish reflection.
It is also free from induded soft or fibrous notches and does
not soil the fingers when rubbed. Structurally it shows some
alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and
fissures so that the original stratification lines are not always
easily seen. The thermal conductivity is also higher, a lump of
anthradte feeling perceptibly colder when held in the warm
hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same tempera-
ture. The chemical composition of some typical anthradtes is
given in the artidc Com*
Anthradte may be considered to be a transition stage between
ordinary bituminous coal and graphite, produced by the more or
less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the
former; and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been
subjected to considerable earth-movements, such as the flanks
of great mountain ranges. The largest and most important
anthradte region, that of the north-eastern portion of the Penn-
sylvania coal-fidd, is a good example of this; the highly con
torted strata of the Appalachian region produce anthradte
exdusivdy, while in the western portion of the same basin on
the Ohio and its tributaries', where the strata are undisturbed,
free-burning and coking coals, rich in volatile matter, prevail. In
the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined
to the contorted portion west of Swansea and Uanelly, the
io6
ANTHRAOOTHEWUM— ANTHRAX
central and eastern portioni producing steam, cokinf and
house coals.
Anthracites of newer, tertiary or cretaceous age, are found in
the Crow's Nest part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada, and
at various points in the Andes in Peru.
The principal use of anthracite is as a smokeless fuel. In the
eastern United States, it is largely employed as domestic fuel,
usually in close stoves or furnaces, as well as for steam purposes,
since, unlike that from South Wales, it does not decrepitate when
heated, or at least not to the same extent. For proper use, however,
it is necessary that the fuel should be supplied in pieces as nearly
uniform in sire as possible, a condition that has led to the develop-
ment of the breaker which is so characteristic a feature in American
anthradte mining (see Coal). t The large coal as raised from the
mine is passed through breakers with toothed rolls to reduce the
lumps to smaller pieces, which are separated into different sizes
by a system of graduated sieves, placed in descending order.
Each size can be perfectly well burnt alone on an appropriate
grate, if kept free from larger or smaller admixtures. The
common American classification is as follows: —
Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three
sizes, all three being above i J in. size on round-hole screens.
Chestnut below ij inch above {inch.
Pea . it I •• ft A »t
Buckwheat „ A „ „ J „
Rice .. I .. „ A .,
Barley „ A .. „ A „
From the pea size downwards the principal use is for steam
purposes. In South Wales a less elaborate classification is
adopted; but great care is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning
the coal from included particles of pyrites in the higher qualities
known as best malting coals, which are used for kiln-drying
mall and hops.
Formerly, anthracite was largely used, both in America and
South Wales, as blast-furnace fuel for iron smelting, but for this
purpose it has been largely superseded by coke in the former
country and entirely in the latter. An important application
has, however, been developed in the extended use of internal
combustion motors driven by the so-called "mixed," "poor,"
" semi-water " or " Dowson gas " produced by the gasification
of anthracite with air and a small proportion of steam. This
is probably the most economical method of obtaining power
known; with an engine as small as 15 horse-power the expendi-
ture of fuel is at the rate of only x lb per horse-power hour, and
with larger engines it is proportionately less. Large quantities of
anthradte for power purposes are now exported from South
Wales to France, Switzerland and parts of Germany. (H. B.)
ANTHRACOTHBRIUM ("coal-animal," so called from the
fact of the remains first described having been obtained from
the Tertiary lignite-beds of Europe), a genus of extinct artio-
dactyle ungulate mammals, characterized by having 44 teeth,
with five semi-crescentic cusps on the crowns of the upper
molars. In many respects, especially the form of the lower jaw,
Antkracothcrium, which is of Oligoccne and Miocene age in
Europe, and typifies the family Anihracotheriidae, is allied to the
hippopotamus, of which it is probably an ancestral form. The
European A. magnum was as large as the last-mentioned animal,
but there were several smaller species and the genus also occurs
in Egypt, India and North America. (See Artiodactyla.)
ANTHRAQUINOHE, C M H,0,, an important derivative of
anthracene, first prepared in 1 834 by A. Laurent. It is prepared
commercially from anthracene by stirring a sludge of anthracene
and water in horizontal cylinders with a mixture of sodium
bichromate and caustic soda. This suspension is then run through
a conical mill in order to remove all grit, the cones of the mill
fitting so tightly that water cannot pass through unless the mill is
running; the speed of the mill when working is about 3000
revolutions per minute. After this treatment, the mixture is
run into lead-lined vats and treated with sulphuric acid, steam
is blown through the mixture in order to bring it to the boil, and
the anthracene is rapidly oxidized to anthraquinone. When the
oxidation is complete, the anthraquinone is separated in a filter
pitas, washed and heated to iao° C. with commercial oil of
vitriol, using about i\ parts of vitriol to 1 of anthraquinone.
It is then removed to lead-lined tanks and again washed with
water and dried; the product obtained contains about 95 % of
anthraquinone. It may be purified by sublimation. Various
synthetic processes have been used for the preparation of anthra-
quinone. A. Behr and W. A. v. Dorp (Bo-., 1874,7,^578) obtained
orthobenzoyl benzoic acid by heating phthalic anhydride with
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. This compound
on heating with phosphoric anhydride loses water and yields
anthraquinone,
It may be prepared in a similar manner by heating pbthalyl
chloride with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride.
Dioxy- and tetraoxy-anthraquinonesareobtained when meta-oxy-
and dimeta-dioxy-benzoic adds are heated with concentrated
sulphuric add.
Anthraquinone crystallizes in yellow needles or prisms, which
melt at 277° C. It is soluble in hot benzene, sublimes easily, and
is very stable towards oxidizing agents. On the other hand,
it is readily attacked by reducing agents. With zinc dust in
presence of caustic soda it yields the secondary alcohol oxan-
thranol, Ctffc: CO CHOH : QH4, with tin and hydrochloric acid,
the phenolic compound anthranci, Qffc: COC(OH): GA; and
with hydriodic add at 150° C. or on distillation with zinc dust,
the hydrocarbon anthracene, C u Hn. When fused with caustic
potash, it gives benzoic add. It behaves more as a ketone than
as a quinone, since with hydroxylamine it yields an oxhne, and on
reduction with zinc dust and caustic soda it yields a secondary
alcohol, whilst it cannot be reduced by means of sulphurous
add. Various sulphonic adds of anthraquinone are known, as
well as oxy-derivatives, for the preparation and properties of
which see Auzaein.
ANTHRAX (the Greek for " coal," or " carbunde," so called
by the andents because they regarded it as burning like coal;
cf. the French equivalent ckarbon', also known as Jiivrt char'
bonntusc, Milxbrand, splenic fever, and malignant pustule), an
acute, specific, infectious, virulent disease, caused by the Bacillus
anlkracu, in animals, chiefly cattle, sheep and horses, and
frequently occurring in workers in the wool or hair, as well as in
those handling the hides or carcases, of beasts which have been
affected.
Animals.— As affecting wild as well as domesticated animals
and man, anthrax has been widely diffused in one or more of its
forms, over the surface of the globe. It at times decimates the
reindeer herds in Lapland and the Polar regions, and is only too
well known in the tropics and in temperate latitudes. It has
been observed and described in Russia, Siberia, Central Asia,
China, Cochin-China, Egypt, West Indies, Peru, Paraguay,
Brazil, Mexico, and other parts of North and South America, in
Australia, and on different parts of the African continent, while
for other European countries the writings which have been
published with regard to its nature, its peculiar characteristics,
and the injury it inflicts are innumerable. Countries in which
are extensive marshes, or the subsoil of which is tenadous or
impermeable, are usually those most frequently and seriously
visited. Thus there have been regions notorious for its preval-
ence, such as the marshes of Sologne, Dombes and Bresse in
France; certain parts of Germany, Hungary and Poland; in
Spain the half-submerged valleys and the maritime coasts of
Catalonia, as well as the Romagna and other marshy districts of
Italy; while it is epizootic, and even panzootic, in the swampy
regions of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and especially of Siberia,
where it is known as the Sibirskaja jaswa (Siberian boil-plague).
The records of anthrax go back to a very andent date. It is
supposed to be the murrain of Exodus. Classical writers allude
to anthrax as if it were the only cattle disease worthy of
mention (see Virgil, Georg. iiL). It figures largely in the history
of the early and middle ages as a devastating pestilence attack-
ing animals, and through them mankind; the oldest Anglo-
Saxon manuscripts contain many fantastic ledpes, leechdoosa,
ANTHRAX
107
charms and incantations for the prevention or cure of the
M bfecan blezene " (black blain) and the relief of the " elfshot "
creatures. In the 18th and 19th centuries it sometimes spread
like an epizootic over the whole of Europe, from Siberia to
France. It was in this malady that disease-producing germs
(bacteria) were first discovered, in 1840, by Pollender of Wipper-
fOrth, and, independently, by veterinary surgeon Brauell of
Dorpat, and their real character afterwards verified by C. J.
Davaine (1813-1883) of Alfort in 1863; and it was in their,
experiments with this disease that Toussaint, Pasteur and
J. B. Chauveau first showed how to make the morbific poison its
own antidote. (See Vivisection.)
The symptoms vary with the 6pecies of animal, the mode of
infection, and the seat of the primary lesion, internal or external.
In all its forms anthrax is an inoculable disease, transmission
being surely and promptly effected by this means, and it may be
conveyed to nearly all animals by inoculation of a wound of the
skin or through the digestive organs. Cattle, sheep and horses.
nearly always owe their infection to spores or bacilli ingested
with their food or water, and pigs usually contract the disease by
eating the flesh of animals dead of anthrax.
Internal anthrax, of cattle and sheep, exhibits no premonitory
symptoms that can be relied on. Generally the first indication
of an outbreak is the sudden death of one or more of the herd or
flock. Animals which do not die at once may be noticed to
stagger and tremble; the breathing becomes hurried and the
pulse very rapid, while the heart beats violently, the internal
temperature of the body is high, 104° to 106 s F -, blood oozes
from the nose, mouth and anus, the •visible mucous membranes
axe dusky or almost black. TheaniraaJ becomes weak and list-
less, the temperature falls and death supervenes in a few hours,
being immediately preceded by delirium, convulsions or coma.
While death is usually rapid or sudden when the malady is
general, constituting what is designated splenic apoplexy,
internal anthrax in cattle is not invariably fatal. In some cases
the animal rallies from a first attack and gradually recovers.
In the external or localised form, marked by the formation
of carbuncles before general infection takes place, death may
not occur for several days. The carbuncles may appear in any
part of the body, being, preceded or accompanied by fever.
They are developed in the subcutaneous connective tissue
where this is loose and plentiful, in the interstices of the muscles,
lymphatic glands, in the mucous membranes of the mouth and
tongue (gfoaaanthrax of cattle), pharynx and larynx (anthrax
angina of horses and pigs), and the rectum. They begin as
small circumscribed swellings which are warm, slightly painful
and cedematous. In from two to eight hours they attain • con-
siderable sue, are cold, painless and gangrenous, and when
they are incised a quantity of a blood-stained gelatinous exudate
escapes. When the swellings have attained certain proportions
symptoms of general infection appear, and, running their course
with great rapidity, cause death in a few hours. Anthrax of the
horse usually begins as an affection of the throat or bowel. In
the former there is rapid obstructive oedema of the mucous
membrane of the pharynx and larynx with swelling of the throat
and neck, fever, salivation, difficulty in swallowing, noisy
breathing, frothy discharge from the nose and threatening
suffocation. General invasion soon ensues, and the horse may
die in from four to sixteen hours. The intestinal form is marked
by high temperature, great prostration, small thready pulse,,
tumultuous action of the heart, laboured breathing and symptoms
of abdominal pain with straining and diarrhoea. When moved
the horse staggers and trembles. Profuse sweating, a faffing
temperature and cyanotic mucous membranes indicate the
approach of a fatal termination.
In splrnfe fever or splenic apoplexy, the most marked altera-
Clons observed after death are— the effects of rapid decomposi-
tion, evidenced by the foul odour, disengagement of gas beneath
the skin and in the tissues and cavities of the body, yellow or
yeOowtsh-red gelatinous exudation into and between the muscles,
effusion of dtron or rust-coloured fluid in various cavities,
extravasations of blood and local congestions throughout the
body, the blood in the vessels generally being very dark and
tar-like. The most notable feature, however, in the majority of
cases is the enormous enlargement of the spleen, which is en-
gorged with blood to such an extent that it often ruptures, while
its tissue is changed into a violet or black fluid mass.
The bacillus of anthrax, under certain conditions, retains its
vitality for a long time, and rapidly grows when it finds a suitable
field in which to develop, its mode of multiplication being by
scission and the formation of spores, and depending, to a great
extent at least, on the presence of oxygen. The morbid action
of the bacillus is indeed said to be due to its affinity for oxygen;
by depriving the red corpuscles of the blood of that moat essential
gas, it renders the vital fluid unfit to sustain life. Albert Hoffa
and others assert that the fatal lesions are produced by the
poisonous action of the toxins formed by the bacilli and not by
the blocking up of the minute blood-vessels, or the abstraction
of oxygen from the blood by the bacilli.
It was by the cultivation of this micro-organism, or attenuation
of the virus, that Pasteur was enabled to produce a prophylactic
remedy for anthrax. His discovery was first made with regard
to the cholera of fowls, a most destructive disorder which
annually carries off great numbers of poultry. Pasteur produced
his inoculation material by the cultivation of the bacilli at 2
temperature of 42* C. in oxygen. Two vaccines are required.
The first or weak vaccine is obtained by incubating a bouillon
culture for twenty-four days at 4a C, and the second or less
attenuated vaccine by incubating a bouillon culture, at the samp
temperature, for twelve days. Pasteur's method of protective
inoculation comprises two inoculations with an interval of twelve
days between them. Immunity, established in about fifteen
days after the injection of the second vaccine, lasts from nine
months to a year.
Toussaint had, previous to Pasteur, attenuated the virus of
anthrax by the action of heat; and Chauveau subsequently
corroborated by numerous experiments the value of Toussaint's
method, demonstrating that, according to the degree of heat
to which the virus is subjected, so is its inoeuousness when
transferred to a healthy creature. In outbreaks of anthrax on
farms where many animals are exposed to infection immediate
temporary protection can be conferred by the injection of
anthrax serum.
Human Beings. — For many years cases of sudden death had
been observed to occur from time to time among healthy men
engaged in woollen manufactories, particularly in the work of
sorting or combing wool. In some instances death appeared to
be due to the direct inoculation of some poisonous material into
the body, for a form of malignant pustule was observed upon
the skin; but, on the other hand, in not a few cases without any
external manifestation, symptoms of blood-poisoning, often
proving rapidly fatal, suggested the probability of other channels
for the introduction of the disease. In 1880 the occurrence of
several such cases among woolsorters at Bradford, reported
by Dr J. H. Bell of that town, led to an official inquiry in England
by the Local Government Board, and an elaborate investigation
into the pathology of what was then called " woolsorters* disease "
was at the same time conducted at the Brown Institution, London,
by Professor W. S. Greenfield. Among the results of this inquiry
it was ascertained: (1) that the disease appeared to be identical
with that occurring among sheep and cattle; (a) that in the blood
and tissues of the body was found in abundance, as in the disease
in animals, the Bacillus antkracis, and (3) that the skins, hair,
wool, &c, of animals dying of anthrax retain this infecting
organism, which, under certain conditions, finds ready access
to the bodies of the Workers.
Two well-marked forms of this disease In man are recognized,
" external anthrax " and " internal anthrax." In external
anthrax the infecting agent la accidentally inoculated into some
portion of skin, the seat of a slight abrasion, often the hand,
arm or face. A minute swelling soon appears at the part, and
develops into a vesicle containing serum or bloody matter,
and varying in size, but seldom larger than a shilling. This
vesicle speedily bursts and leaves an ulcerated or sloughing
io8
ANTHROPOID APES—ANTHROPOLOGY
surface, round about which ait numerous smaller resides which
undergo similar changes, and the whole affected part becomes
hard and tender, while the surrounding surface participates
in the inflammatory action, and the neighbouring lymphatic
glands are also inflamed. This condition, termed " malignant
pustule," is frequently accompanied with severe constitutional
disturbance, in the form of fever, delirium, perspirations, together
with great prostration and a tendency to death from septicaemia,
although on the other hand recovery is not uncommon. It
was repeatedly found that die matter taken from the vesicle
during the progress of the disease, as well as the blood in the
body after death, contained the Bacillus antkracis, and when
inoculated into small animals produced rapid death, with all
the symptoms and post-mortem appearances characteristic of
the disease as known to affect them.
In internal anthrax there is no visible local manifestation
of the disease, and the spores or bacilli appear to gain access
to the system from the air charged with them, as in rooms where
the contaminated wool or hair is unpacked, or again during
the process of sorting. The symptoms usually observed are those
of rapid physical prostration, with a small pulse, somewhat
lowered temperature (rarely fever), and quickened breathing.
Examination of the chest reveals inflammation of the lungs and
pleura. In some cases death takes place by collapse in less
than one day, while in others the fatal issue is postponed for
three or four days, and is preceded by symptoms of blood-
poisoning, including rigors, perspirations, extreme exhaustion,
&c. In some cases of internal anthrax the symptoms are more
intestinal than pulmonary, and consist in severe exhausting
diarrhoea, with vomiting and rapid sinking. Recovery from
the internal variety, although not unknown, is more rare than
from the external, and its most striking phenomena are its sudden
onset in the midst of apparent health, the rapid development
of physical prostration, and its tendency to a fatal termination
despite treatment. The post-mortem appearances In internal
anthrax are such as are usually observed in septicaemia, but in
addition evidence of extensive inflammation of the lungs, pleura
and bronchial glands has in most cases been met with. The
blood and other fluids and the diseased tissues are found loaded
with the Bacillus anihrocis.
Treatment in this disease appears to be of but little avail,
except as regards the external form, where the malignant pustule
may be excised or dealt with early by strong caustics to destroy
the affected textures. For the relief of the general constitutional
symptoms, quinine, stimulants and strong nourishment appear
to be the only available means. An anti-anthrax scrum has
also been tried. As preventive measures in woollen manu-
factories, the disinfection of suspicious material, or the wetting
of it before handling, is recommended as lessening the risk to
the workers. (J. Mac)
ANTHROPOID APES, or Manlike Apes, the name given to
the family of the Simiidae, because, of all the ape-world, they
most closely resemble man. This family includes four kinds,
the gibbons of S. E. Asia, the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra,
the gorillas of W. Equatorial Africa, and the chimpanzees of
W. and Central Equatorial Africa. Each of these apes resembles
man most in some one physical characteristic: the gibbons
In the formation of the teeth, the orangs in the brain-structure,
the gorillas in sue, and the chimpanzees in the sigmoid flexure of
the spine. In general structure they all closely resemble human
beings, as in the absence of tails; in their semi-erect position
(resting on finger-tips or knuckles); in the shape of vertebral
column, sternum and pelvis; in the adaptation of the arms
for turning the palm uppermost at will; in the possession of a
long vermiform appendix to the short caecum of the intestine;
in the size of the cerebral hemispheres and the complexity of
their convolutions. They differ in certain respects, as in the pro-
portion of the limbs, in the bony development of the eyebrow
ridges, and in the opposable great toe, which fits the foot to be
a climbing and grasping organ.
Man differs from them in the absence of a hairy coat; in the
development of a large lobule to the external ear; in his fully
erect attitude; in his flattened foot with the non-opposable
great toe; in the straight limb-bones; in the wider pelvis;
in the marked sigmoid flexure of his spine; in the perfection
of the muscular movements of the arm; in the delicacy of hand;
in the smallness of the canine teeth and other dental peculiarities;
in the development of a chin; and in the small size of his jaws
compared to the relatively great size of the cranium. Together
with man and the baboons, the anthropoid apes form the group
known to science as Catarhini, those, that is, possessing a
narrow nasal septum, and are thus easily distinguishable from
the flat-nosed monkeys or Platyrhini. The anthropoid apes are
arboreal and confined to the Old World. They arc of special
interest from the important place assigned to them in the
arguments of Darwin and the Evolutionists. It is generally
admitted now that no fundamental anatomical difference can
be proved to exist between these higher apes and man, but it
is equally agreed that none probably of the Simiidae is in the
direct line of human ancestry. There is a great gap to be bridged
between the highest anthropoid and the lowest man, and much
importance has been attached to the discovery of an extinct
primate, Pithecanthropus (g-v.), which has been regarded as
the " F"iiHMng link."
See Huxley's Man's Place in Nature (1863); Robt. Hartmann's
Ethnoloty
Hacck^r.
ed. t 1 8*3);
... iu lucii. lvueibt. jmommu** w*w and F- -'— -
(London, 1891).
ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. Mpuwat man, and JuVyot, theory or
science), the science which, in its strictest sense, has as its
object the study of man as a unit in the animal kingdom. It is
distinguished from ethnology, which is devoted to the study of
man as a racial unit, and from ethnography, which deals with
the distribution of the races formed by the aggregation of such
units. To anthropology, however, in Its more general sense as
the natural history of man, ethnology and ethnography may
both be considered to belong, being related as parts to a whole.
Various other sciences, in conformity with the above definition,
must be regarded as subsidiary to anthropology, which yet hold
their own independent places in the field of knowledge. Thus
anatomy and physiology display the structure and functions of
the human body, while psychology investigates the operations
of the human mind. Philology deals with the general principles
of language, as well as with the relations between the languages
of particular races and nations. Ethics or moral science treats
of man's duty or rules of conduct toward his fellow-men. Sod*
ology and the sdence of culture are concerned with the origin
and development of arts and sciences, opinions, beliefs, customs,
laws and institutions generally among mankind within historic
time; while beyond the historical limit the study is continued
by inferences from .relics of early ages and remote districts, to
interpret which is the task of pre-historic archaeology and
geology.
I. Man*s Pica m Nature.— In 1843 Dr J. C Prichard, who
perhaps of all others merits the title of founder of modem
anthropology, wrote in his Natural History of Mam—
" The organized world presents no contrasts and resemblances
more remarkable than those which we discover on comparing man-
kind with the inferior tribes. That creatures should exist so nearly
approaching to each other in all the particulars of their physical
structure, and yet differing so immeasurably in their endowments
and capabilities, would be a fact hard to believe, if it were not
manifest to our observation. The differences are ese tywl i ei o
striking: the resemblances are less obvious in the fulness of their
extent, and they are never contemplated without wonder by those
who, in the study of anatomy and physiology, arc first made aware
how near is man in his physical constitution to the brutes. In all
the principles of his internal structure, in the composition and
functions of his parts, man is but an animal. The lord of the earth,
who contemplates the eternal order of the universe, and aspires to
communion with its invisible Maker, is a being composed of the
same materials, and framed on the same principles, as the creatures
which he has tamed to be the servile instruments of his will, or slays
for his daily food. The points of resemblance are inaumerabk;
they extend to the most recondite arrangements of that mechanism
which maintains instru mentally the physical life of the body, which
ANTHROPOLOGY
109
brines forward its early development and admits, after a riven period,
its decay, and by means of which is prepared a succession of similar
•—•-"■ dfftti nfd to •»*»«-*•••»• ••— -*— "
> perpetuate the 1
Use acknowledgment of man's structural similarity with the
anthropomorphous species nearest approaching him, viz.: the
higher or anthropoid apes, had long before Prichard's day
been made by Linnaeus, who in his Systema Naturae (1735)
grouped them together as the highest order of Mammalia, to
which be gave the name of Primates. The Amoenitates Aca-
demscae (vol vi., Leiden, 1764), published under the auspices of
Linnaeus, contains a remarkable picture which illustrates a
discourse by his disciple Hoppius, and is here reproduced (see
Plate, hg. 1). In this picture, which shows the crudeness of the
zoological notions current in the 18th century as to both men
and apes, there are set in a row four figures: (a) a recognizable
orang-utan, sitting and holding a staff; (b) a chimpanzee,
absurdly humanized as to head, hands, and feet; (c) a hairy
woman, with a tail a foot long; (rf) another woman, more
completely coated with hair. The great Swedish naturalist was
possibly justified in treating the two latter creatures as quasi-
human, for they seem to be grotesque exaggerations of such
tailed and hairy human beings as really, though rarely, occur,
and are apt to be exhibited as monstrosities (sec Bastian and
Hartmann, Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Index, " Geschwanzte
Menschen"; Gould and Pile, Anomalies and Curiosities of
Medicine, 1897). To Linnaeus, however, they represented normal
anthropomorpha or man-like creatures, vouched for by visitors
to remote parts of the world. This opinion of the Swedish
naturalist seems to have been little noticed in Great Britain till
it was taken up by the learned but credulous Scottish judge,
Lord Monboddo (see his Origin and Progress 0/ Language , 1774,
&c.; Aulieni Metaphysics, 1778). He had not heard of the
tailed men till he met with them in the work of Linnaeus, with
whom he entered into correspondence, with the result that he
enlarged his range of mankind with races of sub-human type.
One was founded on the description by the Swedish sailor
Ntklas Kdping of the ferocious men with long tails inhabiting
the Nicobar Islands. Another comprised the orang-utans of
Sumatra, who were said to take men captive and set them to
work as slaves. One of these apes, it was related, served as a
sailor on board a Jamaica ship, and used to wait on the captain.
These are stories which seem to carry their own explanation.
When the Nicobar Islands were taken over by the British
government two centuries later, the native warriors were still
wearing their peculiar loin-cloth hanging behind in a most tail-
like manner (£. H. Man, Journal Anthropological Institute, vol.
rtr. p. 44 a). As for the story of the orang-utan cabin boy, this
may even be verbally true, it being borne in mind that in the
Malay languages the term orang-utan, " man of the forest," was
originally used for inland forest natives and other rude men,
rather than for the miyas apes to which it has come to be generally
applied by Europeans. The speculations as to primitive man
connected with these stories diverted the British public, headed
by Dr Johnson, who said that Monboddo was " as jealous of his
tail as a squirrel" Linnaeus's primarily zoological classification
of man did not, however, suit the philosophical opinion of the
time, which responded more readily to the systems represented
By Burton, and later by Cuvier, in which the human mind and
soul formed an impassable wall of partition between him and
other mammalia, so that the definition of man's position in the
animal world was treated as not belonging to zoology, but to
metaphysics and theology. It has to be borne in mind that
linnafim, plainly as he recognized the likeness of the higher
simian and the human types, does not seem to have entertained
the thought of accounting for this similarity by common descent.
It satisfied his mind to consider it as belonging to the system of
nature, as indeed remained the case with a greater anatomist of
the following century, Richard Owen. The present drawing,
which under the authority of Linnaeus shows an anthropo-
morphic series from which the normal type of man, the Homo
sapiens, is conspicuously absent, brings zoological similarity into
r without suggesting kinship to account for it. There are few
ideas more ingrained in ancient and low civilisation than that of
relationship by descent between the lower animals and man.
Savage and barbaric religions recognize it, and the mythology
of the world has hardly a more universal theme. But in educated
Europe such ideas had long been superseded by the influence of
theology and philosophy, with which they seemed too incom-
patible. In the 19th century, however, Lamarck's theory of the
development of new species by habit and circumstance led
through Wallace and Darwin to the doctrines of the hereditary
transmission of acquired characters, the survival of the fittest,
and natural selection. Thenceforward it was impossible to
exclude a theory of descent of man from ancestral beings whom
zoological similarity connects also, though by lines of descent
not at all clearly defined, with ancestors of the anthropomorphic
apes. In one form or another such a theory of human descent
has in our time become part of an accepted framework of zoology,
if not as a demonstrable truth, at any rate as a working hypothesis
which has no effective rival.
The new development from Linnaeus's zoological scheme
which has thus ensued appears in Huxley's diagram of simian
and human skeletons (fig. a, (a) gibbon; (6) orang; (c) chim-
panzee; (d) gorilla; (e) man). Evidently suggested by the
Linnean picture, this is brought up to the modern level of
zoology, and continued on to man, forming an introduction to
his zoological history hardly to be surpassed. Some of the main
points it illustrates may be briefly stated here, the reader being
referred for further information to Huxley's Essays. In tracing
the osteological characters of apes and man through this series,
the general system of the skeletons, and the close correspondence
in number and arrangement of vertebrae and ribs, as well as in
the teeth, go far towards justifying' the opinion of hereditary
connexion. At the same time, the comparison brings into view
differences in human structure adapted to man's pre-eminent
mode of life, though hardly to be accounted its chief causes.
It may be seen how the arrangement of limbs suited for going
on all-fours belongs rather to the apes than to man, and walking
on the soles of the feet rather to man than the apes. The two
modes of progression overlap in human life, but the child's
tendency when learning is to rest on the soles of the feet and the
palms of the hands, unlike the apes, which support themselves
on the sides of the feet and the bent knuckles of the hands. With
regard to climbing, the long stretch of arm and the grasp with
both hands and feet contribute to the arboreal life of the apes,
contrasting with what seem the mere remains of the climbing
habit to be found even among forest savages. On the whole,
man's locomotive limbs are not so much specialized to particular
purposes, as generalized into adaptation to many ends. As to the
mechanical conditions of the human body, the upright posture
has always been recognized as the chief. To it contributes the
balance of the skull on the cervical vertebrae, while the human
form of the pelvis provides the necessary support to the intestines
in the standing attitude. The marked curvature of the vertebral
column, by breaking the shock to the neck and head in running
and leaping, likewise favours the erect position. The lowest
coccygeal vertebrae of man remain as a rudimentary tail. While
it is evident that high importance must be attached to the
adaptation of the human body to the life of diversified intelligence
and occupation he has to lead, this must not be treated as though
it were the principal element of the superiority of man, whose,
comparison with all lower genera of mammals must be mainly
directed to the intellectual organ, the brain. Comparison of the
brains of vertebrate animals (see Brain) brings into view the
immense difference between the small, smooth brain of a fish or
bird and the large and convoluted organ in man. In man, both
size and complexity contribute to the increased area of the
cortex orouter layer of the brain, which has been fully ascertained
to be the seat of the mysterious processes by which sensation
furnishes the groundwork of thought Schifer (Textbook of
Physiology, vol. ii. p. 697) thus defines it: " The cerebral cortex
is the seat of the intellectual functions, of intelligent sensation
or consciousness, of ideation, of volition, and of memory." •
The relations between man and ape are most readily statedin
no
comparison with the gorflTt, as on the whole the most anthropo-
morphous ape. In the general proportions of the body and limbs
there is a marked difference between the gorilla and man. The
gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs
shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of man.
The differences between a gorilla's skull and a man's are truly
immense. In the gorilla, the face, formed largely by the massive
jaw-bones, predominates over the brain-case or cranium; in the
man these proportions are reversed. In man the occipital
foramen, through which passes the spinal cord, is placed just
behind the centre of the base of the skull, which is thus evenly
balanced in the erect posture, whereas the gorilla, which goes
habitually on all fours, and whose skull is inclined forward, in
accordance with this posture has the foramen farther back. In
man the surface of the skull is comparatively smooth, and the
brow-ridges project but little, while in the gorilla these ridges
overhang the cavernous orbits like penthouse roofs. The absolute
capacity of the cranium of the gorilla is far less than that of man;
the smallest adult human cranium hardly measuring less than 63
cub. in., while the largest gorilla cranium measured had a content
of only 344 cub. in. The largest proportional size of the facial
bones, and the great projection of the jaws, confer on the gorilla's
skull its small facial angle and brutal character ,while its teeth differ
from man's in relative size and number of fangs. Comparing the
lengths of the extremities, it is seen that the gorilla's arm is of
enormous length, in fact about one-sixth longer than the spine,
whereas a man's arm is one-fifth shorter than the spine; both
hand and foot are proportionally much longer in the gorilla than
In man ; the leg does not so much differ. The vertebral column
of the gorilla differs from that of man in its curvature and other
characters, as also does the conformation of its narrow pelvis.
The hand of the gorilla corresponds essentially as to bones and
muscles with that of man, but is clumsier and heavier; its thumb
is " opposable " like a human thumb, that is, it can easily meet
with its extremity the extremities of the other fingers, thus
possessing a character which does much to make the human hand
so admirable an instrument; but the gorilla's thumb is pro-
portionately shorter than man's. The foot of the higher apes,
though often spoken of as a hand, is anatomically not such, but
a prehensile foot. It has been argued by Sir Richard Owen and
others that the position of the great toe converts the foot of the
higher apes into a hand, ah extremely important distinction from
man; but against this Professor T. H. Huxley maintained that
it has the characteristic structure of a foot with a very movable
great toe. The external unlikeness of the apes to man depends
much on their hairiness, but this and some other characteristics
have no great zoological value. No doubt the difference between
man and the apes depends, of all things, on the relative size and
organization of the brain. While similar as to their general
arrangement to the human brain, those of the higher apes, such
as the chimpanzee, are much less complex in their convolutions,
as well as much less in both absolute and relative weight— the
weight of a gorilla's brain hardly exceeding 20 oz., and a man's
brain hardly weighing less than 32 oz., although the gorilla is
considerably the larger animal of the two.
These anatomical distinctions are undoubtedly of great moment,
and it is an interesting question whether they suffice to place man
in a zoological order by himself. It is plain that some eminent
zoologists, regarding man as absolutely differing as to mind and
spirit from any other animal, have had their discrimination of
mere bodily differences unconsciously sharpened, and have been
led to give differences, such as in the brain or even the foot of
the apes and man, somewhat more importance than if they had
merely distinguished two species of apes. Many naturalists hold
the opinion that the anatomical differences which separate the
gorilla or chimpanzee from man are in some respects less than
those which separate these man-like apes from apes lower in the
scale. Yet all authorities class both the higher and lower apes
in the same order. This is Huxley's argument, some prominent
points of which are the following: As regards the proportion of
limbs, the hylobatea or gibbon is as much longer in the arms than
the gorilla as the gorilla is than the man, while on the other hand,
ANTHROPOLOGY
it is as much longer in the legs than the man as the man is than
the gorilla. As to the vertebral column and pelvis, the lower
apes differ from the gorilla as much as, or more than, it differs
from man. As to the capacity of the cranium, men differ from
one another so extremely that the largest known human skull
holds nearly twice the measure of the smallest, a larger proportion
than that in which man surpasses the gorilla; while, with proper
allowance for difference of size of the various species, it appears
that some of the lower apes fall nearly as much below the higher
apes. The projection of the muzzle, which gives the character
of brutality to the gorilla as distinguished from the man, is yet
further exaggerated in the lemurs, as is also the backward position
of the occipi tal foramen. In characters of such importance as the
structure of the hand and foot, the lower apes diverge extremely
from the gorilla; thus the thumb ceases to be opposable in the
American monkeys, and in the marmosets is directed forwards,
and armed with a curved claw like the other digits, the great
toe in these latter being insignificant in proportion. The same
argument can be extended to other points of anatomical structure,
and, what Is of more consequence, it appears true of the brant.
A series of the apes, arranged from lower to higher orders, shows
gradations from a brain little higher that that of a rat, to a brain
like a small and imperfect imitation of a man's; and the greatest
structural break in the series lies not between man and the man-
like apes, but between the apes and monkeys on one side, and the
lemurs on the other. On these grounds Huxley, restoring in
principle the Linnean classification, desired to include man in the
order of Primates. This order he divided into seven families:
first, the A nthropini, consisting of man only; second, the Catarkini
or Old World apes; third, the Platyrkini, all New World apes,
except the marmosets; fourth, the Arclopiihccini, or marmosets;
fifth, the Lemwini, or lemurs; sixth and seventh, the Cheiromyini
and Galeoptihecini.
It is in assigning to man his place in nature on psychological
grounds that the greater difficulty arises. Huxley acknowledged
an immeasurable and practically infinite divergence, ending in
•the present enormous psychological gulf between ape and man.
It is difficult to account for this intellectual chasm as due to
some minor structural difference. The opinion is deeply rooted
in modern as in ancient thought, that only a distinctively human
element of the highest import can account for the severance
between man and the highest animal below him. Differences in
the mechanical organs, such as the perfection of the human hand
as an instrument, or the adaptability of the human voice to the
expression of human thought, are indeed of great value. But
they have not of themselves such value, that to endow an ape
with the hand and vocal organs of a man would be likely to raise
it through any large part of the interval that now separates it
from humanity. Much more is to be said for the view that man's
larger and more highly organized brain accounts for those mental
powers in which he so absolutely surpasses the brutes.
The distinction does not seem to lie principally in the range
and delicacy of direct sensation, as may be judged from such
well-known facts as man's inferiority to the eagle in sight, or
to the dog in scent. At the same time, it seems that the human
sensory organs may have in various respects acuteness beyond
those of other creatures. But, beyond a doubt, man possesses,
and in some way possesses by virtue of his superior brain, a
power of co-ordinating the impressions of his senses, which
enables him to understand the world he lives in, and by under-
standing to use, resist, and even in a measure rule it. No
human art shows the nature of this human attribute more clearly
than does language. Man shares with the mammalia and birds
the direct expression of the feelings by emotional tones and
interjectional cries; the parrot's power of articulate utterance
almost equals his own; and*, by association of ideas in some
measure, some of the lower animals have even learnt to recognize
words he utters. But, to use words in themselves unmeaning,
as symbols by which to conduct and convey the complex in*
tellectual processes in which mental conceptions are suggested,
compared, combined, and even analysed, and new ones created—
this is a faculty which is scarcely to be traced In any lower animal.
ANTHROPOLOGY
in
The view that this, with other mental processes, is a function of
the brain, is remarkably corroborated by modem investigation
of the disease of aphasia, where the power of thinking remains,
but the power is lost of recalling the word corresponding to the
thought, and this mental defect is found to accompany a diseased
state of a particular locality of the brain (see Aphasia). This,
may stand among the most perfect of the many evidences that,
in Professor Bain's words, " the brain is the principal, though
sot the sole organ of mind.' 1 As the brains of the vertebrate
animals form an ascending scale, more and more approaching
man's in their arrangement, the fact here finds its explanation,
that lower animals perform mental processes corresponding
in their nature to our own, though of generally less power and
complexity. The full evidence of this correspondence will be
found in such works as Brehm's Tkicrieben; and some of the
salient points are set forth by Charles Darwin, in the chapter
on M Mental Powers," in his Descent of Man. Such are the
similar effects of terror on man and the lower animals, causing
the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the sphincters
to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. The phenomena
of memory, as to both persons and places, is strong in animals,
as is manifest by their recognition of their masters, and their re*
turning at once to habits of which, though disused for many years,
their brain has not lost the stored-up impressions. Such facts
as that dogs " hunt in dreams," make it likely that their minds
are not only sensible to actual events, present and past, but can,
like oar minds, combine revived sensations into ideal scenes
in which they are actors,— that is to say, they have the faculty
of imagination. As for the reasoning powers in animals, the
accounts of monkeys learning by experience to break eggs care-
fully, and pick on* bits of shell, so as not to lose the contents,
or of the way in which rats or martens after a while can no longer
be caught by the same kind of trap, with innumerable similar
facts, show in the plainest way that the reason of animals goes
so far as to form by new experience a new hypothesis of cause
and effect which will henceforth guide their actions. The
employment of mechanical instruments, of which instances of
monkeys using sticks and stones furnish the only rudimentary
traces among the lower animals, is one of the often-quoted
distinctive powers' of man. With this comes the whole vast
and ever-widening range of inventive and adaptive- art, where
the uniform hereditary instinct of the cell-forming bee and the
nest-building bird is supplanted by multiform processes and
constructions, often at first rude and clumsy in comparison to
those of the lower instinct, but carried on by the faculty of
improvement and new invention into ever higher stages. " From
the moment," writes A. R. Wallace (Natural Selection), " when
the first skin was used as a covering, when the first rude spear
was formed to assist in the chase, when fire was first used to
cook his food, when the first seed was sown or shoot planted,
a grand revolution was effected in nature, a revolution which
in all the previous ages of the earth's history had had no parallel;
for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject
to change with the changing universe,— a being who was in some
degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control
and regulate her action, and could keep himself In harmony
with her, not by a change in body, but by an advance of mind."
As to the lower instincts tending directly to self-preservation,
it is acknowledged on all hands that man has them in a less
developed state than other animals; in fact, the natural defence-
lessncss of the human being, and the long-continued care and
teaching of the young by the elders, are among the commonest
themes of moral discourse. Parental tenderness and care for
the young are strongly marked among the lower animals, though
so inferior in scope and duration to the human qualities; and
the «ame may be said of the mutual forbearance and defence
which bind together in a rudimentary social bond the families
and herds of animals. Philosophy seeking knowledge for its
own sake; morality, manifested in the sense of truth, right, and
virtue; and religion, the belief in and communion with super-
human powers ruling and pervading the universe, are human
characters, of which it is instructive to trace, if possible, the
earliest symptoms in the lower animals, but which can there
show at most only faint and rudimentary signs of their wondrous
development in mankind. That the tracing of physical and
even intellectual continuity between the lower animals and our
own race, does not necessarily lead the anthropologist to lower
the rank of man in the scale of nature, may be shown by citing
A. R. Wallace. Man, he considers, is to be placed " apart, as
not only the head and culminating point of the grand series
of organic nature, but as in some degree a new and distinct
order of being."
To regard the intellectual functions of the brain and nervous
system as alone to be considered in the psychological comparison
of man with the lower animals, is a view satisfactory to those
thinkers who hold materialistic views. According to this school,
man is a machine, no doubt the most complex and wonderfully
adapted of all known machines, but still neither more nor less
than an instrument whose energy is provided by force from
without, and which, when set in action, performs the various
operations for which its structure fits it, namely, to live, move,
feel, and think. This view, however, always has been strongly
opposed by those who accept on theological grounds a spiritual-
istic doctrine, or what is, perhaps, more usual, a theory which
combines spiritualism and materialism in the doctrine of a
composite nature in man, animal as to the body and in some
measure as to the mind, spiritual as to the soul. It may be useful,
as an illustration of one opinion on this subject, to continue
here the citation of Dr Prichard's comparison between man and
the lower animals: —
" If it be inquired in what the still more remarkable difference
consists, it Is by no means easy to reply. By some it will be said
that man, while similar in the organization of his body to the lower
tribes, is distinguished from them by the possession of an immaterial
soul, a principle capable of conscious feeling, of intellect and thought.
To many persons it will appear paradoxicalto ascribe the endowment
of a soul to the inferior tribes in the creation, yet it is difficult to
discover a valid argument that limits the possession of an immaterial
principle to man. The phenomena of feeling, of desire and aversion,
of love and hatred, of fear and revenge, and the perception of external
relations manifested in the life of Brutes, imply, not only through
the analogy which they display to the human faculties, but likewise
from all that we can learn or conjecture of their particular nature,
the superadded existence of a principle distinct from the mere
mechanism of material bodies. That such a principle must exist in
all beings capable of sensation, or of anything analogous to human
passions and feelings, will hardly be dented by those who perceive
the force of arguments which metaphysically demonstrate the im-
material nature of the mind. There may be no rational grounds for
the ancient dogma that the souls of the lower animals were im-
perishable, like the soul of man : this is, however, a problem which
we are not called upon to discuss; and we may venture to conjecture
that there may be immaterial essences of divers kinds, and endowed
with various attributes and capabilities. But the real nature of
these unseen principles eludes our research: they are only known
to us by their external manifestations. These manifestations are
the various powers and capabilities, or rather the habitudes of
action, which characterize the different orders of being, diversified
according to their several destinations."
Dr Prichard here puts forward distinctly the time-honoured
doctrine which refers the mental faculties to the operation of
the soul. The view maintained by a distinguished comparative
anatomist, Professor St George Mivart, in his Genesis of Species,
ch. xii. , may fairly follow. " Man , according to the old scholastic
definition, is ' a rational animal ' (animal rationale), and his
animality is distinct in nature from his rationality, though in-
separably joined , daring life, in one common personality. Man's
animal body must have had a different source from that of the
spiritual soul which informs it, owing to the distinctness of the
two orders to which those two existences severally belong."
The two extracts just given, however, significant in themselves,
fail to render an account of the view of the human constitution
which would probably, among the theological and scholastic
leaders of public opinion, count the largest weight of adherence.
According to this view, not only life but thought are functions
of the animal system, m which man excels all other animals
as to height of organization: but beyond this, man embodies an
immaterial and immortal spiritual principle which no lower
creature possesses, and which makes the resemblance of the apes
112
ANTHROPOLOGY
to him but a mocking simulanee. To pronounce any absolute
decision on these conflicting doctrines is foreign to our present
purpose, which is to show that all of them count among their
adherents men of high rank in science.
II. Origin of Man.— Opinion as to the genesis of man is
divided between the theories of creation and evolution. In
both schools, the ancient doctrine of the contemporaneous
appearance on earth of all species of animals having been aban-
doned under the positive evidence of geology, it is admitted that
the animal kingdom, past and present, includes a vast series of
successive forms, whose appearances and disappearances have
taken place at intervals during an immense lapse of ages. The
line of inquiry has thus been directed to ascertaining what
formative relation subsists among these species and genera,
the last fink of the argument reaching to the relation between
man and the lower creatures preceding him in time. On both
the theories here concerned it would be admitted, in the words
of Agassis {Principles of Zoology, pp. 205-206), that " there is a
manifest progress in the succession of beings on the surface of
the earth. This progress consists in an increasing similarity of
the living fauna, and, among the vertebrates especially, in their
Increasing resemblance to man." Agassi* continues, however,
in terms characteristic of the creationist school: "But this
connexion is not the consequence of a direct lineage between the
faunas of different ages. There is nothing like parental descent
connecting them. The fishes of the Palaeozoic age are in no
respect the ancestors of the reptiles of the Secondary age, nor
does man descend from the mammals which preceded him in the
Tertiary age. The link by which they are connected is of a higher
and immaterial nature; and their connexion is to be sought in
the view of the Creator himself, whose aim in forming the earth,
in allowing it to undergo the successive changes which geology
has pointed out, and in creating successively all the different
types of animals which have passed away, was to introduce man
upon the surface of our globe. Man is the end towards which all
the animal creation has tended from the first appearance of the
first Palaeozoic fishes." The evolutionist, on the contrary (see
Evolution), maintains that different successive species of
animals are in fact connected by parental descent, having
become modified in the course of successive generations. The
result of Charles Darwin's application of this theory to man
may be given in his own words (Descent of Man, part i. ch. 6) :—
" The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of
characters, as is shown by their unquestionably belonging to one
and the same order. The many characters which they possess in
common can hardly have been independently acquired by so many
distinct species: so that these characters must have been inherited.
But an ancient form which possessed many characters common to
the Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys, and others in an inter-
mediate condition, and some few perhaps distinct from those now
present in either group, would undoubtedly have been ranked, if
seen by a naturalist, as an ape or a monkey. And as man under a
genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or Old World
stock, we must conclude, however much the conclusion may revolt
our pride, that our early progenitors would have been properly thus
designated. But we must not fall into the error of supposing that
the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man,
was identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or
monkey."
The problem of the origin of man cannot be properly discussed
apart from the full problem of the origin of species. The
homologies between man and other animals which both schools
try to account for; the explanation of the intervals, with
apparent want of intermediate forms, which seem to the creation-
ists so absolute a separation between species; the evidence of
useless " rudimentary organs," such as in man the external shell
of the ear, and the muscle which enables some individuals to
twitch their ears, which rudimentary parts the evolutionists
claim to be only 'explicable as relics of an earlier specific condi-
tion,— these, which are the main points of the argument on the
origin of man, belong to general biology. The philosophical
principles which underlie the two theories stand for the most
part in strong contrast, the theory of evolution tending toward
the supposition of ordinary causes, such as "natural selection,"
producing modifications in species, whether by gradual accumula-
tion or mora sudden leaps, while the theory of creation hat
recourse to acts of supernatural intervention (see the duke of
Argyll, Reign of Law, ch. v.). St George Mivart (Genesis of
Species) propounded a theory of a natural evolution of man as
to his body, combined with a supernatural creation as to his
soul; but this attempt to meet the difficulties on both aides
seems to have satisfied neither.
The wide acceptance of the Darwinian theory, as applied to
the descent of man, has naturally roused anticipation that
geological research, which provides evidence of the animal life
of incalculably greater antiquity, would furnish fossil remains
of some comparatively recent being intermediate between the
anthropomorphic and the anthropic types. This expectation
has hardly been fulfilled, but of late years the notion of a variety
of the human race, geologically ancient, differing from any known
in historic times, and with characters approaching the simian,
has been supported by further discoveries. To bring this to the
reader's notice, top and side views of three skulls, as placed
together in the human development series in the Oxford Uni-
versity Museum, are represented in the plate, for the purpose of
showing the great size of the orbital ridges, which the reader
may contrast with his own by a touch with his fingers on his
forehead. The first (fig.3) is the famous Neanderthal skull from
near Diisseldorf, described by Schaafhausen in Mailer's Archiv,
1858; Huxley in Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 86, and in Man**
Place in Nature, The second (fig. 4) is the skull from the cavern
of Spy in Belgium (de Puydt and Lohest, Compte rendu du
Congris de Nomur, 1886). The foreheads of these two skulls
have an ape-like form, obvious on comparison with the simian
skulls of the gorilla and other apes, and visible even in the small-
scale figures in the Plate, fig. 2. Among modern tribes of man-
kind the forehead of the Australian aborigines makes the nearest
approach to this type, as was pointed out by Huxley. This brief
description will serve to show the importance of a later discovery.
At Trinil, in Java, in an equatorial region where, if anywhere, a
being intermediate between the higher apes and man would seem
likely to be found, Dr Eugene Dubois in 1801-1892 excavated
from a bed, considered by him to be of Sivalik formation (Plio-
cene), a thighbone which competent anatomists decide to be
human, and a remarkably depressed calvaria or skull-cap (fig. 5),
bearing a certain resemblance in its proportions to the corre-
sponding part of the simian skuli These remains were referred
by their discoverer to an animal intermediate between man and
ape, to which he gave the name of Pithecanthropus erectus (?.*.),
but the interesting discussions on the subject have shown
divergence of opinion among anatomists. At any rate, classing
the Trinil skull as human, it may be described as tending towards
the simian type more than any other known.
III. Races of Mankind.— The classification of mankind into a
number of permanent varieties or races, rests on grounds which
are within limits not only obvious but definite. Whether from a
popular or a scientific point of view, it would be admitted that a
Negro, a Chinese, and an Australian belong to three such
permanent varieties of men, all plainly disti n gu i s h able from one
another and from any European. Moreover, such a division
takes for granted the idea which is involved in the word race,
that each of these varieties is due to special ancestry, each race
thus representing an ancient breed or stock, however these breeds
or stocks may have had their origin. The anthropological
classification of mankind is thus zoological in its nature, like
that of the varieties or species of any other animal group, and
the characters on which it is based are in great measure physical,
though intellectual and traditional peculiarities, such as moral
habit and language, furnish important aid. Among the best-
marked race-characters are the colour of the skin, eyes and hair;
and the structure and arrangement of the latter. Stature is by
no means a general criterion of race, and it would not, for in-
stance, be difficult to choose groups of Englishmen, Kaffirs, and
North American Indians, whose mean height should hardly
differ. Yet in many cases it is a valuable means of distinction.
as between the tall Patagonians and the stunted Fuegians, and
even as a help in minuter problems, such as separating the
bo
ANTHROPOLOGY
CJ
to
to
bb
Plate I
to
to
Plate II.
ANTHROPOLOGY
to
- ^i
«*•
ANTHROPOLOGY
"3
Teutonic and Celtic ancestry In the population of England (see
Bcddoc, " Suture and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in
if em. A ntkrop. Soc. London, vol. ill). Proportions of the limbs,
compared in length with the trunk, have been claimed as con-
stituting peculiarities of African and American races; and
I other anatomical points, such as the conformation of the pelvis,
have speciality But inferences of this class have hardly attained
to sufficient certainty and generality to be set down in the form
of rules. The conformation of the skull is second only to the
colour of the skin as a criterion for the distinction of race; and the
position of the jaws is recognized as important, races being
described as prognathous when the jaws project far, as in the
Australian or Negro, in contradistinction to the orthognathous
type, which is that of the ordinary well-shaped European skull.
On this distinction id great measure depends the celebrated
" facial angle," measured by Camper as a test of low and high
races; but this angle is objectionable as resulting partly from
the development of the forehead and partly from the position of
the jaws. The capacity of the cranium is estimated in cubic
measure by filling it with sand, &c. f with the general result that
the civilized white man is found to have a larger brain than the
' barbarian or savage. Classification of races on cranial measure-
meals has long been attempted by eminent anatomists, and in
certain cases great reliance may be placed On such measurements.
Thus the skulls of an Australian and a Negro would be generally
distinguished by their narrowness and the projection of the jaw
from that of any Englishman; but the Australian skull would
usually differ perceptibly from the Negroid in its upright sides
and strong orbital ridges. The relation of height to breadth
may also furnish a valuable test; but it is acknowledged by all
experienced craniologists, that the shape of the skull may vary
so much within the same tribe, and even the same family, that
it must be used with extreme caution, and if possible only in
conjunction with other criteria of race. The general contour of
I the face, in part dependent on the form of the skull, varies much
in different races, among whom it is. loosely defined as oval,
lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, &c Of particular features, some
of the moat marked contrasts to European types are seen in the
oblique Chinese eyes, the broad-set Kamchadale cheeks, the
pointed Arab chin, the snub Kirghiz nose, the fleshy protuberant
Negro lips, and the broad Kalmuck ear. Taken altogether, the
features have a typical character which popular observation
seizes with some degree of correctness, as in the recognition of
the Jewish countenance in a European city.
Were the race-characters constant in degree or even in kind,
the classification of races would be easy; but this is not so.
Every division of mankind presents in every character wide
deviations from a standard. Thus the Negro race, well marked
as it may seem at the first glance, proves on closer examination
to include several shades of complexion and features, in some
districts varying far from the accepted Negro type; while the
examination of a series of native American tribes shows that,
notwithstanding their asserted uniformity of type, they differ
in stature, colour, features and proportions of skull. (Sec
Prichard, Nat. Hist, of Man; Waits, Anthropology, part i. sec. 5.)
Detailed anthropological research, indeed, more and more justi-
fies Blumcnbdch's words, that " innumerable varieties of man-
kind run into one another by insensible degrees." This state of
things, due partly to mixture and crossing of races, and partly
to independent variation of types, makes the attempt to arrange
the whole human species within exactly bounded divisions an
apparently hopeless task. It does not follow, however, that the
attempt to distinguish special races should be given up, for there
at least exist several definable types, each of which so far prevails
in a certain population as to be taken as its standard. L. A. J.
Quetelet's plan of defining such types will probably meet with
general acceptance as the scientific method proper to this branch
of anthropology. It consists in the determination of the stan-
I dard or typical " mean man " (homme moyen) of a population,
with reference to any particular quality, such as stature, weight,
complexion, lie. In the case of stature, this would be done by
measuring a sufficient number of men, and counting how many
11. a
of them belong to each height on the scale. If it be. that ascer-
tained, as it might be in an English district, that the 5 ft 7 in.
men form the most numerous group, while the 5 ft 6 in. and 5 ft.
8 in. men are less in number, and the 5 ft 5 in. and 5 f t 9 in.
still fewer, and so on until the extremely small number of
extremely short or tall individuals of 5 ft. or 7 ft. is reached, it
will thus be ascertained that the stature of the mean or typical
man is to be taken as 5 ft. 7 in. The method is thus that of
selecting as the standard the most numerous group, on both
sides of Which the groups decrease in number as they vary in
type. Such classification may show the existence of two or
more types, in a community, as, for instance, the population of a
Calif ornian settlement made up of Whites and Chinese might
show two predominant groups (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of
5 ft 4 in.) corresponding to these two racial types. It need
hardly be said that this method of determining the mean type
of a race, as being that of its really existing and most numerous
class, is altogether superior to the mere calculation of an average,
which may actually be represented by comparatively few indi-
viduals, and those the exceptional ones. For instance, the
average stature of the mixed European and Chinese population
just, referred to might be 5 ft. 6 in. — a worthless and indeed
misleading result (For particulars of Quetelet's method, sec
his Physique sociale (1869), and Anthropometric (1871).)
Classifications of man have been numerous, and though,
regarded as systems, most of them are unsatisfactory, yet they
have been of great value in systematizing knowledge, and are
all more or less based on indisputable distinctions. J. F. Blumen-
bach's division, though published as long ago as 1781, has had
the greatest influence. He reckons five races, via. Caucasian,
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The ill-chosen name
of Caucasian, invented by Blumenbach in allusion to a South
Caucasian skull of specially typical proportions, and applied
by him to the so-called white races, is still current; it brings into
one race peoples such as the Arabs and Swedes, although these
are scarcely less different than the Americans and Malays, who
are set down as two distinct races. Again, two of the best-
marked varieties of mankind are the Australians and the Bush-
men, neither of whom, however, seems to have a natural place in
Blumenbach's series. The yet simpler classification by Cuvier
into Caucasian, Mongol and Negro corresponds in some measure
with a division by mere complexion into white, yellow and
black races; but neither this threefold division, nor the ancient
classification* into Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic nations can be
regarded as separating the human types either justly or sufficiently
(see Prichard, Natural History of Han, sec. 15; Waits, Anthro-
pology, vol. i. part i. sec. 5). Schemes which set up a larger
number of distinct races, such as the eleven of Pickering, the
fifteen of Bory de St Vincent and the sixteen of Desmoulins,
have the advantage of finding niches for most well-defined human
, varieties; but no modern naturalist would be likely to adopt
any one of these as it stands. In criticism of Pickering's system,
it is sufficient to point out that he divides the white nations
into two races, entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian (Pickering,
Races of Man, ch. i.). Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd and others who
have assumed a much larger number of races or species of
man, are not considered to have satisfactorily defined a corre-
sponding number of distinguishable types. On the whole,
Huxley's division probably approaches more nearly than any
other to such a tentative classification as may be accepted in
definition of the principal varieties of mankind, regarded from
a zoological point of view, though anthropologists may be dis-
posed to erect into separate races several of his widely-differing
sub-races. He distinguishes four principal types of mankind,
the Australiqid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Xanthochroic ("fair
whites"), adding a fifth variety, the. Melanochroic ("dark
whites ").
In determining whether the races of mankind are to be classed
as varieties of one species, it is important to decide whether
every two races can unite to produce fertile offspring. It is
settled by experience that the most numerous and well-known
crossed races, such as the Mulattos, descended from Europeans
114
ANTHROPOLOGY
and Negroes— the Mestizos, from Europeans and American
indigenes— the Zambos, from these American indigenes and
Negroes, be, are permanently fertile. They practically con-
stitute sub-races, with a general blending of the characters of
the two parents, and only differing from fully-established races
in more or less tendency to revert to one or other of the original
types. It has been argued, on the other hand, that not all such
mixed breeds are permanent, and especially that the cross
between Europeans and Australian indigenes is almost sterile;
but this assertion, when examined with the care demanded by
its bearing on the general question of hybridity, has distinctly
broken down. On the whole, the general evidence favours
the opinion that any two races may combine to produce a new
sub-race, which again may combine with any other variety.
Thus, if the existence of a small number of distinct races of
mankind be taken as a starting-point, it is obvious that their
crossing would produce an indefinite number of secondary
varieties, such as the population of the world actually presents.
The working out in detail of the problem, how far the differences
among complex nations, such as those of Europe, may have been
brought about by hybridity, is still, however, a task of almost
hopeless intricacy. Among the boldest attempts to account
for distinctly-marked populations as resulting from the inter-
mixture of two races, are Huxley's view that the Hottentots
arc hybrid between the Bushmen and the Negroes, and his more
important suggestion, that the Melanochroic peoples of southern
Europe are of mixed Xanthochromic and AustralioicLstock.
The problem of ascertaining how the small number of races,
distinct enough to be called primary, can have assumed their
different types, has been for years the most disputed field of
anthropology, the battle-ground of the rival schools of mono-
genists and polygenists. The one has claimed all mankind to
be descended from one original stock, and generally from a single
pair; the other has contended for the several primary races
being separate species of independent origin. The grea t problem
of the monogenist theory is to explain by what course of variation
the so different races of man have arisen from a single stock.
In ancient times little difficulty was felt in this, authorities
such as Aristotle aad Vitruvius seeing in climate and circumstance
the natural cause of racial differences, the Ethiopian having been
blackened by the tropical sun, &c. Later and closer observations,
however, have shown such influences to be, at any rate, far
slighter in amount and slower in operation than was once sup-
posed. A. dc Qua tref ages brings forward (UniU de Vcspece
kumaine) his strongest arguments for the variability of races
under change of climate, &c. (action du milieu), instancing the
asserted alteration in complexion, constitution and character
of Negroes in America, and Englishmen in America and Australia.
But although the reality of some such modification is notdispu ted,
especially as to stature and constitution, its amount is not enough
to upset the counter-proposition of the remarkable permanence
of type displayed by races ages after they have been transported
to climates extremely different from that of their former home.
Moreover, physically different peoples, such as the Bushmen and
Negroes in Africa, show no signs of approximation under the
influence of the same climate; while, on the other hand, the
coast tribes of Ticrra del Fuego and forest tribes of tropical
Brazil continue to resemble one .another, in spite of extreme
differences of climate and food. Darwin is moderate in his
estimation of the changes produced on races of man by climate
and mode of life within the range of history (Descent of Man,
part i. ch. 4 and 7). The slightness and slowness of variation
in human races having become known, a great difficulty of the
monogenist theory was seen to lie in the apparent shortness
of the Biblical chronology. Inasmuch as several well-marked
races of mankind, such. as the Egyptian, Phoenician, Ethiopian,
&c, were much the same three or four thousand years ago as
now, their variation from a single stock in the course of any like
period could hardly be accounted for without a miracle. This
difficulty the poly gen is t theory escaped, and in consequence
it gained ground. Modem views have however tended to restore,
though under a new aspect, the doctrine of a single human
stock. The fact that man has existed during a vast period of
time makes it more easy to assume the continuance of very slow
natural variation aa having differentiated even the white man
and the Negro among the descendants of a common progenitor.
On the other hand it does not follow necessarily from a theory
of evolution of species that mankind must have descended from
a single stock, for the hypothesis of development admits of the
argument, that several simian species may have culminated in
several races of man. The general tendency of the dcvelopmen t
theory, however, is against constituting separate species where
the differences are moderate enough to be accounted for as due
to variation from a single type. Darwin's summing-up of the
evidence as to unity of type throughout the races of mankind
is aa distinctly a monogenist argument as those of Blumenbacb,
Prichard or Quatrefages —
" Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as
in colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c, yet, if
their whole organization be taken into consideration, they are found
to resemble each other closely in a multitude of points.
' ilar a nature, that
these points are of so unimportant, or of to singular
'*' that they should have been independently
The same remark
it is extremely improbable that they should have t
quired by aboriginally distinct species or races.
' r force
Many of
ure, that
n independently
holds good with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous
points of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man.
. . . Now. when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous
small details of habits, tastes and dispositions between two or more
domestic races, or between nearly allied natural forms, they use this
fact as an argument that all are descended from a common progenitor
who was thus endowed ; and, consequently, that all should be classed
under the same species. The same argument may be applied with
much force to the races of man."— (Darwin, Descent of Man, part i.
ch. 7)
The main difficulty of the monogenist school has ever been to
explain how races which have remained comparatively fixed in
type during the long period of history, such as the white man and
the Negro, should, in even a far longer period, have passed by
variation from a common original. To meet this A. R. Wallace
suggests that the remotely ancient representatives of the human
species, being as yet animals too low in mind to have developed
those arts of maintenance and social ordinances by which man
holds his own against influences from climate and circumstance,
were in their .then wild state much more plastic than now to
external nature; so that " natural selection " and other causes
met with but feeble resistance in forming the permanent varieties
or races of man, whose complexion and structure still remained
fixed in their descendants (see Wallace, Contributions to the Theory
of Natural Selection, p. 3x9). On the whole, it may be asserted
that the doctrine of the unity of mankind stands on a firmer basis
than in previous ages. It would be premature to judge how far
the problem of the origin of races may be capable of exact
solution; but the experience gained since 1871 countenances
Darwin's prophecy that before long the dispute between the
monogchists and the polygenists would die a silent and un-
observed death.
IV. Antiquity of Man— Until the 19th century man's first
appearance on earth was treated on a historical basis as matter
of record. It is true that the schemes drawn up by chronologists
differed widely, as was natural, considering the variety and incon-
sistency of their documentary data. On the whole, the scheme
of Archbishop Usher, who computed that the earth and man were
created in 4004 B.C., was the most popular (see Chronology).
It is no longer necessary, however, to discuss these chrono-
logies. Geology has made it manifest that our earth must have
been the seat of vegetable and animal life for an immense period
of time; while the first appearance of man, though comparatively
recent, is positively so remote, that an estimate between twenty
and a hundred thousand years may fairly be taken as a minimum.
This geological claim for a vast antiquity of the human race is
supported by the similar claims of prehistoric archaeology and
the science of culture, the evidence of all three departments of
inquiry being intimately connected, and in perfect harmony.
Human bones and objects of human manufacture have been
found in such geological relation to the remains of fossil species
of elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, bear, &c, as to lead to the distinct
inference that man already existed at a remote period in localities
ANTHROPOLOGY
"5
where these mammalia are now and have long been extinct. The
not quite conclusive researches of Tournal and Christol in
limestone caverns of the south of France date back to 1828.
About the same time P. C. Schmerling of Liege was exploring
the ossiferous caverns of the valley of the Meuse, and satisfied
himself that the men whose bones he found beneath the stalagmite
floors, together with bones cut and flints shaped by human
workmanship, had inhabited this Belgian district at the same
time with the cave-bear and several other extinct animals whose
bones were imbedded with them (Recherekes sur Us ossements
fossiies diccuurts dans les cavernes de la province dt Lii^e (Liege,
1833-1834)). This evidence, however, met with little acceptance
among scientific men. Nor, at first, was more credit given to the
discovery by M. Boucher de Perthes, about 1841, of rude flint
hatchets in a sand-bed containing remains of mammoth and
rhinoceros at Menchecourt near Abbeville, which first find was
followed by others in the same district (see Boucher de Perthes, De
r Industrie primitive, ou ies arts a lew origine (1846); AntiquUes
critiques it anUdUuvieitnes (Paris, 184}), &c). Between 1850 and
i860 French and English geologists were induced to examine into
the facts, and found irresistible the evidence that man existed and
used rude implements of chipped flint during the Quaternary or
Drift period. Further investigations were then made, and over-
looked results of older ones reviewed. In describing Kent's
Cavern (o.s.) near Torquay, R. A. C. Godwin-Austen had main-
tained, as early as 1840 (Proc. Geo. Soc. London, vol. iii. p. 286),
that the human bones and worked flints had been deposited indis-
criminately together with the remains of fossil elephant, rhinoceros,
ftc Certain caves and rock-shelters in the province of Dordogne,
in central France, were examined by a French and an English
archaeologist, Edouard Lartct and Henry Christy, the remains
discovered showing the former prevalence of the reindeer in this
region, at that time inhabited by savages, whose bone and stone
implements indicate a habit of life similar to that of the Eskimos.
Moreover, the co-existence of man with a fauna now extinct or con-
fined to other districts was brought to yet clearer demonstration
by the discovery m these caves of certain drawings and carvings
of the animals done by the ancient inhabitants themselves, such
as a group of reindeer on a piece of reindeer horn, and a sketch
of a mammoth, showing the elephant's long hair, on a piece of a
mammoth's tusk from La Madeleine (Lartet and Christy, Reliquiae
AquiUxuicae, ed. by T R. Jones (London, 1865), &c.).
This and other evidence (which is considered in more detail
in the article Archaeology) is now generally accepted by
geologists as carrying back the existence of man into the period
of the post-glacial drift, in what is now called the Quaternary
period, an antiquity at least'of tens of thousands of years. Again,
certain inferences have been tentatively made from the depth of
mud, earth, peat, &c, which has accumulated above relics of
human art imbedded in ancient times. Among these is the
argument from the numerous borings made in the alluvium of
the Nile valley to a depth of 60 ft, where down to the lowest
level fragments of burnt brick and pottery were always found,
showing that people advanced enough in the arts to bake brick
and pottery have inhabited the valley during the long period
required for the Nile inundations to deposit 60 ft. of mud, at a
rate probably not averaging more than a few inches in a century.
Another argument is that of Professor von Morlot, based on a
railway section through a conical accumulation of gravel and
alluvium, which the torrent of the Tinierc has gradually built up
where it enters the Lake of Geneva near Villencuve. Here three
layers of vegetable soil appear, proved by the objects imbedded
in them to have been the successive surface soils in two pre-
historic periods and in the Roman period, but now lying 4» 10
and 10 ft underground. On this it is computed that if 4 ft. of
soil were formed in the 1500 years since the Roman period, we
must go 5000 years farther back for the date of the earliest human
inhabitants. Calculations of this kind, loose as they are, deserve
attention.
The interval between the Quaternary or Drift period and the
period of historical antiquity is to some extent bridged over by
refics of various intermediate civilisations, e.g. the Lake-dwellings
(q.v.) of Switzerland, mostly of the lower grades, and in some
cases reaching back to remote dates. And further evidence of
man's antiquity is afforded by the kitchen-middens or shell-heaps
(q.v.), especially those in Denmark. Danish peat-mosses again
show the existence of man at a time when the Scotch fir was
abundant; at a later period the firs were succeeded by oaks,
which have again been almost superseded by beeches, a succession
of changes which indicate a considerable lapse of time.
Lastly, chronicles and documentary records, taken in con-
nexion with archaeological relics of the historical period, carry
back into distant ages the starting-point of actual history, behind
which lies the evidently vast period only known by inferences
from the relations of languages and the stages of development of
civilization. The most recent work of Egyptologists proves a
systematic civilisation to have existed in the valley' of the Nile
at least 6000 to 7000 years ago (see Chronology).
It was formerly held that the early state of society was one of
comparatively high culture, and thus there was no hesitation in
assigning the origin of man to a time but little beyond the range
of historical records and monuments. But the researches of
anthropologists in recent years have proved that the civilization
of man has been gradually developed from an original stone-age
culture, such as characterizes modern savage life. To the 6000
years to which ancient civilization dates back must be added a
vast period during which the knowledge, arts and institutions of
such a civilization as that of ancient Egypt attained the high
level evidenced by the earliest records. The evidence of com-
parative philology supports the necessity for an enormous time
allowance. Thus, Hebrew and Arabic are closely related
languages, neither of them the original of the other, but both
sprung from some parent language more ancient than either.
When, therefore, the Hebrew records have carried back to the
most ancient admissible date the existence of the Hebrew
language, this date must have been long preceded by that of
the extinct parent language of the whole Semitic family; while
this again was no doubt the descendant of languages slowly
shaping themselves through ages into this peculiar type. Yet
more striking is the evidence of the Indo-European (formerly
called Aryan) family of languages. The Hindus, Medes, Persians,
Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts and Slavs make their appear-
ance at more or less remote dates as nations separate in language
as in history. Nevertheless, it is now acknowledged that at
some far remoter time, before these nations were divided from
the parent stock, and distributed over Asia and Europe, a single
barbaric people stood as physical and political representative
of the nascent Aryan race, speaking a now extinct Aryan lan-
guage, from which, by a scries of modifications not to be estimated
as possible within many thousands of years, there arose languages
which have been mutually unintelligible since the dawn of history,
and between which it was only possible for an age of advanced
philology to trace the fundamental relationship.
From the combination of these considerations, it will be seen
that the farthest date to which documentary or other records
extend is now generally regarded by anthropologists as but the
earliest distinctly visible point of the historic period, beyond
which stretches back a vast-indefinite series of prehistoric ages.
V. Language. — In examining how the science of language
bears on the general problems of anthropology, it is not necessary
to discuss at length the critical questions which arise, the principal
of which are considered elsewhere (see Language). Philology is
especially appealed to by anthropologists as contributing to the
following lines of argument. A primary mental similarity of all
branches of the human race is evidenced by their common
faculty of speech, while at the same time secondary diversities
of race-character and history are marked by difference of gram-
matical structure and of vocabularies. The existence of groups
or families of allied languages, each group being evidently
descended from a single language, affords one of the principal
aids in classifying nations and races. The adoption by one
language of words originally belonging to another, proving as it
does the fact of intercourse between two races, and even to some
extent indicating the results of such intercourse, affords a
n6
ANTHROPOLOGY
valuable clue through obscure regions of the history of
civilization.
Communication by gesture-signs, between persons unable to
converse in vocal language, is an effective system of expression
common to all mankind. Thus, the signs used to ask a deaf and
dumb child about his meals and lessons, or to communicate with
a savage met in the desert about game or enemies, belong to
codes of gesture-signals identical in principle, and to a great
extent independent both of nationality and education; there is
even a natural syntax, or order of succession, in such gesture-
signs. To these gestures let there be added the use of the
interjectional cries, such as oh! ugh! key/ and imitative sounds
to represent the cat's mew, the click of a trigger, the clap or thud
of a blow, &c. The total result of this combination of gesture
and significant sound will be a general system of expression,
imperfect but serviceable, and naturally intelligible to all man-
kind without distinction of race. Nor is such a system of
communication only theoretically conceivable; it is, and always
has been, in practical operation between people ignorant of one
another's language, and as such is largely used in the intercourse
of savage tribes. It is true that to some extent these means of
utterance are common to the lower animals, the power of ex-
pressing emotion by cries and tones extending far down in the
scale of animal life, while rudimentary gesture-signs arc made by
various mammals and birds. Still, the lower animals make no
approach to the human system of natural utterance by .gesture-
signs and emotional-imitative sounds, While the practical
identity of this human system among races physically so unlike
as the Englishman and the native of the Australian bush
indicates extreme closeness of mental similarity throughout the
human species.
When, however, the Englishman and the Australian speak
each in his native tongue, only such words as belong to the
interjectional and imitative classes will be naturally intelligible,
and as it were instinctive to both. Thus the savage, uttering
the sound ivaow! as an explanation of surprise and warning,
might be answered by the white man with the not less evidently
significant shl of silence, and the two speakers would be on
common ground when the native indicated by the name bwirri
his cudgel, flung whirring through the air at a flock of birds, or
when the native described as a jakkal-yakkal the bird called by
the foreigner a cockatoo. With these, and other very limited
classes of natural words, however, resemblance in vocabulary
practically ceases. The Australian and English languages each
consist mainly of a series of words having no apparent connexion
with the ideas they signify, and differing utterly; of course,
accidental coincidences and borrowed words must be excluded
from such comparisons. It would be easy to enumerate other
languages of the world, such as Basque, Turkish, Hebrew, Malay,
Mexican, all devoid of traceable resemblance to Australian and
English, and to one another. There is, moreover, extreme
difference in the grammatical structure both of words and sen-
tences in various languages. The question then arises, how far
the employment of different vocabularies, and that to a great
extent on different grammatical principles, is compatible with
similarity of the speakers' minds, or how far does diversity of
speech indicate diversity of mental nature? The obvious
answer is, that the power of using words as signs to express
thoughts with which their sound does not directly connect them,
in fact as arbitrary symbols, is the highest grade of the special
human faculty in language, the presence of which binds together
all races of mankind in substantial mental unity. The measure
of this unity is, that any child of any race can be brought up to
speak the language of any other race.
Under the present standard of evidence in comparing languages
and tracing allied groups to a common origin, the crude specula-
tions as to a single primeval language of mankind, which formerly
occupied so much attention, are acknowledged to be worthless.
Increased knowledge and accuracy of method have as yet only
left the way open to the most widely divergent suppositions.
For all that known dialects prove to .the contrary, on the one
hand, there may have been one primitive language, from which
the descendant languages have varied so widely, that neither
their words nor their formation now indicate their unity in long
past ages, while, on the other hand, the primitive tongues of
mankind may have been numerous, and the extreme unlikeness
of such languages as Basque, Chinese, Peruvian, Hottentot and
Sanskrit may arise from absolute independence of origin.
The language spoken by any tribe or nation is not of itself
absolute evidence as to its race-affinities. This is clearly shown
in extreme cases. Thus the Jews in Europe have almost lost the
use of Hebrew, but speak as their vernacular the language of
their adopted nation, whatever it may be; even the Jewish-
German dialect, though consisting so largely of Hebrew words,
is philologically German, as any sentence shows: " Ick hab nock
hojom lo gcachdt, " " I have not yet eaten to-day." The mixture
of the Israelites in Europe by marriage with other nations is
probably much greater than is acknowledged by them; yet, on
the whole, the race has been preserved with extraordinary
strictness, as its physical characteristics sufficiently show.
Language thus here fails conspicuously as a test of race and even
of national history. Not much less conclusive is the case of the
predominantly Negro populations of the West India Islands,
who, nevertheless, speak as their native tongues dialects of
English or French, in which the number of intermingled native
African words is very scanty: " Dcm kitti nctli no ini vatra
bikasi dem dejisiman," " They cast a net into the water, because
they were fishermen." (Surinam Negro-Eng.) "Bcf pas ca
j amain Idsse poler cbnes />," " Le boeuf n'est jamais las de porter
ses comes." (Haitian Ncgro-Fr.) If it be objected that the
linguistic conditions of these two races are more artificial than
has been usual in the history of the world, less extreme cases
may be seen in countries where the ordinary results of conquest-
colonization have taken place. The Mestizos, who form so large
a fraction of the population of modern Mexico, numbering
several millions, afford a convenient test in this respect, inasmuch
as their intermediate complexion separates them from both their
ancestral races, the Spaniard, and the chocolate-brown indigenous
Aztec or other Mexican. The mother-tongue of this mixed race
is Spanish, with an infusion of Mexican words; and a Urge
proportion cannot speak any native dialect. In most or all
nations of mankind, crossing or intermarriage of races has thus
taken place between the conquering invader and the conquered
native, so that the language spoken by the nation may represent
the results of conquest as much or more than of ancestry. The
supersession of the Celtic Cornish by English, and of the Slavonic
Old-Prussian by German, are but examples of a process which
has for untold ages been supplanting native dialects, whose very
names have mostly disappeared. On the other hand, the
language of the warlike invader or peaceful immigrant may
yield, in a few generations, to the tongue of the mass of the
population, as the Northman's was replaced by French, and
modern German gives way to English in the United States.
Judging, then, by the extirpation and adoption of languages
within the range of history, it is obvious that to classify mankind
into races, Aryan, Semitic, Turanian, Polynesian, Kaffir, &c,
on the mere evidence of language, is intrinsically unsound.
VI. Development of Civilization.— The conditions of man at the
lowest and highest known levels of culture are separated by a
vast interval; but this interval is so nearly filled by known
intermediate stages, that the line of continuity between the
lowest savagery and the highest civilization is unbroken at any
critical point
An examination of the details of savage life shows not only
that there is an immeasurable difference between the rudest man
and the highest lower animal, but also that the least cultured
savages have themselves advanced far beyond the lowest
intellectual and moral state at which human tribes can be con-
ceived as capable of existing, when placed under favourable
circumstances of warm climate, abundant food, and security from
too severe destructive influences. The Australian black-fellow
or the forest Indian of Brazil, who may be taken as examples
of the lowest modern savage, had, before contact with whiles,
attained to rudimentary stages in many of the characteristic
ANTHROPOLOGY
tactions of civfflfed life. His language, expressing thoughts
by conventional articulate sounds, is the same in essential
principle as the most cultivated philosophic dialect, only less
exact and copious. His weapons, tools and other appliances
snch as the hammer, hatchet, spear, knife, awl, thread, net, canoe,
Ax., are the evident rudimentary analogues of what still remains
in use among Europeans. His structures, such as the hut, fence,
stockade, earthwork, &c, may be poor and clumsy, but they are
of the same nature as our own. In the simple arts of broiling
and roasting meat, the use of hides and furs for covering, the
plaiting of mats and baskets, the devices of hunting, trapping
and fishing, the pleasure taken in personal ornament, the touches
of artistic decoration on objects of daily use, the savage differs
in degree but not in kind from the civilised man. The domestic
and sodal affections, the kindly care of the young and the old,
some acknowledgment of marital and parental obligation, the
duty of mutual defence in the tribe, the authority of the elders,
and general respect to traditional custom as the regulator of
life and duty, are more or less well marked in every savage tribe
vhjch is not disorganized and falling to pieces. Lastly, there is
usually to be discerned amongst such lower races a belief hi
unseen powers pervading the universe, this belief shaping itself
into an animistic or spiritualistic theology, mostly resulting in
some kind of worship. If, again, high savage or low barbaric
types be selected, as among the North American Indians, Polyne-
sians, and Kaffirs of South Africa, the same elements of culture
appear, but at a more advanced stage, namely, a more full and
accurate language, more knowledge of the laws of nature, more
serviceable implements, more perfect industrial processes, more
definite and fixed social order and frame of government, more
systematic and philosophic schemes of religion and a more
elaborate and ceremonial worship. At intervals new arts and
ideas appear, such as agriculture and pasturage, the manufacture
of pottery, the use of metal implements and the device of record
and communication by picture writing. Along such stages of
improvement and invention the bridge is fairly made between
savage and barbaric culture; and this once attained to, the
remainder of the series of stages of civilization lies within the
range of common knowledge.
Too teaching of history, during the three to four thousand
years of which contemporary chronicles have been preserved,
is that civilization is gradually developed m the course of ages by
enlargement and increased precision of knowledge, invention and
improvement of arts, and the progression of social and political
habits and institutions towards general well-being. That pro-
cesses of development similar to these were in prehistoric times
effective to raise culture from the savage to the barbaric level,
two considerations especially tend to prove. First, there are
numerous points in the culture even of rude races which are not
explicable otherwise than on the theory of development. Thus,
though difficult or superfluous arts may easily be lost, it is
bard to imagine the abandonment of contrivances of practical
daily utility, where little skill is required and materials are easily
accessible. Had the Australians or New Zealanders, for instance,
ever possessed the potter's art, they could hardly have forgotten
it. The inference that these tribes represent the stage of culture
before the invention of pottery is confirmed by the absence of
buried fragments of pottery in the districts they inhabit. The
same races who were found making thread by the laborious process
of twisting with the hand, would hardly have disused, if they had
ever possessed, so simple a labour-saving device as the spindle,
which consists merely of a small stick weighted at one end; the
spindle may, accordingly, be regarded as an instrument invented
somewhere between the lowest and highest savage levels (Tylor,
Early Hist, of Mankind, p. 193). Again many devices of civiliza-
tion bear unmistakable marks of derivation from a lower source;
thus the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian harps, which differ from
ours in having no front pillar, appear certainly to owe this re-
markable defect to having grown up through intermediate
forms from the simple strung bow, the still used type of the most
primitive stringed instrument. In this way the history of
1 words furnishes actual proof of that independent intd-
117
lectural progress among savage tribes which some writers have
rashly denied. Such words as hand, hands, fool, man, &c, are
used as numerals signifying 5, 10, 15, ao, &c, among many
savage and barbaric peoples; thus Polynesian lima, Is.
"hand" means 5; Zulu tatisitupa, i.e. "taking* the thumb,"
means 6; Greenlandish arfersanek-pingasut, i.e. " on the other
foot three," means 18; Tamanac levin iioto, i.e. " one man,"
means jo, ftc, ftc. The existence of such expressions demon-
strates that the people who use them had originally no spoken
names for these numbers, but once merely counted them by
gesture on their fingers and toes in low savage fashion, till they
obtained higher numerals by the inventive process of describing
in words these counting-gestures. Second, the process of
" survival in culture " has caused the preservation in each stage
of society of phenomena belonging to an earlier period, but kept
up by force of custom into the later, thus supplying evidence of
the modern condition being derived from the ancient. Thus the
mitre over an English bishop's coat-of-arms is a survival which
indicates him as the successor of bishops who actually wore
mitres, while armorial bearings themselves, and the whole craft
of heraldry, are survivals bearing record of a state of warfare and
social order whence our present state was by vast modification
evolved. Evidence of this class, proving the derivation of
modern civilization, not only from ancient barbarism, but beyond
this, from primeval savagery, is immensely plentiful, especially in
rites and ceremonies, where the survival of ancient habits is
peculiarly favoured. Thus the modern Hindu, though using
civilized means for lighting his household fires, retains the savage
" fire-drill " for obtaining fire by friction of wood when what he
considers pure or sacred fire has to be produced for sacrificial
purposes; while in Europe into modem times the same primitive
process has been kept up in producing the sacred and magical
" need-fire," which was lighted to deliver cattle from a murrain.
Again, the funeral offerings of food, clothing, weapons, &c, to
the dead are absolutely intelligible and purposeful among savage
races, who believe that the souls of the departed are ethereal
beings capable of consuming food, and of receiving and using
the souls or phantoms of any objects sacrificed for their use. The
primitive philosophy to which these conceptions belong has to a
great degree been discredited by modern science; yet the dear
survivals of such ancient and savage rites may still be seen In
Europe, where the Bretons leave the remains of the All Souls'
supper on the table for the ghosts of the dead kinsfolk to partake
of, and Russian peasants set out cakes for the ancestral manes
on the ledge which supports the holy pictures, and make
dough ladders to assist the ghosts of the dead to ascend out of
their graves and start on their journey for the future world;
while other provision for the same spiritual journey is made
when the coin is still put in the hand of the corpse at an Irish
wake. In like manner magic still exists in the civilized world
as a survival from the savage and barbaric times to which it
originally belongs, and in which is found the natural source
and proper home of utterly savage practices still carried on by
ignorant peasants in Great Britain, such as taking omens from
the cries of animals, or bewitching an enemy by sticking full of
pins and hanging up to shrivel in the smoke an image or other
object, that similar destruction may fall on the hated person
represented by the symbol (Tylor, Primitive Culture, ch. i., iii.,
iv., xi., xii.; Early Hist, of Man, ch. vi.).
The comparative science of civilization thus not only
generalizes the data of history, but supplements its information
by laying down the lines of development along which the lowest
prehistoric culture has gradually risen to the highest modern
level . Among the most clearly marked of these lines is that which
follows the succession of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages (see
Archaeology). The Stone Age represents the early condition
of mankind in general, and has remained in savage districts up to
modern times, while the introduction of metals need not at once
supersede the use of the old stone hatchets and arrows, which
have often long continued in dwindling survival by the sideof the
new bronze and even iron ones. The Bronze Age had Its most
important place among ancient nations of Asia and Europe, and
n8
ANTHROPOLOGY
among them was only succeeded after many centuries by the
Iron Age; while in other districts, such as Polynesia and Central
and South Africa, and America (except Mexico and Peru), the
native tribes were moved directly from the Stone to the Iron
Age without passing through the Bronze Age at all. Although
the three divisions of savage, barbaric, and civilized man do not
correspond at all perfectly with the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages,
this classification of civilization has proved of extraordinary
value in arranging in their proper order of culture the nations of
the Old World.
Another great line of progress has been followed by tribes
passing from the primitive state of the wild hunter, fisher and
fruit-gatherer to that of the settled tiller of the soil, for to
this change of habit may be plainly in great part traced
the expansion of industrial arts and the creation of higher
social and political institutions. These, again, have followed
their proper lines along the course of time. Among such is
the immense legal development by which the primitive law
of personal vengeance passed gradually away, leaving but a
few surviving relics in the modern civilized world, and being
replaced by the higher doctrine that crime is an offence against
society, to be repressed for the public good. Another vast
social change has been that from the patriarchal condition, in
which the unit is the family under the despotic rule of its head,
to the systems in which individuals make up a society whose
government is centralized in a chief or king. In the growth of
systematic civilization, the art of writing has had an influence so
intense, that of all tests to distinguish the barbaric from the
civilized state, none is so generally effective as this, whether they
have but the failing link with the past which mere memory
furnishes, or can have recourse to written records of past history
and written constitutions of present order. Lastly, still following
the main lines of human culture, the primitive germs of religious
institutions have to be traced in the childish faith and rude rites
of savage life, and thence followed in their expansion into the
vast systems administered by patriarchs and priests, henceforth
taking under their charge the precepts of morality, and enforcing
them under divine sanction, while also exercising in political
life an authority beside or above the civil law.
The state of culture reached by Quaternary man is evidenced
by the stone implements in the drift-gravels, and other relics
of human art in the cave deposits. His drawings on bone or
tusk found in the caves show no mean artistic power, as appears
by the three specimens copied in the Plate. That representing
two deer (fig. 6) was found so early as 1852 in the breccia of a
limestone cave on the Cbarente, and its importance recognized
in a remarkable letter by Prosper Merimce, as at once historically
ancient and geologically modern (Congres d' anthropologic et
d'arckiohgie prthistoriquu, Copenhagen (1869), p. 128). The
other two are the famous mammoth from the cave of La
Madeleine, on which the woolly mane and huge tusks of Elcphas
primigenius are boldly drawn (fig. 7) ; and the group of man and
horses (fig. 8). There has been found one other contemporary
portrait of man, where a hunter is shown stalking an aurochs.
That the men of the Quaternary period knew the savage
art of producing fire by friction, and roasted the flesh on which
they mainly subsisted, is proved by the fragments of charcoal
found in the cave deposits, where also occur bone awls and
needles, which indicate the wearing of skin clothing, like that of
the modern Australians and Fuegians. Their bone lance-heads
and dart-points were comparable to thoseof northern and southern
savages. Particular attention has to be given to the stone
implements used by these earliest known of mankind. The
division of tribes in the stone implement stage into two classes,
the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New
Stone Age, according to their proficiency in this most important
art furnishes in some respects the best means of determining
their rank in general culture.
In order to put this argument clearly before the reader, a few
■ejected implements are figured in the Plate. The group in
fig. 9 contains tools and weapons of the Neolithic period such
as are dug up on European soil; they are evident relics of
ancient populations who used them till replaced by metal.
The stone hatchets arc symmetrically shaped and edged by
grinding, while the cutting flakes, scrapers, spear and arrow
heads are of high finish. Direct knowledge of the tribes who
made them is scanty, but implements so similar in make and
design having been in use in North and South America until
modern times, it may be assumed for purposes of classification
that the Neolithic peoples .of the New World were at a similar
barbarous level in industrial arts, social organization, moral
and religious ideas. Such comparison, though needing caution
and reserve, at once proved of great value to anthropology.
When, however, there came to light from the drift-gravels
and limestone caves of Europe the Palaeolithic implements,
of which some types are shown in the group (fig. 10), the difficult
problem presented itself, what degree of general culture these
rude implements belonged to. On mere inspection, their rude-
ness, their unsuitability for being haftcd, and the absence of
shaping and edging by the grindstone, mark their inferiority
to the Neolithic implements. Their immensely greater antiquity
was proved by their geological position and their association
with a long extinct fauna, and they were not, like the Neoliths,
recognizable as corresponding closely to the implements used
by modern tribes. There was at first a tendency to consider
the Palaeoliths as the work of men ruder than savages, if,
indeed, their makers were to be accounted human at all. Since
then, however, the problem has passed into a more manageable
state. Stone implements, more or less approaching the European
Palaeolithic type, were found in Africa from Egypt southwards,
where in such parts as Somaliland and Cape Colony they lie about
on the ground, as though they had been the rough tools and
weapons of the rude inhabitants of the land at no very distant
period. The group in fig. 1 1 in the Plate shows the usual Somali-
land types. These facts tended to remove the mystery from
Palaeolithic man, though too little is known of the ruder ancient
tribes of Africa to furnish a definition of the state of culture
which might have co-existed with the use of Palaeolithic imple-
ments. Information to this purpose, however, can now be
furnished from a more outlying region. This is Tasmania, where
as in the adjacent continent of Australia, the survival of marsupial
animals indicates long isolation from the rest of the world.
Here, till far on into the 19th century, the Englishmen could
watch the natives striking off flakes of stone, trimming them to
convenient shape for grasping them in the hand, and edging
them by taking off successive chips on one face only. The group
in fig. xa shows ordinary Tasmaniaa forms, two of them being
finer tools for scraping and grooving. (For further detaila
reference may be made to H. Ling Roth, The Tasmanians,
(2nd ed, 1899); R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines 0/ Victoria (1878),
vol. ii.; Papers and Proceedings of Royal Society 0/ Tasmania;
and papers by the present writer in Journal of the Anthropological
Institute.) The Tasmanians, when they came in contact with the
European explorers and settlers, were not the broken outcasts
they afterwards became. They were a savage people, perhaps
the lowest in culture of any known, but leading a normal, self-
supporting, and not unhappy life, which had probably changed
little during untold ages. The accounts, imperfect as they
are, which have been preserved of their arts, beliefs and habits,
thus present a picture of the arts, beliefs and habits of tribes
whose place in the Stone Age was a grade lower than that of
Palaeolithic man of the Quaternary period.
The Tasmanian stone implements, figured in the Plate, show
their own use when it is noticed that the rude chipping forms
a good hand-grip above, and an effective edge for chopping,
sawing, and cutting below. But the absence of the long-shaped
implements, so characteristic of the Neolithic and Palaeolithic
series, and serviceable as picks, hatchets, and chisels, shows re-
markable limitation in the mind of these savages, who made
a broad, hand-grasped knife their tool of all work to cut, saw, and
chop with. Their weapons were the wooden club or waddy
notched to the grasp, and spears of sticks, often crooked but well
balanced, with points sharpened by tool or fire, and sometime*
jagged. No spear thrower or bow and arrow was known. The
ANTHROPOLOGY
"3
Teutonic and Celtic ancestry In the population of England (see
Bcddoc, " Suture and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in
Hem. A nthrop. Soc. London, vol. iii). Proportions of the limbs,
compared in length with the trunk, have been claimed as con-
stituting peculiarities of African and American races; and
other anatomical points, such as the conformation of the pelvis,
have speciality But inferences of this class have hardly attained
to sufficient certainty and generality to be set down in the form
of rules. The conformation of the skull is second only to the
colour of the skin as a criterion for the distinction of race; and the
position of the jaws is recognized as important, races being
described as prognathous when the jaws project far, as in the
Australian or Negro, in contradistinction to the orthognathous
type, which is that of the ordinary well-shaped European skull.
On this distinction id great measure depends the celebrated
" facial angle," measured by Camper as a test of low and high
races; but this angle is objectionable as resulting partly from
the development of the forehead and partly from the position of
the jaws. The capacity of the cranium is estimated in cubic
measure by filling it with sand, &c, with the general result that
the civilized white man is found to have a larger brain than the
barbarian or savage. Classification of races on cranial measure-
ments has long been attempted by eminent anatomists, and in
certain cases great reliance may be placed On such measurements.
Thus the skulls of an Australian and a Negro would be generally
distinguished by their narrowness and the projection of the jaw
from that of any Englishman; but the Australian skull would
usually differ perceptibly from the Negroid in its upright sides
and strong orbital ridges. The relation of height to breadth
may also furnish a valuable test; but it is acknowledged by all
experienced craniologists, that the shape of the skull may vary
so much within the same tribe, and even the same family, that
it must be used with extreme caution, and if possible only in
conjunction with other criteria of race. The general contour of
the face, in part dependent on the form of the skull, varies much
in different races, among whom it is. loosely defined as oval,
lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, &c Of particular features, some
of the most marked contrasts to European types are seen in the
oblique Chinese eyes, the broad-set Kamchadalc checks, the
pointed Arab chin, the snub Kirghiz nose, the fleshy protuberant
Negro lips, and the broad Kalmuck ear. Taken altogether, the
features have a typical character which popular observation
seizes with some degree of correctness, as in the recognition of
the Jewish countenance in a European city.
Were the race-characters constant in degree or even in kind,
the classification of races would be easy; but this is not so.
Every division of mankind presents in every character wide
deviations from a standard. Thus the Negro race, well marked
as it may seem at the first glance, proves on closer examination
to include several shades of complexion and features, in some
districts varying far from the accepted Negro type; while the
rumination of a series of native American tribes shows that,
notwithstanding their asserted uniformity of type, they differ
in suture, colour, features and proportions of skull. (See
Pochard, Nat. Hist, of Man; Waits, Anthropology, part i. sec. 5.)
Detailed anthropological research, indeed, more and more justi-
fies Blumcnbach's words, that " innumerable varieties of man-
kind run into one another by insensible degrees." This state of
things, due partly to mixture and crossing of races, and partly
to independent variation of types, makes the attempt to arrange
the whole human species within exactly bounded divisions an
apparently hopeless task. It does not follow, however, that the
attempt to distinguish special races should be given up, for there
at least exist several definable types, each of which so far prevails
ia a certain population as to be taken as its standard. L. A. J.
Quetekt's plan of defining such types will probably meet with
general acceptance as the scientific method proper to this branch
of anthropology. It consists in the determination of the stan-
dard or typical " mean man " (homme meyen) of a population,
with reference to any particular quality, such as stature, weight,
complexion, &c. In the case of stature, this would be done by
\ a sufficient number of men, and counting how many
H. S
of them belong to each height on the scale. If it be thus ascer-
tained, as it might be in an English district, that the 5 ft. 7 in.
men form the most numerous group, while the 5 ft 6 in. and 5 ft.
8 in. men are less in number, and the 5 fL 5 in. and 5 ft. 9 in.
still fewer, and so on until the extremely small number of
extremely short or tall individuals of $ f L or 7 ft. is reached, it
will thus be ascertained that the stature of the mean or typical
man is to be taken as 5 ft. 7 in. The method is thus that of
selecting as the standard the most numerous group, on both
sides of which the groups decrease in number as they vary in
type. Such classification may show the existence of two or
more types, in a community, as, for instance, the population of a
Californian settlement made up of Whites and Chinese might
show two predominant groups (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of
5 ft 4 in.) corresponding to these two racial types. It need
hardly be said that this method of determining the mean type
of a race, as being that of its really existing and most numerous
class, is altogether superior to the mere calculation of an average,
which may actually be represented by comparatively few indi-
viduals, and those the exceptional ones. For instance, the
average stature of the mixed European and Chinese population
just referred to might be 5 ft 6 in. — a worthless and indeed
misleading result. (For particulars of Quctelet's method, see
his Physique sociale (1869), and Anthropometric (1871).)
Classifications of man have been numerous, and though,
regarded as systems, most of them are unsatisfactory, yet they
have been of great value in systematizing knowledge, and arc
all more or less based on indisputable distinctions. J. F. Blumcn-
bach's division, though published as long ago as 1781, has had
the greatest influence. He reckons five races, viz. Caucasian,
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The ill-chosen name
of Caucasian, invented by Blumcnbach in allusion to a South
Caucasian skull of specially typical proportions, and applied
by him to the so-called white races, is still current; it brings into
one race peoples such as the Arabs and Swedes, although these
are scarcely less different than the Americans and Malays, who
are set down as two distinct races. Again, two of the best-
marked varieties of mankind are the Australians and the Bush-
men, neither of whom, however, seems to have a natural place in
Blumcnbach's series. The yet simpler classification by Cuvier
into Caucasian, Mongol and Negro corresponds in some measure
with a division by mere complexion into white, yellow and
black races; but neither this threefold division, nor the ancient
classification* into Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic nations can be
regarded as separating the human types either justly or sufficiently
(see Prichard, Natural History of Hon, sec. 15; WaUx, Anthro-
pology, vol. i. part i. sec. 5). Schemes which set up a larger
number of distinct races, such as the eleven of Pickering, the
fifteen of Bory de St Vincent and the sixteen of Desmouiins,
have the advantage of finding niches for most well-defined human
, varieties; but no modern naturalist would be likely to adopt
any one of these as it stands. In criticism of Pickering's system,
it is sufficient to point out that he divides the white nations
into two races, entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian (Pickering,
Races of Man, ch. i.). Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd and others who
have assumed a much larger number of races or species of
man, are not considered to have satisfactorily defined a corre-
sponding number of distinguishable types. On the whole,
Huxley's division probably approaches more nearly than any
other to such a tentative classification as may be accepted in
definition of the principal varieties of mankind, regarded from
a zoological point of view, though anthropologists may be dis-
posed to erect into separate races several of his widely-differing
sub-races. He distinguishes four principal types of mankind,
the Australioid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Xanthochroic (" fair
whites"), adding a fifth variety, the. Mclanochroic ("dark
whites ").
In determining whether the races of mankind are to be classed
as varieties of one species, it is important to decide whether
every two races can unite to produce fertile offspring. It is
settled by experience that the most numerous and well-known
crossed races, such as the Mulattos, descended from Europeans
120
ANTHROPOMORPHISM— ANTIBES
prints (q.v.). Bertillonage exhibited certain defects which were
first brought to light in Bengal. The objections raised were (i)
the costliness of the instruments employed and their liability to
get out of order; (2) the need for specially instructed measurers,
men of superior education; (3) the errors that frequently crept
in when carrying out the processes and were all but irremediable.
Measures inaccurately taken, or wrongly read off, could seldom,
if ever, be corrected, and these persistent errors defeated all
chance of successful search. The process was slow, as it was
necessary to repeat it three times so as to arrive at a mean
result. In Bengal measurements were already abandoned by
1897, when the finger print system was adopted throughout
British India. Three years later England followed suit; and
as the result of a fresh inquiry ordered by the Home Office,
finger prints were alone relied upon for identification.
Authorities.— Lombroso, Antropometria di aoo delinqutnti
(1872); Roberts, Manual of Anthropometry (1878); Ferrt, Studi
comporati di antropometria [2 vols., 1881-1882); Lombroso, Rugke
anomale sfxciali at criminali (1890); Bertillon, Instructions signali-
tiques pour V identification anthropomltriaue (1893); Livi, Anthrofo-
metria (Milan, 1900); Fiirst, JndextabeUen turn anthropometrischen
Ct branch (Jena, 1902); Report of Home Office Committee on the Best
Means of Identifying Habitual Criminals (1893-1894). (A. C)
ANTHROPOMORPHISM (Gr. Mpuvos, man, ^optf, form),
the attribution (a) of a human body, or (b) of human qualities
generally, to God or the gods. The word anthropomorphism
is a modern coinage (possibly from 18th century French). The
New English Dictionary is misled by the 1866 reprint of Paul
Bayne on Ephesians when it quotes " anthropomorphist "
as 17th century English. Seventeenth century editions print
11 anthropomorphits," i.e. anlhropomorphites, in sense (a). The
older abstract term is " anthropopathy," literally "attributing
human feelings," in sense (b).
Early religion, among its many objects of worship, includes
beasts (see Animal-Worsiiip), considered, in the more refined
theology of the later Greeks and Romans, as metamorphoses of
the great gods. Similarly we find " therianthropic " forms —
half animal, half human—in Egypt or Assyria-Babylonia. In
contrast with these, it is considered one of the glories of the
Olympian mythology of Greece that it believed in happy manlike
beings (though exempt from death, and using special rarefied
foods, &c), and celebrated them in statues of the most exquisite
art. Israel shows us animal images, doubtless of a ruder sort,
when Yahweh is worshipped in the northern kingdom under the
image of a steer. (Some scholars think the title " mighty one of
Jacob," Psalm exxxii., a, 5, ct al., t^ as if from 13*, is
really " steer " ■»•» " of Jacob.") But the higher religion of Israel
inclined to morality more than to art, and forbade image worship
altogether. This prepared the way for the conception of God as
an immaterial Spirit. True mythical anthropomorphisms occur
in early parts of the Old Testament (e.g. Genesis iii. 8, cf. vi. 2),
though in the majority of Old Testament passages such expres-
sions are merely verbal (e.g. Isaiah lix. 1). In the Christian
Church (and again in early Mahommcdanism) simple minds
believed in the corporeal nature of God. Gibbon and other
writers quote from John Cassian the talc of the poor monk, who,
being convinced of his error, burst into tears, exclaiming, " You
have taken away my Godl I have none now whom lean
worship!" According to a fragment of Origcn (on Genesis i-
26), Mclito of Sardis shared this belief. Many have thought
Mclito's work, rcpl Ircwparov 0co9, must have been a treatise
on the Incarnation; but it is hard to think that Origcn could
blunder so. Epiphanius tells of Audaeus of Mesopotamia and
his followers, Puritan sectaries in the 4th century, who were
orthodox except for this belief and for Quartodccimanism
(see Easter). Tcrtullian, who is sometimes called an anthropo-
morphist, stood for the Stoical doctrine, that all reality, even
the divine, is in a sense material.
The reaction against anthropomorphism begins in Greek
philosophy with the satirical spirit of Xenophanes (540 B.C.),
who puts the case as broadly as any. The "greatest God"
resembles man " neither in form nor in mind." In Judaism —
unless we should refer to the prophets' polemic against images—
a reaction is due to the introduction of the codified law. God
seemed to grow more remote. The old sacred name Yahweh is
never pronounced; even " God " is avoided for allusive titles
like " heaven " or " place." Still, amid all this, the God of
Judaism remains a personal, almost a limited, being. In Philo
we see Jewish scruples uniting with others drawn from Greek
philosophy. For, though the quarrel with popular anthropo-
morphism was patched up, and the gods of the Pantheon were
described by Stoics and Epicureans as manlike in form, philo-
sophy nevertheless tended to highly abstract conceptions of
supreme, or real, deity. Philo followed out the line of this tradi-
tion in teaching that God cannot be named. How much exactly
he meant is disputed. The same inheritance of Greek philosophy
appears in the Christian fathers, especially Origen. He names
and condemns the " anthropomorphites," who ascribe a human
body to God (on Romans i., sub fin.; Rufinus' Latin version).
In Arabian philosophy the reaction sought to deny that God
had any attributes. And, under the influence of Mahommedaa
Aristotelianism, the same paralysing speculation found entrance
among the learned Jews of Spain (see Maimonides).
Till modern times the philosophical reaction was not carried
out with full vigour. Spinoza (Ethics, i. 15 and 17), representing
here as elsewhere both a Jewish inheritance and a philosophical*
but advancing further, sweeps away all community between
God and man. So later J. G. Fichte and Matthew Arnold (" a
magnified and non-natural man "), — strangely, in view of their
strong belief in an objective moral order. For the use of the
word " anthropomorphic," or kindred forms, in this new spirit of
condemnation for all conceptions of God as manlike— sense (b)
noted above— see J. J. Rousseau in £.mile iv. (cited by Littre), —
Nous sommes pour la ptuparl de prats anikropomotphius. Rous-
seau is here speaking of the language of Christian theology, —
a divine Spirit: divine Persons. At the present day this usage
is universal. What it means on the lips of pantheists as plain.
But when theists charge one another with " anthropomorphism,''
in order to rebuke what they deem unduly manlike conceptione
of God, they stand on slippery ground. All theism implies the
assertion of kinship between man, especially in his moral being,
and God. As a brilliant theologian, B. Duhm, has said, physio-
morphism is the enemy of Christian faith, not anthropomorphism.
The latest extension of the word, proposed in the interests of
philosophy or psychology, uses it of the principle according to
which man h said to interpret all things (not God merely) through
himself. Common-sense intuitionalism would deny that man
does this, attributing to him immediate knowledge of reality.
And idealism in all its forms would say that man, interpreting
through his reason, does rightly, and reaches truth. Even here
then the use of the word is not colourless. It implies blame. It
is the symptom of a philosophy which confines knowledge within
narrow limits, and which, when held by Christians (e.g. Peter
Browne, or H. L. Mansel), believes only in an " analogical "
knowledge of God. (R. Ma.)
ANTI, or Campa, a tribe of South American Indians of Ara*
wakan stock, inhabiting the forests of the upper Ucayali basin,
east of Cuxco, on the eastern side of the Andes, south Peru.
The Antis, who gave their name to the eastern province of
Antisuyu, have always been notorious for ferocity and canni-
balism. They are of fine physique and generally good-looking.
Their dress is a robe with holes for the head and arms. Their
long hair hangs down over the shoulders, and round their necks
a toucan beak or a bunch of feathers is worn as an ornament.
ANTIBES, a seaport town in the French department of the
Alpes-Maritimes (formerly in that of the Var, but transferred
after the Alpes-Maritimes department was formed in i860 out
of the county of Nice). Pop. (xoo6) of the town, 5730; of the
commune, 11,753. I* is ia| m. by rail S.W. of Nice, and is
situated on the E. side of the Garoupe peninsula. It was formerly
fortified, but all the ramparts (save the Fort Carrt, built by
Vauban) have now been demolished, and a new town Is rising on
their site. There is a tolerable harbour, with a considerable
fishing industry. The principal exports axe dried fruits, salt fish
and oiL Much perfume distilling is done here, as the surrounding
ANTHROPOLOGY
"3
Teutonic and Celtic ancestry in the population of England (see
Beddoe, " Suture and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in
Mem. Antkrop. Soc. London, vol. iii). Proportions of the limbs,
compared in length with the trunk, have been claimed as con-
stituting peculiarities of African and American races; and
1 other anatomical points, such as the conformation of the pelvis,
have speciality But inferences of this class have hardly attained
to sufficient certainty and generality to be set down in the form
of rules. The conformation of the skull is second only to the
colour of the skin as a criterion for the distinction of race; and the
position of the jaws is recognized as important, races being
described as prognathous when the jaws project far, as in the
Australian or Negro, in contradistinction to the orthognathous
type, which is that of the ordinary well-shaped European skull.
On this distinction id great measure depends the celebrated
M facial angle," measured by Camper as a test of low and high
races; but this angle is objectionable as resulting partly from
the development of the forehead and partly from the position of
the jaws. The capacity of the cranium is estimated in cubic
measure by filling it with sand, &c, with the general result that
the civilized white man is found to have a larger brain than the
1 barbarian or savage. Oassification of races on cranial measure-
ments has long been attempted by eminent anatomists, and in
certain cases great reliance may be placed dn such measurements.
Thus the skulls of an Australian and a Negro would be generally
distinguished by their narrowness and the projection of the jaw
from that of any Englishman; but the Australian skull would
usually differ perceptibly from the Negroid in its upright sides
and strong orbital ridges. The relation of height to breadth
may also furnish a valuable test; but it is acknowledged by all
experienced craniologists, that the shape of the skull may vary
so much within the same tribe, and even the same family, that
it must be used with extreme caution, and if possible only in
conjunction with other criteria of race. The general contour of
| the face, in part dependent on the form of the skull, varies much
in different races, among whom it is. loosely defined as oval,
lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, &c. Of particular features, some
of the most marked contrasts to European types are seen in the
oblique Chinese eyes, the broad-set Kamchadale cheeks, the
pointed Arab chin, the snub Kirghiz nose, the fleshy protuberant
Negro lips, and the broad Kalmuck ear. Taken altogether, the
features have a typical character which popular observation
seises with some degree of correctness, as in the recognition of
the Jewish countenance in a European city.
Were the race-characters constant in degree or even in kind,
the classification of races would be easy; but this is not so.
Every division of mankind presents in every character wide
deviations from a standard. Thus the Negro race, well marked
as it may seem at the first glance, proves on closer examination
to include several shades of complexion and features, in some
districts varying far from the accepted Negro type; while the
rumination of a series of native American tribes shows that,
notwithstanding their asserted uniformity of type, they differ
in stature, colour, features and proportions of skull. (See
Prichard, Nat. Hist, of Man; Waitz, Anthropology, part i. sec. 5.)
Detailed anthropological research, indeed, more and more justi-
fies Blumenbach's words, that " innumerable varieties of man-
kind run into one another by insensible degrees." This state of
things, due partly to mixture and crossing of races, and partly
to independent variation of types, makes the attempt to arrange
the whole human species within exactly bounded divisions an
appsxently hopeless task. It docs not follow, however, that the
attempt to distinguish special races should be given up, for there
at least exist several definable types, each of which so far prevails
in a certain population as to be taken as its standard. L. A. J.
Quetekt's plan of defining such types will probably meet with
general acceptance as the scientific method proper to this branch
of anthropology. It consists in the determination of the stan- ,
dard or typical " mean man " (homme moytn) of a population,
with reference to any particular quality, such as stature, weight,
complexion, &c. In the case of stature, this would be done by
m ea s ur ing a sufficient number of men, and counting how many
II. S
of them belong to each height on the scale. If it be thus ascer-
tained, as it might be in an English district, thai the 5 ft 7 in.
men form the most numerous group, while the 5 ft 6 in. and 5 ft.
8 in. men are less in number, and the 5 ft 5 in. and s ft 9 in.
still fewer, and so on until the extremely small number of
extremely short or tall individuals of $ ft or 7 ft. is reached, it
will thus be ascertained that the stature of the mean or typical
man is to be taken as 5 ft. 7 in. The method is thus that of
selecting as the standard the most numerous group, on both
sides of Which the groups decrease in number as they vary in
type. Such classification may show the existence of two or
more types, in a community, as, for instance, the population of a
Californian settlement made up of Whites and Chinese might
show two predominant groups (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of
S ft 4 in.) corresponding to these two racial types. It need
hardly be said that this method of determining the mean type
of a race, as being that of its really existing and most numerous
class, is altogether superior to the mere calculation of an average,
which may actually be represented by comparatively few indi-
viduals, and those the exceptional ones. For instance, the
average stature of the mixed European and Chinese population
just referred to might be 5 ft 6 in. — a worthless and indeed
misleading result (For particulars of Quetelet's method, see
his Physique sociale (1869), and Anthropometric (1871).)
Classifications of man have been numerous/ and though,
regarded as systems, most of them are unsatisfactory, yet they
have been of great value in systematizing knowledge, and are
all more or less based on indisputable distinctions. J. F. Blumen-
bachs division, though published as long ago as 1781, has had
the greatest influence. He reckons five races, viz. Caucasian,
Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The ill-chosen name
of Caucasian, invented by Blumcnbach in allusion to a South
Caucasian skull of specially typical proportions, and applied
by him to the so-called white races, is still current; it brings into
one race peoples such as the Arabs and Swedes, although these
are scarcely less different than the Americans and Malays, who
are set down as two distinct races. Again, two of the best-
marked varieties of mankind are the Australians and the Bush-
men, neither of whom, however, seems to have a natural place in
Blumenbach's series. The yet simpler classification by Cuvicr
into Caucasian, Mongol and Negro corresponds in some measure
with a division by mere complexion into white, yellow and
black races; but neither this threefold division, nor the aneient
classification" into Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic nations can be
regarded as separating the human types either justly or sufficiently
(see Prichard, Natural History of Han, sec. 15; WaUz, Anthro-
pology, vol. i. part i. sec. 5). Schemes which set up a larger
number of distinct races, such as the eleven of Pickering, the
fifteen of Bory de St Vincent and the sixteen of Desmoulins,
have the advantage of finding niches for most well-defined human
, varieties; but no modern naturalist would be likely to adopt
any one of these as it stands. In criticism of Pickering's system,
it is sufficient to point out that he divides the white nations
into two races, entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian (Pickering,
Races of Man, ch. i.). Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd and others who
have assumed a much larger number of races or species of
man, are not considered to have satisfactorily defined a corre-
sponding number of distinguishable types. On the whole,
Huxley's division probably approaches more nearly than any
other to such a tentative classification as may be accepted in
definition of the principal varieties of mankind, regarded from
a zoological point of view, though anthropologists may be dis-
posed to erect into separate races several of his widely-differing
sub-races. He distinguishes four principal types of mankind,
the Australioid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Xantbochroic ("fair
whites"), adding a fifth variety, the, Melanochroic ("dark
whites ").
In determining whether the races of mankind are to be classed
as varieties of one species, it is important to decide whether
every two races can unite to produce fertile offspring. It is
settled by experience that the most numerous and well-known
crossed races, such as the Mulattos, descended from Europeans
122
still retards the revelation of Antichrist (a Thess. fi. 6 ftc., to
Karkxw, o kutixw), an allusion which, in the tradition of
the Fathers of the church, came to be universally, and probably
correctly, referred to the Roman empire. In this then consists
the significant turn given by St Paul in the Second Epistle to the
Thessalonians to the whole conception, namely, in the substitu-
tion for the tyrant of the latter time who should persecute the
Jewish people, of a pseudo-Messianic figure, who, establishing
himself in the temple of God, should find credence and a following
precisely among the Jews. And while the originally Jewish
idea led straight to the conception, set forth in Revelation,
of the Roman empire or its ruler as Antichrist, here, on the con-
trary, it is probably the Roman empire that is the power which
still retards the reign of Antichrist. With this, the expectation
of such an event at last separates itself from any connexion with
historical fact, and becomes purely ideal. In this process of
transformation of the idea, which has become of importance for
the history of the world, is revealed probably the genius of Paul,
or at any rate, that of the young Christianity which was breaking
its ties with Judaism and establishing itself in the world of the
Roman empire.
This version of the figure of Antichrist, who may now really
for the first time be described by this name, appears to have been
at once widely accepted in Christendom. The idea that the
Jews would believe in Antichrist, as punishment for not having
believed in the true Christ, seems to be expressed by the author
of the fourth gospel (v. 43). The conception of Antichrist as a
perverter of men, leads naturally to his connexion with false
doctrine (1 John ii. 18, 22; iv. 3, 2 John 7). The Teaching of
the Apostles (xvi. 4) describes his form in the same way as
2 Thessalonians (col rbrt <t>aiv4\cenu. 6 aoauoirXdMi d* trior
Btov ml rotct OTft^ia col rlpum) In the late Christian
SibylHne fragment (iii. 63 &c.) also, " Beliar " appears above all
as a worker of wonders, this figure having possibly been influenced
by that of Simon Magus. Finally the author of the Apocalypse
of St John also has made use of the new conception of Antichrist
as a wonder-worker and seducer, and has set his figure beside
that of the " first " Beast which was for him the actual cmbodi*
ment of Antichrist (xiii. ix &c). Since this second Beast could
not appear along with the first as a power demanding worship
and directly playing the part of Antichrist, he made out of him
the false prophet (xvi. i3,xix. 20, xx. 10) who seduces the
inhabitants of the earth to worship the first Beast, and probably
interpreted this figure as applying to the Roman provincial
priesthood. 1
But this version of the idea of Antichrist, hostile to the Jews
and better expressing the relation of Christianity to the Roman
empire, was prevented from obtaining an absolute ascendancy
in Christian tradition by the rise of the belief in the ultimate
return of Nero, and by the absorption of this outcome of pagan
superstition into the Jewish-Christian apocalyptic conceptions.
It is known that soon after the death of Nero rumours were
current that he was not dead. This report soon took the more
concrete form that he had fled to the Parthians and would return
thence to take vengeance on Rome. This expectation led to
the appearance of several pretenders who posed as Nero; and
as late as a.d. 100 many still held the belief that Nero yet lived.*
This idea of Nero's return was in the first instance taken up by
the Jewish apocalyptic writers. While the Jewish author of the
fourth Sibylline book (c. a.d. 80) still only refers simply to the
heathen belief, the author of the (Jewish?) original of the 17th
chapter of the Apocalypse of St John expects the return of Nero
with the Parthians to take vengeance on Rome, because she had
shed the blood of the Saints (destruction of Jerusalem!). In
the fifth Sibylline book, which, with the exception of verses 1-51,
was mainly composed by a Jewish writer at the close of the first
century, the return of Nero plays a great part. Three times the
author recurs to this theme, 137-154; 214027; 361-385. He
sees in the coming again of Nero, whose figure he endows with
1 Sec Boussct, Kotnmentar tier Offenbarung Jokannis, on these
issages.
* J Bid. ch. xvii. ; and Charles, A trtnsion of Isaiah, ivti. sq.
ANTICHRIST
supernatural and daemonic characteristics, a judgment of God,
in whose hand the revivified Nero becomes a rod of chastisement.
Later, the figure of Nero redivivus became, more especially in
Christian thought, entirely confused with that oi Antichrist.
The less it became possible, as time went on, to believe that Nero
yet lived and would return as a living ruler, the greater was
the tendency for his figure to develop into one whoUy infernal
and daemonic. The relation to the Parthians is also gradually
lost sight of, and from being the adversary of Rome, Nero
becomes the adversary of God and of Christ. This is the version
of the expectation of Nero's second coming preserved in the
form given to the prophecy, under Domitian, by the collaborator
in the Apocalypse of John (xiii., xvii.). Nero is here the beast
that returns from the bottomless pit, " that was, and is not,
and yet is"; the head "as it were wounded to death" that lives
again; the gruesome similitude of the Lamb that was slain, and
his adversary in the final struggle. The number of the Beast,
666, points certainly to Nero (p*u lDp-666, or vu -icp»6i6).
In the little apocalypse of the Ascensio Jesaiae (iii. 130-iv. 18),
which dates perhaps from the second, perhaps only from the
first, decade of the third century,' it is said that Beliar, the king
of this world, would descend from the firmament in the human
form of Nero. In the same way, in Sibyll. v. 28-34, Nero and
Antichrist are absolutely identical (mostly obscure remin-
iscences, Sib. viii. 68 &c, 140 tic., 151 &c). Then the Nero-
legend gradually fades away. But Victorinus of Pettau,
who wrote during the persecution under Diocletian, still knows
the relation of the Apocalypse to the legend of Nero; and
Commodian, whose Carmen Apoiogcticum was perhaps not
written until the beginning of the 4th century, knows two Anti-
christ-figures, of which he still identifies the first with Nero
redirivus.
In proportion as the figure of Nero again ceased to dominate
the imagination of the faithful, the wholly unhistorical, un-
political and anti-Jewish conception of Antichrist, which based
itself more especially on 2 Thcss. ii., gained the upper hand,
having usually become associated with the description of the
universal conflagration of the world which had also originated
in the Iranian eschatology. On the strength of exegetical com-
binations, and with the assistance of various traditions, it was
developed even in its details, which it thenceforth maintained
practically unchanged. In this form it is in great part present in
the eschatological portions of the Adv. Hacrtses of Irenaeus, and
in the de Antickristo and commentary on Daniel of Hippolytus.
In times of political excitement, during the following centuries,
men appealed again and again to the prophecy of Antichrist.
Tjien the foreground scenery of the prophecies was shifted;
special prophecies, having reference to contemporary events,
are pushed to the front, but in the background remains standing,
with scarcely a change, the prophecy of Antichrist that is bound
up with no particular time. Thus at the beginning of the
Teslamentum Domini, edited by Rahmani, there is an apocalypse,
possibly of the time of Decius, though it has been worked over
(Harnack, Chronol. der aUektist. Lilt. ii. 514 &c.) In the third
century, the period of Aurelianus and Gallienus, with its wild
warfare of Romans and Persians, and of Roman pretenders
one with another, seems especially to have aroused the spirit of
prophecy. To this period belongs the Jewish apocalypse of Elijah
(ed. Buttenwieser), of which the Antichrist is possibly Odaenathus
of Palmyra, while Sibyll. xiii., a Christian writing of this period,
glorifies this very prince. It is possible that at this time also the
SibylHne fragment (iii. 63 &c.) and the Christian recension of the
two first Sibylline books were written. 4 To this time possibly
belongs also a recension of the Coptic apocalypse of Elijah, edited
by Steindorff (Texte und Untersuckungen, N. F. ii. 3). To the
4th century belongs, according to Kampcr (Die dtuUche Kaiser -
idee, 1896, p. 18) and Sackur (Texte und Forschungen, 1898,
p. X14 &c), the first nucleus of the " Tiburtine" Sibyl, very cele-
brated in the middle ages, with its prophecy of the return of
■ Harnack, Chronologic dtr oJtchristlichen Literatur, 1. 573.
* Sec Boussct, in Hcrzog-llauck, ReaUncyklop. fir Tkootogie und
Kirche (ed. 3), xviii. 273 &c.
ANTICLIMAX— ANTICOSTI
123
Constans, and its dream, which later on exercised so much
influence, that after ruling over the whole world he would go to
Jerusalem and lay down his crown upon Golgotha. To the
4th century also perhaps belongs a series of apocalyptic pieces
and homilies which have been handed down under the name of*
Ephraem. At the beginning of the Mahommedan period, then,
we meet with the most influential and the most curious
of these prophetic books, the Pseudo-Methodius, 1 which
prophesied of the emperor who would awake from his sleep
and conquer Islam. From the Pseudo-Methodius are derived
innumerable Byzantine prophecies (cf. especially Vassiliev,
Anecdota Graeco-Bysantina) which follow the fortunes of
the Byzantine emperors and their governments. A prophecy
in verse, adorned with pictures, which is ascribed to Leo
VI. the Philosopher (Migne, Pair. Gracca, cvii. p. 11 21
&c), tells of the downfall of the house of the Comneni and
sings of the emperor of the future who would one day awake
from death and go forth from the cave in which he had lain.
Thus the prophecy of the sleeping emperor of the future is very
closely connected with the Antichrist tradition. There is extant
a Daniel prophecy which, in the time of the Latin empire, foretells
the restoration of the Greek rule.* In the East, too, Antichrist
prophecies were extraordinarily flourishing during the period of
the rise of Islam and of the Crusades. To these belong the
apocalypses in Arabic, Ethiopian and perhaps also in Syrian,
preserved in the so-called Liber dementis discipuli S. Petri
(Petri apostoii apocalypsis per Clemcntem), the late Syrian
apocalypse of Ezra (Bousset, Antichrist, 45 &c), the Coptic
(14th) vision of Daniel (in the appendix to Woide's edition of the
Codes Alexandrinus; Oxford, 1799), the Ethiopian Wisdom of
the Sibyl, which is closely related to the Tiburtine Sibyl (sec
Basset, Apocrypha ithiopiennes, x.); In the last mentioned of
these sources long scries of Islamic rulers arc foretold before the
final time of Antichrist. Jewish apocalypse also awakes to fresh
developments in the Mahommedan period, and shows a close
relationship with the Christian Antichrist literature. One of the
most interesting apocalypses is the Jewish History of Daniel,
handed down in Persian.'
This whole type of prophecy reached the West above all
through the Pseudo-Methodius', which was soon translated into
Latin. Especially influential, too, in this respect was the letter
which the monk Adso in 954 wrote to Queen Gerberga, De ortu
et tempore Antichristi. The old Tiburtine Sibylla went through
edition after edition, in each case being altered so as to apply to
the government of the monarch who happened to be ruling at the
time. Then in the West the period arrived in which eschatology ,
and above ah the expectation of the coming of Antichrist,
exercised a great influence on the world's history. This period,
as is well known, was inaugurated, at the end of the 1 3th century,
by the apocalyptic writings of the abbot Joachim of Floris.
Soon the word Antichrist re-echoed from all sides in the em-
biUered controversies of the West. The pope bestowed this title
upon the emperor, the emperor upon the pope, the Guelphs on
the Ghibcllincs and the Ghibellines on the Guelphs. In the
contests between the rival powers and courts of the period, the
prophecy of Antichrist played a political part. It gave motives to
art, to lyrical, epic and dramatic poetry. 4 Among the visionary
Franciscans, enthusiastic adherents of Joachim's prophecies,
arose above all the conviction that the pope was Antichrist, or at
least his precursor. From the Franciscans, influenced by Abbot
Joachim, the lines of connexion are clearly traceable with MiHc* of
Kremsier (Libcllus de Anlichrisio) and Matthias of Janow. For
WyctifJc and his adherent John Purvey (probably the author of
the Commentarius in Apocaiypsin ante centum annos editus,
edited in 1528 by Luther), as on the other hand for Hus, the
conviction that the papacy is essentially Antichrist is absolute.
Finally, if Luther advanced in his contest with the papacy with
greater and greater energy, he did so because he was borne on by
> Latin text by Seekur. cf . op. est. 1 Ac. : Greek text by V. Utrin.
• See Bousset, ZeiUckrift fur Kirchengesehichte, xx. p. 289 &c.
• Published in Mcrx. Archh tur Erforschung des Allen Testament.
• See especially the Indus de A ntickristo, ed. W. Meyer,
the conviction that the pope in Rome was Antichrist. And If in
the Augustana the expression of this conviction was suppressed
for political reasons, in the Articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by
him, Luther propounded it in the most uncompromising fashion.
This sentence was for him an articulus stands et cadentis ecclesiae.
To write the history of the idea of Antichrist in the last centuries
of the middle ages, would be almost to write that of the middle
ages themselves.
Authorities. — See, for the progress of the idea in Jewish and
New Testament times, the modern commentaries on Revelation
and the 2nd Epistle to the Theasa Ionia ns; Bousset, Antichrist (1895),
and the article " Antichrist " in the Encyclop. Biblica; R. H.
Charles. Ascension of Isaiah, Introduction, U.-lxxiu. For the history
of the legend of Nero, see I. Gcffcken, Nachrichten der Gdttiuger
Gesellschaft der Wissonschaft (1899). p. 446 &c. ; Th. Zahn, Zeiischrift
fir hirchltche Wissenschaft und hrchliches Leben (1886), p. 337 &c;
Bousset, Kritisch-exegetisches Kommenlar tur Offenbarune Johannis,
cap. 17, and the article " Sibylien " m Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlo-
pddicjur Theoiogie und Kirche (3rd ed.). xviii. 265 &c, ; Nordmeyer.
Der Tod Neros tn der Legende, a Festschrift of the Gymnasium of
Moos. For the later history of the legend, see Bousset, Antichrist,
where will be found a more detailed discussion of nearly all the
sources named; Bousset, " Beitrage zur Geachichte der Eachato-
logie," in ZeUschrift fur Kirchengesehichte, xx. 2, and especially
xx. 3, on the later Byzantine prophecies; Vassiliev, Anecdota
Graeco-Bysantina, I. {Moscow, 1893), which gives the texts of a
aeries of Byzantine pfopheries; E. Saokur, StbylUnischo Text* und
Forsckungen (1898), containing (1) Pseudo-Methodius, Latin text, (e)
EpisUAa Adsonis, (3) the Tiburtine Sibylla; V. Istrin, The Apocalypse
of Methodius of Patara and the Apocryphal Visions of Daniel in
Byzantine and Slovo-Russian Literature, Russian (Moscow, 1897);
J. Hampers, Die deutsehe Kaiseridee in Prophetic und Sage (Munich,
1896), and " Alexander der Grease und die Idee des Welt-
imperiums," in H. Grauert's Studien und Darstellungen aus dem
Gebiet der Geschichle, vol. L 2-3 (Freiburg, 1901); E. Wadstein, Die
eschalologische Ideengruppe, Antichrist, Wdtsabbat, Wettende und
Welgerich (Leipzig, 1896), which contains excellent material for the
history of the idea in the West during the middle ages; W Meyer,
" Ludus de Antichristo," in Sitzbericht der MUnchener A had. (PbH.
hist. Klassc 1882, H. i); Kropatschek, Das Schriftprintip der
lutherischen Kirche, i. 247 Ac. (Leipzig. 1904); H. Preuss, Die
VorsteUungen t»m Antichrist im spdteren MittdalUr, bei Luther it. i. d.
Konfutsiomtte* Polemik (Leipzig, 1906). (W. Bo.)
ANTICLIMAX (i.e. the opposite to " climax "), in rhetoric, an
abrupt declension (either deliberate or unintended) on the part
of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared
to be aiming at; as in the following well-known distich: —
" The great Dalhousie, he, the god of war,
Lieutenant-colonel to the earl of Mar."
An anticlimax can be intentionally employed only for a jocular
or satiric purpose. It frequently partakes of the nature of
antithesis, as —
" Die and endow a college or a cat.**
It is often difficult to distinguish between " anticlimax M and
" bathos "; but the former is more decidedly a relative term. A
whole speech may never rise above the level of bathos; but a
climax of greater or less elevation is the necessary antecedent of
an anticlimax.
ANTICOSTI, an island of the province of Quebec, Canada,
situated in the Gulf of St Lawrence, between 49° and 50° N.,
and between 6i° 40' and 64 3°' W., with a length of 13s m. and
a breadth of 30 m. Population 250, consisting chiefly of the
keepers of the numerous lighthouses erected by the Canadian
government. The coast is dangerous, and the only two harbours,
Ellis Bay and Fox Bay, are very indifferent. Anticosti was
sighted by Jacques Cartier in 1534, and named Assomption. In
1763 it was ceded by France to Britain, and in 1774 became part
of Canada. Wild animals, especially bears, are numerous, but
prior to 1896 the fish and game had been almost exterminated
by indiscriminate slaughter. In that year Anticosti and the
shore fisheries were leased to M. Menier, the French chocolate
manufacturer, who converted the island into a game preserve,
and attempted to develop its resources of lumber, peat and
minerals.
See Logan, Geological Sumy of Canato,I<etort of Progress frtnn its
Commencement to 1861 (Montreal, 1863-1865)? E. Billings, Geo-
logical Survey of Canada: Catalogue of the Sdunan Fossils of Anti-
costi (Montreal. 1866): J. Schimtt, Anticosti (Paris, 1904)-
12+
ANTICYCLONE— ANTIGO
ANTICYCLONE (i.e. opposite to a cyclone), an atmospheric
system in which there is a descending movement of the air and a
relative increase in barometric pressure over the part of the
earth's surface affected by it. At the surface the air tends to
flow outwards in ail directions from the central area of high
pressure, and is deflected on account of the earth's rotation (sec
Ferrel's Law) so as to give a spiral movement in the direc-
tion of the hands of a watch face upwards in the northern
hemisphere, against that direction in the southern hemisphere.
Since the air in an anticyclone is descending, it becomes wanned
and dried, and therefore transmits radiation freely whether from
the sun to the earth or from the earth into space. Hence in
winter anticydonic weather is characterised by clear air with
periods of frost, causing fogs in towns and low-lying damp areas,
and in summer by still cloudless days with gentle variable airs
and fine weather.
ANTICYRA, the ancient name of three cities of Greece,
(x) (Mod. Aspraspitio), in Phods, on the bay of Anticyra, in
the Corinthian gulf; some remains are still visible. It was a
town of considerable importance in ancient times; was destroyed
by Philip of Macedon; recovered its prosperity; and was cap-
tured by T. Quinctius Flamininus in 198 B.C. The dty was
famous for its black hellebore, a herb which was regarded as
a cure for insanity. This circumstance gave rise to a number
of proverbial expressions, like 'Amrfpos <re ftei or " naviget
Anticyram," and to frequent allusions in the Greek and Latin
writers. Hellebore was likewise considered beneficial in cases
of gout and epilepsy, (a) In Thessaly, on the right bank of
the river Spercheus, near its mouth. (3) In Locris, on the north
side of the entrance to the Corinthian gulf, near Naupactus.
ANTIBTAM, the name of a Maryland creek, near which, on the
i6th-i7th of September 1862, was fought the battle of Antietam
or Sharpsburg (see Akeucan Civil- Wax), between the
Federals under McGellan and the Confederates commanded
by Lee. General McClellan had captured the passes of South
Mountain farther east on the 14th, and his Army of the Potomac
marched to meet Lee's forces which, hitherto divided, had, by
the 16th, successfully concentrated between the Antietam and
the Potomac. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia
occupied a position which, in relation to the surrounding country,
may be compared to the string of a bow in the act of being
drawn, Lee's left wing forming the upper half of the string, his
right the lower, and the Potomac in his rear the bow itself.
The town of Sharpsburg represents the fingers of the archer
drawing the bow. The right wing of the position was covered
by the Antietam as it approaches the Potomac, the upper course
of that stream formed no part of the battlefield. Generals
Longstreet and Jackson commanded the right and left wings.
The division of A. P. Hill was at Harper's Ferry, but had received
orders to rejoin Lee. McClellan's troops appeared late on the
16th, and Hooker was immediately sent across the upper Antie-
tam. He had a sharp fight with Jackson's men, but night soon
put an end to the contest. Early on the 19th the corps of Sumner
and Mansfield followed Hooker across the upper stream whilst
McClellan's left wing (Burnsidc's corps) drew up opposite Lee's
extreme right. The Federal leader intended to hold back his
centre whilst these two forces were rolling up Lee's wings. The
battle began with a furious assault on the extreme right by
Hooker's corps. After a very severe struggle he was repulsed
with the loss of a quarter of his men, Jackson's divisions suffering
even more severely and losing nearly all their generals and
colonels. It was only the arrival of Hood and D. H. Hill which
enabled Stonewall Jackson's corps to hold its ground, and had
the other Federal corps been at hand to support Hooker the
result might have been very different. Mansfield next attacked
farther to the left and with better fortune. Mansfield was killed,
but his successor led the corps well, and after heavy fighting
Hood and D. H. HOI were driven back. Again want of support
checked the Federals and the fight became stationary, both
sides losing many men. Sumner now came into action, and
overhaste involved him in a catastrophe, his troops being attacked
in front and flank and driven back in great confusion with nearly
half their number killed and wounded; and their retreat in-
volved the gallant remnants of Mansfield's corps. Soon after-
wards the Federal divisions of French and Richardson attacked
D. H. Hill, whose men were now exhausted by continuous
fighting. Here occurred the fighting in the "Bloody Lane,"
north of Sharpsburg which French and Richardson eventually
carried. Opposed as they were by D. H. Hill, whose men had
fought the battle of South Mountain and had already been
three times engaged a fond on this day, proper support must
have enabled the Federals to crush Lee's centre, but Franklin
and Porter in reserve were not allowed by McClellan to move
forward and the opportunity passed. Burnside, on the southern
wing, had received his orders late, and acted on them still later.
The battle was over on the right before he fired a shot, and Lee
had been able to use nearly all his right wing troops to support
Jackson. At last Burnside moved forward, and, after a brilliant
defence by the handful of men left to oppose him, forced the
Antietam and began to roll up Lee's right, only to be attacked
in rear himself by A. P. Hill's troops newly arrived from Harper's
Ferry. The repulse of Burnside ended the battle. Pressure was
brought to bear on McClellan to renew the fight, but he refused
and Lee retired across the Potomac unmolested. The Army of
the Potomac had lost 11,83a men out of 46,000 engaged; the
cayalry and two corps in reserve had only lost 5 78. Lee's 3 i.aoo
men lost over 8000 of their number.
See the bibliography appended to American Civil Wai, and also
General Palfrey s Antietam and Fredericksburg.
ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the name given in the political history
of the United States to those who, after the formation of the
federal Constitution of 1 787, opposed its ratification by the people
of the several states. The "party" (though it was never
regularly organized as such) was composed of statesrights,
particularistic, individualistic and radical democratic dements;
that is, of those persons who thought that a stronger govern-
ment threatened the sovereignty and prestige of the states,
or the special interests, individual or commercial, of localities,
or the liberties of individuals, or who fancied they saw in the
government proposed a new centralized, disguised "monarchic "
power that would only replace the cast-off despotism of Great
Britain.. In every state the opposition to the Constitution was
strong, and in two — North Carolina and Rhode Island — it
prevented ratification until the definite establishment of the
new government practically forced their adhesion. The in-
dividualistic was the strongest dement of opposition; the
necessity, or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost
universally fdt. Instead of accepting the Constitution upon the
condition of amendments, — in which way they might very
likely have secured large concessions,— the Anti-Federalists
stood for unconditional rejection, and public opinion, which
went against them, proved that for all its shortcomings the
Constitution was regarded as preferable to the Articles of Con-
federation. After the inauguration of the new government,
the composition of the Anti-Federalist party changed. The
Federalist (q.v.) party gradually showed broad-construction,
nationalistic tendencies; the Anti-Federalist party became
a strict-construction party and advocated popular rights against
the asserted aristocratic, centralizing tendencies of its opponent,
and gradually was transformed into the Democratic-Republican
party, mustered and led by Thomas Jefferson, who, however,
had approved the ratification of the Constitution and was not,
therefore, an Anti-Federalist in the original sense of that term.
See O. G. Libby, Geographical Distribution of the Vote . . . on the
Federal Constitution, 1787-1788 (University of Wisconsin, Bulletin.
1804); S. B. Harding. Contest ever the Ratification of the Federal
Constitution tn . . , Massachusetts (Harvard University Studies,
New York. 1896); and authorities on political and constitutional
history in the article United States.
ANTIGO, a dty and the county-seat of Langlade county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 160 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop.
(1890) 4424; (1000) 5145, of whom 065 were foreign-born;
(1905) 6663 ; (1910) 7196. It is served by the Chicago & North
Western railway. Antigo is the centre of a good farming and
lumbering district, and its manufactures consist principally of
ANTIGONE— ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS
»*5
fomber,cfcairs,f urniture,sashes,doors and Minds, hubs and spokes,
and other wood products. The dty has a Carnegie library.
Antigo was first settled in x88o, and was chartered as a city in
1885. Its name is said to be part of an Indian word, neequee-
onJi^sebi, meaning " evergreen."
AVTI GONE. (1) in Greek legend, daughter of Oedipus and
locaste (Jocasta), or, according to the older story, of Eurygancia.
When her father, on discovering that locaste, the mother of his
children, was also his own mother, put his eyes out and resigned
the throne of Thebes, she accompanied him into exile at Colonus.
After his death she returned to Thebes, where Hacmon, the son
of Creon, king of Thebes, became enamoured of her. When her
brothers Eteocles and Polyneices had slain each other in single
combat, she buried Polyneices, although Creon had forbidden it.
As a punishment she was sentenced to be buried alive in a vault,
where she hanged herself, and Haemon killed himself in despair.
Her character and these incidents of her life presented an attrac-
tive subject to the Greek tragic poets, especially Sophocles in the
Antigone and Oedipus at Colonus, and Euripides, whose Antigone,
though now lost, is partly known from extracts incidentally
preserved in later writers, and from passages in Ins Pkoenissae.
In the order of the events, at least, Sophocles departed from the
original legend, according to which the burial of Polyneices took
place while Oedipus was yet in Thebes, not after he had died at
Colonus. Again, in regard to Antigone's tragic end Sophocles
differs from Euripides, according to whom the calamity was
averted by the intercession of Dionysus and was followed by the
marriage of Antigone and Haemon. In Hyginus's version of the
bgend, founded apparently on a tragedy by some follower of
Euripides, Antigone, on being handed over by Creon to her
lover Haemon to be slain, was secretly carried off by him, and
concealed in a shepherd's hut, where she bore him a son Maeon.
When the boy grew up, he went to some funeral games at Thebes,
and was recognized by the mark of a dragon on his body. This
led to the discovery that Antigone was still alive. Heracles
pleaded in vain with Creon for Haemon, who slew both Antigone
and himself, to escape his father's vengeance. On a painted vase
the scene of the intercession of Heracles is represented (Heyder-
mann, Ober eine nacheuripideische Antigone, 1868). Antigone
pladng the body of Polyneices on the funeral pile occurs on a
urcophagus in the villa Pamfili in Rome, and is mentioned in
the description of an ancient painting by PhOostratus (Jmag. ii.
xo), who states that the flames consuming the two brothers burnt
apart, indicating their unalterable hatred, even in death.
(2) A second Antigone was the daughter of Eurytion, king of
Phthia, and wife of Peleus. Her husband, having accidentally
killed Eurytion in the Calydonian boar hunt, fled and obtained
expiation from Acastus, whose wife made advances to Peleus.
Finding that her affection was not returned, she falsely accused
Peleus of infidelity to his wife, who thereupon hanged herself
(ApoUodorus, iii. xj)-
AHTIGONUS CYCLOPS (or Monopthalmos; so called from
his having lost an eye) (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian king, son of
PbHip, was one of the generals of Alexander the Great. He was
made governor of Greater Phrygia in 333, and in the division of
the provinces after Alexander's death (323) Paraphylia and
Lycia were added to his command. He incurred the enmity of
Perdiccas, the regent, by refusing to assist Eumenes (q.t.) to
obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him. In danger
of his life he escaped with his son Demetrius into Greece, where
he obtained the favour of Antipater, regent of Macedonia (321);
and when, soon after, on the death of Perdiccas, a new division
took place, he was entrusted with the command of the war against
Eumenes, who had joined Perdiccas against the coalition of
Antipater, Antigonus, and the other generals. Eumenes was
completely defeated, and obliged to retire to Nora in Cappadotia,
and a new army that was marching to his relief was routed by
Antigonus. Polyperchon succeeding Antipater (d. 310) in the
regency, to the exclusion of Cassander, his son, Antigonus
resolved to set .himself up as lord of all Asia, and in conjunction
with Cassander and Ptolemy of Egypt, refused to recognise
Polyperchon. He entered into negotiations with Eumenes; but
Eumenes remained faithful to the royal house. Effecting Us
escape from Nora, he raised an army, and formed a coalition
with the satraps of the eastern provinces. He was at last
delivered up to Antigonus through treachery in Persia and put
to death (316). Antigonus again claimed authority over the
whole of Asia, seized the treasures at Susa, and entered Baby-
lonia, of which Scleucus was governor. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy,
and entered into a league with him (315), together with Lysi-
machus and Cassander. After the war had been carried on
with varying success from 3x5 to 311, peace was concluded, by
which the government of Asia Minor and Syria was provisionally
secured to Antigonus. This agreement was soon violated on the
pretext that garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek
cities by Antigonus, and Ptolemy and Cassander renewed
hostilities against him. Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of
Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from Cassander. At first
Ptolemy had made a successful descent upon Asia Minor and on
several of the islands of the Archipelago; but he was at length
totally defeated by Demetrius in a naval engagement off Salamis,
in Cyprus (306). On this victory Antigonus assumed the title
of king, and bestowed the same upon his son, a declaration that
he claimed to be the heir of Alexander. Antigonus now prepared
a large army, and a formidable fleet, the command of which he
gave to Demetrius, and hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own
dominions. His invasion of Egypt, however, proved a failure;
he was unable to penetrate the defences of Ptolemy, and was
obliged to retire. Demetrius now attempted the reduction of
Rhodes, which had refused to assist Antigonus against Egypt;
but, meeting with obstinate resistance, he was obliged to make
a treaty upon the best terms that he could (304). In 302,
although Demetrius was again winning success after success in
Greece, Antigonus was obliged to recall him to meet the con-
federacy that had been formed between Cassander, Seleucus
and Lysimachus. A decisive battle was fought at Ipsus, in
which Antigonus fell, in the eighty-first year of his age.
Diodoms Siculus xviti., xx. 46-86; Plutarch, Demetrius, Eumenes;
Nepos, Eumenes; Justin xv. 1-4. See Macedonian Empire; and
Kohler, " Das Reich des Antigonos," in the SiUungsberichU d. Bert.
Akad., 1898, p. 835 f.
ANTIGONUS GONATAS (c. 310-239 B.C.), Macedonian king,
was the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of Antigonus
Cyclops. On the death of his father (283), he assumed the title
of king of Macedonia, but did not obtain possession of the throne
till 276, after it had been successively in the hands of Pyrrhus, .
Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy Ccraunus. Antigonus
repelled the invasion of the Gauls, and continued in undisputed
possession of Macedonia till 274, when Pyrrhus returned from
Italy, and (in 273) made himself master of nearly all the country.
On the advance of Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, he recovered his
dominions. He was again (between 263 and 255) driven out of
his kingdomby Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, and again recovered
it. The latter part of his reign was comparatively peaceful, and
he gained the affection of bis subjects by his honesty and his
cultivation of the arts. He gathered round him distinguished
literary men — philosophers, poets, and historians. He died in
the eightieth year of bis age, and the forty-fourth of bis reign.
His surname was usually derived by later Greek writers from
the name of his supposed birthplace, Gonni (Gonnus) in Thessaly;
some take it to be a Macedonian word signifying an iron plate for
protecting the knee; neither conjecture is a happy one, and in
our ignorance of the Macedonian language it must remain
unexplained.
Plutarch, Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Aratus; Justin xxiv. 1; xxv. 1-3;
Pblybius ii. 43-45, ix. 29. 34. See Thiriwall, History of Greece, vol
viii. (1847); Holm. Griech. Gesch, vol. iv. (1804); Niese, Guck. f
Seek. u. maked. Staaten, vols. L and ii. (1893, 1899) ; Beloch, Gnech.
sch. vol. iii. (1904); also Wilamowitx-MoeUcndorff, Antigonos von
Karystos (1881).
ANTIGONUS OP CARYSTUS (in Euboea), Greek writer on
various subjects, flourished in the 3rd century B.C. After some
time spent at Athens and in travelling, he was summoned to
the court of Attalus I. (241-197) of Pergamum. His chief work
was the Lives of Philosophers drawn from personal knowledge,
of which considerable fragments are preserved in Atheoaeus
126
ANTIGUA-^-ANTILOCHUS
Sli
and Diogenes Laer this. Wc still possess bis Collection of Wonder-
ful Tales, chiefly extracted from the QavpluHa 'Axourjiara
attributed to Aristotle and the Gav/iAnaof Callimachus. It
is doubtful whether he is identical with the sculptor who, accord-
ing to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 19), wrote books on his art
Text in Keller, Rerum Naiuralium Scriptores Craeci Minores, i.
1877); sec Kdpke, De Antigono CarysLio (1862); Wilamowitt-
riollendorff, " A. von Karystos, ' in Pkitologiscke Untcrsuchuneen, iv.
(X881).
ANTIGUA, an island in the British West Indies, forming,
with Barbuda and Redonda, one of the five presidencies in the
colony of the Leeward Islands. It lies 50 m. £. of St Kitts,
in 1 7 6' N. and 6i° 45' W., and is 54 m. in circumference, with
an area of 108 sq. m. The surface is comparatively flat, and
there is no central range of mountains as in most other West
Indian islands, but among the hills in the south-west an elevation
of 13 28 ft is attained. Owing to the absence of rivers, the
paucity of springs, and the almost complete deforestation,
Antigua is subject to frequent droughts, and although the average
rainfall is 45-6 in., the variations from year to year are great.
The dryness of the air proves very beneficial to persons suffering
from pulmonary complaints. The high rocky coast is much
indented by bays and arms of the sea, several of which form
excellent harbours, that of St John being safe and commodious,
but inferior to English Harbour, which, although little frequented,
is capable of receiving vessels of the largest size. The soil,
especially in the interior, is very fertile. Sugar and pineapples are
the chief products for export, but sweet potatoes, yams, maize
and guinea corn are grown for local consumption. Antigua is
the residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, and the
meeting place of the general legislative council, but there is also
a local legislative council of 16 members, half official and half
unofficial. Until 1898, when the Crown Colony system was
adopted, the legislative council was partly elected, partly
nominated. Elementary education is compulsory. Agricultural
training is given under government control, and the Cambridge
local examinations and those of the University of London are
held annually. Antigua is the see of a bishop of the Church
of England, the members of which predominate here, but
Moravians and Weslcyans are numerous. There is a small
volunteer defence force. The island has direct steam com-
munication with Great Britain, the United States and Canada,
and is also served by the submarine cable. The three chief
towns are St John, Falmouth and Parham. St John (pop.
about 10,000), the capital, situated on the north-west, is an
exceedingly picturesque town, built on an eminence overlooking
one of the most beautiful harbours in the West Indies. Although
both Falmouth and Parham have good harbours, most of the
produce of the island finds its Way to St John for shipment.
The trade is chiefly with the United States, and the main exports
are sugar, molasses, logwood, tamarinds, turtles, and pineapples.
The cultivation of cotton has been introduced with success, and
this also is exported. The dependent islands of Barbuda and
Redonda have an area of 62 sq. m. Pop. of Antigua (ioox),
34,178; of the presidency, 35.°73«
Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who is said
to have named it after a church in Seville, called Santa Maria
la Antigua. It remained, however, uninhabited until 1632,
when a body of English settlers took possession of it, and in 1663
another settlement of the same nation was effected under the
direction of Lord Willoughby, to whom the entire island was
granted by Charles II. It was ravaged by the French in 1666,
but was soon after reconquered by the British and formally
restored to them by the treaty of Breda. Since then it has been
a British possession.
ANTILBOOMBHA (amXeyopeva, contradicted or disputed),
an epithet used by the early Christian writers to denote those
books of the New Testament which, although sometimes publicly
read in the churches, were not for a considerable time admitted
to be genuine, or received into the canon of Scripture. They
were thus contrasted with the Homologoumtna, or universally
acknowledged writings. Eusebius {HisL Ecd. iii. 25) applies
the term AntUegomena to the Epistle of James, the Epistle of
Judc, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd
of Hennas, the Teaching of the Apostles, the Apocalypse of
John, and the Gospel according to the Hebrews. In later usage
it describes those of the New Testament books which have
obtained a doubtful place in the Canon. These are the Epistles
of James and Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Apocalypse of
John, and the Epistle to the Hebrews.
ANTIUA or Antillia, sometimes called the Island of the
Seven Cities (Portuguese Jsla das Sete Cidades), a legendary
island in the Atlantic ocean. The origin of the name is quite
uncertain. The oldest suggested etymology (1455) fancifully
connects it with the name of the Platonic Atlantis, while later
writers have endeavoured to derive it from the Latin anterior
(i.e. the island that is reached " before " Cipango), or from the
J curat al Tennyn, " Dragon's Isle," of the Arabian geographers.
Antilia is marked in an anonymous map which is dated 14 24 and
preserved in the grand-ducal library at Weimar. It reappears
in the maps of the Genoese B. Beccario or Beccaria (1435),
and of the Venetian Andrea Bianco (1436), and again in 1455
and 1476. In most of these it is accompanied by the smaller
and equally legendary islands of Royllo, St Atanagio, and Tanxnar,
the whole group being classified as insulae de novo repertae^
" newly discovered islands.' 1 The Florentine Paul Toscanelli,
in his letters to Columbus and the Portuguese court (1474),
takes Antilia as the principal landmark for measuring the
distance between Lisbon and the island of Cipango or Zipangu
(Japan). One of the chief early descriptions of Antilia is that
inscribed on the globe which the geographer Martin Behaim made
at Nuremberg in 1492 (see Map: History). Behaim relates that
in 734— a date which is probably a misprint for 7x4— and after
the Moors had conquered Spain and Portugal, the island of
Antilia or " Scpte Cidade " was colonized by Christian refugees
under the archbishop of Oporto and six bishops. The inscription
adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414. According
to an old Portuguese tradition each of the seven leaders founded
and ruled a city, and the whole island became a Utopian common-
wealth, free from the disorders of less favoured states. Later
Portuguese tradition localized Antilia in the island of St Michael's,
the largest of the Azores. It is impossible to estimate how far
this legend commemorates some actual but imperfectly recorded
discovery, and how far it is a reminiscence of the ancient idea
of an elysium in the western seas which is embodied in the
legends of the Isles of the Blest or Fortunate Islands.
ANTILLES, a term of somewhat doubtful origin, now generally
used, especially by foreign writers, as synonymous with the
expression " West India Islands." Like " Brazil," it dates
from a period anterior to the discovery of the New World,
"Antilia," as stated above, being one of those mysterious
lands, which figured on the medieval charts sometimes as an
archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or leaser
extent, constantly fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canaries
and East India, But it came at last to be identified with the
land discovered by Columbus. Later, when this was found to
consist of a vast archipelago enclosing the Caribbean Sea and
Gulf of Mexico, Antilia assumed its present plural form, Antilles,
which was collectively applied to the whole of this archipelago.
A distinction is made between the Greater Antilles, including
Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Rico; and the Lesser Antilles,
covering the remainder of the islands.
ANT1L0CHUS, in Greek legend, son of Nestor, king of Pylos.
One of the suitors of Helen, he accompanied his father to the
Trojan War. He was distinguished for his beauty, swiftness of
foot, and skill as a charioteer; though the youngest among the
Greek princes, he commanded the Pylians in the war, and
performed many deeds of valour. He was a favourite of the
gods, and an intimate friend of Achilles, to whom he was com-
missioned to announce the death of Patrodus. When his father
was attacked by Memnon, he saved his life at the sacrifice of his
own (Pindar, Pyth. vi. 28), thus fulfilling an oracle which had
bidden him " beware of an Ethiopian." His death was aveuged
by ^chUlcs* According to other accounts, he was slain by
ANTIMACASSAR— ANTIMONY
127
Hector (Hyginus, Fab. 113), or by Paris in the temple of the
Thymbraean Apollo together with Achilles (Dares Phrygius 34).
His ashes, with those of Achilles and Patrochis, were deposited
in a mound on the promontory of Sigeum, where the inhabitants
of Ilium offered sacrifice to the dead heroes (Odyssey, xxiv. 73;
Strabo xiii. p. 596). In the Odyssey (xi. 468) the three friends
are represented as united in the underworld and walking together
In the fields of asphodel; according to Pausanias (iii. 10) they
dwell together in the island of Leuke*.
ANTIMACASSAR, a separate covering for the back of a chair,
or the head or cushions of a sofa, to prevent soiling of the perma-
nent fabric. The name is attributable to the unguent for the
hair commonly used in the early 19th century, — Byron calls it
" thine incomparable oil, Macassar." The original antimacassar
was almost invariably made of white crochet-work, very stiff,
hard, and uncomfortable, but in the third quarter of the 19th
century it became simpler and less inartistic, and was made of
soft coloured stuffs, usually worked with a simple pattern in
tinted wools or silk.
AlfTIMACHUS, of Colophon or Claros, Greek poet and gram-
marian, flourished about 400 B.C. Scarcely anything is known
of his life. His poetical efforts were not generally appreciated,
although he received encouragement from his younger con-
temporary Plato (Plutarch, Lysander, 18). His chief works
were: a long-winded epic Thebais, an account of the expedition
of the Seven against Thebes and the war of the Epigoni; and
an elegiac poem Lydi, so called from the poet's mistress, for
whose death he endeavoured to find consolation by ransacking
mythology for stories of unhappy love affairs (Plutarch, Consol ad
Apdi. 9; Athenaeus xiii 597). Antimachus was the founder
of " learned " epic poetry, and the forerunner of the Alexandrian
school, whose critics allotted him the next place to Homer. He
also prepared a critical recension of the Homeric poems.
Fragments, ed. Stall (1845); Bergk, Porta* tyrici Graeci (1882);
KinkeJ, Fragment* epicontm Graecorum (1877).
ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, an American political organization
which had its rise after the mysterious disappearance, in 1826,
of William Morgan (c. 1776-c 1826), a Freemason of Batavia,
New York, who had become dissatisfied with his Order and had
planned to publish its secrets. When his purpose became known
to the Masons, Morgan was subjected to frequent annoyances,
and finally in September 1826 he was seized and surreptitiously
co n v ey ed to Fort Niagara, whence he disappeared. Though his
ultimate fate was never known, it was generally believed at the
time that he had been foully dealt with. The event created
great excitement, and led many to believe that Masonry and
good citizenship were incompatible. Opposition to Masonry
was taken up by the churches as a sort of religious crusade, and
it also became a local political issue in western New York, where
early in 1827 the citizens in many mass meetings resolved to
support no Mason for public office. In New York at this time
the National Republicans, or " Adams men," were a very feeble
organization, and shrewd political leaders at once determined
to utilize the strong anti-Masonic feeling in creating a new and
vigorous party to oppose the rising Jacksonian Democracy. In
this effort they were aided by the fact that Jackson was a high
Mason and frequently spoke in praise of the Order. In the
elections of 1828 the new party proved unexpectedly strong, and
after this year it practically superseded the National Republican
party in New York. In 1829 the hand of its leaders was shown,
«bco, in addition to its antagonism to the Masons, it became
a champion of internal improvements and of the protective tariff.
From New York the movement spread into other middle states
and into New England, and became especially strong in Pennsyl-
vania, and Vermont. A national organization was planned as
early as 1827, when the New York leaders attempted, unsuccess-
fully, to persuade Henry Clay, though a Mason, to renounce the
Order and bead the movement. In September 1831 the party
at a national convention in Baltimore nominated as its candidates
lor the presidency and vice-presidency William Wirt of Maryland
and Amos EHmaker (1787-1851) of Pennsylvania; and in the
election of the following year h secured the seven electoral votes
of the state of Vermont. This was the high tide of its prosperity;
in New York in 1833 the organization was moribund, and its
members gradually united with other opponents of Jacksonian
Democracy in forming the Whig party. In other states, however,
the party survived somewhat longer, but by 1836 most of its
members had united with the Whigs. Its last act in national
politics was to nominate William Henry Harrison for president
and John Tyler for vice-president at a convention in Philadelphia
in November 1838.
The growth of the anti-Masonic movement was due to the
political and social conditions of the time rather than to the
Morgan episode, which was merely the torch that ignited the
train. Under the name of " Anti-Masons " able leaders united
those who were discontented with existing political conditions,
and the fact that William Wirt, their choice for the presidency
in 1832, was not only a Mason but even defended the Order in a
speech before the convention that nominated him, indicates
that simple opposition to Masonry soon became a minor factor
in holding together the various elements of which the party was
composed.
See Charles McCarthy, The Antimasomc Party: A Study of
Political Anh»Masonryin the United States, 1827-1840,111 the Report
of tho American Historical Association for 1902 (Washington, 1903) ;
the Autobiography of Thurlow Weed (2 vols., Boston, 1884); A. G,
Mackey and W. R. Singleton, The History of Freemasonry, vol. vi.
(New York, 1898}; and J. D. Hammond, History of Political Parlies
in the State of New York (2 vols.. Albany, 1842).
ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120*2), one of the
metallic chemical elements, included in the same natural family
of the elements as nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and bismuth.
Antimony, in the form of its sulphide, has been known from very
early times, more especially in Eastern countries, reference to
it being made in the Old Testament. The Arabic name for the
naturally occurring stibnite is " kohl "; Dioscorides mentions it
under the term o-Hufu, Pliny as stibium; and Geber as antimonium.
By the German writers it is called Speisstlanz. Basil Valentine
alludes to it in his Triumphal Car of Antimony (circa xooo), and
at a later date describes the preparation of the metal.
Native mineral antimony is occasionally found, and as such
was first recognized in 1748. It usually occurs as lamellar or
glanular masses, with a tin-white colour and metallic lustre, in
limestone or in mineral veins often in association with ores of
silver. Distinct crystals are rarely met with; these are rhombo-
hedral and isomorphous with arsenic and bismuth; they have
a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, c (itx), and are
sometimes twinned on a rhombohedral plane, e ( 1 1 o) . Hardness
3-3$, specific gravity 6-65-^-72. Sala in Sweden, Allemont in
Dauphine, and Sarawak in Borneo may be mentioned as some of
the localities for this mineral.
Antimony, however, occurs chiefly as the sulphide, stibnite;
to a much smaller extent it occurs in combination with other
metallic sulphides in the minerals wolfsbergite, boulangerite,
bournonite, pyrargyrite, &c. For the preparation of metallic
antimony the crude stibnite is first liquated, to free it from
earthy and siliceous matter, and is then roasted in order to
convert it into oxide. After oxidation, the product is reduced by
heating with carbon, care being taken to prevent any loss through
volatilization, by covering the mass with a layer of some protective
substance such as potash, soda or glauber salt, which also aids
the refining. For rich ores the method of roasting the sulphide
with metallic iron is sometimes employed; carbon and salt or
sodium sulphate being used to slag the iron. Electrolytic
methods, in which a solution of antimony sulphide in sodium
sulphide is used as the electrolyte, have been proposed (see
German Patent 67973, and also Borcher's Electro-MelaHurgie),
but do not yet appear to have been used on the large scale.
Antimony combines readily with many other metals to form
alloys, some of which find extensive application in the arts.
Type-metal is an alloy of lead with antimony and tin, to which
occasionally a small quantity of copper or zinc is added. The
presence of the antimony in this alloy gives to it hardness, and
the property of expanding on solidification, thus allowing a sharp
cast of the letter to be taken . An alloy of tin and antimony forms
128
ANTIMONY
the basis of Britannia-metal, small quantities of copper, lead,
zinc or bismuth being added. It is a white metal of bluish
tint and is malleable and ductile. For the linings of brasses,
various white metals are used, these being alloys of copper,
antimony and tin, and occasionally lead.
Antimony is a silvery white, crystalline, brittle metal, and has
a high lustre. Its specific gravity varies from 6*7 to 6-86; it
melts at 432 C. (Dal ton), and boils between 1000-1600 C.
(T. CarneUcy), or above 1300 (V. Meyer). Its specific heat is
0*05 23 (H. Kopp) . The vapour density of antimony at x 5 7 2° C.
is 10 74, and at 1640° C. 9*78 (V. Meyer, Berichte, 1889, 22, p. 725),
so that the antimony molecule is less complex than the molecules
of the elements phosphorus and arsenic. An amorphous modifica-
tion of antimony can be prepared by heating the metal in a
stream of nitrogen, when it condenses in the cool port of the
apparatus as a grey powder of specific gravity 6*22, melting at
614° C. and containing 08-09% of antimony (F. H6rard, Comptes
Rendus, 1888, cvii. 420).
Another form of the metal, known as explosive antimony, was
discovered by G. Gore (Phil. Trans., 1858, p. 185; 1859, p. 797;
1862, p. 623), on electrolysing a solution of antimony trichloride
in hydrochloric acid, using a positive pole of antimony and a
negative pole of copper or platinum wire. It has a specific
gravity of 5*78 and always contains some unaltered antimony
trichloride (from 6 to 20%, G. Gore). It is very unstable, a
scratch causing it instantaneously to pass into the stable form
with explosive violence and the development of much heat.
Similar phenomena are exhibited in the electrolysis of solutions
of antimony tribromidc and tri-iodide, the product obtained
from the tribromide having a specific gravity of 5-4, and con-
taining 18-20% of antimony tribromide, whilst that from the
tri-iodide has a specific gravity of 5-2-5-8 and contains about 22 %
of hydriodic acid and antimony tri-iodide.
The atomic weight of antimony has been determined by
the analysis of the chloride, bromide and iodide. J. P. Cooke
(Proc. Amer. Acad., 1878, xiii. 1) and J. Bongartz (Berichte, 1883,
16, p. 1042) obtained the value 1 20, whilst F. Pfciffcr (A tin. Ckitn.
et Phys. ccix. 173) obtained the value 121 from the electrolysis
of the chloride.
Pure antimony is quite permanent in air at ordinary tempera-
tures, but when heated in air or oxygen it burns, forming the
trioxide. It decomposes steam at a red heat, and burns
(especially when finely powdered)in chlorine. Dilute hydrochloric
add is without action on it, but on warming with the concentrated
acid, antimony trichloride is formed; it dissolves in warm
concentrated sulphuric acid, the sulphate Sbi(SO«)> being formed.
Nitric acid oxidizes antimony cither to the trioxide Sb<Ob or
the pent oxide SbjOi, the product obtained depending on the
temperature and concentration of the acid. It combines directly
with sulphur and phosphorus, and is readily oxidized when heated
with metallic oxides (such as litharge, mercuric oxide, manganese
dioxide, &c). Antimony and its sails may be readily detected
by the orange precipitate of antimony sulphide which is produced
when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through thciracid solutions,
and also by the Marsh test (see Arsenic); in this latter case
the black stain produced is not soluble in bleaching powder
solution. Antimony compounds when heated on charcoal with
sodium carbonate in the reducing flame give brittle beads of
metallic antimony, and a white incrustation of the oxide. The
antimonious compounds are decomposed on addition of water,
with formation of basic salts.
Antimony may be estimated quantitatively by conversion into
the sulphide; the precipitate obtained is dried at xoo° C. and
heated in a current of carbon dioxide, or it may be converted
into the tetroxide by nitric acid.
Antimony, like phosphorus and arsenic, combines directly
with hydrogen. The compound formed, antimoniurctted
hydrogen or stibine, SbHj, may also be prepared by the action
of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of antimony and zinc, or by the
action of nascent hydrogen on antimony compounds. As pre-
pared by these methods it contains a relatively large amount of
hydrogen, from which it can be freed by passing through a tube
immersed in liquid air, when it condenses to a white solid. It it
a poisonous colourless gas, with a characteristic offensive smell.
In its general behaviour it resembles arsine, burning with a violet
flame and being decomposed by heat into its constituent elements.
When passed into silver nitrate solution it gives a black precipitate
of silver antimonide, SbAgi. It is decomposed by the halogen
elements and also by sulphuretted hydrogen. All three hydrogen
atoms are replaceable by organic radicals and the resulting
compounds combine with compounds of the type RC1, RBr and
RI to form stibonium compounds.
There are three known oxides of antimony, the trioxide Sb«0*
which is capable of combining with both acids and bases to form
salts, the tetroxide SD1O4 and the pentoxide Sb»0». Antimony tri-
oxide occurs as the minerals valentinite and senarmontite, and can
be artificially prepared by burning antimony in air; by heating the
metal in steam to a bright red heat ; by oxidizing melted antimony
with litharge; by decomposing antimony trichloride with an aqueous
solution ofsodium carbonate, or by the action of dilute nitric acid
on the metal. It is a white powder, almost insoluble in water, and
when volatilized, condenses in two crystalline forma, either octa-
hedral or prismatic It is insoluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, but
is readily soluble in hydrochloric and tartaric acids and in solutions
of the caustic alkalies. On strongly heating in air it is converted
into the tetroxide. The corresponding hydroxide, orthoantimoniou*
acid, Sb(OH)i, can be obtained in a somewhat impure form by precipi-
tating tartar emetic with dilute sulphuric acid; or better by decom-
posing antimonyl tartaric acid with sulphuric acid and drying the
precipitated white powder at ioo* C. Antimony tetroxide is formed
by strongly heating either the trioxide or pentoxide. It is a non-
volatile white powder, and has a specific gravity of 6-6952; it is
insoluble in water and almost so in acids — concentrated hydrochloric
acid dissolving a small quantity. It is decomposed by a hot solution
of potassium bitartrate. Antimony pentoxide is obtained by
repeatedly evaporating antimony with nitric acid and heating the
resulting r~* : : ~* "~ - * — perature not above 275° C; by
heating ai ric oxide until the mass becomes
yellow (J. torating antimony trichloride to
dryness w pale yellow powder (of specific
fjravity 6- cd strongly gives up oxygen and
orms the 5 in water, but dissolves slowly in
hydrochlo a feeble acid character, giving
mctantimi t alkaline carbonates.
Orthoar » obtained by the decomposition,
of its pota I (A. Gcuther) ; or by the addition
of water I s precipitate formed being dried
over sulph em. News, 1879, xt. 108). It is a
white pow water and nitric acid, and when
heated, is first converted into mctantimonic acid, HSbOa, and then
into the pentoxide SbiO». Pyroantimonic acid, H«SbiOr (the
mctantimonic acid of E. Fr£my), is obtained by decomposing
antimony pcntachloride with hot water, and drying the precipitate
so obtained at ioo° C. It is a white powder which is more soluble
in water and acids than orthoantimonie acid. It forms two
series of salts, of the types M t H t SbxOr and M«SbiOr. Mctantimonic
acid. HSbO», can be obtained by heating orthoantimonie acid to
175° C, or bv long fusion of antimony with antimony sulphide and
nitre. The fused mass is extracted with water, nitric acid is added
to the solution, and the precipitate obtained washed with water
(J. Bcrzelius). It is a white powder almost insoluble in water. On.
standing with water for some time it is slowly converted into the
ortho-acid.
Compounds of antimony with all the halogen elements are known,
one atom of the metal combining with three or five atoms of the
halogen, except in the case of bromine, where only the tribromide. is
known. The majority of these halide compounds are decomposed
by water, with the formation of basic salts. Antimony trichloride
( ,1 Butter of Antimony "), SbCli, is obtained by burning the metal in
chlorine; by distilling antimony with excess of mercuric chloride;
and by fractional distillation of antimony tetroxide or trisulphidc in
hydrochloric acid solution. It is a colourless deliquescent solid of
specific gravity 3-06; it melts at 73 -2 °C (H. Kopp) to a colourless
oil ; and boils at 223° (H. Capitaine). It is soluble in alcohol and in
carbon bisulphide, and also in a small quantity of water; but with
an excess of water it gives a precipitate of various oxychlorides.
known as powder of algaroth (q.v.). These precipitated oxychlorides
on continued boiling with water lose all their chlorine and ultimately
give a residue of antimony trioxide. It combines with chlorides of
the alkali metals to form double salts, and also with barium, calcium,
strontium, and magnesium chlorides. Antimony pentachloride.
SbCU. n prepared by heating the trichloride in a current of chlorine.
It is a nearly colourless fuming liquid of unpleasant smell, which can
be solidified to a mass of crystals melting at— 6°C. It dissociates into
the trichloride and chlorine when heated. It combines with water,
forming the hydrates SbCI»H,0 and SbCW-4HiO; it also combines
with phosphorus oxychloride, hydrocyanic acid, and cyanogen
chloride, in chloroform solution it combines with anhydrous oxalic
ANTINOMIANS
129
add to form * compound, Sb>CU(CtfM. which Is to be considered at
Crtra-chJorstibonium oxalate I (R. AnschUtz and Evans,
COOSbCU
Annate*, 1887, ccxxxix. 235). Antimony! chloride, SbOCI, is pro-
duced by the decomposition of one part of the trichloride with four
parts of water. Prepared in this way it contains a small quantity
of the unaltered chloride, which can be removed by ether or carbon
bisulphide. It is a white powder insoluble in water, alcohol and
ether. On heating, it is converted into the oxychloridc Sb«OkClt
(Sb«Or2SbOCl). Antimony oxychloridc, SbOCI j, is formed by addi-
tion 0/ the calculated quantity of water to ice-cooled antimony
pentachtoride. SbCI»+Hk) =» SbOCI, +2HC1. It forms a yellowish
crystalline precipitate which in moist air goes to a thick liquid.
Compounds of composition, SbOCV2SbCl» and SbO,Cl-2SbOa»,
have also been described (W. C. Williams, Ckem. News. 1871. xxiv.
Antimony tribromide, SbBri, and tri iodide, Sbli, may be prepared
by the action of antimony on solutions of bromine or iodine in
carbon bisulphide. The tnbromide is a colourless crystalline mas*
of specific gravity 4-148 (23*), melting at 90° to 94° C and boiling at
275-4* C (H. Kopp). The tri-iodide forms red-coloured crystal* of
specific gravity 4-848 (26°). melting at 165° to 167° C. and boiling at
401° C. By the action of water they give oxy bromides and oxy-
iodides SbOBr, Sb«OtBr t , SbOI. Antimony penta-iodide, Sbl». is
formed by heating antimony with excess of iodine, in a sealed tube.
to a temperature not above 130° C. It forms a dark brown crystalline
mass* melting at 78° to 79° C, and is easily dissociated on heating.
Antimony trifluoride, SbFj, is obtained by dissolving the trioxide in
aqueous hydrofluoric acid or by distilling antimony with mercuric
fluoride. By rapid evaporation of its solution it may be obtained
in small prisms. The ncntafluoride SbF» results when metantimonic
acid is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, and the solution is evaporated.
It forms an amorphous gummv mass, which is decomposed by heat.
Oxyfiuorides of composition SbOF and SbOFi are known.
Two sulphides of antimony are defin ide
SthSa and the pentasulphide SbrSr, a th S*
has also been described, but its existei ny
trisulphide. SbjSa, occurs as the mineral am
which the commercial product is obtain >n.
The amorphous variety may be obtain< rm
by dissolving it in caustic potash or sot ine
sulphides, and precipitating the hot solui id.
The precipitate is then washed with v C,
by which treatment it is obtained in On
precipitating antimony trichloride or ta ion
with sulphuretted hydrogen, an oranjp >y«
drated sulphide is obtained, which tun to
too* C The trisulphide heated in a cm.^..* „. .., — ,»-.. ed
to the metallic state: it burns in air forming the tctroxide. and is
soluble in concentrated hydrochloric add, in solutions of the caustic
alkalis, and in alkaline sulphides. By the union of antimony tri-
sulphide with basic sulphides, livers of antimony are obtained.
These substances are usually prepared by fusing their components
together, and are dark powders which are less soluble in water the
more antimony they contain. These thioantimonites are used in
the vulcanizing of rubber and in the preparation of matches. Anti-
mony pentasulphide, SbtS», is prepared by precipitating a solution
of the pentachloridc with sulphuretted hydrogen, by decomposing
•* Schlippe's salt" (q.v.) with an acid, or by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen into water containing antimonic acid. It forms a fine
dark orange powder, insoluble in water, but readily soluble in aqueous
solutions of the caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates. On
heating in absence of air, it decomposes into the trisulphide and
salphur.
An antimony phosphide and arsenide are known, as is also a
thiophosphate, SbPS<, which is prepared by heating together anti-
mony trichloride and phosphorus pentasulphide.
Many organic compounds containing antimony arc known. By
distilling an alloy of antimony and sodium with mythyl iodide,
mixed with sand, trimethyl stibtnc, Sb(CHj) j, is obtained ; this com-
bines with excess of methyl iodide to form tetramcthyl stibonium
iodide, Sb(CHa)«I. From this iodide the trimethyl stibine may be
obtained by distillation with an alloy of potassium and antimony
ia a current of carbon dioxide. It is a colourless liquid, slightly
soluble ia water, and is spontaneously inflammable. The stibonium
iodide on treatment with moist silver oxide gives the correspond-
ing tetramethyl stibonium hydroxide, Sb(CHi)«OH, which forms
deliquescent crystals, of alkaline reaction, and absorbs carbon
dioxide readily. On distilling trimethyl stibine with zinc methyl,
antimony tetra-methyl and penta-methyl are formed. Correspond-
ing antimony compounds containing the ethyl group are known, as
b also a tri-phenyl stibine, Sb(QH,),, which is prepared from anti-
mony trichloride, sodium and monochlorbenzene. See Chung Yu
Wang. Antimony (1909).
Antimony in Medicine.— So far back as Basil Valentine and
Paracelsus, antimonial preparations were in great vogue as
medicinal agents, and came to be so much abused that a pro-
hibition was placed upon their employment by the Paris parle-
ment in 1566. Metallic antimony was utilized to make goblets
in which wine was allowed to stand so as to acquire emetic
properties, and " everlasting " pills of the metal, supposed to
act by contact merely, were administered and recovered for
future use after they had fulfilled their purpose. Antimony
compounds act as irritants both externally and internally.
Tartar emetic (antimony tartrate) when swallowed, acts directly
on the wall of the stomach, producing vomiting, and after
absorption continues this effect by its action on the medulla.
It is a powerful cardiac depressant, diminishing both the force
and frequency of the heart's beat It depresses respiration, and
in large doses lowers temperature. It depresses the nervous
system, especially the spinal cord. It is excreted by all the
secretions and excretions of the body. Thus as it passes out by
the bronchial mucous membrane it increases the amount of
secretion and so acts as an expectorant. On the skin its action
is that of a diaphoretic, and being also excreted by the bile it
acts slightly as a cholagogue. Summed up, its action is that
of an irritant, and a cardiac and nervous depressant But on
account of this depressant action it is to be avoided for women
and children and rarely used for men.
Toxicology. — Antimony is one of the " protoplasmic " poisons,
directly lethal to all living matter. In acute poisoning by it the
symptoms arc almost identical with those of arsenical poison-
ing, which is much commoner (See Arsenic). The post-mortem
appearances arc also very similar, but the gastro-intestinal
irritation is much less marked and inflammation of the lungs is
more commonly seen. If the patient is not already vomiting
freely the treatment is to use the stomach-pump, or give sulphate
of zinc (gr. 10-30) by the mouth or apomorphine (gr. rV~A)
subcutaneously. Frequent doses of a tcaspoonful of tannin
dissolved in water should be administered, together with strong
tea and coffee and mucilaginous fluids. Stimulants may be given
subcutaneously, and the patient should be placed in bed between
warm blankets with hot-water bottles. Chronic poisoning by
antimony is very rare, but resembles in essentials chronic
poisoning by arsenic In its medico-legal aspects, antimonial
poisoning is of little and lessening importance.
AJTTINOMIANS (Gr. dvrl, against, ri/ios, law), a term
apparently coined by Luther to stigmatize Johannes Agricola
(?.«.) and his following, indicating an interpretation of the anti-
thesis between law and gospel, recurrent from the earliest timesj
Christians being released, in important particulars, from con-
formity to the Old Testament polity as a whole, a real difficulty
attended the settlement of the limits and the immediate authority
of the remainder, known vaguely as the moral law. Indications
are not wanting that St Paul's doctrine of justification by faith
was, in his own day, mistaken or perverted in the interests of
immoral licence. Gnostic sects approached the question in two
ways. Mardonites, named by Clement of Alexandria A niitactae
(revolters against thcDemiurge) held the Old Testament economy
to be throughout tainted by its source; but they are not accused
of licentiousness. Manichaeans, again, holding their spiritual
being to be unaffected by the action of matter, regarded carnal
sins as being, at worst, forms of bodily disease. Kindred to this
latter view was the position of sundry sects of English fanatics
during the Commonwealth, who denied that an elect person
sinned, even when committing acts in themselves gross and eviL
Different from either of these was the Antinomianism charged
by Luther against Agricola. Its starting-point was a dispute
with Melanchthon in 1527 as to the relation between repentance
and faith. Melanchthon urged that repentance must precede
faith, and that knowledge of the moral law is needed to produce
repentance. Agricola gave the initial place to faith, maintaining
that repentance is the work, not of law, but of the gospel-given
knowledge of the love of God. The resulting Antinomian
controversy (the only one within the Lutheran body in Luther's
lifetime) is not remarkable for the precision or the moderation
of the combatants on either side. Agricola was apparently
satisfied in conference with Luther and Melanchthon at Torgau,
December 1527. His eighteen Positions of 1537 revived the
130
ANTINOMY— ANTIOCH
controversy and made it acute. Random as are some of his
statements, he was consistent in two objects: (i) in the interest
of solifidian doctrine, to place the rejection of the Catholic doc-
trine of good works on a sure ground; (a) in the interest of the
New Testament, to find all needful guidance for Christian duty
in its principles, if not in its precepts. From the latter part of
the 17th century charges of Antinomianism have frequently
been directed against Calvinists, on the ground of their dis-
paragement of " deadly doing " and of " legal preaching."
The virulent controversy between Arminian and Calvinistic
Methodists produced as its ablest outcome Fletcher's Checks to
A nlinomianism ( 1 77 1-1775).
See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's ReaUncyklopddie (1896); Riess,
in 1. Goschlcr's Did. Envelop, dt la thiol, calk. (1858); J. H.
Blunt Did. of Doct. and Hist. Tkeol. (1872); J. C. L. Gieseler,
Ch. Hist. (New York ed. 1868, vol. iv.).
ANTINOMY (Gr. arrl, against, *e>oj, law), literally, the
mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. The
term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Kant,
who used it to describe the contradictory results of applying to
the universe of pure thought the categories or criteria proper to
the universe of sensible perception (phenomena). These anti-
nomies are four — two mathematical, two dynamical — connected
with (1) the limitation of the universe in respect of space and
time, (2) the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms
(whereas, in fact, none such exist), (3) the problem of freedom in
relation to universal causality, (4) the existence of a universal
being— about each of which pure reason contradicts the em-
pirical, as thesis and antithesis. Kant claimed to solve these
contradictions by saying, that in no case is the contradiction
real, however really it has been intended by the opposing parti-
sans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment.
It is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the
view that human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with
itself, in the sense of being impelled by equally strong arguments
towards alternatives contradictory of each other. The difficulty
arises from a confusion between the spheres of phenomena and
noumena. In fact no rational cosmology is possible.
See John Watson, Selections from Kant (trans. Glasgow, 1897),
pp. 155 foil.; W. Windclband, History of Philosophy (Eng. trans.
1893); H.- Si rig wick. Philos. of Kant, lectures x. and xi. (Lond.,
1905); F. Paulsen, /. Kant (Eng. trans. 1902), pp. 216 foil.
ANTINOttS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia,
was the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied
on his journeys. He committed suicide by drowning himself
in the Nile (a.d. 130), cither in a fit of melancholy or in order
to prolong his patron's life by his voluntary sacrifice. After
his death, Hadrian caused the most extravagant respect to be
paid to his memory. Not only were cities called after him,
medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all
parts of the empire, but he was raised to the rank of the gods,
temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in
Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and
oracles delivered in his name. The city of AntinoSpolis was
founded on the ruins of Besa where he died (Dio Cassius lix. zz;
Spartianus, Hadrian). A number of statues, busts, gems and
coins represented Antinoils as the ideal type of youthful
beauty, often with the attributes of some special god. We still
possess a colossal bust in the Vatican, a bust in the Louvre, a
bas-relief from the Villa Albani, a statue in the Capitoline
museum, another in Berlin, another in the Lateran, and many
> See Levezow, Cher den Antinous (1808); Dietrich, Aniinoos
(1884); Laban, Der Gemulsausdruck its Antinoas (1891); Antinoils,
A Romance of Ancient Rome, from the German of A. Hausrath, by
M. Safiord (New York, 1882); Ebers, Der Kaiser (1881).
ANTIOCH. There were sixteen cities known to have been
founded under this name by Hellenistic monarchs; and at least
twelve others were renamed Antioch. But by far the most famous
and important in the list was 'Amoxcia ^ M Aa^'P (mod.
Antakia), situated on the left bank of the Orontes, about 20 m.
from the sea and its port, Seleucia of Picria (Suedia). Founded
as a Greek city in 300 B.C. by Scleucus Nicator, as soon as he
had assured his grip upon western Asia by the victory of Ipsus
(301), it was destined to rival Alexandria in Egypt as the chief
city of the nearer East, and to be the cradle of gentile Christianity.
The geographical character of the district north and north-east of
the elbow of Orontes makes it the natural centre of Syria, so long
as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic,
and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of
Damascus. The two easiest routes from the Mediterranean,
lying through the Orontes gorge and the Beilan Pass, converge
in the plain of the Antioch Lake (BalUk Geul or El Bahr) and are
met there by (1) the road from the Amanic Gates (Baghche Pass)
and western Commagene, which descends the valley of the Kara
Su, (2) the roads from eastern Commagene and the Euphratean
crossings at Samosata (Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma (Birejik),
which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Kuwaik, and
(3) the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which
skirts the fringe of the Syrian steppe. Travellers by all these
roads must proceed south by the single route of the Orontes
valley. Alexander is said to have camped on the site of Antioch,
and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus, which lay in the north-
west of the future dty. But the first western sovereign practi-
cally to recognize the importance of the district was Antigonus,
who began to build a city, Antigonia, on the Kara Su a few miles
north of the situation of Antioch; but, on his defeat, he left it to
serve as a quarry for his rival Seleucus. The latter is said to
have appealed to augury to determine the exact site of his
projected foundation; but less fantastic considerations went far
to settle it. To build south of the river, and on and under the
last east spur of Casius, was to have security against invasion
from the north, and command of the abundant waters of the
mountain. One torrent, the Onopniktes ( 4< donkcy-drowner "),
flowed through the new city, and many other streams came down
a few miles west into the beautiful suburb of Daphne. The
site appears not to have been found wholly uninhabited. A
settlement, Meroe, boasting a shrine of Anait, called by the
Greeks the " Persian Artemis/' had long been located there,
and was ultimately included in the eastern suburbs of the new
city; and there seems to have been a village on the spur (Mt.
Silpius), of which we hear in late authors under the name Io,
or 1 polls. This name was always adduced as evidence by
Antiochenes {e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate themselves to
the Attic Ionians — an anxiety which is illustrated by the
Athenian types used on the city's coins. At any rate, Io may
have been a small early colony of trading Greeks (J oven).
John Malalas mentions also a village, Bottia, in the plain by
the river.
The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the
14 gridiron " plan of Alexandria by the architect, Xenarius.
Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this
city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mt. Silpius and the city
lay mainly on the low ground to the north, fringing the river.
Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly
afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east
and by Antiochus I., which, from an expression of Strabo,
appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek,
town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes,
north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Scleucus II.
Callinicus began a third walled "city," which was finished
by Antiochus III. A fourth and last quarter was added
by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.); and thenceforth
Antioch was known as Tdrapolis. From west to east the whole
was about 4 m. in diameter and little less from north to south,
this area including many large gardens. Of its population in
the Greek period we know nothing. In the 4th century a.d.
it was about 200,000 according to Chrysostom, who probably
did not reckon slaves. About 4 m. west and beyond the suburb,
Heracles, lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and
waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian
Apollo, founded by Seleucus I. and enriched with a cult-statue
of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary
of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The
beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over
ANTIOCH
»3i
die western world; and Indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both
these titles to fame. Its amenities awoke both the enthusiasm
and the scorn of many writers of antiquity.
Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western
Seleucid empire under Antiochus I., its counterpart in the east
being Seleucia-on-Tigris; but its paramount importance dates
from the battle of Ancyra (240 B.C.), which shifted the Seleucid
centre of gravity from Asia Minor, and led indirectly to the rise
of Pergamum. Thenceforward the Seleucids resided at Antioch
and treated it as their capital par excellence. We know little
of it in the Greek period, apart from Syria (q.v.), all our informa-
tion coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among
its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which
substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the
royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a
great reputation for letters and the arts (Cicero pro Arckia, 3);
bat the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the
Seleucid period, that have come down to us, are Apollophancs,
the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The mass
of the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic,
and to have spoken Aramaic in non-official life. The nicknames
which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except
Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to
have remained essentially native, such as the " Persian Artemis "
of Meroe and Atargatis of Hicrapolis Bambycc. We may infer,
from its epithet, " Golden," that the external appearance of
Antioch was magnificent; but the city needed constant restora-
tion owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district
has always been peculiarly liable. The first great earthquake
is said by the native chronicler John Malalas, who tells us most
that we know of the city, to have occurred in 148 B.C., and to
have done immense damage. The inhabitants were turbulent,
fickle and notoriously dissolute. In the many dissensions of
the Seleucid house they took violent part, and frequently rose
in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 B.C.,
and Demetrius II. in 129. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews,
punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles
of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned definitely against its feeble
rulers, invited Tigranes of Armenia to occupy the city in 83,
tried to unseat Antiochus XIII. in 65, and petitioned Rome
against his restoration in the following year. Its wish prevailed,
and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 B.C., but
remained a croilas libera.
The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for
the hybrid Antiochenes; but their emperors favoured the city
from the first, seeing in it a more suitable capital for the eastern
part of the empire than Alexandria could ever be, thanks to the
isolated position of Egypt To a certain extent they tried to
make it an eastern Rome. Caesar visited it in 47 B.C., and con-
firmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on
Silpius, probably at the instance of Octavian, whose cause the city
had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius
built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Agrippa
and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their
work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with
granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths
were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names
of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman
cheat, King Herod, erected a long sloa on the east, and Agrippa
encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this. Under the
empire we chiefly hear of the earthquakes which shook Antioch.
One, in u>. 37, caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators
to report on the condition of the city. Another followed in the
next reign; and in 1x5, during Trajan's sojourn in the place
with his army of Parthia, the whole site was convulsed, the
landscape altered, and the emperor himself forced to take shelter
in the circus for several days. He and his successor restored the
city; but in 526, after minor shocks, the calamity returned in
a terrible form, and thousands of lives were lost, largely those of
Christians gathered to a great church assembly. We hear also
of espedslly terrific earthquakes on the 20th of November 528
and the 31st of October 588.
At Antioch Germantcus died in a.d. to, and his body was burnt
in the forum. Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the
Jewish temple, over one of the gates. Commodus had Olympic
games celebrated at Antioch, and in a.d. 266 the town was suddenly
raided by the Persians, who slew many in the theatre. In 387
there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order
of Theodosius, and the city was punished by the loss of its
metropolitan status. Zcno, who renamed it Theopolis, restored
many of its public buildings just before the great earthquake
of 526, whose destructive work was completed by the Persian
Chosroes twelve years later. Justinian made an effort to revive
it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its
glory was past.
The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its
relation to Christianity. Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according
to the tradition upon which the Antiochenc patriarchate still
rests its claim for primacy (cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas
and Saul, its converts were the first to be called " Christians."
They multiplied exceedingly, and by the time of Theodosius
were reckoned by Chrysostom at about 100,000 souls. Between
252 and 300 a.d ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch
and it became the residence of the patriarch of Asia. When
Julian visited the place in 362 the impudent population railed
at him for his favour to Jewish and pagan rites, and to
revenge itself for the closing of its great church of Constantine,
burned down the temple of Apollo in Daphne. The emperor's
rough and severe habits and his rigid administration prompted
Antiochene lampoons, to which he replied in the curious satiric
apologia, still extant, which he called Misopogon. His successor,
Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum having a statue
of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church,
which stood till the sack of Chosroes in 538. Antioch gave its
name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by
literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the
human limitations of Jesus. Dtodorus of Tarsus and Theodore
of Mopsuestia. were the leaders of this school. The principal local
saint was Simeon Stylites, who performed his penance on a hill
some 40 m. east. His body was brought to the city and buried
in a building erected under the emperor Leo. In aj>. 635, during
the reign of Heracliua, Antioch passed into Saracen hands,
and decayed apace for more than 300 years; but in 969 it was
recovered for Byzantium by Michael Burza and Peter the Eunuch.
In 1084 the SeJjuk Turks captured it but held it only fourteen
years, yielding place to the crusaders, who besieged it for nine
months, enduring frightful sufferings. Being at last betrayed,
it was given to Bohcmund, prince of Tarentum, and it remained
the capital of a Latin principality for nearly two centuries. It
fell at last to the Egyptian, Bibars, in 1268, after a great destruc-
tion and slaughter, from which it never revived. Little remains
now of the ancient city, except colossal ruins of aqueducts and
part of the Roman walls, which are used as quarries for modern
Antakia; but no scientific examination of the site has been made.
A statue in the Vatican and a silver statuette in the British
Museum perpetuate the type of its great eflfigy of the civic Fortune
of Antioch— a majestic seated figure, with Orontes as a youth
issuing from under her feet.
Antakia, the modern town, is still of considerable importance.
Pop. about 25,000, including Ansarieh, Jews, and a large body of
Christians of several denominations about 8000 strong. Though
superseded by Aleppo {q.v.) as capital of N. Syria, it is still the
centreof a large district, growing in wealth and productiveness with
the draining of its central lake, undertaken by a French company.
The principal cultures ate tobacco, maize and cotton, and the mul-
berry for silk production. Liquorice also is collected and exported.
In 1822 (as in 1872) Antakia suffered by earthquake, and when
Ibrahim Pasha made it his headquarters in 1835, it had only
some 5000 inhabitants. Its hopes, based on a Euphrates valley
railway, which was to have started from its port of Suedia
(Seleueia), were doomed to disappointment, and it has suffered
repeatedly from visitations of cholera; but it has nevertheless
grown rapidly and will resume much of its old importance
when a railway is made down the lower Orontes valley. It is a
13*
ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA— ANTIOPE
centre of American mission enterprise, and has a British vice-
consul.
See C. O. Mailer, Antiquitales Antiochenae (1839); A. Freund,
Uitrdet xur antiochenischen . . . Stadtckronik (1882); R. Fdrster,
in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897). Also authorities
for Syria. (D. C. H.)
Synods of Antioch. Beginning with three synods convened
between 364 and 269 in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more
than thirty councils were held in Antioch in ancient times.
Most of these dealt with phases of the Arian and of the Christo-
logicol controversies. The most celebrated took place in the
summer of 341 at the dedication of the goldon Basilica, and is
therefore called in encaeniis (h c7«ou>iotf), in dedication*.
Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the Orient,
but the bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor
Constantius attended in person. The council approved three
creeds ( Hah n, f f 153-155). Whether or no the so-called " fourth
formula" (Hahn, f 156) is to be ascribed to a continuation of this
synod or to a subsequent but distinct assembly of the same
year, its aim is like that of the first three; while repudiating
certain Arian formulas it avoids the Athanasian shibboleth
" homoousios." The somewhat colourless compromise doubtless
proceeded from the party of Euscbius of Nicomedia, and proved
not inacceptable to the more nearly orthodox members of the
synod. The twenty-five canons adopted regulate the so-called
metropolitan constitution of the church. Ecclesiastical power is
vested chiefly in the metropolitan (later called archbishop), and
the semi-annual provincial synod (cf. Nicaea, canon 5), which he
summons and over which he presides. Consequently the powers of
country bishops (chore pisco pi) arc curtailed, and direct recourse to
the emperor is forbidden. The sentence of one judicatory is to be
respected by other judicatories of equal rank, re-trial may take
place only before that authority to whom appeal regularly lies
(see canons 3, 4, 6). Without due invitation, a bishop may not
ordain, or in any other way interfere with affairs lying outside
his proper territory; nor may he appoint his own successor.
Penalties are set on the refusal to celebrate Easter in accordance
with the Niccne decree, as well as on leaving a church before the
service of the Eucharist is completed. The numerous objections
made by eminent scholars in past centuries to the ascription of
these twenty-five canons to the synod in encaeniis have been
elaborately stated and probably refuted by Hefele. The canons
formed part of the Codex canmum used at Chalcedon in 451 and
passed over into the later collections of East and West.
The canons are printed in Greek by Manst ii. 1307 ff., Bruns i.
80 ff., Lauchert 43 ff., and translated by Hcfclc. Councils, ii. 67 ff.
and by H. R. Percival in the Niccne and Post- N tune Fathers. 2nd
series, xiv. 108 ff. The four dogmatic formulas are given by G.
Ludwtg Hahn, BiHiothek der Symbole, 3rd edition (Brcslau, 1897).
183 ff. ; for translations compare the Niccne and Posl-Nicene Fathers,
and series, iv. 461 ff., ii. 39 ff., ix. 12, ii. 44, and Hefele, ii. 76 ff.
For full titles see Councils. (W. W. R.*)
ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of which,
including ruins of temples, a theatre and a fine aqueduct, were
found by Arundell in 1833 dose to the modern Yalovach. It
was situated on the lower southern slopes of the Sultan Dagh,
in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, on the right bank of a stream,
the ancient Anthius, which flows into the Hoiran GeuL It was
probably founded on the site of a Phrygian sanctuary, by
Seleucus Nicator, before 280 B.C. and was made a free city by
the Romans in 189 B.C. It was a thoroughly Hellenized, Greek-
speaking city, in the midst of a Phrygian people, with a mixed
population that included many Jews. Before 6 B.C. Augustus
made it a colony, with the title Caesarea, and it became the
centre of civil and military administration in south Galatia,
the romanisation of which was progressing rapidly in the time of
Claudius, a.d. 41-54, when Paul visited it (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21,
xvi. 6, xviii. 23). In 1097 the crusaders found rest and shelter
within its walls. The ruins arc interesting, and show that Antioch
was a strongly fortified city of Hellenic and Roman type.
ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleudd
dynasty in Nearer Asia. The most famous are Antiochus III.
the Great (223-187 B.C.) who sheltered Hannibal and waged war
with Rome, and his son Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-164 B.C.)
who tried to suppress Judaism by persecution (see Stutucm
Dynasty).
The name was subsequently borne by the kings of Commagene
(69 b.g.-a.d. 72), whose house was affiliated to the Seleucid.
Antiochus I. of Commagenc, who without sufficient reason
has been identified with the Seleucid Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus,
made peace on advantageous terms with Pompey in 64 B.C.
Subsequently he fought on Pompey's side in the Civil War,
and later still repelled an attack on Samosata by Marcus Antonius
(Mark Antony.) He died before 31 B.C. and was succeeded by
one Mithradatcs I. This Mithradates was succeeded by an
Antiochus II., who was executed by Augustus in 29 B.C. After
another Mithradates we know of an Antiochus III., on whose
death in a.d. 17 Commagene became a Roman province. In 38
his son Antiochus IV. Epiphanes was made king by Caligula,
who deposed him almost immediately. Restored by Claudius
in 41, he reigned until 72 as an ally of Rome against Parthia.
In that year he was deposed on suspicion of treason and retired
to Rome. Several of his coins are extant.
On all the above see " Antiochos " in Pauly-Wissowa's Reolen-
cyclopddie der classiscken Alterlumsvnssenschaft, i. part ii. (1894).
ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON (1st century B.C.), Greek philo-
sopher. His philosophy consisted in an attempt to reconcile
the doctrines of his teachers Philo of Larissa and Mncsarchus
the Stoic. Against the scepticism of the former, he held that
the intellect has in itself a sufficient test of truth; against
Mncsarchus, that happiness, though its main factor is virtue,
depends also on outward circumstances. This electidsm is
known as the Fifth Academy (see Academy, Greek). His
writings are lost, and we are indebted for information to Cicero
(Acad. Pr. ii. 43), who studied under him at Athens, and Sextus
Empiricus (Pyrrh. hyp. i. 235). Antiochus lectured also in
Rome and Alexandria.
See R. Hoycr, De Antiocho Ascolonita (Bonn, 1883).
ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE, Greek historian, nourished
about 420 B.C. Nothing is known of his life, but his works,
of which only fragments remain, enjoyed a high reputation.
He wrote a History of Sicily from the earliest times to 4*4,
which was used by Thucydides, and the Colonizing of Italy,
frequently referred to by Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
M Oiler, Fragmenta Historicorum Craecorum, i. ; W'6lfflin, Antiochos
von Syrakus, 1872.
ANTIOPB. (1) In Greek legend, the mother of Amphion and
Zethus, and, according to Homer (Od. xi. 260), a daughter of
the Boeotian river-god Asopus. In later poems she is called
the daughter of Nycteus or Lycurgus. Her beauty attracted
Zeus, who, assuming the form of a satyr, took her by force
( Apollodorus iii. 5). After this she was carried off by Epopeus,
king of Sicyon, who would not give her up till compelled by her
uncle Lycus. On the way home she gave birth, in the neighbour-
hood of Eleutherae on Mount Cithacron, to the twins Amphion
and Zethus, of whom Amphion was the son of the god, and
Zethus the son of Epopeus. Both were left to be brought up
by herdsmen. At Thebes Antiope now suffered from the per-
sccution of Dirce, the wife of Lycus, but at last escaped towards
Eleutherae, and there found shelter, unknowingly, in the bouse
where her two sons were living as herdsmen. Here she was
discovered by Dirce, who ordered the two young men to tie
her to the horns of a wild bull. They were about to obey, when
the old herdsman, who had brought them up, revealed his secret,
and they carried out the punishment on Dirce instead (Hyginus,
Fab. 8). For this, it is said, Dionysus, to whose worship Dirce
had been devoted, visited Antiope with madness, which caused
her to wander restlessly all over Greece till she was cured, and
married by Phocus of Tithorea, on Mount Parnassus, where
both were buried in one grave (Pausanias ix. 17, X..32).
(2) A second Antiope, daughter of Ares, and sister cf Hippolyte,
queen of the Amazons, was the wife of Theseus. There are
various accounts of the manner in which Theseus became
possessed of ber, and of her subsequent fortunes. Either she
gave herself up to him out of love, when with Heracles he
captured Themiscyra, the seat of the Amasons, or she fell to
his lot as a captive (Diodorus i v. 1 6) . Or again, Theseus 1
ANTIOQUIA— ANTIPODES
'33
invaded the dominion of the Amazons and carried her off, the
consequence of which was a counter-invasion of Attica by the
Amazons. After four months of war peace was made, and
Anttope left with Theseus as a pcacc-ofFcring. According to
another account, she had joined the Amazons against him
because he had been untrue to her in desiring to marry Phaedra.
She is said to have been killed by another Amazon, Molpadia,
a rival in her affection for Theseus. Elsewhere it was believed
that he had himself killed her, and fulfilled an oracle to that effect
(Hyginus, Fab. 241). By Theseus she had a son, the well-known
Hippolytus (Plutarch, Theseus).
ANTIOQUIA, an interior department of the republic of
Colombia, lying S. of Bolivar, W. of the Magdalcna river, and
E. of Cauca. Area, 22,870 sq. m.; pop. (est. 1809) 464,887.
The greater part of its territory lies between the Magdalena
and Cauca rivers and includes the northern end of the Central
Cordillera. The country is covered with valuable forests, and
its mineral wealth renders it one of the most important mining
regions of the republic. The capital, Mcdcllin (est. pop. 53 ,000 in
1902), is a thriving mining centre, 4822 ft. above sea-level, and
12s m. from Puerto Berrid on the Magdalena. Other important
tow ns arc Manizalcs (18,000 ) in the extreme south, the commer-
cial centre of a rich gold and grazing region; Anlioquia,the old
capital, on the Cauca; and Puerto Bcrri6 on the Magdalena,
from which a railway has been started to the capital.
ANTIPAROS (anc. Oliaros), an island of the kingdom of Greece,
in the modern eparchy of Naxos, separated by a strait (about
1} m. wide at the narrowest point) from the west coast of Paras.
It is 7 m. long by 3 broad, and contains about 700 inhabitants,
most of whom live in Kastro, a village on the north coast, and
arc employed in agriculture and fishing. Formerly piracy was
common. The only remarkable feature in the island is a
stalactite cavern on the south coast, which is reached by a
narrow passage broken by two steep and dangerous descents
which are accomplished by the aid of rope-ladders. The grotto
itself, which is about 150 ft. by 100, and 50 ft. high (not all can
be seen from any part, and probably some portions are still
unexplored), shows many remarkable examples of stalactite
formations and incrustations of dazzling brilliance. It is not
mentioned by ancient writers; the first western traveller to
visit it was the marquis dc Nointcl (ambassador of Louis XIV.
to the Porte) who descended it with a numerous suite and held
high mass there on Christmas day 1673. There is, however, in
the entrance of the cavern an inscription recording the names
of visitors in ancient times.
See J. P. de Tourncfort, Relation d'un voyage au Levant (1717);
English edition, 1718. vol. i. p. 146, and guide-books to Greece.
AHTIPATER (3o8?-3i9 B.C.), Macedonian general, and
regent of Macedonia during Alexander's Eastern expedition
(334-323). He had previously (346) been sent as ambassador
by Philip to Athens and negotiated peace after the battle of
Chaeroneia (338). About H2 he set out against the rebellious
tribes of Thrace; but before this insurrection was quelled,
the Spartan king Agis had risen against Macedonia. Having
settled affairs in Thrace as well as he could, Antipatcr hastened
to the south, and in a battle near Megalopolis (331) gained a
complete victory over the insurgents (Diodorus xvii. 62). His
regency was greatly troubled by the ambition of Olympus,
mother of Alexander, and he was nominally superseded by
Craterus. But, on the death of Alexander in 323, he was, by the
first partition of the empire, left in command of Macedonia, and
in the Lamian War, at the battle of Crannon (322), crushed
the Creeks who had attempted to reassert their independence.
Later in the same year he and Cratcrus were engaged in a
war against the Aetolians, when the news arrived from Asia
which induced Ant i pater to conclude peace with them; for
Antigonus reported that Pcrdiccas contemplated making himself
sole master of the empire. Antipater and Craterus accordingly
prepared for war against Perdiccas, and allied themselves
with Ptolemy, the governor of Egypt. Antipatcr crossed over
into Asia in 321; and while still in Syria, he received information
that Perdiccas had been murdered by his own soldiers. Craterus
fell in battle against Eumenes (Diodorus xviii. 25-39). Antipatcr,
now sole regent, made several new regulations, and having
quelled a mutiny of his troops and commissioned Antigonus to
continue the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of
Perdiccas, returned to Macedonia, where he arrived in ^20
(Justin xiii. 6). Soon after he was seized by an illness which
terminated his active career, 3 1 9. Passing over his son Cassandcr,
he appointed the aged Polypcrchon regent, a measure which gave
rise to much confusion and ill-feeling (Diodorus xvii., xviii).
ANTIPHANES, the most important writer of the Middle Attic
comedy with the exception of Alexis, lived from about 408 to 334
B.C. He was apparently a foreigner who settled in Athens, where
he began to write about 387. He was extremely prolific: more
than 200 of the 36$ (or 260 ) comedies attributed to him arc known
to us from the titles and considerable fragments preserved in
Aihenacus. They chiefly deal with matters connected with the
table, but contain many striking sentiments.
Fragments in Koch, Comic or urn Altieorum Fragments, ii. (1884);
see also Clinton, Philological Museum, i. (1832); Mcineke, Historia
Crilica Comuorum Craeeorum (1839).
ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, of the age of Alexander. He
worked for Philip of Maccdon and Ptolemy I. of Egypt. Thus
he was a contemporary of Apelles, whose rival he is said to have
been, but he seems to have worked in quite another style.
Quintihan speaks of his facility: the descriptions of his works
which have come down to us show that he excelled in light and
shade, in genre representations, and in caricature.
Sec Brunn, Cesckiekte 4er grieckischen K knitter, ii. p. 349.
ANTIPHOH, of Rhamnus in Attica, the earliest of the " ten "
Attic orators, was born in 480 B.C. He took an active part in
political affairs at Athens, and, as a zealous supporter of the
oligarchical party, was largely responsible for the establishment
of the Four Hundred in 41 1 (sec TAebamenes) ;on the restoration
of the democracy he was accused of treason and condemned to
death. Thucydidcs (viii. 68) expresses a very high opinion of
him. Antiphon may be regarded as the founder of political
oratory, but he never addressed the people himself except on the
occasion of his trial. Fragments of his speech then delivered in
defence of his policy {called Utpl iitraarhatiin) have been edited
by J. Nicole (1007) from an Egyptian papyrus. His chief
business was that of a professional speech- writer (Xoyoypii+ot),
for those who felt incompetent to conduct their own cases—
as all disputants were obliged to do— without expert assistance.
Fifteen of Antiphon's speeches are extant : twelve are mere school
exercises on fictitious cases, divided into tetralogies, each con-
sisting of two speeches for prosecution and defence — accusation,
defence, reply, counter-reply; three refer to actual legal processes.
All deal with cases of homicide (0on*a2 toot). Antiphon is also
said to have composed a TixT or art of Rhetoric.
Edition, with commentary, by MacUner (1838); text by Blaas
(1881): Jcbb, Attic Orators; Plutarch, Vita* X. Orator mm; Philo-
stratus, Vil. Sophistarum, i. 15; van Cleef, Index Antipkonteus,
Ithaca,- N. Y. (1895) ; see also Rhetoric.
ANTIPHONY (Gr. Apt!, and 4>uv^,a. voice), a species of psalmody
in which the choir or congregation, being divided into two parts,
sing alternately. The peculiar structure of the Hebrew psalms
renders it probable that the antiphonal method originated in the
service of the ancient Jewish Church. According to the historian
Socrates, its introduction into Christian worship was due to
Ignatius (died 115 a.d.), who in a vision had seen the angels
singing in alternate choirs. In the Latin Church it was not
practised until more than two centuries later, when it was
introduced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, who compiled an
antipkonary, or collection of words suitable for antiphonal
singing. The antiphonary still in use in the Roman Catholic
Church was compiled by Gregory the Great (500 a.d.).
ANTIPODES (Gr. e>rf, opposed to, and to5cs, feet), a term
applied strictly to any two peoples or places on opposite sides
of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from the one to the
other passes through the centre of the globe and forms a true
diameter. Any two places having this relation— -as London
and, approximately, Antipodes Island, near New Zealand-
must be distant from each other by x8o° of longitude, and the
•34
ANTIPYRINE— ANTI-SEMITISM
one must be as many degrees to the north of the equator as the
other is to the south, in other words, the latitudes are numerically
equal, but one is north and the other south. Noon at the one
place is midnight at the other, the longest day corresponds to
the shortest, and mid-winter is contemporaneous with mid-
summer. In the calculation of days and nights, midnight on
the one side may be regarded as corresponding to the noon
either of the previous or of the following day. If a voyager sail
eastward, and thus anticipate the sun, his dating will be twelve
hours in advance, while the reckoning of another who has been
sailing westward will be as much in arrcar. There will thus be
a difference of twenty-four hours between the two when they
meet. To avoid the confusion of dates which would thus arise,
it is necessary to determine a meridian at which dates should
be brought into agreement, i.e. a line the crossing of which would
involve the changing of the name of the day either forwards,
when proceeding westwards, or backwards, when proceeding
eastwards. Mariners have generally adopted the meridian 180
from Greenwich, situated in the Pacific Ocean, as a convenient
line for co-ordinating dates. The so-called " International Date
Line," which is, however, practically only due to American
initiative, is designed to remove certain objections to the meridian
of i8o° W., the most important of which is that groups of islands
lying about this meridian differ in date by a day although only
a few miles apart. Several forms have been suggested*, these
generally agree in retaining the meridian of 180 in the mid
Pacific, with a bend in the north in order to make the
Aleutian Islands and Alaska of the same time as America, and
also in the south so as to bring certain of the South Sea islands
into line with Australia and New Zealand.
ANTIPYRINE (phcnyldimethyl pyrazolone) (CuH lt N*0), is
prepared by the condensation of phenylhydrazinc with aceto-
acctic ester, the resulting phenyl methyl pyrazolone being heated
with methyl iodide and methyl alcohol to 100-110 C: —
CH.C-N v CHYC-N-CH.
I >N.QH»-* 1 >NC,H,
CW r CO / HC-CO #
Phenyl methyl pyrazolone Antipyrine
On the large scale phenylhydrazine is dissolved in dilute sulphuric
acid, the solution warmed to about 40° C. and the aceto-acetic
ester added. When the reaction is complete the atid is neutral-
ized with soda, and the phenyl methyl pyrazolone extracted
with ether and distilled in vacuo. The portion distilling at
about 200 C. is then methylated by means of methyl alcohol
and methyl iodide at 100-uo C, the excess of methyl alcohol
removed and the product obtained decolorized by sulphuric
acid. The residue is treated with a warm concentrated solution
of soda, and the oil which separates is removed by shaking with
benzene. The benzene layer on evaporation deposits the anti-
pyrine as a colourless crystalline solid which melts at 113 C. and
is soluble in water. It is basic In character, and gives a red
coloration on the addition of ferric chloride. In medicine anti-
pyrine (" phenazonum ") has been used as an analgesic and
antipyretic. The dose is 5-20 grs., but on account of its
depressant action on the heart, and the toxic effects to which
it occasionally gives rise, it is now but little used. It is more
safely replaced by phenacetine.
ANTIQUARY, a person who devotes himself to the study of
ancient learning and " antiq-es," i.e. ancient objects of art or
science. The London Society of Antiquaries was formed in
the 18th century to promote the study of antiquities. As early
as 1572 a society had been founded by Bishop Matthew Parker,
Sir Robert Cotton, William Camden and others for the pre-
servation of national antiquities. This body existed till 1604,
when it fell under suspicion of being political in its aims, and was
abolished by James I. Papers read at their meetings are pre-
served in the Cottonian library and were printed by Thomas
Hcarne In 1720 under the title A Colltdion of Curious Discourses,
a second edition appearing in 177 1. En 1707 a number of English
antiquaries began to hold regular meetings for the discussion of
their hobby and in 1717 the Society of Antiquaries was formally
reconstituted, finally receiving a charter from George II. in 1751.
In 1780 George III. granted the society apartments in Somerset
House, Strand. The society is governed by a council of twenty
and a president who is ex officio a trustee of the British Museum.
The present headquarters of the society arc at Burlington House,
Piccadilly.
The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780,
and has the management of a large national antiquarian museum
in Edinburgh. In Ireland a society was founded in 1849 called
the Kilkenny Archaeological Society, holding its meetings at
Kilkenny. In 1869 its name was changed to the Royal Historical
and Archaeological Association of Ireland, and in r8oo to the
Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, its office being trans-
ferred to Dublin. In Prance La Sociilt Nationate des A ntiquaires
de France was formed in 1814 by the reconstruction of the
Acadimie Celtique, which had existed since 1805. The American
Antiquarian Society was founded in 18x2, with its headquarters
at Worcester, Mass. It has a library of upwards of 100,000
volumes and its transactions have been published bi-annualfy
since 1849. In Germany the Gesamtvcrein der Deutschen Ge-
schichls-und Alter tumster cine was founded in 1852. La Sociilt
Royale des Antiquaires du Nord at Copenhagen is among the
best known of European antiquarian societies.
ANTIQUE (Lzt. antiquus, old), a term conventionally restricted
to the remains of ancient art, such as sculptures, gems, medals,
seals, &c. In a limited sense it applies only to Greek and Roman
art, and includes neither the artistic remains of other ancient
nations nor any product of classical art of a later date than the
fall of the western empire.
ANTI-SEMITISM. In the political struggles of the concluding
quarter of the 19th century an important part was played by
a religious, political and social agitation against the Jews,
known as " Anti-Semitism." The origins of this remarkable
movement already threaten to become obscured by legend.
The Jews contend that anti-Semitism is a mere atavistic revival
of the Jew-hatred of the middle ages. The extreme section of
the anti-Semites, who have given the movement its quasi*
scientific name, declare that it is a racial struggle — an incident
of the eternal conflict between Europe and Asia— and that the
anti-Semites are engaged in an effort to prevent what is called
the Aryan race from being subjugated by a Semitic immigration,
and to save Aryan ideals from being modified by an alien and
demoralizing oriental Anschauung. There is no essential foun-
dation for cither of these contentions. Religious prejudices
reaching back to the dawn of history have been reawakened
by the anti-Semitic agitation, but they did not originate it,
and they have not entirely controlled it. The alleged racial
divergence is, too, only a linguistic hypothesis on the physical
evidence of which anthropologists are not agreed (Topinard,
Anthropologic, p. 444; Taylor, Origins of Aryans, cap. i.), and,
even if it were proved, it has existed in Europe for so many
centuries, and so many ethnic modifications have occurred on
both sides, that it cannot be accepted as a practical issue. It
is true that the ethnographical histories of the Jews and the
nations of Europe have proceeded on widely diverging lines,
but these lines have more than once crossed each other and
become interlaced. Thus Aryan elements are at the beginning of
both; European morals have been ineradicablv semitized by
Christianity, and the Jews have been Europeans for over a
thousand years, during which their character has been modified
and in some respects transformed by the ecclesiastical and civil
polities of the nations among whom they have made their
permanent home. Anti-Semitism is then exclusively a'question
of European politics, and its origin is to be found, not In the
long struggle between Europe and Asia, or between the Church
and the Synagogue, which filled so much of ancient and medieval
history, but in the social conditions resulting from the emancipa-
tion of the Jews in the middle of the 19th century.
If the emancipated Jews were Europeans in virtue of the
antiquity of their western settlements, and of the character
impressed upon them by the circumstances of their European
history, they none the less presented the appearance of a strange
people to their Gentile fellow-countrymen. They had been
ANTI-SEMITISM
135
secluded in their ghettos for centuries, and had consequently
acquired a physical and moral physiognomy differentiating
them in a measure from their former oppressors. This peculiar
physiognomy was, on its moral side, not essentially Jewish or
even Semitic. It was an advanced development of the main
attributes of civilized life, to which Christendom in its transition
from feudalism had as yet only imperfectly adapted itself. The
ghetto, which had been designed as a sort of quarantine to safe-
guard Christendom against the Jewish heresy, had in fact proved
a storage chamber for a portion of the political and social forces
which were destined to sweep away the last traces of feudalism
from central Europe. In the ghetto, the pastoral Semite, who
had been made a wanderer by the destruction of his nationality,
was steadily trained, through centuries, to become an urban
European, with all the parasitic activities of urban economics,
and all the democratic tendencies of occidental industrialism.
Excluded from the army, the land,, the trade corporations
and the artisan gilds, this quondam oriental peasant was gradu-
ally transformed into a commercial middleman and a practised
dealer in money. Oppressed by the Church, and persecuted
by the State, his theocratic and monarchical traditions lost
their hold on his daily life, and he became saturated with a
passionate devotion to the ideals of democratic politics. Finally,
this former bucolic victim of Phoenician exploitation had his
wits pre ternatu rally sharpened, partly by the stress of his
struggle for life, and partly by his being compelled in his urban
seclusion to seek for recreation in literary exercises, chiefly the
subtle dialectics of the Talmud is ts (Locb, Juif de Vkistoirc;
Jellinek, Der Jiidische Stamm). Thus, the Jew who emerged from
the ghetto was no longer a Palestinian Semite, but ah essentially
modem European, who differed from his Christian fellow-country-
men only in the circumstances that his religion was ot the older
Semitic form, and that his physical type had become sharply
defined through a slightly more rigid cxclusi veness in the matter
of marriages than that practised by Protestants and Roman
Catholics (Andrcc, Volkskundc der Judch, p. 58).
Unfortunately, these distinctive elements, though not very
serious in themselves, became strongly acccntuated.by concen-
tration. Had it been possible to. distribute the emancipated
Jews uniformly throughout Christian society, as was the case
with other emancipated religious denominations, there would
have beerrno revival of the Jewish questioa The Jews, however,
through no fault of their own, belonged to only one class in
European society— the industrial bourgeoisie. Into that class
all their strength was thrown, and owing to their ghetto pre-
paration, they rapidly took a leading place in it, politically and
socially. When the mid-century revolutions made the bourgeoisie
the ruling power in Europe, the semblance of a Hebrew domina-
tion presented itself. It was the exaggeration of this apparent
domination, not by the bourgeoisie itself, but by its enemies
among the vanquished reactionaries on the one hand, and by
the extreme Radicals on the other, which created modern anti-
Semitism as a political force.
. The movement took its rise in Germany and Austria. Hcr.e
the concentration of the Jews in one class of the population was
aggravated by their excessive numbers. While in France the
proportion to the total population was, in the early 'seventies,
014 %, and in Italy, 0-12 %, it was 1-22 % in Germany, and
385 % in Austria-Hungary*, Berlin had 436% of Jews, and
Vienna 662% (Andree, Volkskundc, pp. 287, 291, 294,295).
The activity of the Jews consequently manifested itself in a far
more intense form in these countries than elsewhere. This was
apparent even before the emancipations of 1848. Towards
the middle of the 18th century, a limited number of wealthy
n. ™.— - J cws hac * Dcen tolerated as Schulz-Juden outside the
ouMiamy. g hctt08> an( j tnc ,* r ^^ educated as Germans under
the influence of Moses Mendelssohn and his school (see Jews),
supplied a majority of the leading spirits of the revolutionary
agi ta tion . To t his period belong the formidable names of Lud wig
Borne (1786-1837), Heinrich Heine (1799-1854), Edward Ganz
(1798-1839), Gabriel Riesser (1806-1863), Ferdinand Lassalle
(1825-1864), Karl Marx (1818-1883), Moses Hess (1812-1875),
Ignatz Kuranda (1 811-1884), and Johann Jacobi (1805-1877).
When the revolution was completed, and the Jews entered in -a
body the national life of Germany and Austria, they sustained
this high average in all the intellectual branches of middle-class
activity. Here, again, owing to the accidents of their history,
a further concentration became apparent. Their activity was
almost exclusively intellectual. The bulk of them flocked to
the financial and the distributive (as distinct from the productive)
fields of industry to which they had been confined in the ghettos.
The sharpened faculties of the younger generation at the sane
time carried everything before them in the schools, with the
result that they soon crowded the professions, especially medicine,
law and journalism (Nossig, Stalistik des Jiid. Stammts, pp. 33-37 ;
Jacobs, Jew. Statistics, pp. 41-69). Thus the " Semitic domina-
tion," as it was afterwards called, became every day more
strongly accentuated. If it was a long time in exciting resent-
ment and jealousy, the reason was that it was in no sense alien
to the new conditions of the national life. The competition was
a fair one. The Jews might be more successful than their
Christian fellow-citizens, but it was in virtue of qualities which
complied with the national standards of conduct. They were
as law-abiding and patriotic as they were intelligent. Crime
among them was far below the average (Nossig, p. 31). Thar
complete assimilation of the national spirit was brilliantly
illustrated by the achievements in German literature, art and
science of such men as Heinrich Heine and Bcrthold Aucrbach
(181 2-1882), Felix Mendelssohn (-Bartholdy) (1800-1847). and
Jacob Meyerbeer (1794-1864), Karl Gustav Jacobi the mathe-
matician (1804-1851), Gabriel Gustav Valentin the physiologist
(1810-1883), and MoriU Lazarus (1824-1903) and Heymann
Stcinthal (1 823-1 809) the national psychologists. In politics,
too, Edward Laskcr (1829-1884) and Lud wig Bamberger (1823-
1899) had shown how Jews could put their country before party,
when, at the turning-point of German imperial history in 1866.
they led the secession from the Forlschritls-Partci and founded
the National Liberal party, which enabled Prince Bismarck
to accomplish German unity. Even their financiers were not
behind their Christian fellow-citizens in patriotism. Prince
Bismarck himself confessed that the money for carrying on the
1866 campaign was obtained from the Jewish banker Blcich-
roedcr, in face of the refusal of the money-market to support the
war. Hence the voice of the old Jew-hatred— for in a weak
way it was still occasionally heard in obscurantist corners —
was shamed into silence, and it was only in the European twilight
— in Russia and Rumania — and in lands where medievalism
still lingered, such as northern Africa and Persia, that oppression
and persecution continued to dog the steps of the Jews,
The signal for the change came in 1873, and was given tin-
consciously by one of the most distinguished Jews of his time,
Edward Laskcr, the gifted lieutenant of Bennigsen in the leader-
ship of the National Liberal party. The unification of Germany
in 1S70, and the rapid payment of the enormous French war*
indemnity, had given an unprecedented impulse to industrial
and financial activity throughout the empire. Money became
cheap and speculation universal. A company mania set in which
was favoured by the government, who granted railway and othtr
concessions with a prodigal hand. The inevitable result of this
state of things was first indicated by Jewish politicians and
economists. On the 14th of January 1873, Edward Laskcr
called the attention of the Prussian diet to the dangers of the
situation, while his colleague, Ludwig Bamberger, in an able
article, in the Preussischcn Jahrbiickcr, condemned the policy
which had permitted the milliards to glut the country instead
of being paid on a plan which would have facilitated their gradual
digestion by the economic machinery of the nation. Deeply
impressed by the gravity dt the-impending crisis, Lasker instituted
a searching inquiry, with the result that he discovered a series
of grave company scandals in which financial promoters and
aristocratic directors were chiefly involved. Undeterred by the
fact that the leading spirit in these abuses, Bethel Henry Strous-
berg (1823-1884), was a Jew, Lasker presented the results of
his inquiry to the diet on the .7 th of February 1873, in a speech
136
ANTI-SEMITISM
of great power and full of sensational disclosures. The dramatic
results of this speech need not be dwelt upon here (for details
see Blum, Das deutsche Reich sur Zeit Bismarcks, pp. 153-181).
It must suffice to say that in the following May the great Vienna
" Krach " occurred, and th.c colossal bubble of speculation
burst, bringing with it all the ruin foretold by Lasker and
Bamberger. From the position occupied by the Jews in the
commercial class, and especially in the financial section of that
class, it was inevitable that a considerable number of them should
figure in the scandals which followed. At this .moment an obscure
Hamburg journalist, Wilhelm Marr, who as far back as 1862
had printed a still-born tract against the Jews (Judenspiegel),
published a sensational pamphlet entitled Dcr Sicg des Judcn-
tkums iibcr das Germanthum ("The Victory of Judaism over
Germanism "). The book fell upon fruitful soil. It applied to
the nascent controversy a theory of nationality which, under
the great sponsorship of Hegel, had seized on the minds' of the
German youth, and to which the stirring events of 1870 had
alrcady.givcn a deep practical significance. The state, according
to the Hegelians,, should be rational, and the nation should
be a unit comprising individuals speaking the same language
and of the same racial origin. Heterogeneous elements might
be absorbed, but if they could not be reduced to the national
type they should be eliminated. This was the pseudo-scientific
note of the new anti-Semitism, the theory which differentiated
it from the old religious Jew-hatred and sought to give it a
rational place in modern thought. Marr's* pamphlet, which
reviewed the facts of the Jewish social concentration without
noticing their essentially transitional character, proved the
pioneer of this teaching. It was, however, in the passions of
party politics that the new crusade found its chief sources of
vitality. The enemies of the bourgeoisie at once saw that the
movement was calculated to discredit and weaken the school
of Manchester Liberalism, then in the ascendant. Agrarian
capitalism, which had been dethroned by industrial capitalism
in 1848, and had burnt its fingers in 1873, seized the opportunity
of paying of! old scores. The clericals, smarting under the
Kulturkampf, which* Was supported by the whole body of Jewish
liberalism, joined engerly in the new cry. In 1876 another
sensational pamphlet was published, Otto Glogau's Di* Bdrscn
und Crundergeschwindel in Berlin (" The Bourses and the
Company Swindles in Berlin "), dealing in detail wjth the Jewish
participation in the scandals first- revealed by Lasker. The
agitation gradually swelled, its growth being helped by the
sensitiveness and cacoithes scribendi of the Jews themselves,
who contributed two pamphlets and a much larger proportion
of newspaper articles for every one supplied by their opponents
(Jacobs, Bibiiog. Jew. Question, p. xi.). TJp to 1870, however,
it was more of a literary than a political agitation, and was
generally regarded only as an ephemeral craze or a passing
spasm of popular passion.
Towards the end of 1879 it spread with sudden fury over
the whole of Germany. This outburst, at a moment when no
new financial scandals or other illustrations of Semitic demoraliza-
tion and domination were before the public, has never been fully
explained. It is impossible to doubt, however, that the secret
springs of the new agitation were more or less directly supplied
by Prince Bismarck himself. Since 1877 the relations between
the chancellor and the National Liberals had gradually become
strained. The deficit in the budget had compelled the govern-
ment to think of new taxes, and in order to carry them through
the Reichstag the support of the National Liberals had been
solicited. Until then the National Liberals had faithfully
supported the chancellor in nursing the consolidation of the
new empire, but the great dream of its leaders, especially of
Lasker and Bamberger, who had learnt their politics in England,
was to obtain a constitutional and economic rigime similar to
that of the British Isles. The organization of German unity
was now completed, and they regarded the new overtures of
Prince Bismarck as an opportunity for pressing their constitu-
tional demands. These were refused, the Reichstag was dissolved
and Prince Bismarck boldly came forward with a new fiscal
policy, a combination of protection and state socialism. Lasker
and Bamberger thereupon led a powerful secession of National
Liberals into opposition, and the chancellor was compelled to
seek a new majority among the ultra-Conservatives and the
Roman Catholic Centre. This was the beginning of the famous
" journey to Canossa." Bismarck did not hide his mortification.
He began to recognize in anti-Semitism a means of " dishing "
the- Judaized liberals, and to his creatures who assisted him in
his press campaigns he dropped significant hints in this sense
(Busch, Bismarck, ii. 453-4 S4» ill. 16). He even spoke of a new
Kulturkampf against the Jews (ibid. ii. p. 484). How these
hints were acted upon has not been revealed, but it is sufficiently
instructive to notice that the final breach with the National
Liberals took place in July 1879, and that it was immediately
followed by a violent revival of the anti-Semitic agitation.
Marr's pamphlet was reprinted, tfhd within a few months ran
through nine further editions. The historian TreiUchke 'gave
the sanction of his great name to the movement. The Conserva-
tive and Ultramontane press rang with the sins of the Jews.
In October an anti-Semitic league was founded in Berlin and
Dresden (for statutes of the league see Nineteenth Century.
February 1881, p. 344).
The leadership of the agitation was now definitely assumed by
a man who combined with social influence, oratorical power and
inexhaustible energy, a definite scheme of social regeneration and
an organization for carrying it out. This man was Adolf Stdcker
(b. 1835), one of the court preachers. He had embraced the
doctrines of Christian socialism which the Roman Catholics,
under the guidance of Archbishop Kettcler, had adopted from
the teachings of the Jew Lassallc (Nitti, Catholic Socialism, pp.
94-96, 122, 127), and he had formed a society called "The
Christian Social Working-man's Union." He was also a con-
spicuous member of the Prussian diet, where he sat and voted
with the Conservatives. He found himself in strong sympathy
with Prince Bismarck's new economic policy, which, although
also of Lassallian origin (Kohut, Ferdinand Lassallc, pp. 144 et
scq.), was claimed by its author as being essentially Christian
(Busch, p. 483). Under his auspices the years 1880-1881 became
a period of bitter and scandalous conflict with the Jews. The
Conservatives supported him, partly to satisfy their old grudges
against the Liberal bourgeoisie and partly because Christian
Socialism, with its anti-Semitic appeal to ignorant prejudice,' was'
likely to weaken the hold of the Social Democrats on the lower
classes. The Lutheran clergy followed suit, in order to prevent
the Roman Catholics from obtaining a monopoly of Christian
Socialism, while the Ultramonianes readily adopted anti-
Semitism, partly to maintain their monopoly, and partly to
avenge themselves on the Jewish and Liberal supporters of the
Kulturkampf. In this way a formidable body of public opinion
was recruited for the anti-Semites. Violent debates took place
in the Prussian diet. A petition to exclude the Jews from the
national schools and universities and to disable them from holding
public appointments was presented to Prince Bismarck. Jews
were boycotted and insulted. Duels between Jews and anti-
Semites, many of them fatal, became of daily occurrence. Even
unruly demonstrations and street riots were reported. Pamphlets
attacking every phase and aspect of Jewish life streamed by the
hundred from the printing-press. On their side the Jews did not
want for friends, and it was owing to the strong attitude adopted
by the Liberals that the agitation failed to secure legislative
fruition. The crown prince (afterwards Emperor Frederick) and
crown princess boldly set themselves at the head of the party
of protest. The crown prince publicly declared that the agita-
tion was " a shame and a disgrace to Germany. 1 ' A manifesto
denouncing the movement as a blot on German culture, a danger
to German unity and a flagrant injustice tathe Jews themselves,
was signed by a long list of illustrious men, including Hcrr von
Forckenbeck, Professors'Mommsen, Gneist, Droysen, Virchow,
and Dr Werner Siemens (Times, November 18, 1880). During
the Reichstag elections of i88r the agitation played an active
part, but without much effect, although Slocker was elected.
This was due to the fact that the great Conservative parties, bo
ANTI-SEMITISM
137
far as their political organisations were concerned, still remained
diary of publicly identifying themselves with a movement which,
in its essence, was of socialistic tendency. Hence the electoral
returns of that year supplied no sure guide to the strength of
anti-Semitic opinion among the German people.
The first severe blow suffered by the German anti-Semites was
in x88x, when, to the indignation of the whole civilized world, the
barbarous riots against the Jews in Russia and the revival of the
medieval Blood Accusation in Hungary (sec infra) illustrated
the liability of unreasoning mobs to carry into violent practice
the incendiary doctrines of the new Jew-haters. From this blow
anti-Semitism might have recovered had it not been for the
divisions and scandals in its own ranks, and the artificial forms it
subsequently assumed through factitious alliances with political
parties bent less on persecuting the Jews than on profiting by the
anti-Jewish agitation. The divisions showed themselves at the
first attempt to form a political party on an anti-Semitic basis.
Imperceptibly the agitators had grouped themselves into two
classes, economic and ethnological anti-Semites. The imprac-
ticable racial views of Marr and Trcitschke had not found
favour with Stacker and the Christian Socialists. They were
disposed to leave the Jews in peace so long as they behaved
themselves properly, and although they carried on their agitation
against Jewish malpractices in a comprehensive form which
seemed superficially to identify them with the root-and-branch
anti-Semites, they were in reality not inclined to accept the racial
theory with its scheme of revived Jewish disabilities (Hurct, La
Question Sociale— interview with Stocker). This feeling was
strengthened by a tendency on the part of an extreme wing of
the racial anti-Semites to extend their campaign against Judaism
to its offspring, Christianity. In 1879 Professor Scpp, arguing
that Jesus was of no human race, had proposed that Christianity
should reject the Hebrew Scriptures and seek a fresh historical
basis in the cuneiform inscriptions. Later Dr Eugen Diihring, in
several brochures, notably Die Judenfrage als Frage des Rasscn-
charaklcrs (1881, 5th ed. Berlin, 1001), had attacked Christianity
as a manifestation of the Semitic spirit which was not compatible
with the theological and ethical conceptions of the Scandinavian
peoples. The philosopher Fricdrich Nietzsche had also adopted
the same view, without noticing that it was a reductio ad absurd urn
of .the whole agitation, in his Mcnuhlukcs, AUzumenschlichcs
(1878), JenseiU von Cut und Bbse (1886), Gcncalogie der If oral
(1887). With these tendencies the Christian Socialists could have
no sympathy, and the consequence was that when in March 1881
a political organization of anti-Semitism was attempted, two
rival bodies were created, the " Deutsche Volksvcrcin," under the
Conservative auspices of Herr Liebcrmann von Sonnenberg (b.
1848) and Herr Forstcr, and the " Sociale Rcichsvercin," led by
the racial and Radical anti-Semites, Ernst Hcnrici (b. 1854) and
Otto Bockel (b. 1859). In 1 886, at an anti-Semitic congress held
at Cassel a reunion was effected under the name of the " Deutsche
antisemitische Vcrein," but this only lasted three years. In June
1880 the anti-Semitic Christian Socialists under Stocker again
seceded.
Meanwhile racial anti-Semitism with its wholesale radical
proposals had been making considerable progress among the
ignorant lower classes. It adapted itself better to popular
passions and inherited prejudice than the more academic con-
ceptions of the Christian Socialists. The latter, too, were largely
Conservatives, and their points of contact with the proletariat
were at best artificial. Among the Hessian peasantry the
inflammatory appeals of Bockel secured many adherents. This
paved the way for a new anti-Semitic leader, Herrmann Ahlwardt
(b. 1846), who, towards the end of the 'eighties, eclipsed all the
other anti-Semites by the sensationalism and violence with which
he prosecuted the campaign. Ahlwardt was a person of evil
notoriety. He was loaded with debt. In the Manchc* decoration
scandals it was proved that he had acted first as a corrupt
intermediary and afterwards as the betrayer of his confederates.
His anti-Semitism was adopted originally as a means of chantage,
and it was only when it failed to yield profit in this form that he
e out boldly as an agitator. The wildness, unscrupulousuess,
and f ull'bloodedness of his propaganda enchanted the mob, and
he bid fair to become a powerful democratic leader. His
pamphlets, full of scandalous revelations of alleged malpractices
of eminent Jews, were read with avidity. No fewer than ten of
them were written and published during 189s. Over and over
again he was prosecuted for libel and convicted, but this seemed
only to strengthen his influence with his followers. The Roman
Catholic clergy and newspapers helped to inflame the popular
passions. The result was that anti- Jewish riots broke out. At
Neustcttin the Jewish synagogue was burnt, and at Xanten the
Blood Accusation was revived, and a Jewish butcher was tried
on the ancient charge of murdering a Christian child for ritual
purposes. The man was, of course, acquitted, but the symptoms
it revealed of reviving medievalism strongly stirred the liberal
and cultured mind of Germany. All protest, however, seemed
powerless, and the barbarian movement appeared destined to
carry everything before it.
German politics at this moment were in a very intricate slate.
Prince Bismarck had retired, and Count Caprivi, with a pro-
gramme of general conciliation based on Liberal principles, was
in power. Alarmed by the non-renewal of the anti-Socialist law,
and by the conclusion of commercial treaties which made great
concessions to German industry, the landed gentry and the
Conservative party became alienated from the new chancellor.
In January 1892 the split was completed by the withdrawal by
the government of the Primary Education bill, which had been
designed to place primary instruction on a religious basis. The
Conservatives saw their opportunity of posing as the party of
Christianity against the Liberals and Socialists, who had wrecked
the bill, and they began to look towards Ahlwardt as a possible
ally. He had the advantages over Stocker that he was not a
Socialist, and that he was prepared to lead his apparently large
following to assist the agrarian movement and weaken the Social
Democrats. The in trigue gradually came to light Towards the
end of the year Herr Licbknccht, the Social Democratic leader,
denounced the Conservatives to the Reichstag as being concerned
" in using the anti-Semitic movement as a bastard edition of
Socialism for the use of stupid people." (1st December). Two
days later the charge was confirmed. At a meeting of the party
held on the 3rd of December the following plank was added to
the Conservative programme: " We combat the oppressive and
disintegrating Jewish influence on our national life; we demand
for our Christian people a Christian magistracy and Christian
teachers for Christian pupils; we repudiate the excesses of anti-
Semitism." In pursuance of the resolution Ahlwardt was re-
turned to the Reichstag at a by-election by the Conservative
district of Arnswalde-Fricdebcrg. The coalition was, however,
not yet completed. The intransigent Conservatives, led by
Baron von Hammcrstcin, the editor of the Kreuz-Zcitung, justly
felt that the concluding sentence of the resolution of the 3rd of
December repudiating " the excesses of anti-Semitism " was
calculated to hinder a full and loyal co-operation between the two
parties. Accordingly on the Qth of December another meeting of
the party was summoned. Twelve hundred members met at the
Tivoli Hall in Berlin, and with only seven dissentients solemnly
expunged the offending sentence from the resolution. The
history of political parties may be searched in vain for a parallel
to this discreditable transaction.
The capture of the Conservative party proved the high-water
mark of German anti-Semitism. From that moment the tide
began to recede. All that was best in German national life was
scandalized by the cynical tactics of the Conservatives. The
emperor, strong Christian though he was, was shocked at the
idea of serving Christianity by a compact with unscrupulous
demagogues and ignorant fanatics. Prince Bismarck growled
out a stinging sarcasm from his retreat at Friedrichsruh. Even
Stocker raised his voice in protest against the " Ahlwardtismus "
and " Bdckclianismus," and called upon his Conservative
colleagues to distinguish between " respectable and disreputable
anti-Semitism." As for the Liberals and Socialists, they filled
the air with bitter laughter, and declared from the housetops that
the stupid party had at last been overwhelmed by its own
•38
ANTI-SEMITISM
stupidity. The Conservatives began to suspect that they had
made a false step, and they were confirmed in this belief by the
conduct of their new ally in the Reichstag. His debut in parlia-
ment was the signal for a succession of disgraceful scenes. His
whole campaign of calumny was transferred to the floor of the
house, and for some weeks the Reichstag discussed little else than
his so-called revelations. The Conservatives listened to his wild
charges in uncomfortable silence, and refused to support him.
Stdcker opposed him in a violent speech. The Radicals and
Socialists, taking an accurate measure of the shallow vanity of
the man, adopted the policy of giving him "enough rope."
Shortly after his election he was condemned to five months'
imprisonment for libel, and he would have been arrested but for
the interposition of the Socialist party, including five Jews, who
claimed for him the immunities of a member of parliament.
When he moved for a commission to inquire into his revelations,
it was again the Socialist party which supported him, with the
result that all his charges, without exception, were found to be
absolutely baseless. Ahlwardt -was covered with ridicule, and
when'ln May the Reichstag was dissolved, he was marched off to
prison to undergo the sentence for libel from which his parlia-
mentary privilege had up to that moment protected him.
His hold on the anti-Semitic populace was, however, not
diminished. On the contrary, the action of the Conservatives at
the Tivoli congress could not be at once eradicated from the
minds of the Conservative voters, and when the electoral cam-
paign began it was found impossible to explain to them that the
party leaders had changed their minds. The result was that
Ahlwardt, although in prison, was elected by two constituencies.
At Arnswaldc-Friedeberg he was returned in the teeth of the
opposition of the official Conservatives, and at Neustettin he
defeated no less a person than his anti-Semitic opponent Stdcker.
Fifteen other anti-Semites, all of the Ahlwardtian school, were
elected. This, however, represented little in the way of political
influence; for henceforth the party had to stand alone as one of
the many minor factions in the Reichstag, avoided by all the great
parties, and too weak to exercise any influence on the main course
of affairs.
During the subsequent seven years it became more and more
discredited. The financial scandals connected with Forstcr's
attempt to found a Christian Socialist colony in Paraguay, the
conviction of Baron von Hammerstein, the anti-Semitic Con-
servative Icader,forforgeryandswindling(i895-i896),andseveral
minor scandals of the same unsavoury character, covered the
party with the very obloquy which it had attempted to attach to
the Jews. At the same time the Christian Socialists who had
remained with the Conservative party also suffered. After the
elections of 1893, Stdcker was dismissed from his post of court
preacher, and publicly reprimanded for speaking familiarly of
the empress. Two years later the Christian Socialist, Pastor
Neumann, observing the tendency of the Conservatives tocoalcsce
with the moderate Liberals in antagonism to Social Democracy,
declared against the Conservative party. The following year
the emperor publicly condemned Christian Socialism and the
" political pastors," and Stacker was expelled from the Conserva-
tive party for refusing to modify the socialistic propanganda of his
organ, Das Volk. His fall was completed by a quarrel with the
Evangelical Social Union. He left the Union and appealed to
the Lutheran clergy to found a new church social organization,
but met with no response. Another blow to anti-Semitism came
from the Roman Catholics. They had become alarmed by the
unbridled violence of the Ahlwardtians, and when in 1894
Forster declared in an address to the German anti-Semitic Union
that anarchical outrages like the murder of President Carnot were
as much due to the " Anarchismus von oben " as the " Anar-
chismus von untcn," the Ultramontane Gtrmania publicly
washed its hands of the Jew-baiters (1st of July 1894)*. Thus
gradually German anti-Semitism became stripped of every
adventitious alliance; and at the general election of 1898 it only
managed to return twelve members to the Reichstag, and in 1903
its party strength fell to nine. A remarkable revival in its for-
tunes, however, took place between 1905 and 1907. Identifying
itself with the extreme Chauvinists and Anglophobes it profited by
the anti-national errors of the Clericals and Socialists, and won no
fewer than twelve by-elections. At the general election of 1907
its jingoism and aggressive Protestantism were rewarded with
twenty-five seats. It is clear, however, from the figures of the
second ballots that these successes owed far more to the tend-
encies of the party in the field of general politics than to its anti-
Semitism. Indeed the specifically anti-Semitic movement has
shown little activity since 1893.
The causes of the decline of German anti-Semitism are not
difficult to determine. While it remained a theory of nationality
and a fad of the metaphysicians, it made considerable noise in the
world, but without exercising much practical influence. When
it attempted to play an active part in politics it became sub-
merged by the ignorant and superstitious voters, who could not
understand its scientific justification, but who were quite ready
to declaim and riot against the Jew bogey. It thus became a sort
of Jacquerie which, being exploited by unscrupulous demagogues,
soon alienated all its respectable elements. Its moments of real
importance have been due not to inherent strength but to the
uses made of it by other political parties for their own purposes.
These coalitions are no longer of perilous significance so far as the
Jews are concerned, chiefly because, in face of the menace of
democratic socialism and its unholy alliance with the Roman
Catholic Centrum, all supporters of the present organization of
society have found it necessary to sink their differences. The new
social struggle has eclipsed the racial theory of nationality. The
Social Democrat became the enemy, and the new reaction counted
on the support of the rich Jews and the strongly individualist
Jewish middle class to assist it in preserving the existing social
structure. Hence in Prince BU low's " Bloc " (1908) anti-
Semites figured side by side with Judeophil Radicals.
More serious have been the effects of German anti-Semitic
teachings on the political and social life of the countries adjacent
to the empire— Russia, Austria and France. In t ^ mmtm
Russia these effects were first seriously felt owing to
the fury of autocratic reaction to which the tragic death of the
tsar Alexander II. gave rise. This, however, like the Strousbrrg
Krach in Germany, was only the proximate cause of the out-
break. There were other elements which had created a milieu
peculiarly favourable to the transplantation of the German craze.
In the first place the medieval anti-Semitism was still an integral
part of the polity of the empire. The Jews were cooped up in one
huge ghetto in the western provinces, " marked out to all their
fellow-countrymen as aliens, and a pariah caste set apart for
special and degrading treatment " (Persecution of the Jews in
Russia, 1891 , p.5). In the next place, owing to the emancipation
of the serfs which had half ruined the landowners, while creating
a free but moneyless peasantry, the Jews, who could be neither
nobles nor peasants, had found a vocation as money-lenders
and as middlemen between the grain producers, and the grain
consumers and exporters. There is no evidence that this function
was performed, as a rule, in an exorbitant or oppressive way.
On the contrary, the fall in the value of cereals on all the pro-
vincial markets, after the riots of 1881, shows that the Jewish
competition had previously assured full prices to the fanners
(Schwabacher, Denksckrift, i88j, p. 27). Nevertheless, the Jewish
activity or " exploitation," as it was called, was resented, and
the ill-feeling it caused among landowners and farmers was
shared by non- Jewish middlemen and merchants who had thereby
been compelled to be satisfied with small profits. Still there was
but little thought of seeking a remedy in an organized anti-
Jewish movement. On the contrary, the abnormal situation
aggravated by the disappointments and depression caused by
the Turkish war, had stimulated a widespread demand for con-
stitutional changes which would enable the people to adopt a
state-machinery more exactly suited to their needs. Among the
peasantry this demand was promoted and fomented by the
Nihilists, and among the landowners it was largely adopted as a
means of checking what threatened to become a new Jacquerie
(Walcker, Gegenwdrlige Lage Russlands, 1873; Fnncrc Krisi*
Russlands, 1876). The tsar, Alexander II., strongly sympathized
ANTI-SEMITISM
139
wilh this movement, sad 011 the advice of Count Loris-Melikov
and the council of ministers a rudimentary scheme of parlia-
mentary government had been drafted and actually signed when
the emperor was assassinated. Meanwhile a nationalist and re-
actionary agitation, originating like its German analogue in the
Hegriianwm of a section of the lettered public, had manifested
itself in Moscow. After some early vicissitudes, it had been
organised, under the auspices of Alexis Kireiev, Chomyakov,
Aksakov and Kochekv, into the Slavophil party, with a
Romanticist programme of reforms based on the old traditions
of the pre-Petriae epoch. This party gave a great impetus to
Slav nationalism. Its final possibilities were sanguinarily
illustrated by Muraviev's campaign in Poland in 1863, and
la the war against Turkey in 1877, which was exclusively its
handiwork (Statement by General Kireiev: SchQtx, Das hculige
Russland, p. 104). After the assassination of Alexander II. the
Slavophil teaching, as expounded by Ignatiev and Pobfedo-
nostsev, became paramount in the government, and the new tsar
was persuaded to cancel the constitutional project of his father.
The more liberal views of a section of the Slavophils under
Aksakov, who had been in favour of representative institutions
on traditional lines, were displaced by the reactionary system of
Pob£donostsev, who took his stand on absolutism, orthodoxy
and the racial unity of the Russian people. This was the situa-
tion on the eve of Easter 188 1. The hardening nationalism
above, the increasing discontent below, the economic activity of
the Hebrew heretics and aliens, and the echoes of anti-Semitism
from over the western border were combining for an explosion.
A scuffle in a tavern at Elisabcthgrad in Kheison sufficed
to ignite this combastible material. The. scuffle grew into a
riot, the tavern was sacked, and the drunken mob, hounded on
by agitators who declared that the Jews were using Christian
blood for the manufacture of their Easter bread, attacked and
looted the Jewish quarter. The outbreak spread rapidly. On
the 7th of May there was a similar riot at Smiela, near Chcrkasy,
and the following day there was a violent outbreak at Kiev,
which left 2000 Jews homeless. Within a few weeks the whole of
western Russia, from the Black Sea to the Baltic, was smoking
with the ruins of Jewish homes. Scores of Jewish women were
dishonoured, hundreds of men, women and children were
slaughtered, and tens of thousands were reduced to beggary and
left without a shelter. Murderous riots or incendiary outrages
took place in no fewer than 167 towns and villages, including
Warsaw, Odessa and Kiev. Europe had witnessed no such
scenes of mob savagery since the Black Death massacres in the
14th century. As the facts gradually filtered through to the
western capitals they caused a thrill of horror everywhere.
An indignation meeting held at the Mansion House in London,
under the presidency of the lord mayor, was the signal for a long
series of popular demonstrations condemning the persecutions,
held in most of the chief cities of England and the continent.
Except as stimulated by the Judeophobe revival in Germany
the Russian outbreak in its earlier forms does not belong speci-
fically to modern anti-Semitism. It was essentially a medieval
uprising animated by the religious fanaticism, gross superstition
and predatory instincts of a people still in the medieval stage
of their development. This is proved by the fact that, although
the Russian peasant was supposed to be a victim of unbearable
Jewish " exploitation," he was not moved to riot until he had
been brutalized by drink and excited by the old fable of the
Blood Accusation. The modern anti-Semitic element came
from above and followed closely on the heels of the riots. It
nas been freely charged against the Russian government that it
promoted the riots in 1881 in order to distract popular attention
from the Nihilist propaganda and from the political disappoint-
ments involved in the cancellation of the previous tsar's con-
stitutional project (Lazare, VAntis&mitisme, p. 21 1). This seems
to be true of General Ignatiev, then minister of the interior, and
the secret police (Stmenoff, The Russian Government and the
Massacres, pp. 17, 32, 341). It is certain that the local authori-
ties, both civil and military, favoured the outbreak, and took no
steps to suppress it, and that the feudal bureaucracy who had
just escaped a great danger were not sorry to aee the discontented
populace venting their passions on the Jews. In the higher
circles of the government, however, other views prevailed. The
tsar himself was at first persuaded that the riots were the work
of Nihilists, and he publicly promised his protection to the Jews.
On the other hand, his ministers, ardent Slavophils, thought
they recognized in the outbreak an endorsement of the nationalist
teaching of which they were the apostles, and, while reprobating
the acts of violence, came to the conclusion that the most reason-
able solution was to aggravate the legal disabilities of the perse-
cuted aliens and heretics. To this view the tsar, was won over,
partly by the clamorous indignation of western Europe, which
had wounded his national amour propre to the quick, and partly
by the strongly partisan- report of a commission appointed
to inquire, not into the administrative complaisance which had
allowed riot to run loose over the western and southern provinces,
but into the "exploitation" alleged against the Jews, the
reasons why " the former laws limiting the rights of the Jews "
had been mitigated, and how these laws could be altered so as
" to stop the pernicious conduct of the Jews " (Rescript of the
3rd of September i88z). The result of this report was toe
drafting: of a " Temporary Order concerning the Jews " by the
minister of the interior, which received the assent of the tsar
on the 3rd of May z88s. This order, which was so little temporary
that it has not yet been repealed, had the effect of creating a
number of fresh ghettos within the pale of Jewish settlement.
The Jews were cooped up within the towns, and their rural
interests were arbitrarily confiscated. The doubtful incidence
of the order gave rise to a number of judgments of the senate,
by which all its persecuting possibilities were brought out, with
.the result that the activities of the Jews were completely para-
lysed, and they became a prey to unparalleled cruelty. As the
gruesome effect of this legislation became known, a fresh outburst
of horror and indignation swelled up from western Europe. It
proved powerless. Count Ignatiev was dismissed owing to the
protests of high-placed Russians, who were disgusted by the new
Kulturkampf, but his work remained, and, under the influence
of Pobedonostsev, the procurator of the Holy Synod, the policy
of the " May Laws," as they were significantly called, was applied
to every aspect of Jewish life with pitiless rigour. The temper of
the tsar may be judged by the fact that when an appeal for mercy
from an illustrious personage in England was conveyed to him at
Fredensborg through the gracious medium of the tsarilsa, he
angrily exclaimed within the hearing of an Englishman in the
ante-room who was the bearer of the message, " Never let me
hear you mention the name of that people again!"
The Russian May Laws are the most conspicuous' legisla-
tive monument achieved by modern anti-Semitism. It is true
that they re-enacted regulations, which resemble the oppressive
statutes introduced into Poland through the influence of the
Jesuits in the z6th century (Sternberg, Gesch. d. Juden in Polcn,
pp. 141 et seq.), but their Orthodox authors were as little con-
scious of this irony of history as they were of the Teutonic
origins of the whole Slavophil movement. These laws are an
experimental application of the political principles extracted by
Marr and his German disciples from the metaphysics of Hegel,
and as such they afford a valuable means of testing the practical
operation of modem anti-Semitism. Their result was a wide-
spread commercial depression which was felt all over the empire.
Even before the May Laws were definitely promulgated the
passport registers showed that the anti-Semitic movement had
driven 67,000 Jews across the frontier, and it was estimated
that they had taken with them 13,000,000 roubles, representing a
minimum loss of 60,000,000 roubles to the annual turnover of
the country's trade. Towards the end of 1882 it was calculated
that the agitation had cost Russia as much as the whole Turkish
war of 1877. Trade was everywhere paralysed. The enormous
increase of bankruptcies, the transfer of investments to foreign
funds, the consequent fall in the value of the rouble and the
prices of Russian stocks, the suspension of farming operations
owing to advances on growing crops being no longer available,
the rise in the prices of the necessaries of life, and lastly, the
140
ANTI-SEMITISM
appearance of famine, filled half the empire with gloom. Banks
closed their doors, and the great provincial fairs proved failures.
When it was proposed to expel the Jews from Moscow there was
a loud outcry aU over the sacred city, and even the Orthodox
merchants, realizing that the measure would ruin their flourishing
trade with the south and west, petitioned against it. The Moscow
Exhibition proved a failure. Nevertheless the government per-
sisted with its harsh policy, and Jewish refugees streamed by
tens of thousands across the western frontier to seek an asylum
in other lands. In 1801 the alarm caused by this emigration led
to further protests from abroad. The citizens of London again
assembled at Guildhall, and addressed a petition to the tsar on
behalf of his Hebrew subjects. It was handed back to the lord
mayor by the Russian ambassador, with a curt intimation that
the emperor declined to receive it "At the same time orders were
defiantly given that the May Laws should be strictly enforced.
Meanwhile the Russian minister of finance was at his wits' ends
for money. Negotiations for a large loan had been entered upon
with the house of Rothschild, and a preliminary contract had
been signed, when, at the instance of the London firm, M.
Wyshnigradski, the finance minister, was informed that unless
the persecutions of the Jews were stopped the great banking-
house would be compelled to withdraw from the operation.
Deeply mortified by this attempt to deal with him de puissance 6
puissance, the tsar peremptorily broke off the negotiations, and
ordered that overtures should be made to a non-Jewish French
syndicate. In this way anti-Semitism, which had already so
profoundly influenced the domestic politics of Europe, set its
mark on the international relations of the powers, for it was
the urgent need of the Russian treasury quite as much as the
termination of Prince Bismarck's secret treaty of mutual neu-
trality which brought about the Franco-Russian alliance (Daudet,
Hist. Dipl. de V Alliance Franco- Russe, pp. 259 et seq.).
For nearly three years more the persecutions continued.
Elated by the success of his crusade against the Jews, PoMdo-
nostsev extended his persecuting policy to other non-Orthodox
denominations. The legislation against the Protestant Stundists
became almost as unbearable as that imposed on the Jews. In
the report of the Holy Synod, presented to the tsar towards the
end of 1803, the procurator called for repressive measures against
Roman Catholics, Moslems and Buddhists, and denounced the
rationalist tendency of the whole system of secular education in
the empire {Neuc Freie Presse, 31st January 1894). A year later,
however, the tsar died, and his successor, without repealing any
of the persecuting laws, let it gradually be understood that their
rigorous application might be mitigated. The country was tired
and exhausted by the persecution, and the tolerant hints which
came from high quarters were acted upon with significant alacrity.
A new era of conflict dawned with the great constitutional
struggle towards the end of the century. The Conditions, however,
were very different from those which prevailed in the 'eighties.
The May Laws had avenged themselves with singular fitness. By
confining the Jews to the towns at the very moment that Count
Witte's policy of protection was creating an enormous industrial
proletariat they placed at the disposal of the disaffected masses
an ally powerful in numbers and intelligence, and especially in its
bitter sense of wrong, its reckless despair and its cosmopolitan
outlook and connexions. As early as 1885 the Jewish workmen
assisted by Jewish university students led the way in the
formation of trades unions. They also became the colporteurs of
western European socialism, and they played an important part
in the organization of the* Russian Social Democratic Federation
which their " Arbeiter Bund " joined in 1808 with no fewer than
30,000 members. The Jewish element in the new democratic
movement excited the resentment of the government, and under
the minister of the interior, M. Sipiaguine, the persecuting laws
were once more rigorously enforced. The " Bund " replied in
1901 by proclaiming itself frankly political and revolutionary,
and at once took a leading place in the revolutionary movement
The reactionaries were not slow to profit by this circumstance.
With the support of M. Plehve, the new minister of the interior,
— ■ *Ve whole of the bureaucratic class they denounced the
revolution as a Jewish conspiracy, engineered for exclusively
Jewish purposes and designed to establish a Jewish domination
over the Russian people. The government and even the intimates
of the tsar became persuaded that only by the terrorizatfon of
the Jews could the revolutionary movement be effectually dealt
with. For this purpose a so-called League of True Russians was
formed. Under high patronage, and with the assistance of the
secret police and a large number of the local authorities, it set
itself to stir up the populace, chiefly the fanatics and the hooligans,
against the Jews. Incendiary proclamations were prepared and
printed in the ministry of the interior itself, and were circulated
by the provincial governors and the police (Prince Urussov's
speech in the Duma, June 8 (11), 1006). The result was another
series of massacres which began at Kishinev in 1003 and cul-
minated in wholesale butchery at Odessa and Bielostok in October
1005. An attempt was made to picture and excuse thest
outbreaks as a national upheaval against the Jew-made revolu-
tion but it failed. They only embittered the revolutionists and
" intellectuals " throughout the country, and won for them a
great deal of outspoken sympathy abroad. The artificiality of
the anti-Jewish outbreak was illustrated by the first Duma
elections. Thirteen Jews were elected and every constituency
which had been the scene of a pogrom returned a liberal member.
Unfortunately the Jews benefited little by the new parliamentary
constitution. The privileges of voting for members of the Duma
and of sitting in the new assembly were granted them, but all
their civil and religious disabilities were maintained. Both the
first and the second Duma proposed to emancipate them, but
they were dissolved before any action could be taken. By the
modification of the electoral law under which the third Duma was
elected the voting power of the Jews was diminished and further
restrictions were imposed upon them through official intimidation
during the elections. The result was that only two Jews were
elected, while the reactionary tendency of the new electorate
virtually removed the question of their emancipation from the
field of practical politics.
The only other couhtry in Europe in which a legalized anti-
Semitism exists is Rumania. The conditions are very similar to
those which obtain in Russia, with the important p MM |1 , fT
difference that Rumania is a constitutional country,
and that the Jewish persecutions are the work of the elected
deputies of the nation. Like the Bourgeois GenUUiomme who
wrote prose all his life without knowing it, the Rumanians
practised the nationalist doctrines of the Hegelian anti-Semites
unconsciously long before they were formulated in Germany. In
the old days of Turkish domination the lot of the Rumanian Jews
was not conspicuously unhappy. It was only when the nation
began to be emancipated, and the struggle in the East assumed
the form of a crusade against Islam that the Jews were persecuted.
Rumanian politicians preached a nationalism limited exclusively
to indigenous Christians, and they were strongly supported by all
who felt the commercial competition of the Jews. Thus, al-
though the Jews had been settled in the land for many centuries,
they were by law declared aliens. This was done in defiance of
the treaty of Paris of 1856 and the convention of 1858 which
declared all Rumans to be equal before the law. Under the
influence of this- distinction the Jews became persecuted, and
sanguinary riots were of frequent occurrence. The realization
of a Jewish question led to legislation imposing disabilities on the
Jews. In 1878 the congress of Berlin agreed to recognize the
independence of Rumania on condition that all religious dis-
abilities were removed. Rumania agreed to this condition, but
ultimately persuaded the powers to allow her to carry out the
emancipation of the Jews gradually. Persecutions, however,
continued, and in 100a they led to a great exodus of Jews. The
United States addressed a strong remonstrance to the Rumanian
government, but the condition of the Jews was in no way im-
proved. Their emancipation was in 1008 as far off as ever, and
their disabilities heavier than those of their brethren in Russia.
For this state of things the example of the anti-Semites in
Germany, Russia, Austria and France was largely to blame, since
it had justified the intolerance of the Rumans. Owing, also, to
ANTI-SEMITISM
«4«
the fact that of late years Rumania had becomea sort of annexe
of the Triple Alliance, it was found impossible to induce the
signatories of the treaty of Berlin to take action to compel the
state to fulfil its obligations under that treaty.
In Austria-Hungary the anti-Semitic impulses came almost
simultaneously from the North and East Already in the
'seventies the doctrinaire anti-Semitism of Berlin had
found an echo in Budapest. Two members of the diet,
Victor Istoczy and Geza Onody, together with a
publicist named Georg Marczianyi, busied themselves in making
known the doctrine of Marr in Hungary. Marczianyi, who
translated the German Judeophobe pamphlets into Magyar, and
the Magyar, works of Onody into German, was the chief medium
between the northern and southern schools. In' 1880 Istoczy
tried to establish a "Nichtjuden Bund" in Hungary, with
Statutes literally translated from those of the German anti-
Semitic league. The movement, however, made no progress,
owing to the stalwart Liberalism of the predominant political
parties, and of the national principles inherited from the revolu-
tion of 1848. The large part played by the Jews in that struggle,
and the fruitful patriotism with which they had worked for the
political and economic progress of the country, had created, too,
a strong claim on the gratitude of the best elements in the nation.
Nevertheless, among the ultramontane clergy, the higher aristo-
cracy, the ill-paid minor officials, and the ignorant peasantry, the
seeds of a tacit anti-Semitism were latent. It was probably
the aversion of the nobility from anything in the nature of a
demagogic agitation which for a time prevented these seeds
from germinating. The news of the uprising in Russia and the
appearance of Jewish refugees on the frontier, had the effect of
giving a certain prominence to the agitation of Istocsy and Onody
and of exciting the rural communities, but it did not succeed in
impressing the public with the pseudo-scientific doctrines of the
new anti-Semitism. It was not until .the agitators resorted to
the Blood Accusation — that never-failing decoy of obscurantism
and superstition— that Hungary took a definite place in the anti-
Semitic movement. The outbreak wasshort and fortunately blood-
less, but while it lasted its scandals shocked the whole of Europe.
Dt August Raiding, professor of Hebrew at the university of
Prague, a Roman Catholic theologian of high position but
dubious learning, had for some years assisted the Hungarian
anti-Semites with rtckaujfis of Eisenmenger's EntdcckUs Jaden*
tkum (Frankfurt a M. 1700). In x88i he made a solemn deposition
before the Supreme Court accusing the Jews of being bound by
their law to work the moral and physical ruin of non-Jews. He
followed this up with an offer to depose on oath that the murder
of Christians for ritual purposes was a doctrine secretly taught
among Jews. Professor Delitzsch and other eminent Hebraists,
both Christian and Jewish, exposed and denounced the ignorance
and malevolence of Rohling, but were unable to stem the mischief
be was causing. In April 1882 a Christian girl named Esther
Sobymossi was missed from the Hungarian village of Tisza
Eszlar, where a small community of Jews were settled. The
rumour got abroad that she had been kidnapped and murdered
by the Jews, but it remained the burden of idle gossip, and gave
rise to neither judicial complaint nor public disorders. At this
moment the question of the Bosnian Pacification credits was
before the diet The unpopularity of the task assumed by
Austria-Hungary, under the treaty of Berlin, which was calcu-
lated to strengthen the disaffected Croat element in the empire,
had reduced the government majority to very small proportions,
and all the reactionary factions in the country were accordingly
in arms, The government was violently and unscrupulously
attacked on all sides. On the 33rd of May there was a debate
in the diet when M. Onody, In an incendiary harangue, told the
story of the missing girl at Tisza Esslar, and accused ministers
of criminal indulgence to races alien to the national spirit. In
the then excited state of the public mind on the Croat question,
the manoeuvre was adroitly conceived. The government fell
into the trap, and treated the story with lofty disdain. There-
upon the anti-Semites set to work on the case, and M. Joseph
Bary, the magistrate at Nyiregyhasa, and a noted anti-Semite,
was induced to go to Tfeza Esxlar and institute an Inquiry. All
the anti-liberal elements in the country now became banded
together in this effort to discredit the liberal government, and
for the first time the Hungarian anti-Semites found themselves
at the head of a powerful party. Fifteen Jews were arrested and
thrown into prison. No pains were spared in preparing the case
for trial. Perjury and even forgery were freely resorted to.
The son of one of the accused, a boy of fourteen, was taken into
custody by the police, and by threats and cajoleries prevailed
upon to give evidence for the prosecution. He was elaborately
coached for the terrible rdle he was to play. The trial opened at
Nyiregyhasa on the 19th of June, and lasted till the 3rd of August.
It was one of the most dramatic causes Ulebres of the century.
Under the brilliant cross-examination of the advocates for the
defence the whole of the shocking conspiracy was gradually
exposed. The public prosecutor thereupon withdrew from the
case, and the four- judges-^the chief of whom held strong anti-
Semitic opinions— unanimously acquitted all the prisoners.
The case proved the death-blow of Hungarian anti-Semitism.
Although another phase of the Jewish question, which will be
referred to presently, had still to occupy the public mind, the
shame brought on the nation by the Tisza Esslar conspiracy
effectually prevented the anti-Semites from .raising their voices
with any effect again.
Meanwhile a more formidable and complicated outburst was
preparing in Austria itself. Here the lines of the German agita-
tion were closely followed, but with far more dramatic results.
It was exclusively political — that is to say, it appealed to anti-
Jewish prejudices for party purposes while it sought to re-
habilitate them on a pseudo-scientific basts', racial and economic.
At first it was confined to sporadic pamphleteers. By their side
there gradually grew up a school o( Christian Socialists, recruited
from the ultra-Clericals, for the study and application of the
doctrines preached at Mainz by Archbishop Kettekr. This
constituted a complete Austrian analogue to the Evangelical-
Socialist movement started in Germany by Herr Stocker. For
some years the two movements remained distinct, but signs of
approximation were early visible. Thus one of the first com-
plaints of the anti-Semites was that the Jews were becoming
masters of the soil. This found an echo in the agrarian principles
of the Christian Socialists, as expounded by Rudolph Meyer,
in which individualism in landed property was admitted on the
condition that the landowners were " the families of the nation "
and not " cosmopolitan financiers." A further indication of anti-
Semitism is found in a speech delivered in 1878 by Prince Alois
von Liechtenstein (b. 1846), the most prominent disciple of
Rudolph Meyer, who denounced the national debt as a tribute
paid by the state to cosmopolitan milters (Nitti, Cetkdic Social-
ism, pp. 200, aoi, an,2 16). The growing disorder in parliament,
due to the bitter struggle between the German and Czech parties,
served to bring anti-Semitism into the field of practical politics.
Since 1867 the German Liberals had been in power. They had
made enemies of the Clericals by tampering with the concordat,
and they had split up their own party by the federalist policy
adopted by Count Taaffe. The Radical secessionists in their tun
found it difficult to agree, and an ultra-national German wing
formed itself into a separate party under the leadership of Ritter
von SchOnerer (b. 184a), a Radical nationalist of the most violent
type. In 1882 two anti-Semitic leagues had been founded in
Vienna, and to these the Radical nationalists now appealed for
support. The growing importance of the party led the premier,
Count Taaffe, to angle for the support of the Clericals by accepting
a portion of the Christian Socialist programme. The hostility
this excited in the liberal press, largely written by Jews, served
to bring the feudal Christian Socialists and Radical anti-Semites
together. In 1801 these strangely assorted factions became
consolidated, and during the elections of that year Prince
Liechtenstein came forward as an anti-Semitic candidate and
the acknowledged leader of the party. The elections resulted
in the return of fifteen Anti-Semites to the Reichsrath, chiefly
from Vienna.
Although Prince Liechtenstein and the bulk of the Christian
1+2
ANTI-SEMITISM
Socialists had joined the anti-Semite* with the support of the
Clerical organ, the VaUrland, the Clerical party as a whole still
held aloof from the Jew-baiters. The events of 1899-1895 put
an end to their hesitation. The Hungarian government, in
compliance with long-standing pledges to the liberal party,
introduced into the diet a series of ecclesiastical reform bills
providing for civil marriage, freedom of worship, and the legal
recognition of Judasim on an equality with other denominations.
These proposals, which synchronized with Ahlwardt's turbulent
agitation in Germany, gave a great impulse to anti-Semitism
and served to drive into its ranks a large number of Clericals.
The agitation was taken in hand by the Roman Catholic clergy,
and the pulpits resounded with denunciations of the Jews.
One clergyman, Father Deckert, was prosecuted for preaching
the Blood Accusation and convicted ( 1894) > Cardinal Schlauch,
bishop of Grosswardein, declared in the Hungarian House of
Magnates that the Liberals were in league with " cosmopolitans "
for the ruin of the country. In October 1894 the magnates
adopted two of the ecclesiastical bills with, amendments, but
threw out the Jewish bill by a majority of six. The crown sided
with the magnates, and the ministry resigned, although it had
a majority in the Lower House. Aa effort was made to form a
Clerical cabinet, but it failed. Baron Banffy was then entrusted
with the construction of a fresh Liberal ministry. The announce-
ment that he would persist with the ecclesiastical bills lashed
the Clericals and anti-Semites into a fury, and the agitation
broke out afresh. The pope addressed a letter to Count Zichy
encouraging the magnates to resist, and once more two of the
bills were amended, and the third rejected. The papal nuncio,
Mgr. Agliardi, now thought proper to pay a visit to Budapest,
where he allowed himself to be interviewed on the crisis. This
interference in the domestic concerns of Hungary was deeply
resented by the Liberals, and Baron Banffy requested Count
Kalnoky, the imperial minister of foreign affairs, to protest
against it at the Vatican. Count Kalnoky refused and tendered
his resignation to the emperor. Clerical sympathies were pre-
dominant in Vienna, and the emperor was induced for a moment
to decline the count's resignation. It soon became clear, how-
ever, that the Hungarians were resolved to see the crisis out,
and that in the end Vienna would be compelled to give way.
The emperor accordingly retraced his steps, Count Kalnoky'*
resignation was accepted, the papal nuncio was recalled, a batch
of new magnates were created, and the Hungarian ecclesiastical
bills passed.
■Simultaneously with this crisis another startling phase of the
anti-Semitic drama was being enacted in Vienna itself. En-
couraged by the support of the Clericals the anti-Semites resolved
to make an effort to carry the Vienna municipal elections. So
far the alliance of the Clericals with the anti-Semites had been
unofficial, but on the eve of the elections (January 1895) the pope,
influenced partly by the Hungarian crisis and partly by an idea of
Cardinal Rampolla that the best antidote to democratic socialism
would be a clerically controlled fusion of the Christian Socialists
and anti-Semites, sent his blessing to Prince Liechtenstein and
bis followers. This action alarmed the government and a con-
siderable body of the higher episcopate, who felt assured that
any permanent. encouragement given to the anti-Semites would
in the end strengthen the parties «f sedition and disorder.
Cardinal Schftnbora was despatched in haste to Rome to ex-
postulate with the pontiff, and his representations were strongly
supported by the French and Belgian bishops. The mischief was
however, done, and although the pope sent a verbal message
to Prince Liechtenstein excluding the anti-Semites from bis
blessing, the elections resulted in a great triumph for the Jew-
haters. The municipal council was immediately dissolved by
the government, and new elections were ordered, but these only
strengthened the position of the anti-Semites, who carried 92
seats out of a total of 138. A cabinet crisis followed, and the
premiership was entrusted to the Statthalter of Galieia, Count
Badeni, who assumed office with a pledge of war to the knife
against anti-Semitism. In October the new municipal council
elected as burgomaster of Vienna Br Karl Lueger (b. 1844), a
vehement anti-Semite, who had displaced Prince* Liechtenstein
as leader of the party. The emperor declined to sanction the
election,, but the council repeated it in face of the imperial
displeasure. Once more a dissolution was ordered, and for three
months the city was governed by administrative commissioners.
In February 1896 elections were again held, and the anti-Semites
were returned with an increased majority. The emperor then
capitulated, and after a temporary arrangement, by which
for one year Dr Lueger acted as vice-burgomaster and handed
over the burgomastership'to an inoffensive nominee, permitted
the municipal council to have its way. The growing anarchy in
parliament at this moment served still further to strengthen the
anti-Semites, and their conquest of Vienna was speedily followed
by a not less striking conquest of the Landtag of Lower Austria
(November 1896).
Since then a reaction of sanity has slowly but surely asserted
itself. In 1908 the anti-Semites had governed Vienna twelve
years, and, although they had accomplished much mischief,
the millennium of which they were supposed to be the heralds
had not dawned. On the contrary, the commercial interests
of the city had suffered and the rates had been enormously
increased (Neue Freie Prcsse, 39th March 1001), while the pre-
datory hopes which secured them office had only been realised
on a small and select scale. The spectacle of a Clerico-anti-
Semitic tammany in Vienna had strengthened the resistance of
the better elements in the country. Time had also shown that
Christian Socialism is only a disguise for high Toryism, and
that the German Radicals who were originally induced to join
the anti-Semites had been victimised by the Clericals; The
fruits of this disillusion began to show themselves in the general
elections of 1900-1901, when the anti-Semites lost six seats in
the Reichsrath. The elections were followed (26th January 1901)
by a papal encyclical on Christian democracy, in which Christian
Socialism was declared to be a term unacceptable to the Church,
and the faithful were adjured to abstain from agitation of a
demagogic and revolutionary character, and " to respect the
rights of others." Nevertheless, in-1907 the Christian Socialists
trebled their representation in the Reichsrath. This, however,
was due more to their alliance with the German national parties
than to any large increase of anti-Semitism in the electorate
The last country in Europe to make use of the teachings of
German anti-Semitism in its party politics was France. The
fact that the movement should have struck root in a |.
republican country, where the ideals of democratic
freedom have been so passionately cultivated, has been regarded
as one of the paradoxes of our latter-day history. As a matter
of fact, it is more surprising that it was not adopted earlier. AH
the social and political conditions which produced anti-Semitism
in Germany were present in France, but in an aggravated form,
due primarily to the very republican rigime which at first sight
seemed to be a guarantee against it. In the monarchical states
the dominance of the bourgeoisie was tempered in a measure by
the power of the crown and the political activity of the aris-
tocracy, which carried with them a very real restraining influence
in the matter of political honour and moraKty. In France these
restraining influences were driven out of public life by the re-
public The nobility both of the oncien rtgime and the empire
stood aloof, and politics were abandoned f6r the most part to
professional adventurers, while the bourgeoisie assumed the form
of an omnipotent plutocracy. This naturally attracted to France
all the financial adventurers in Europe, and in the train of the
immigration came not a few German Jews, ah'enated from their
own country by the agitation of Marr and Stdcker. Thus
the Bourgeoisie was not only more powerful in France than in
other countries, but the obnoxiousness of Its Jewish element
was accentuated by a tinge of the national enemy. The anti-
dericalism of the bourgeois republic and its unexampled series
of financial scandals, culminating in the Panama " Kraeh," thws
sufficed to give anti-Semitism a strong hold on the public mind.
Nevertheless, it was not until 188* that the anti-Jewish move-
ment was seriously heard of in France. Paul Bontoux (b. 18*0),
who had formerly been in the employ of the Rothschilds,
ANTI-SEMITISM
'43
but had been obliged to leave the firm fn consequence of
his disastrous speculations, bad joined the Legitimist party,
and had started the Union Glneralc with funds obtained from
his new allies. Bontoux promised to break up the alleged
finanrial monopoly of the Jews and Protestants and to found a
new plutocracy in its stead, which should be mainly Roman
Catholic and aristocratic. The bait was eagerly swallowed.
For five years the Union Generate, with the blessiag of the pope,
pursued an apparently prosperous career. Immense schemes
were undertaken, and the 125-fr. shares rose gradually to 3200
francs. The whole structure, however, Tested on a basis of
audacious speculation, and in January 1882 the Union Glnlrale
failed, with liabilities amounting to 2 1 2,000,000 francs. The cry
was at once raised that the collapse was due to the manoeuvres
of the Jews, and a strong anti-Semitic feeling manifested itself
in clerical and aristocratic circles. In 1886 violent expression
was given to this feeling in a book since become famous, La
franc* juhe, by Edouard Drumont (b. 1844). The author
illustrated the theories of German anti-Semitism with a ckroniqiu
scandaleuse full of piquant personalities, in which the corrup-
tion of French national life under Jewish influences was painted
in alarming colours. The book, was read with avidity by the
public, who welcomed its explanations of the obviously growing
debauchery. The Wilson scandals and the suspension of the
Panama Company in the following year, while not bearing out
Drumont's anti-Semitism, fully justified his view of the prevailing
corruption. Out of this condition of things rose the Boulangist
movement, which rallied all the disaffected elements in the
country, including Drumont's following of anti-Semites. It was
not, however, until the flight of General Boulangcr and the ruin of
his party that anti-Semitism came forward as a political movement.
The chief author of the rout of Boulangism was a Jewish
politician and journalist, Joseph Reinach (b. 1856), formerly
private secretary to Gambetta, and one of the ablest men in
France. He was a Frenchman by birth and education, but his
father and uncles were Germans, who had founded an important,
banking establishment in Paris. Hence he was held to personify
the alien Jewish domination in France, and the ex-Boulangists
turned against him and his co-religionists with fury. The
Boulangist agitation had for a second time involved the Legiti-
mists in heavy pecuniary losses, and under the leadership of the
marquis de Mores they now threw all their influence on the side
of Drumont. An anti-Semitic league was established, and with
Royalist assistance branches were organised all over the country.
The Franco-Russian alliance in 1891, when the persecutions of
the Jews by Pobedonostsev were attracting the attention of
Europe, served to invest Drumont's agitation with a fashionable
and patriotic character. It was a sign of the spiritual approxima-
tion of the two peoples. In 1892 Drumont founded a daily
anti-Semitic newspaper, La Libre Parole. With the organization
of this journal a regular campaign for the discovery of scandals
was instituted. At the same time a body of aristocratic swash-
bucklers, with the marquis de Mores and the comte de Lamasc
at their head, set themselves to terrorize the Jews and pro-
voke them to duels. At a meeting held at Neuilly in 1891, Jules
Guenh, one of the marquis de Morfe's lieutenants, had demanded
rhetorically un cadavre de Juif. He had not long to wait Anti-
Semitism was most powerful in. the army, which was the only
branch of the public service in which the reactionary classes were
fully represented. The republican law compelling the seminarists
to serve their term in the army had strengthened its Clerical and
Royalist elements, and the result was a movement against the
Jewish officers, of whom 500 held commissions. A series of
articles in the Libre Parole attacking these officers-led to a number
of ferocious duels, and these culminated in 1892 in the death of an
amiable and popular Jewish officer, Captain Armand Mayer, of
the Engineers, who feD, pierced through the lungs by the marquis
de Mores. This tragedy, rendered all the more painful by the
discovery that Captain Mayer had chivalrously fought to shield
a friend, aroused a great deal of popular indignation against the
anti-Semites, and for a moment it was believed that the agitation
had been killed with its victim.
Towards the end of 1892, the discovery of the widespread
corruption practised by the Panama Company gave a fresh
impulse to anti-Semitism. The revelations were in a large
measure due to the industry of the Libre Parole; and they were
all the more welcome to the readers of that journal since it was
discovered that three Jews were implicated in the scandals, one
of whom, baron de Reinach, was uncle and father-in-law to the
hated destroyer of Boulangism. The escape of the other two, Dr
Cornelius Herz and M. Arton, and the difficulties experienced in
obtaining their extradition, deepened the popular conviction that
the authorities were implicated in the scandals, and kept the
public eye for a long time absorbed by the otherwise restricted
Jewish aspects of the scandals. In 1894 the military side of the
agitation was revived by the arrest of a prominent Jewish staff
officer, Captain Alfred Dreyfus, on a charge of treason. From
the beginning the hand of the anti-Semite was flagrant in the new
sensation. The first hint of the arrest appeared in the Libre
Parole; and before the facts had been officially communicated
to the public that journal was busy with a campaign against the
war minister, based on the apprehension that, in conspiracy with
the JuiverU and his republican colleagues, he might exert himself
to shield the traitor. Anti-Semitic feeling was now thoroughly
aroused. Panama had prepared the people to believe anything;
and when it was announced that a court-martial, sitting in secret,
had convicted Dreyfus, there was a howl of execration against
the Jews from one end of the country to the other, although
the alleged crime of the convict and the evidence by which
it was supported were quite unknown. Dreyfus was degraded
and transported for life amid unparalleled scenes of public
excitement
The Dreyfus Case registers .the climax not only of French, but
of European anti-Semitism. It was the most ambitious and
most unscrupulous attempt yet made to prove the nationalist
hypothesis of the anti-Semites, and in its failure it afforded the
most striking illustration of the dangers of the whole movement
by bringing France to the verge of revolution. For a few months
after the Dreyfus court-martial there was a comparative lull;
but the highly strung condition of popular passion was illustrated
by a violent debate on " The Jewish Peril " in the Chamber of
Deputies (25th April 1895), and by two outrages with explosives
at the Rothschild bank in Paris. Meanwhile the family of
Dreyfus, absolutely convinced of his innocence, were casting
about for the means of clearing his character and securing his
liberation. They were wealthy, and their activity unsettled the
public mind and aroused the apprehensions of the conspirators.
Had the latter known how to preserve silence, the mystery would
perhaps have been yet unsolved; but in their anxiety to allay
all suspicions they made one false step, which proved the begin-
ning of their ruin. Through their friends in the press they secured
the publication of a facsimile of a document known as the
Bordereau—* list of documents supposed to be in Dreyfus's
handwriting and addressed apparently to the military attache of
a foreign power, which was alleged to constitute the chief evidence
against the convict. It was hoped by this publication to put an
end to the doubts of the so-called Dreyf usards. The result , how-
ever, was only to give them a due on which they worked with
remarkable ingenuity. To prove that the Bordereau was not in
Dreyfus's handwriting was not difficult Indeed, its authorship
was recognized almost on the day of publication; but the
Dreyfusards held their hands in order to make assurance doubly
sure by further evidence. Meanwhile one of the officers of the
general staff, Colonel Picquart, had convinced himself by an
examination of the dossier of the trial that a gross miscarriage
of justice had taken place. On mentioning his doubts to his
superiors, who were animated partly by anti-Semitic feeling and
partly by reluctance to confess to a mistake, he was ordered to
the Tunisian hinterland on a dangerous expedition. Before
leaving Paris, however, he took the precaution to confide his
discovery to his legal adviser. Harassed by their anxieties, the
conspirators made further communications to the newspapers;
and the government, questioned and badgered in parliament,
added to the revelations. The. new disclosures, so far from
l++
ANTI-SEMITISM
stopping the Dreyfusards,proved to them .among other things, that
the conviction had been partially based on documents which had
hot been communicated to the counsel for the defence, and hence
that the judges had been tampered with by the ministry of war
behind the prisoner's back. So far, too, as these documents
related to correspondence with foreign military attaches, it was
soon ascertained that they were forgeries. In this way a terrible
indictment was gradually drawn up against the ministry of war.
The first step was taken towards the end of 1897 by a brother
of Captain Dreyfus, who, in a letter to the minister of war, de-
nounced Major Esterhazy as the real author of the Bordereau.
The authorities, supported by parliament, declined to reopen the
Dreyfus Case, but they ordered a court-martial on Esterhazy,
which was held with closed doors and resulted in his acquittal.
It now became dear that nothing short of an appeal to public
opinion and a full exposure of all the iniquities that had been
perpetrated would secure justice at the hands of the military
chiefs. On behalf of Dreyfus, £mile Zola, the eminent novelist,
formulated the case against the general staff of the army in an
open letter to the president of the republic, which by its dramatic
accusations startled the whole world. The letter was denounced
as wild and fantastic even by those who were in favour of revision.
Zola was prosecuted for libel and convicted, and had to fly the
country; but the agitation he had started was taken in hand by
others, notably M. Clemenceau, M. Reinach and M. Yves Guyot,
In August 1808 their efforts found their first reward A re-
examination of the documents in the case by M. Cavaignac, then
minister of war, showed that one was undoubtedly forged.
Colonel Henry, of the intelligence department of the war office,
then confessed that, he had fabricated the document, and, on
being sent to Mont Valenen under arrest, cut his throat.
In spite of this damaging discovery the war office still per-
sisted in believing Dreyfus guilty, and opposed a fresh inquiry.
It was supported by three successive ministers of war, and ap-
parently an overwhelming body of public opinion. By this time
the question of the guilt or innocence of Dreyfus had become an
altogether subsidiary issue. As in Germany and Austria, the
anti-Semitic crusade had passed into the hands of the political
parties. On the one hand the Radicals and Socialists, recognizing
the anti-republican aims of the agitators and alarmed by the
clerical predominance in the army, had thrown in their lot with
the Dreyfusards; on the other the reactionaries, anxious to
secure the support of the arm/, took the opposite view, denounced
their opponents as sans patrie, and declared that they were
conspiring to weaken and degrade the army in the face of the
national enemy. The controversy was, consequently, no longer
for or against Dreyfus, but for or against the army, and behind it
was a life-or-dcath struggle between the republic and its enemies.
The situation became alarming. Rumours of military plots
filled the air. Powerful leagues for working up public feeling
were formed and organized; attempts to discredit the republic
and intimidate the government were made. The president was
insulted; there were tumults in the streets, and an attempt was
made by M. Deroul&ie to induce the military to march on the
Elysee and upset the republic. In this critical situation France,
to her eternal honour,, found men with sufficient courage to do
the right The Socialists, by rallying to the Radicals against the
reactionaries, secured a majority for the defence of the republic
in parliament Brisson's cabinet transmitted to the court of
cassation an application for the revision of the case against
Dreyfus; and that tribunal, after an elaborate inquiry, which
fully justified Zola's famous letter, quashed and annulled the
proceedings ol the court-martial, and remitted the accused to
another court-martial, to be held at Rennes. Throughout these
proceedings the military party fought tooth and nail to impede
the course of justice; and although the innocence of Dreyfus had
been completely established, it concentrated all its efforts to
secure a fresh condemnation of the prisoner at Rennes. Popular
passion was at fever heat, and it manifested itself in an attack on
M. Labori, one of the counsel for the defence, who was shot and
wounded on the eve of his cross-examination of the witnesses for
the prosecution. To the amazement and indignation -of the
whole world outside France, the Rennes court-martial again
found the prisoner guilty; but all reliance on the conscientious*
ness of the verdict was .removed by a rider, which found "ex-
tenuating circumstances," and by a reduction of the punishment
to ten years' imprisonment, to which was added a recommenda-
tion to mercy. The verdict was evidently an attempt at a com*
promise, and the government resolved to advise the president
of the republic to pardon Dreyfus. This lame conclusion did
not satisfy the accused; but his innocence had been so clearly
proved, and on political grounds there were such urgent reasons
for desiring a termination of the affair, that it was Accepted
without protest by the majority of moderate men.
The rehabilitation of Dreyfus, however, did not pass without
another effort on the part of the reactionaries to turn the popular
passions excited by the case to their own advantage. After the
failure of Deroulede's attempt to overturn the republic, the
various Royalist and Boulangist leagues, with the assistance of
the anti-Semites, organized another plot This was discovered
by the government, and the leaders were arrested. Jules Guerin,
secretary of the anti-Semitic league, shut himself up in the league
offices in the rue Chabrol, Paris, which had been fortified and
garrisoned by a number of his friends, armed with rifles. For
more than a month these anti-Semites held the authorities at bay,
and some 5000 troops were employed in the siege. The con-
spirators were all tried by the senate, sitting as a high court, and
Guerin was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment The evidence
showed that the anti-Semitic organization had taken an active
part in the anti-republican plot (sec the report of the Commission
d'Instruction in the Petit Temps, zst November 1899).
The government now resolved to strike at the root of the
mischief by limiting the power of the religious orders, and with
this view a drastic Association bill was introduced into the
chambers. This anti-clerical move provoked the wildest
passions of the reactionaries, but it found an overwhelming
support in the elections of 1002 and the bill became law. The
war thus definitely reopened soon led to a revival of the Dreyfus
controversy. The nationalists flooded the country with incend-
iary defamations of " the government of national treason," and
Dreyfus on his part loudly demanded a fresh trial. It was dear
that conciliation and compromise were useless. Early in 1905
M. Jaures urged upon the chamber that the demand of the
Jewish officer should be granted if only to tranquillize the country.
The necessary fails nouveaux were speedily found by the minister
of war, General Andre 1 , and having been examined by a special
commission of revision were ordered to be transmitted to the
court of cassation for final adjudication. On the 12th of July
1006, the court, all chambers united, gave its judgment After
a lengthy review of the case it declared unanimously that the
whole accusation against Dreyfus had been disproved, and it
quashed the judgment of the Rennes court-martial sans rentou
The explanation of the whole case is that Esterhazy and Henry
were the real culprits; that they had made a trade of supplying
the German government with military documents; and that once
the Bordereau was discovered they availed themselves of the
anti-Jewish agitation to throw suspicion on Dreyfus.
Thus ended this famous case, to the relief of the whole country
and -with the approval of the great majority of French citizens.
Except a knot of anti-Semitic monomaniacs all parties bowed
loyally to the judgment of the court of cassation. The govern-
ment gave the fullest effect to the judgment. Dreyfus and
Picquart were restored to the active list of the army with the
ranks respectively of major and general of brigade. Dreyfus was
also created a knight of the Legion of Honour, and received the
decoration in public in the artillery pavilion of the military school.
Zola, to whose efforts the triumph of truth was chiefly due, had
not been spared to witness the final scene, but the chambers
decided to give his remains a last resting-place in the Pantheon.
When three months later M. Clemenceau formed his first cabinet
he appointed General Picquart minister of war. Nothing indeed
was left undone to repair the terrible series of wrongs which had
grown out of the Dreyfus case. Nevertheless its destructive
work could not be wholly healed. For over ten yean It had been
ANTI-SEMITISM
145
a nightmare to France, and it now modified the whole coune of
French history. In the ruin of the French Church, which owed
its disestablishment very largely to the Dreyfus conspiracy, may
be read the most eloquent warning against the demoralising
fn»rjn^g f anti-Semitism.
In sympathy with the agitation in France there has been a
similar movement in Algeria, where the European population
have long resented the admission of the native Jews to the rights
of French citizenship. The agitation has been marked by much
violence, and most of the anti-Semitic deputies in the French
parliament, including M. Drumont, have found constituencies in
Algeria. As the local anti-Semites are largely Spaniards and
Levantine riff-raff, the agitation has not the peculiar nationalist
bias which characterizes continental anti-Semitism. Before the
energy of the authorities it has lately shown signs of subsiding.
While the main activity of anti-Semitism has manifested itself
in Germany, Russia, Rumania, Austria-Hungary and France, its
vibratory influences have been felt in other countries
when conditions favourable to its extension have
presented themselves. In England more than one
attempt to acclimatize the doctrines of Marr and
Treitschke has been made. The circumstance that at the time of
the rise of German anti-Semitism a premier of Hebrew race, Lord
Beaconsfield, was in power first suggested the Jewish bogey to
English political extremists. The Eastern crisis of 1876-1878,
which was regarded by the Liberal party as primarily a struggle
between Christianity, as represented by Russia, and a degrad-
ing Semitism, as represented by Turkey, accentuated the anti-
Jewish feeling, owing to the anti-Russian attitude adopted by
the government. Violent expression to the ancient prejudices
against the Jews was given by Sir J. G. Tollemache Sinclair
(A Defence of Russia, 1877). Mr T. P. O'Connor, in a life of Lord
Beaconsfield (1878), pictured him as the instrument of the Jewish
people, " moulding the whole policy of Christendom to Jewish
aims." Professor Goldwin Smith, in several articles in the
Nineteenth Century (1878, z88x and 1882), sought to synthetize
the growing anti- Jewish feeling by adopting the nationalist
theories of the German anti-Semites. This movement did not
fail to find an equivocal response an the speeches of some of the
leading Liberal statesmen; but on the country generally it pro-
duced no effect. It was revived when the persecutions in Russia
threatened England with a great influx of Polish Jews, whose
mode of life was calculated to lower the standard of living in
the industries in which they were employed, and it has left its
trace in the anti-alien legislation of 1005. In 1883 Stacker
visited London, but received a very unflattering reception.
Abortive attempts to acclimatize anti-Semitism have also been
made in Switzerland, Belgium, Greece and the United States.
Anti-Semitism made a great deal of history during the thirty
years up to 1008, but has left no permanent mark of a con-
structive kind on the social and political evolution of Europe.
It is the fruit of a great ethnographic and political error, and it
has spent itself in political intrigues of transparent dishonesty.
Its racial doctrine is at best a crude hypothesis: its nationalist
theory has only served to throw into striking relief the essentially
economic bases of modern society, while its political activity
has revealed the vulgarity and ignorance which constitute its
main sources of strength. So far from injuring the Jews, it has
really given Jewish racial separatism a new least of life. Its
extravagant accusations, as in the Tisza Eszlar and Dreyfus
cases, have resulted in the vindication of the Jewish character.
Its agitation generally, coinciding with the revival of interest in
Jewish history, has helped to transfer Jewish solidarity from a
religious to a racial basis. The bond of a common race, vitalized
by a new pride in Hebrew history and spurred on to resistance by
the insults of the anti-Semites, has given a new spirit and a new
source of strength to Judaism at a moment when the approxima-
tion of ethical systems and the revolt against dogma were sapping
its essentially religious foundations In the whole history of
Judaism, perhaps, there have been no more numerous or remark-
able instances of reversions to the faith than in the period
in question. The reply of the Jews to anti-Semitism has taken
n 3*
two interesting practical forms. In the first place there is the
so-called Zionist movement, which is a kind of Jewish nationalism
and is vitiated by the same errors that distinguish its anti-
Semitic analogue (see Zionism). In the second place, there is a
movement represented by the Maccabaeans' Society in London,
which seeks to unite the Jewish people in an effort to raise the
Jewish character and to promote a higher consciousness of the
dignity of the race. It lays no stress on orthodoxy, but welcomes
all who strive to render Jewish conduct an adequate reply to
the theories of the anti-Semites. Both these movements are
elements of fresh vitality to Judaism, and they are prob-
ably destined to produce important fruit in future years. A
splendid spirit of generosity has also been displayed by the Jewish
community in assisting and relieving the victims of the Jew-
haters. Besides countless funds raised by public subscription,
Baron de Hirsch founded a colossal scheme for transplanting
persecuted Jews to new countries under new conditions of life,
and endowed it with no less a sum than £9,000,000 (see Hirsch,
Maurice de).
Though anti-Semitism has been unmasked and discredited,
it is to be feared that its history is not yet at an end. While
there remain in Russia and Rumania over six millions of Jews who
are being systematically degraded, and who periodically overflow
the western frontier, there must continue to be a Jewish question
in Europe; and while there are weak governments, and ignorant
and superstitious elements in the enfranchized classes of the
countries affected, that question will seek to play a part in politics.
Literaturb. — No impartial history of modern anti-Semitism has
. l ■ tl ->rehcnsiv(
live works on the subject,
»y-Beaulieu (1895), and L'Anti-
k„ R«"iard Lazare (1894). are
M. Lazarc's work will
Lccount of its detached
notes. A good list of
be found at the end of
;," in the Dictionnaire
mould be added, Adolf
votson. Die semitischen
UUistik (1887); Jacobs,
Volhskunde der Juden
tion from 1875 to 1884
88 O. Useful additions
World, nth September
anti-Semitic movement
ire. Some of these pro-
ithcrs will be found in
e personages mentioned,
Russian persecutions.
yet been written. The most comprel
Israel among the Nations, by A. Lero;
slmitisme, ,— *«»—*«• " "»
collections
be found r
standpoint
works rclat
M. Isidor
universcl a\
Tcllinek, D
Vdlher (18
Jewish Sta
(1881). A
has been pi
and rectinc
1885. Dui
has produo
ductions h
current bib
such as S f
besides the works quoted by Jacobs, see the pamphlet issued by the
Russo-Jewish Committee in 1890, and the annual reports 01 the
Russo-Jcwish Mansion House Fund: Les Juifs de Russie (Paris,
1891); Report of the Commissioners of Immigration upon the Causes
which incite Immigration to the United States (Washington, 1892) ; .
The New Exodus, by Harold Frederic (1802); Let Juifs fusses, by
Leo Errera (Brussels, 1893). The most valuable collection of facts
relating to the persecutions of 1881-1882 arc to be found in the
Ftuiltes Jaunes (52 nos.), compiled and circulated for the information
of tho European press by the Alliance Israelite of Paris. Complete
collections are very scarce. For the struggle during the past decade
the Russische Correspondent of Berlin should be consulted, together
with its French and English editions. Sec also the publications of
the Bund (Geneva; fmprimcric Israelite) ; S6m*noflt, The Russian
Government and the Massacres, and Quarterly Review, October 1906.
On the Rumanian question, sec Bluntschli. Roumania and the Leg/al
Status of the Jews (London, 1879); Wir Juden (Zurich, 1883);
Schloss, The Persecution of the Jews in Roumania (London, 1885);
Schloss, Notes of Information (t886); Sincerus. Juifs en Roumanie
(London, 1901); Ptotke, Die rumdnischen Juden unter dem Fursten
u. Konir Karl (toot); Dehn. Diplomatic u. Hochfmans in der
rumdnischen Judenfrate (1901); Conybeare, "Roumania as a
Persecuting Power. Mil. Rev., February 1901. On Hungary and
the Tisza Eszlar Case, sec (besides the references in Jacobs) Nathan,
>Der Process von Tiswa Esttar (Berlin. 189a). On this case and the
Blood Accusation generally, see Wriaht. " The lews and the Mali-
cious Charge of Human Sacrifice," Nineteenth Century, 1883. The
origins of the Austrian agitation are dealt with by Nitti, Catholic
Socialism (1895). This work, though inclining to anti-Semitism,
should be consulted for the Christian Socialist elements in the whole
continental agitation. The most valuable source of information 00
the Austrian movement is the Osterrekhische Wochenschrtft, edited
by Dr Bloch. See also pamphlets and speeches by the anti-Semitic
leaders. Liechtenstein, Lueger. Schoenerer. 8tc. The case of the
French anti-Semites is stated by E. Drumont in his France juu*.
14-6
ANTISEPTICS— ANTITHESIS
and other works; the other side by Istdor Loeb, Bernard Laxare,
Lconce Rcynaud, &c. Of the Dreyfus Case there is an enormous
literature: see especially the reports of the Zola and Picquart trials,
the revision case before the Court of Cassation, the proceedings of the
Rennes court-martial, and the final judgment of the Court of Cas-
sation printed in full in the Figaro, July 15, 1906; also Reinach,
Hiitoirc de I'affaire Dreyfus (Parts, 1908, 6 vols.), and the valuable
series of volumes by Captain Paul Marin, MM. Clemenceau, Lazare,
Yves Guyot, Paschal Grousset, Urbain Gohier, de Hairae. de
Pressense, and the remarkable letters of Dreyfus (Lettres d'un
innocent). An English history of the case was published by F. C.
Conybeare (1898), whose articles and those of Sir Godfrey Lusnington
and L. J. Maxse in the National Review, 1897-1900, will be found
invaluable by the student. On the Algerian question, see M. Want
in the Revue des itudes juives; L. Forest, Naturalisation des Israe-
lites algMens; and E. Audi net in the Revue gintrale de droit inter-
national puMique, 1897, No. 4. On the history of the anti-Semitic
movement generally, see the annual reports of the Alliance Israelite
of Paris and the Anglo-Jewish Association of London, also the
annual summaries published at the end of the Jewish year by
the Jewish Chronicle of London. The connexion of the movement
with general party politics must be followed in the newspapers.
The present writer has worked with a collection of newspaper
cuttings numbering several thousands and ranging over thirty
years. CL. W.)
ANTISEPTICS (Gr. W, against, and tnprriicos, putrefactive),
the name given to substances which are used for the prevention
of bacterial development in animal or vegetable matter. Some
are true germicides, capable of destroying the bacteria, whilst
others merely prevent or inhibit their growth. The antiseptic
method of treating wounds (see Surgery) was introduced by
Lord Lister, and was an outcome of Pasteur's germ theory of
putrefaction. For the growth of bacteria there must be a certain
food supply, moisture, in most cases oxygen, and a certain
minimum temperature (see Bacteriology). These conditions
have been specially studied and applied in connexion with the
preserving of food (see Fooo Preservation) and in the ancient
practice of embalming the dead, which is the earliest illustration
of the systematic use of antiseptics (see Embalming). In early
inquiries a great point was made of the prevention of putre-
faction, and work was done in the way of finding how much
of an agent must be added to a given solution, in order that
the bacteria accidentally present might not develop. But for
various reasons this was an inexact method, and to-day an
antiseptic is judged by its effects on pure cultures of definite
pathogenic microbes, and on their vegetative and spore forms.
Their standardization has been effected in many instances, and
a water solution of carbolic acid of a certain fixed strength is
now taken as the standard with which other antiseptics are
compared. The more important of those in use to-day are
carbolic acid, the pcrchloride and biniodide of mercury, iodo-
form, formalin, salicylic acid, &c. Carbolic acid is germicidal in
strong solution, inhibitory in weaker ones. The so-called " pure"
acid is applied to infected living tissues, especially to tuberculous
sinuses or wounds, after scraping them, in order to destroy any
part of the tuberculous material still remaining. A solution of
1 in 20 is used to sterilize instruments before an operation, and
towels or lint to be used for the patient. Care must always
be taken to avoid absorption (see Carbolic Acid). The pcr-
chloride of mercury is another very powerful antiseptic used
in solutions of strength 1 in 2000, x in 1000 and 1 in 50a This
or the biniodide of mercury is the last antiseptic applied to
the surgeon's and assistants' hands before an operation begins.
They are not, however, to be used in the disinfection of instru-
men ts, nor where any large abraded surface would favour absorp-
tion. Boratic acid receives no mention here; though it is
popularly known as an antiseptic, it is in reality only a soothing
fluid, and bacteria will flourish comfortably in contact with iL
Of the dry antiseptics iodoform is constantly used in septic
or tuberculous wounds, and it appears to have an inhibitory
action on Bacillus tuberculosis. Its power depends on the fact
that it is slowly decomposed by the tissues, and free iodine
given off. Among the more recently introduced antiseptics,
chinosol, a yellow substance freely soluble in water, and lyeol,
another coal-tar derivative, are much used. But every anti-
septic, however good, is more or less toxic and irritating to a
wounded surface. Hence it is that the w antiseptic " method
has been replaced in the surgery of to-day by the "aseptic"
method (see Surgery), which relics on keeping free from
the invasion of bacteria rather than destroying them when
present,
ANTISTHENBS (t. 444-365 B.C.), the founder of the Cynic
school of philosophy, was born at Athens of a Thrarian mother,
a fact which may account for the extreme boldness of his attack
on conventional thought. In his youth he studied rhetoric
under Gorgias, perhaps also under Hippias and Prodicus.
Gomperz suggests that he was originally in good circumstances,
but was reduced to poverty. However this may be, he came
under the influence of Socrates, and became a devoted pupil.
So eager was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to
walk daily from Peiraeus to Athens, and persuaded his friends
to accompany him. Filled with enthusiasm for the Socratic idea
of virtue, he founded a school of his own in the Cynosarges, the
hall of the bastards (rdBot). Thither he attracted the poorer
classes by the simplicity of his life and teaching. He wore a
cloak and carried a staff and a wallet, and this costume became
the uniform of his followers. Diogenes Laertius says that his
works filled ten volumes, but of these fragments only remain.
His favourite style seems to have been the dialogue, wherein
we see the effect of his early rhetorical training. Aristotle
speaks of him as uneducated and simple-minded, and Plato
describes him as struggling in vain with the difficulties of
dialectic. His work represents one great aspect of Socratic
philosophy, and should be compared with the Cyrenaic and
Megarian doctrines.
Bibliography.— Charles Chappuis, Antisthene (Paris, 1854);
A. Mailer, De Antistkenis cynici vita el scriptis (Dresden, i860);
T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans.. 1905), vol. ti. pp. 14a n..
150 ff. For his philosophy see Cynics, and for his pupils, Diogenes
and Crates, see articles under these headings.
ANTISTROPHB, the portion of an ode which is sung by the
chorus in its returning movement from west to east, in response
to the strophe, which was sung from east to west. It is of the
nature of a reply, and balances the effect of the strophe. Thus,
in Gray's ode called " The Progress of Poesy," the strophe, which
dwelt in triumphant accents on the beauty, power and ecstasy
of verse, is answered by the antistrophe, in a depressed and
melancholy key —
" Man's feeble race what ills await.
Labour, and Penury, the racks of Pain.
Disease and Sorrow's weeping Train.
And Death, sad refuge from the storms of Fate," ftc
When the sections of the chorus have ended their responses,
they unite and close in the epodc, thus exemplifying the triple
form in which the ancient sacred hymns of Greece were com-
posed, from the days of Stesichorus onwards. As Milton says,
" strophe, antistrophe and epode were a kind of stanxa framed
only for the music then used with the chorus that sang."
ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite "), in rhetoric,
the bringing out of a contrast in the meaning by an obvious
contrast in (he expression, as in the following: — " When there
is need of silence, you speak, and when there is need of speech,
you are dumb; when present, you wish to be absent, and when
absent, you desire to be present; in peace you are for war, and
in war you long for peace; in council you descant on bravery,
and in the battle you tremble." Antithesis is sometimes double
or alternate, as in the appeal of Augustus. — " Listen, young
men, to an old man to whom old men were glad to listen when
he was young." The force of the antithesis is increased if the
words on which the beat of the contrast falls are alliterative, or
otherwise similar in sound, as — " The fairest but the falsest of
her sex." There is nothing that gives to expression greater
point and vivacity than a judicious employment of this figure;
but, on the other hand, there is nothing more tedious and trivial
than a pseudo-antithetical style. Among English writers who
have made the most abundant use of antithesis are Pope, Young,
Johnson, and Gibbon; and especially Lyly in his Eupkues.
1 1 is, however, a much more common feature in French than in
ANTITYPE— ANTOFAGASTA
H7
English; while in German, with some striking exceptions, it is
conspicuous by its absence.
ANTITYPE (Gr. dyrirvroi), the correlative of " type," to
which it corresponds as the stamp to the die, or vice versa. In
the sense of copy or likeness the word occurs in the Greek New
Testament (Heb. ix. 24; 1 Peter iii. 21), English " figure." By
theological writers antitype is employed to denote the reality of
which a type is the prophetic symbol. Thus, Christ is the anti-
type of many of the types of the Jewish ritual. By the fathers
of the Greek church (e.g. Gregory Nazianzen) antitype is em-
ployed as a designation of the bread and wine in the sacrament
of the Lord's Supper.
AJmUM (mod. Amio), an ancient Volscian city on the coast
of Latium, about 33 m. S. of Rome. The legends as to its
foundation, and the accounts of its early relations with Rome,
are untrustworthy; but Livy's account of wars between Antium
and Rome, early in the 4th century B.C., may perhaps be ac-
cepted. Antium is named with Ardea, Laurentum and Circeii,
as under Roman protection, in the treaty with Carthage m
348 B.C. In 341 it lost its independence after a rising with the
rest of Latium against Rome, and the beaks (rostra) of the six
captured Antiatine ships decorated and gave their name to the
orators' tribunal in the Roman Forum. At the end of the
Republican period it became a resort of wealthy Romans, and
l he Julian and Claudian emperors frequently visited it; both
Caligula and Nero were born there. The latter founded a colony
of veterans and built a new harbour, the projecting moles of
which are still extant. In the middle ages it was deserted in
favour of Nettuno: at the end of the 17th century Innocent XII.
and Clement XI. restored the harbour, not on the old site but
to the cast of it, with the opening to the east, a mistake which
leads to its being frequently silted up; it has a depth of about
15 ft. Remains of Roman villas are conspicuous all along the
shore, both to the east and to the north-west of the town. That
of Nero cannot be certainly identified, but is generally placed at
the so-called Arco Muto, where remains of a theatre (discovered
in 1 71 2 and covered up again) also exist. Many works of art
have been found. Of the famous temple of Fortune (Horace,
Od. i. 35) no remains are known. The sea Is encroaching
slightly at Anzio, but some miles farther north-west the old
Roman coast-line now lies slightly inland (see TreER). The
Volscian city stood on higher ground and somewhat away from
the shore, though it extended down to it. It was defended by
a deep ditch, which can still be traced, and by walls, a portion
of which, on the eastern side, constructed of rectangular blocks
of t of a, was brought to light in 1897. The modern place is a
summer resort and has several villas, among them the Villa
Borghcse.
See A. Nibby, Vintomi &i Roma, i. 181; Nolizie digit scovi,
fnssim. (T. As.)
ANTIVARI (Montenegrin Bar, so called by the Venetians
from its position opposite Bari in Italy), a seaport of Montenegro
*hicb until 1878 belonged to Turkey. Pop. (1000) about 2500.
The old town is built inland, on a strip of country running
between the Adriatic Sea and the Sutorman range of mountains,
overshadowed by the peak of Rumiya (5148 ft.). At a few
hundred yards' distance it is invisible, hidden among dense
olive groves. Within, there is a ruinous walled village! and the
shell of an old Venetian fortress, surrounded by mosques and
rjxzaars; for Antivari is rather Turkish than Montenegrin.
The fine bay of Antivari, with Frstan, its port, is distant about
one hour's drive through barren and forbidding country, shut
in by mountains. At the northern horn of the bay stands
S[«xza, an Austrian military station. Antivari contains the
residence of its Roman Catholic archbishop, and, in the centre
of the shore, Topolitsa, the square undecorated palace of the
crown prince. Antivari is the name applied both to Prstan and
the old town. The Austrian Lloyd steamers call at times, and
the " Puglia " S.S. Company runs a regular service of steamere
to and from Bari. As an outlet for Montenegrin com-
merce, however, Antivari cannot compete with the Austrian
Cattaro, the harbour being somewhat difficult of access in
stormy weather. Fishing and olive-oil refining are the :
industries.
ANT-LION, the name given to neuropterous insects of the
family MyrntUonidac, with relatively short and apically clubbed
antennae and four large densely reticulated wings in which
the apical veins enclose regular oblong spaces. The perfect
insects are for the most part nocturnal and are believed to be
carnivorous. The best-known species, Myrmckon formiearius,
which may be found adult in the late summer, occurs in many
countries on the European continent, though like the rest of this
group it is not indigenous in England. Strictly speaking, how-
ever, the term ant-lion applies to the larval form, which has been
known scientifically for over two hundred years, on account of its
peculiar and forbidding appearance and its skilful and unique
manner of entrapping prey by mea*hs of a pitfall. The abdomen
is oval, sandy-grey in hue and beset with warts and bristles;
the prothorax forms a mobile neck for the large square head,
which carries a pair of long and powerful toothed mandibles.
It is in dry and sandy soil that the ant-lion lays its trap. Having
marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, it starts to crawl
backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil.
By the aid of one front leg it places consecutive heaps of loosened
particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little
pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus it gradually
works its way from the circumference towards the centre. When
the latter is reached and the pit completed, the larva settles
down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws pro-
jecting above the surface. Since the sides of the pit consist of
loose sand they afford an insecure foothold to any small insect
that inadvertently ventures over the edge. Slipping to the
bottom the prey is immediately seized by the lurking ant-lion;
or if it attempt to scramble again up the treacherous walls of the
pit, is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers
of loose sand which aTe jerked at it from below by the larva.
By means of similar head- jerks the skins of insects sucked dry
of their contents are thrown out of the pit, which is then kept
clear of refuse. A full-grown larva digs a pit about 2 in. deep
and 3 in. wide at the edge. The pupa stage of the ant-lion is
quiescent. The larva makes a globular case of sand stuck
together with fine silk spun, it is said, from a slender spinneret
at the posterior end of the body. In this it remains until the
completion of the transformation into the sexually mature insect,
which then emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument
behind. I n certain species of Myrndtanidac, such as Dtndrolcon
pantkeormis, the larva, although resembling that of Myrmelton
structurally, makes no pitfall, but seices passing prey from any
nook or crevice in which it shelters.
The exact meaning of the name .ant-lion (Fr. fourmilion)
is uncertain. It has been thought that it refers to the fact
that ants form a large percentage of the prey of the insect,
the suffix " lion " merely suggesting destroyer or eater. Per-
haps, however, the name may only signify a large terrestrial
biting apterous insect, surpassing the ant in size and predatory
habits. (R. I. P.)
ANTOFAGASTA, a town and port of northern Chile and
capital of the Chilean province of the same name, situated about
768 m. N. of Valparaiso in 23 38' 39" S. lat and 70 24' 30" W.
long. Pop. (est. 1002) 16,084. Antofagasta is the seaport for a
railway running to Qruro, Bolivia, and is the only available
outlet for the trade of the south-western departments of that
republic. The smelting works for the neighbouring silver mines
are located here, and a thriving trade with the inland mining
towns is carried on. The town was founded in 1 870 as a shipping
port for the recently discovered silver mines of that vicinity,
and belonged to Bolivia until 1879, when it was occupied by a
Chilean military force.
The province of Antofagasta has an area of 46,611 sq. m.
lying within the desert of Atacama and between the provinces of
Tarapaca and Atacama. It is rich in saline and other mineral
deposits, the important Caracoles silver mines being about 00 m.
north-east of the port of Antofagasta. Like the other provinces
of this region, Antofagasta produces for export copper, silver,
148
ANTOINE— ANTONINUS PIUS
■Over ores, lead, nitrate of soda, borax and salt. Iron and
manganese ores are also found. Besides Antofagasta the
principal towns are Taltal, Mcjillones, Cobija (the old capital)
and Tocopilla. Up to 1870 the province belonged to Bolivia,
and was known as the department of Atacama, or the Litorat.
It fell into the possession of Chile in the war of 1879-82, and was
definitely ceded to thatirepublic ib 1885.
ANTOINE, ANDRft (1858- ), French actor-manager, was
born at Limoges, and in his early years was in business. But he
was an enthusiastic amateur actor, and in 1887 he founded in
Paris the Theatre Libre, in order to realize his ideas as to the
proper development of dramatic art. For an account of his
work, which had enormous influence on the French stage, see
Drama: France. In 1804 he gave up the direction of this
theatre, and became connected with the Gymnase, and later
(1806) with the Odcon.
ANTONELLI, OIACOMO (1806- 1876), Italian cardinal, was
born at Sonnino on the and of April 1806. He was educated for
the priesthood, but, after taking minor orders, gave up the
Idea of becoming a priest, and chose an administrative career.
Created secular prelate, he was sent as apostolic delegate to
Viterbo, where he early manifested his reactionary tendencies
m an attempt to stamp out Liberalism. Recalled to Rome in
1841, he entered the office of the papal secretary of stale, but
four years later was appointed pontifical treasurer-general.
Created cardinal (nth June 1847), he was chosen by Pius IX. to
preside over the council of state entrusted with the drafting of
the constitution. On the xoth of March 1848 Antonclli became
premier of the first constitutional ministry of Pius IX., a
capacity in which he displayed consummate duplicity. Upon the
fall of his cabinet Antonclli created for himself the governorship
of the sacred palaces in order to retain constant access to and
influence over the pope. After the assassination of Pellegrino
Rossi (15th November 1848) he arranged the flight of Pius IX.
to Gaeta, where he was appointed secretary of state. Notwith-
standing promises to the powers, he restored absolute govern-
ment upon returning to Rome (12th April 1850) and violated
the conditions of ihe surrender by wholesale imprisonment of
Liberals. In 1855 be narrowly escaped assassination. As ally
of the Bourbons of Naples, from whom he had received an annual
subsidy, he attempted, after i860, to facilitate their restoration
by fomenting brigandage on the Neapolitan frontier. To the
overtures of Ricasoli in 186 1, Pius IX., at Antonelli's sugges-
tion, replied with the famous " Non possumus," but subse-
quently (1867) accepted, too late, Ricasoli's proposal concerning
ecclesiastical property. After the September Convention (1864)
Antonelli organized the Legion of Antibes to replace French
troops in Rome, and in 1867 secured French aid against Gari-
baldi's invasion of papal territory. Upon the inoccupation of
Rome by the French after Mcntana, Antonelli again ruled
supreme, but upon the entry of the Italians in 1870 was obliged
to restrict his activity to the management of foreign relations.
He wrote, with papal approval, the letter requesting the Italians
to occupy the Leonine city, and obtained from the Italians
payment of the Peter's pence (5,000,000 lire) remaining in the
papal exchequer, as well as 50,000 scudi— the first and only
instalment of the Italian allowance (subsequently fixed by the
Law of Guarantees, March 11 , 1871) ever accepted by the Holy
See. At Antonelli's death the Vatican finances were found to
be in disorder, with a deficit of 45,000,000 lire. His personal
fortune, accumulated during office, was considerable, and was
bequeathed almost entirely to members of his family. To the
Church he left little and to the pope only a trifling souvenir.
From 1850 until his death he interfered little in affairs of dogma
and church discipline, although he addressed to the powers
circulars enclosing the Syllabus (1864) and the acts of the
Vatican Council (1870). His activity was devoted almost
exclusively to the struggle between the papacy and the Italian
Risor^imenlo, the history of which is comprehensible only when
the influence exercised by his unscrupulous, grasping and
sinister personality is fully taken into account. He died on the
6th of November 1876^
ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (c. 1430^1479), Italian painter,
was probably born at Messina about the beginning of the 15th
century, and laboured at his art for some time in his native
country. Happening to see at Naples a painting in oil by Jan
Van Eyck, belonging to Alphonso of Aragon, he was struck by
the peculiarity and value of the new method, and set out for the
Netherlands to acquire a knowledge of the process from Vaa
Eyck's disciples. He spent some time there in the prosecution
of his art; returned with his secret to Messina about 1465;
probably visited Milan; removed to Venice in 1471, where he
painted for the Council of Ten; and died there in the middle of
February 1479 (see Venturi's article in Thieme-Becker, KtinstUr-
Uzikon, 1 907). His style is remarkable for its union— not always
successful— of Italian simplicity with Flemish love of detail.
His subjects are frequently single figures, upon the complete
representation of which he bestows his utmost skill. There
are extant— besides a number more or less dubious— twenty
authentic productions, consisting of renderings of " Ecce Homo,"
Madonnas, saints, and half-length portraits, many of them
painted on wood. The finest of all is said to be the nameless
picture of a man in the Berlin museum. The National Gallery,
London, has three works by him, including the " St Jerome in
his Study." Antonello exercised an important influence cm
Italian painting, not only by the introduction of the Flemish
invention, but al so by the transmission of Flemish tendencies.
ANTONINI mifERARIUM, a valuable register, still extant,
of the stations and distances along the various roads of the
Roman empire, seemingly based on official documents, which
were probably those of the survey organized by Julius Caesar,
and carried out under Augustus. Nothing is known with
certainty as to the date or author. It is considered probable
that the date of the original edition was the beginning of the 3rd
century, while that which we possess is to be assigned to the
time of Diocletian. If the author or promoter of the work is
one of the emperors, it is most likely to be Antoninus Caracalla.
Editions by Wessding, 1735, Parthey and Pindar, 1848. The
portion relating to Britain was ^published under the title iter Britam-
niarum, with commentary by T. Reynolds, 1799.
ANTONINUS, SAINT [Antonio Pierozzi, also called de For-
ciguoni] (1389-1459)1 archbishop of Florence, was bom at that
city on the 1st of March 1 389. He entered the Dominican order in
his 16th year, and was soon entrusted, in spite of bis youth, with
the government of various houses of his order at Cortona, Rome,
Naples and Florence, which be laboured zealously to reform.
He was consecrated archbishop of Florence in 1446, and won the
esteem and love of his people, especially by his energy and
resource in combating the effects of the plague and earthquake
in 1448 and 1453. He died on the 2nd of May 1459, and was
canonized by Pope Adrian VI. in 1533. His feast is annually
celebrated on the 1 3th of May. Antoninus had a great reputation
for theological learning, and sat as papal theologian at the
council of Florence (1439)- Of his various works, the list off
which is given in Quctif-Echard, De Scriploribus Ord. Practical.,
i. 818, the best-known are his Surma thcologica (Venice, 1477;
Verona, 1740) and the Summa confessionalis (Mondovi, X472),
invaluable to confessors.
See Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, L, and U. Chevalier, Rep. du. s. hist.
(1905). PP- 285-286.
ANTONINUS UBERATJS, Greek grammarian, probably
flourished about a.D. 150. He wrote a collection of forty-one
talcs of mythical metamorphoses (Mcra/iop^&reur Xvrayuyi),
chiefly valuable as a source of mythological knowledge.
Wcstermann, Mythotrapki Craeci (1843); Oder, De Anh*fm+
Liberali (1886).
ANTONINUS PIUS iTrrus Auuuus Fuivus Boiowros
Annus Antoninus), (a.d. 86-161), Roman emperor a.d. 138-
161, the son of Aurelius Fuivus, a Roman consul whose family
had originally belonged to Nemausus (Nines), was bora near
Lanuvium on the 19th of September 86. After the death of his
father, he was brought up under the care of Arrius Antoninus,
his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and
on terms of friendship with the younger Pliny. Having filled
with more than usual success the offices of quaestor and praetor.
ANTONIO
149
be obtained the consulship in xao; he was next chosen one of the
four consular* for Italy, and greatly increased his reputation
by his conduct as proconsul of Asia. He acquired much influence
with the emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and
successor on the 35th of February 138, after the death of his first
adopted son Aelius Venn, on condition that he himself adopted
Marcus Annius Verus, his wife's brother's son, and Lucius, son
of Aelius Verus, afterwards the emperors Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Aelius Verus (colleague of Marcus Aurelius). A few
months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically
welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once,
were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign.
For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly
disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and
the sincercst desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of
plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private
treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere
exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname ffujiirorpbrnp,
M cummin-splitter "). Instead of exaggerating into treason
whatever was susceptible of unfavourable interpretation, he
turned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into
opportunities of signalizing his clemency. Instead of stirring
op persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the
strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather
than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as
inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions,
he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its
neighbourhood. Under his patronage the science of jurisprud-
ence was cultivated by men of high ability, and a number of
humane and equitable enactments were passed in his name.
Of the public transactions of this period we have but scant
information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two
years were not remarkably eventful. One of his first acts was
to persuade the senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which
they had at first refused; this gained him the title of Pius (duti-
ful m affection). He built temples, theatres* and mausoleums,
promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and
salaries upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. His
reign was comparatively peaceful. Insurrections amongst the
Moors, Jews, and Brigantes in Britain were easily put down.
The one military result which is of interest to us now is the
building in Britain of the wall of Antoninus from the Forth to
the Clyde. In his domestic relations Antoninus was not so
fortunate. His wife, Faustina, has almost become a byword for
her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her
bold on his affections to the last. On her death he honoured
her memory by the foundation of a charity for orphan girls, who
bore the name of Alimentariae Favstinianae. He had by her
two sons and two daughters; but they all died before his eleva-
tion to the throne, except Annia Faustina, who became the wife
of Marcus Aurelius. Antoninus died of fever at Lorium in Etruria,
about is m. from Rome, on the 7th of March 161, giving
the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when
the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password—
TTie only account of bis life handed down to us is that of Julius
Capitotinus, one of the Scri Mores Historiae Augustae. See Bossart-
Mutter. Zur Geschichl* des Kaisers A. (1868); Lacour-Gayet. A. U
Pieux et ton Temps (1888); Bryant, The Reipt of Antontne (Cam'
bridge Historical Essays. 1895): P. B. Watson, Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus (London, 1884), chap. ii.
AJfTOMIO, known as " The Pxior of Ckato " (1531- 1595).
claimant of the throne of Portugal, was the natural son of Louis
(Luk), duke of Beja, by Yolande (Violante) Gomez, a Jewess,
who a said to have died a nun. His father was a younger
son of Emanuel, king of Portugal (1495-1521)- Antonio was
educated at Coimbra, and was placed in the order of St John.
He was endowed with the wealthy priory of Crato. Little is
known of his life till 1578. In that year he accompanied King
Sebastian (1557-1578) in his invasion of Morocco, and was
taken prisoner by the Moors at the battle of Alcazar-Keblr. in
which the king was slain. Antonio is said to have secured his
1 on easy terms by a fiction. He was asked the meaning
of the cross of St John which he wore on his doublet, and replied
that it was the sign of a small benefice which he held from the
pope, and would lose if he were not back by the 1st of January.
His captor, believing him to be a poor man, allowed him to
escape for a small ransom. On his return to Portugal he found
that his uncle, the cardinal Henry, only surviving son of King
John III. (1521-1557), had been recognized as king. The
cardinal was old, and was the last legitimate male representative
of the royal line (see Portugal: History). The succession was
claimed by Philip II. of Spain. Antonio, relying on the popular
hostility to a Spanish ruler, presented himself as a candidate.
He had endeavoured to prove that his father and mother had
been married after his birth. There was, however, no evidence
of the marriage. Antonio's claim, which was inferior not only
to that of Philip LL, but to that of the duchess of Braganxa, was
not supported by the nobles or gentry. His partisans were
drawn exclusively from the inferior clergy, the peasants and
workmen. The prior endeavoured to resist the army which
Philip II. marched into Portugal to enforce his pretensions, but
was easily routed by the duke of Alva, the Spanish commander,
at Alcantara, on the 35th of August 1580. At the close of the
year, or in the first days of 1581, be fled to France carrying with
him the crown jewels, which included many valuable diamonds.
He was well received by Catherine de' Medici, who had a claim
of her own on the crown of Portugal, and looked upon him
as a convenient instrument to be used against Philip II. By
promising to cede the Portuguese colony of Brazil to her, and
by the sale of part of his jewels, Antonio secured means to fit
out a fleet manned by Portuguese exiles and French and English
adventurers. As the Spaniards had not yet occupied the Azores
he sailed to them, but was utterly defeated at sea by the marquis
of Santa Crua off Saint Michael's on the 37th of July 1582.
He now returned to France, and lived for "a time at Ruel near
Paris. Peril from the assassins employed by Philip II . to remove
him drove Antonio from one refuge to another, and he finally
came to England. Elizabeth favoured him for much the same
reasons as Catherine de' Medici In 1589, the year after the
Armada, he accompanied an English expedition under the com-
mand of Drake and Norris to the coast of Spain and Portugal.
The force consisted partly of the queen's ships, and in part of
privateers who went in search of booty. Antonio, with all the
credulity of an exile, believed that his presence would provoke
a general rising against Philip II., but none took place, and
the expedition was a costly failure. In 1500 the pretender left
England and returned to France, where he fell into poverty.
His remaining diamonds were disposed of by degrees. The last
and finest was acquired by M. de Sancy, from whom it was
purchased by Sully and included in the jewels of the crown.
During his last days he lived as a private gentleman on a small
pension given him by Henry IV., and he died in Paris on the
26th of August 1595. We left two illegitimate sons, and his
descendants can be traced till 1687. In addition to papers
published to defend his claims Antonio was the author of the
Pancgyrus Alphonsi Lusihinorum Regis (Coimbra, 1 550) , and of a
cento of the Psalms, P salmi Confessionolet (Paris 1592), which
was translated into English under the title of The Royal Penitent
by Francis Chamberleyn (London, 1659), and into German as
Heilige Betracfaungen (Marburg, 1677).
Authorities. —Antonio is frequently mentioned in the French,
English, and Spanish state papers of the time. A life of him. attri-
buted to Gomes Vasconcehos de Figueredo. was published in a
French translation by Mme de Sainctonge at Amsterdam (1696).
A modern account of him. Un prttendant portugais au XVI. tiecle,
by E. Fournier (Paris, 1852). ts based on authentic sources. See
also Dom Antonio Pnor do CraSO—notos de otbtiograpkio. by J. de
Aranjo (Lisbon. 1897). (D. H.)
ANTONIO. NICOLAS (161 7-1684). Spanish bibliographer, was
born at Seville on the 3 1st of July 161 7. After taking bis degree
at Salamanca (1636-1639), he returned to his native city, wrote
bis treatise De Exilio (which was not printed till 1659), and began
his monumental register of Spanish writers. The fame of his
learning reached Philip IV., who conferred the order of Santiago
on him in 164s* And sent him as general agent to Rome in 1654
152
ANTRIM
ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNBU* ist Earl or (d. 1636),
called " Arranach," having been brought up in the Scottish
island of Arran by the Ham il tons, was the 4th son of Sorlcy
Boy MacDonnell (?.».), and of Mary, daughter of Conn O'Neill,
1 st earl of Tyrone. He fought at first against the English
government, participating in his brother James's victory over
Sir John Chichester at Carrickfergus in November 1597, and
joining in O'Neill's rebellion in 1600. But on the 16th of
December he signed articles with Sir Arthur Chichester and
was granted protection; in 1601 he became head of his house by
his elder brother's death, his pardon being confirmed to him;
and in 1602 he submitted to Lord Mountjoy and was knighted.
On the accession of James I. in 1603 he obtained a grant of the
Route and the Clynns (Glens) districts, together with the island
of RathLin, and remained faithful to the government in spite
of the unpopularity he thereby incurred among his kinsmen,
who conspired to depose him. In 1607 he successfully defended
himself against the charge of disloyalty on the occasion of the
flight of the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell, and rendered
services to the government by settling and civilizing his districts,
being well received the following year by James in London. In
1618 he was created Viscount Dunluce, and subsequently he
was appointed a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of the
county of Antrim. On the 12th of December 1620 he was
created earl of Antrim. In 1621 he was charged with harbouring
Roman Catholic priests, confessed his offence and was pardoned.
He offered his assistance in 162s during the prospect of a Spanish
invasion, but was still regarded as a person that needed watching.
His arbitrary conduct in Ireland in 1627 was suggested as a fit
subject for examination by the Star Chamber, but his fidelity
to the government was strictly maintained to the last. In 1631
he was busy repairing Protestant churches, and in 1634 he
attended the Irish parliament. He made an important agree-
ment in 1635 for the purchase from James Campbell, Lord
Cantire, of the lordship of Cantire, or Kintyre, of which the
Mac Donne] Is had been dispossessed in 1600 by Argyll; but his
possession was successfully opposed by Lord Lome. He died
on the 10th of December 1636. Antrim married Alice, daughter
of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, by whom, besides six daughters,
he had Randal. 2nd earl and ist marquess of Antrim ($.».), and
Alexander, 3rd earl. Three other sons, Maurice, Francis and
James, were probably illegitimate. The earldom has continued
in the family down to the present day, the nth earl (b. 1851)
succeeding in i860.
See also An Historical Account of the UacDonnells of Antrim,
byC. Hill (1873).
ANTRIM. RANDAL MACDONNELL, ist Marquess or (1600-
1683), son of the ist carl of Antrim, was born in 1609 and edu-
cated as a Roman Catholic. He travelled abroad, and on his
return in 1634 went to court, next year marrying Katberine
Manners, widow of the ist duke of Buckingham, and living on
her fortune for some years in great splendour. In 1630, on the
outbreak of the Scottish war, he initiated a scheme of raising a
force in Ireland to a tuck Argyll in Scotland and recover Kintyre
(or Cantire), a district formerly possessed by his family; but
the plan, discouraged and ridiculed by Strafford, miscarried. 1
Soon afterwards he returned to Ireland, and sought in 1641 to
create a diversion, together with Ormonde, for Charles I. against
the parliament. He joined in his schemes Lord Slane and Sir
Phelim O'Neill, later leaders of the rebellion, but on the outbreak
of the rebellion in the autumn he dissociated himself from his
allies and retired to his castle at Dunluce. His suspicious conduct,
however, and his Roman Catholicism, caused him to be regarded
as an enemy by the English party. In May 1643 he was captured
at Dunluce Castle by the parliamentary general Robert Munro,
and imprisoned at Carrickfergus. ' Escaping thence he joined
the queen at York; and subsequently, having proceeded to
Ireland to negotiate a cessation of hostilities, he was again
captured with his papers in May 1643 and confined at Carrick-
fergus, thence once more escaping and making his way to
Kilkenny, the headquarters of the Roman Catholic coniedera-
1 Strafford's Letters, ii. 300.
tion. He returned to Oxtord in December with a scheme for
raising 10,000 Irish for service in England and 2000 to join
Montrose in Scotland, which through the influence of the duchess
of Buckingham secured the censent of the king. On the 26th of
January 1644 Antrim was created a marquess. He returned to
Kilkenny in February, took the oath of association, and was
made a member of the council and lieutenant-general of the
forces of the Catholic confederacy. The confederacy, however,
giving him no support in his projects, he threw up his commission,
and with Ormonde's help despatched about 1600 men in June to
Montrose's assistance in Scotland, subsequently returning to
Oxford and being sent by the king in 1645 with letters for the
queen at St Germains. He proceeded thence to Flanders and
fitted out two frigates with military stores, which he brought to
the prince of Wales at Falmouth. He visited Cork and after-
wards in July 1646 joined his troops in Scotland, with the hope
of expelling Argyll from Kintyre; but he was obliged to retire
by order of the king, and returning to Ireland threw himself
into the intrigues between the various factions. In 1647 he was
appointed with two others by the confederacy to negotiate a
treaty with the prince of Wales in France, and though he antici-
pated his companions by starting a week before them, he failed
to secure the coveted lord-lieutenancy, which was confirmed
to Ormonde. He now ceased to support the Roman Catholics
or the king's cause; opposed the treaty between Ormonde and
the confederates; supported the project of union between
O'Neill and the parliament; and in 1649 entered into com-
munications with Cromwell, for whom he performed various
services, though there appears no authority to support Carte's
story that Antrim was the author of a forged agreement for the
betrayal of the king's army by Lord Inchiquin. 1 Subsequently
he joined Ireton, and was present at the siege of Carlow. He
returned to England in December 1650, and in lieu of his con-
fiscated estate received a pension of £500 and later of £800,
together with lands in Mayo. At the Restoration Antrim was
excluded from the Act of Oblivion on account of his religion,
and on presenting himself at court was imprisoned in the Tower,
subsequently being called before the lords justices in Ireland.
In 1663 he succeeded, in spite of Ormonde's opposition, in
securing a decree of innocence from the commissioners of claims.
This raised an outcry from the adventurers who had been, put
in possession of his lands, and who procured a fresh trial; but
Antrim appealed to the king, and through the influence of the
queen mother obtained a pardon, his estates being restored
to him by the Irish Act of Explanation in 1665.' Antrim died
on the 3rd of February 1683. He is described by Clarendon as
of handsome appearance but " of excessive pride and vanity
and of a marvellous weak and narrow understanding." He
married secondly Rose, daughter of Sir Henry O'Neill, but had
no children, being succeeded in the earldom by his brother
Alexander, 3rd earl of Antrim.
See Hibernia Anglicana, by R. Cox (1680-1690) esp. app.
xlix. vol. ii. 206; History of the Irish Confederation, by J. T. Gilbert
(1682-1891); Aphorismical Discovery (Irish Archaeological Society,
1879-1880); thomason Tracts (Brit. Mus.), E §9 (18). 149 (ia}|
138 (7). 153 («9). 61 (23); Murder will out. or the King's Letter justi
fytng the Marquess of Antrim (1689); Hist. MSS. Comm. Series-
MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde. (P. C. Y.)
ANTRIM, a county in the north-east corner of Ireland, in
the province of Ulster. It is bounded N. and E. by the narrow
seas separating Ireland from Scotland, the Atlantic Ocean and
Irish Sea, S. by Belfast Lough and the Lagan river dividing It
from the county Down, W. by Lough Ncagb, dividing it from
the counties Armagh and Tyrone, and by county Londonderry,
the boundary with which is the river Bann.
The area is 751.065 seres or about 1175 sq. m. A large por-
tion of the county is hilly, especially in the east, where the
highest elevations are attained, though these are nowhere great.
The range runs north and south, and, following this direction
1 Life of Ormonde, Hi. 509: see also Cat. of State Papers, Ireland,
'" a 17; Col. of Clarendon St. Pap., ii 69, and
talth, i. 153.
• Hallam, Const. Mist., tii. 396 (ed. 1855).
1660-1662. Dp. 294,
Gardiner's Commonwealth, i. 15'
ANTRIM
«53
the highest points are Knocklayd (1605 ft), Slieveanorra (1676),
TrosUn (1817), Slemish (1457), and Divis (1567) The inland
slope is gradual, but on the northern shore the range terminates
in abrupt and almost perpendicular declivities, and here, conse-
quently, some of the finest coast scenery in the island is found,
widely differing, with its unbroken lines of cliffs, from the
indented coast-line of the west. The most remarkable cliffs are
those formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for
many miles, and most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the
celebrated Giant's Causeway From the eastern coast the hills
rise instantly but less abruptly, and the indentations are wider
and deeper On both coasts there are several frequented
watering-places, of which may be mentioned on the north
Portrush (with well-known golf links), Port Ballintrae and Bally-
castle; on the east Cushendun, Cushendall and Milltown on
Red Bay, Cam Lough and Glenarm, Larnc, and Whitehead on
Belfast Lough. All are somewhat exposed to the easterly
winds prevalent in spring. The only island of size is Rathlin,
off Ballycastle, 6f m. in length by ii in breadth, 7 m from the
coast, and of similar basaltic and limestone formation to that
of the mainland. It is partially arable, and supports a small
population. The so-called Island Magee is a peninsula separating
Larne Lough from the Irish Channel
The valleys of the Bonn and Lagan, with the intervening
shores of Lough Neagh, form the fertile lowlands. These two
rivers, both rising in county Down, are the only ones of import-
ance. The latter flows to Belfast Lough, the former drains
Lough Neagh, which is fed by a number of smaller streams,
among them the Crumlin, whose waters have petrifying powers.
The fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh (especially for
salmon) are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the
small town of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the
centre. Immediately below this point lies Lough Beg, the
" Small Lake," about 15 ft lower than Lough Neagh, which it
excels in the pleasant scenery of its banks. The smaller streams
are of great use in working machinery.
Ctoiogy— On entering the county at the south, a scarped
barrier of huls is seen beyond the Lagan valley, marking the
edge of the basaltic plateaus, and running almost continuously
round the coast to Red Bay Below it, Triassic beds are exposed
from Lisburn to Island Magee, giving sections of red sands and
maris. Above these, marine Rhaetic beds appear at intervals,
notably near Larne, where they are succeeded by Lower Lias
shales and limestones. At Portrush, the Lower Lias is seen on
the shore, crowded with ammonites, but silidfied and meta-
morphosed by invading dolerite. The next deposits, as the
scarps are approached, are greensands of " Selbornian " age,
succeeded by Cenomanian,' and locally by Turonian, sands.
The Scnonian series is represented by the White Limestone, a
hardened chalk with flints, which is often glauconitic and con-
glomeratic at the base. Denudation in earliest Eocene times has
produced flint gravels above the chalk, and an ancient stream
deposit of chalk pebbles occurs at Ballycastle. The volcanic
fissures that allowed of the upwelling of basalt are represented
by numerous dykes, many cutting the earlier lava-flows as well
as all the beds below them. The accumulations of lava gave
rise to the plateaus which form almost the whole interior of the
county. In a quiet interval, the Lower Eocene plant-beds of
Glenarm and Ballypalady were formed in lakes, where iron-ores
also accumulated. RhyoHtes were erupted locally near Tardree,
Ballymena and Glenarm. The later basalts are especially marked
by columnar jointing, which determines the famous structures
of the Giant's Causeway and the coast near Bengore Head.
Volcanic necks may be recognized at Carrick-a-rede, in the
intrusive mass of dolerite at Slemish, at Carnmoney near Belfast,
and a few other points. Fair Head is farmed of intrusive
dolerite, presenting a superb columnar seaward face. Faulting,
probably in Pliocene times, lowered the basaltic plateaus to
form the basin of Lough Neagh, leaving the eastern scarp at
heights ranging up to 1800 ft. The glens of Antrim are deep
notches cot by seaward-running streams through the basalt scarp,
their floors being formed of Triassic or older rocks. Unlike most
Irish counties, Antrim owes its principal features to rocks of
Mesozoic and Cainozoic age. At Cushendun, however, a coarse
conglomerate is believed to be Devonian, while Lower Carbon-
iferous Sandstones, with several coal-seams, form a small pro-
ductive basin at Ballycastle The dolerite of Fair Head sends off
sheets along the bedding-planes of these carboniferous strata.
" Dalradian " schists and gneisses, with some dark limestones,
come out in the north-east of the county, forming a moorland-
region between Cushendun and Ballycastle. The dome of Knock*
layd, capped by an outlier of chalk and basalt, consists mostly
of this far more ancient series Glacial gravels are well seen
near Antrim town, and as drumlins between Ballymena and
Ballycastle. The drift-phenomena connected with the flow of
ice from Scotland are of special interest. Recently elevated
marine days, of post-glacial date, fringe the south-eastern coast,
while gravels with marine shells, side by side with flint imple-
ments chipped by early man, have been lifted some 20 ft.
above sea-level near Larne.
Rock-salt some 80 ft. thick is mined in the Trias near
Carrickfergus. The Kcuper clays yield material for bricks.
Bauxite, probably derived from the decay of lavas, is found
between Glenarm and Broughshane, associated with brown
and red pisolitic iron-ores; both these materials are worked
commercially Bauxite occurs also near Ballintoy The Bally-
castle coal is raised and sold locally
Industries. — The climate is very temperate The soil varies
greatly according to the district, being in some cases a rich
loam, in others a chalky marl, and elsewhere showing a coating
of peat The proportion of barren land to the total area is
roughly as 1 to 9, and of tillage to pasture as 2 to 3, Tillage
is therefore, relatively to other counties, well advanced, and
oats and potatoes are largely, though decreasingly, cultivated.
Flax is a less important crop than formerly The numbers of
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are generally increasing. Dutch,
Ayrshire and other breeds are used to improve the breed of cattle
by crossing. Little natural wood remains in the county, but
plantations flourish on the great estates, and orchards have
proved successful.
The linen manufacture is the most important industry.
Cotton-spinning by jennies was first introduced by Robert Joy
and Thomas M'Cabe of Belfast in 1777; and an estimate made
twenty-three years later showed upwards of 27,000 hands
employed in this industry- within 10 m. of Belfast, which remains
the centre for it. Women are employed in the working of
patterns on muslin. There are several paper mills at Bushmills
in the north; whisky-distilling is carried on; and there are
valuable sea-fisheries divided between the district of Ballycastle
and Carrickfergus, while the former is the headquarters of a
salmon-fishery district The workings at the Ballycastle
collieries are probably the oldest in Ireland. In 1770 the miners
accidentally discovered a complete gallery, which has been
driven many hundred yards into the bed of coal, branching into
thirty-six chambers dressed quite square, and in a workman-like
manner No tradition of the mine having been formerly worked
remained in the neighbourhood. The coal of some of the beds
Is bituminous, and of others anthracite.
Communications. — Except that the Great Northern railway
line from Belfast to the south and west runs for a short distance
close to the southern boundary of the county, with a branch
from Lisburn to the town of Antrim, the principal lines of
communication are those of the Northern Counties system,
under the control of the Midland railway of England. The chief
routes are: — Belfast, Antrim, Ballymena (and thence to
Coleraine and Londonderry); a line diverging from this at
White Abbey to Carrickfergus and Larne, the port for Stranraer
in Scotland; branches from Ballymena to Larne and to Park-
more; and from Coleraine to Portrush. The Ballycastle
railway runs from Ballymoney to Ballycastle on the north
coast; and the Giant's Causeway and Portrush is an electric
railway (the first td be worked in the United Kingdom). The
Lagan Canal connects Lough Neagh with Belfast Lough.
Population and Administration.— The population In 1891 was
*s+
ANTRIM—ANTWERP
908,010, And in loot, 196,000. The county is among those
least seriously affected by emigration. Of the total about 50 %
are Presbyterians, about 20 % each Protestant Episcopalians
and Roman Catholics; Antrim being one of the most decidedly
Protestant counties in Ireland. Of the Presbyterians the
greater part are in connexion with the General Synod of Ulster,
and the other are Remonstrants, who separated from the Synod
in 1820, or United Presbyterians. The principal towns are
Antrim (pop. 1826), Ballymena (10,886), Ballymoney (2052),
Carrickfergus (4208), Lame (6670), Lisburn (11,461) and Port-
rush (194 1). Belfast though constituting a separate county
ranks as the metropolis of the district Ballyclare, Bushmills,
Crumlin, Portglcnonc and Randalstown are among the lesser
towns. Belfast and Larne are the chief ports. The county
comprises 14 baronies and 79 civil parishes and parts of parishes.
The constabulary force has its headquarters at Ballymena.
The assize town is Belfast, and quarter sessions are held at
Ballymena, Ballymoney, Belfast, Larne and Lisburn. The
county is divided between the Protestant dioceses of Deny
and Down, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and
Connor, and Dromore. It is divided into north, mid, east and
south parliamentary divisions, each returning one member.
History and Antiquities — At what date the county of Antrim
was formed is not known, but it appears that a certain district
bore this name before the reign of Edward II. (early 14th cen-
tury), and when the shiring of Ulster was undertaken by Sir
John Pcrrot in the 16th century, Antrim and Down were already
recognized divisions, in contradistinction to the remainder of
the province The earliest known inhabitants were of Celtic
origin, and the names of the townlands or subdivisions, supposed
to have been made in the 13th century, are pure Celtic. Antrim
was exposed to the inroads of the Danes, and also of the northern
Scots, who ultimately effected permanent settlements. The
antiquities of the county consist of cairns, mounts or forts,
remains of ecclesiastical and military structures, and round
towers. The principal cairns are* one on Colin mountain, near
Lisburn, one on Slieve True, near Carrickfergus, and two on
Colinward. The cromlechs most worthy of notice are- one near
Cairngrainey, to the north-east of the old road from Belfast to
Templepatrick, the large cromlech at Mount Druid, near
Ballintoy, and one at the northern extremity of Island Magee.
The mounts, forts and intrench men ts are very numerous. There
are three round towers* one at Antrim, one at Armoy, and one
on Ram Island in Lough Ncagh, only that it Antrim being
perfect There are some remains of the ecclesiastic establish-
ments at Bonamargy, where the earls of Antrim are buried,
Kells, Glenarm, Glynn, Muckamore and While Abbey. The
noble castle of Carrickfergus is the only one in perfect preserva-
tion There are, however, remains of other ancient castles, as
Olderfleet, Cam's, Shane's, Glenarm, Garron Tower, Redbay,
&c, but the most interesting of all is the castle of Dunlucc,
remarkable for its great extent and romantic situation.
Mount Slemish, about 8 m. cast of Ballymena, is notable as
being the scene of St Patrick's early life. Island Magee had,
besides antiquarian remains, a notoriety as a home of witch-
craft, and was the scene of an act of reprisal for the much-
disputed massacre of Protestants about 1641, by the soldiery
of Carrickfergus.
ANTRIM, a market-town in the west of the county Antrim,
Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on the banks of the
Six-Mile Water, half a mile from Lough Ncagh, in a .beautiful
and fertile valley. Pop. (1001) 1826. It is 21} m. north-west
of Belfast by the Northern Counties (Midland) railway, and is also
the terminus of a branch of the Great Northern railway from
Lisburn. There is nothing in the town specially worthy of
notice, but the environs, including Shane's Castle and Antrim
Castle, possess features of considerable interest. About a mile
from the town is one of the most perfect of the round towers of
Ireland, 93 ft. high and 50 in circumference at the base. It
stands in the grounds of Steeple, a neighbouring scat, where is
also the " Witches' Stone," a prehistoric monument. A battle
was fought near Antrim between the English and Irish in the
reign of Edward III., and in 1642 a naval engagement took
place on Lough Neagb, for Viscount Massereene and Ferrard
(who founded Antrim Castle in 1662) had a right to maintain a
fighting fleet on the lough. On the 7th of June 1708 there was
a smart action in the town between the king's troops and a large
body of rebels, in which the latter were defeated, and Lord
O'Neill mortally wounded. Before the Union Antrim returned
two members to parliament by virtue of letters patent granted
in 1666 by Charles II. There are manufactures of paper, linen,
and woollen cloth* The government is in the hands of town
commissioners.
ANTRUSTION, the name of the members of the bodyguard or
military household of the Merovingian kings. The word, of which
the formation has been variously explained, is derived from the
O.H.Germ. trost, comfort, aid, fidelity, trust, through the latinized
form truslis. Our information about the antrustions is derived
from one of the formulae of Marculfus (i. 18, cd. Zeumer, p. 55)
and from various provisions of the Salic law (sec du Cange,
Glossarium, s. " trustis ") Any one desiring to enter the body of
Antrustions had to present himself armed at the royal palace,
and there, with his hands in those of the king, take a special
oath or trustis and Jideliias, in addition to the oath of fidelity
sworn by every subject at the king's accession. This done, he
was considered to be in truste dominica and bound to the dis-
charge of all the services this involved. In return for these, the
antrustion enjoyed certain valuable advantages, as being speci-
ally entitled to the royal assistance and protection; his wergcld
is three times that of an ordinary Frank , the slayer of a Frank
paid compensation of 200 solidi, that of an antrustion had to
find 600. The antrustion was always of Frankish descent, and
only in certain exceptional cases were Gallo-Romans admitted
into the king's bodyguard. These Gallo-Romans then took the
name of convivae regis, and the wcrgcld of 300 solidi was three
times that of a homo romanus The antrustions, belonging as
they did to one body, had strictly defined duties towards one
another, thus one antrustion was forbidden to bear witness
against another under penalty of 15 solidi compensation.
The antrustions seem to have played an important part at
the time of Clovis. It was they, apparently, who formed the
army which conquered the land, an army composed chiefly of
Franks, and of a few Gallo-Romans who had taken the side of
Clovis. After the conquest, the role of the antrustions became
less important. For each of their expeditions, the kings raised
an army of citizens in which the Gallo-Romans mingled more
and more with the Franks; they only kept one small permanent
body which acted as their bodyguard (trustis dominica), some
members of which were from time to time told off for other
tasks, such as that of forming garrisons in the frontier towns.
The institution seems to have disappeared during the anarchy
with which the 8th century opened. It has wrongly been held
to be the origin of vassalage. Only the king had antrustions,
every lord could have vassals. The antrustions were a military
institution; vassalage was a social institution, the origins of
which are very complex
All historians of Merovingian institutions and law have treated
of the antrustions, and each one has his different system. The
principal authorities arc: — Waitz, Deutsche Vcrfassungsgtschichte.
3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 335 ct scq. ; Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschickle.
vol. ii. p. 97 et scq.; Fust el dc Coulanges, La Monarch* franque.
p. 80 et seq.; Maxime Dcloche, La Trustis et I' antrustion royal sous
les deux premieres races (Paris, 1873), collecting and discussing the
principal texts; Guilhermoz, Les Ortgines de la noblesse (Paris, 1902),
suggesting a system which is new in part (C. Pf.)
ANTWERP, the most northern of the nine provinces of
Belgium. It is conterminous with the Dutch frontier on the
north. Malines, Lierre and Turnhout are among the towns of
the province. Its importance, however, is derived from the
fact that it contains the commercial metropolis of Belgium. It
is divided into three administrative districts (arrondisscmente),
viz. Antwerp, Malines and Turnhout. These are subdivided
into 25 cantons and 152 communes. The area is 707,932 acres
or 1106 sq. m. Pop. (1904) SSS.qSo. showing an average of
804 inhabitants to the square mile.
ANTWERP
»55
AJHWHHP (Fr Anxers), capital of the above province, an
important city on the right bank of the Scheldt, Belgium's
chief centre of commerce and a strong fortified position.
Modern Antwerp is a finely laid out city with a succession of
broad avenues which mark the position of the first enceinte.
There are long streets and terraces of fine houses belonging to
the merchants and manufacturers of the city which amply
testify to its prosperity, and recall the 16th century distich that
Antwerp was noted for its moneyed men (" Antwerpia nummis ") .
Despite the ravages of war and internal disturbances: it still
preserves some memorials of its early grandeur, notably its fine
cathedral. This church was begun in the 14th century, but not
finished* till 15x8. Its tower of over 400 ft is a conspicuous
object to be seen from afar over the surrounding flat country.
A second tower which formed part of the original plan has never
been erected. The proportions of the interior are noble, and in
the church are hung three of the masterpieces of Rubens, viz.
" The Descent from the Cross," " The Elevation of the Cross,"
and " The Assumption." Another fine church in Antwerp is
that of St James, far more ornate than the cathedral, and con-
taining the tomb of Rubens, who devoted himself to its embel-
lishment. The Bourse or exchange, which claims to be the
first distinguished by the former name in Europe, is a fine new
building finished in 1873, on the site of the old Bourse erected in
1531 and destroyed by fire in 1858. Fire has destroyed several
other old buildings in the city, notably in 1801 the house of the
Hansa League on the northern quays. A curious museum is
the Maison Plantin, the house of the great printer C. Plan tin
(q.v.) and his successor Moretus, which stands exactly as it did
in the time of the latter. The new picture gallery close to the
southern quays is a fine building divided into ancient and
modern sections. The collection of old masters is very fine,
containing many splendid examples of Rubens, Van Dyck,
Titian and the chief Dutch masters. Antwerp, famous in the
middle ages and at the present time for its commercial enter-
prise, enjoyed in the 17th century a celebrity not less distinct
or glorious in art for its school of painting, which included
Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens, the two Teniers and many others
Commerce.— -Since 1863, when Antwerp was opened to the
trade of the outer world by the purchase of the Dutch right to
levy toll, its position has completely changed, and no place in
Europe has made greater progress in this period than the ancient
city on the Scheldt. The following figures for the years 1904
and 1005 show that its trade is still rapidly increasing. —
^car.
Exports.
Imports.
Tonnage.
Value.
Tonnage.
Value.
1904
1905
6.578,S5S
7.153.&55
#1.349,678
£80,032,355
8427,894
9,061,781
£79,539.loo
£9M94.5»7
The growth of its commerce in recent times may be measured
by a comparison of the following figures. In 1888, 427a ships
entered the port and 4302 sailed from it In 1905, 6095 entered
the port and 6065 sailed from it— an. increase of nearly 50%.
In 1S88 the total tonnage was 7,800,000; in 1005 it had risen
to 19,662,000. These figures explain how and why Antwerp
has outgrown its dock accommodation. The eight principal
basins or docks already existing in 1908 were (1) the Little or
Bonaparte dock; (2) the Great dock, also constructed in
Napoleon's time; (3) the Kattendijk, built in i860 and enlarged
in 188 1 ; (4) the Wood dock; (5) the Campine dock, used especially
for minerals; (6) the Asia dock, which is in direct communication
with the Meuse by a canal as well as with the Scheldt; (7) the
Lefebvre dock; and (8) the America dock, which was only
opened in 1905. Two new docks, called " intercalary " because
they would fit into whatever scheme might be adopted for the
rectification of the course of the Scheldt, were still to be con-
strutted, leading out of the Lefebvre dock and covering 70 acres.
With the completion of the new maritime lock, ships drawing
50 ft. of water would be able to enter these new docks and also
the Lefebvre and America docks. In connexion with the
projected grand* ccupure (that is, a cutting through the neck of
the loop in the river Scheldt immediately below Antwerp), the
importance of these four docks would be greatly increased
because they would then flank the new main channel of the river.
When the Belgian Chambers voted in February 1906 the sums
necessary for the improvement of the harbour of Antwerp no
definite scheme was sanctioned, the question being referred to
a special mixed commission. The improvements at Antwerp
are not confined to the construction of new docks. The quays
flanking the Scheldt are 3$ m. m length. They are constructed
of granite, and no expense has been spared in equipping them
with hydraulic cranes, warehouses, &c.
Fortifications. — Besides being the chief commercial port of
Belgium, Antwerp is the greatest fortress of that country.
Nothing, however, remains Of the former enceinte or even of
the famous old citadel defended by General Chasse in 1832,
except the Stcen, which has been restored and contains a museum
0/ arms and antiquities. After the establishment of Belgian
independence Antwerp was defended only by the citadel and
an enceinte of about 2} m. round the city. No change occurred
till 1859, when the system of Belgian defence was radically
altered by the dismantlement of seventeen of the twcnty»two
fortresses constructed under Wellington's supervision in 1815-
1818. At Antwerp the old citadel and enceinte were removed.
A new enceinte 8 m. in length was constructed, and the villages
of Berchem and Borgerhout, now parishes of Antwerp, were
absorbed within the city. This enceinte still exists, and is a
fine work of art It is protected by a broad wet ditch (plans
in article Fohttfication), and in the caponiers are the
magazines and store chambers of the fortress. The enceinte
is pierced by nineteen openings or gateways, but of these seven
are not used by the public As soon as the enceinte was finished
eight detached forts from 2 to 9} m. distant from the enceinte
were constructed. They begin on the north near Wyneghem
and the zone of inundation, and terminate on the south at
Hoboken In 1870 Fort Mentem and the redoubts of Beren*
drecht and Oorderen were built for the defence of the area to
be inundated north of Antwerp In 1878, in consequence of the
increased range of artillery and the more destructive power of
explosives, it was recognized that the fortifications of Antwerp
were becoming useless and out of date. It was therefore decided
to change it from a fortress to a fortified position by constructing
an outer line of forts and batteries, at a distance varying from
6 to 9 m. from the enceinte. This second line was to consist of
fifteen forts, large and small. Up to 1898 only five had been
constructed, bnt in that and the two following years five more
were finished, leaving another five to complete the line. A
mixed commission selected the points at which they were to be
placed. With the completion of this work, which in 1908 was
being rapidly pushed on, Antwerp might be regarded as one of
the best fortified positions in Europe, and so long as its com*
munications by sea are preserved intact it will be practically
impregnable.
Two subsidiary or minor problems remained over, (x) The
much-discussed removal of the existing enceinte in order to
give Antwerp further growing "space If it were removed there
arose the further question, should a new enceinte be made at
the first line of outer forts, of should an enceinte be dispensed
with? An enceinte following the line of those forts would be
30 m> in length. Then if the city grew up to this extended
enceinte the outer forts would be too near. To screen the city
from bombardment they would have to be carried 3 m. further
out, and the whole Belgian army would scarcely furnish an
adequate garrison for this extended position. A new enceinte,
or more correctly a rampart of a less permanent character,
connecting the eight forts of the inner line and extending from
Wyneghem to a little south of Hoboken, was decided upon in
1908. (2) The second problem was the position on the left
bank of the Scheldt. All the defences enumerated are an the
right bank. On the left bank the two old forts Isabelle and Marie
alone defend the Scheldt. It is assumed (probably rightly)
that no enemy could get round to this side in sufficient strength
to deliver any attack that the existing forts could not easily
1 5 6
ANU
repel. The more interesting question connected with the left
bank is whether it does not provide, as Napoleon thought, the
most natural outlet for the expansion of Antwerp. Proposals to
connect the two banks by a tunnel under the Scheldt have been
made from time to time in a fitful manner, but nothing whatever
had been done by 1908 to realize what appears to be a natural
and easy project.
Population. — The following statistics show the growth' of
population in and since the 1 9th century. In 1800 the population
was computed not to exceed 40,000. At the census of 1846 the
total was 88,487; of 1851,95,501; of 1880, 169,100; of 1900,
372,830; and of 1904, 291,949* To these figures ought to be
added the populations (1904) of Borgerhout (43*391) and Berchem
(26,383), as they are part of the city, which would give Antwerp
a total population of 361,723.
History. — The suggested origin of the name Antwerp from
Hand-net pen (hand-throwing), because a mythical robber chief
indulged in the practice of cutting off his prisoners' hands and
throwing them into the Scheldt, appeared to Motley rather far-
fetched, but it is less reasonable to trace it, as he inclines to do,
from an t werf (on the wharf), seeing that the form Andhunerbo
existed in the 6th century on the separation of Austrasia and
Neustria. Moreover, hand-cutting was not an uncommon
practice in Europe. It was perpetuated from a savage past in
the custom of cutting off the right hand of a man who died
without heir, and sending it as proof of main-merle to the feudal
lord. Moreover, the two hands and a castle, which form the
arms of Antwerp, will not be dismissed as providing no proof by
any one acquainted with the scrupulous care that heralds dis-
played in the golden age of chivalry before assigning or recognizing
the armorial bearings of any claimant.
In the 4th century Antwerp is mentioned as one of Jthe places
in the second Germany, and in the nth century Godfrey of
Bouillon was for some years best known as marquis of Antwerp
Antwerp was the headquarters of Edward III. during his early
negotiations with van Artevelde, and his son Lionel, carl of
Cambridge, was born there in 1338.
It was not, however, till after the closing of the Zwyn and the
decay of Bruges that Antwerp became of importance. At the
end of the 1 5th century the foreign trading gilds or houses were
transferred from Bruges to Antwerp, and the building assigned
to the English nation is specifically mentioned in 1 5 10. In 1 560,
a year which marked the highest point of its prosperity, six
nations, viz. the Spaniards, the Danes and the Hansa together,
the Italians, the English, the Portuguese and the Germans, were
named at Antwerp, and over 1000 foreign merchants were
resident in the city. Guicciardini, the Venetian envoy, describes
the activity of the port, into which 500 ships sometimes passed
in a day, and as evidence of the extent of its land trade he
mentioned that 2000 carts entered the city each week. Venice
had fallen from its first place in European commerce, but still
it was active and prosperous. Its envoy, in explaining the
importance of Antwerp, states that there was as much business
done there in a fortnight as in Venice throughout the year.
The religious troubles that marked the second half of the 16th
century broke out in Antwerp as in every other part of Belgium
excepting Liege In 1576 the Spanish soldiery plundered the
town during what was called " the Spanish Fury," and 6000
citizens were massacred. Eight hundred houses were burnt
down, and over two millions sterling of damage was wrought in
the town on that occasion.
In 1 585 a severe blow was struck at the prosperity of Antwerp
when Parma captured it after a long siege and sent all its Protes-
tant citizens into exile. The recognition of the independence of
the United Provinces by the treaty of MOnster in 1648 carried
with it the death-blow to Antwerp's prosperity as a place of
trade, for one of its clauses stipulated that the Scheldt should be
closed to navigation. This impediment remained in force until
1863, although the provisions were relaxed during French rule
bom 1795 to 1814, and also during the time Belgium formed
part of the kingdom of the Netherlands ( 18x5 to 1830), Antwerp
had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in x8oo, and its
population had sunk under 40,000, when Napoleon, realizing its
strategical importance, assigned two millions for the construc-
tion of two docks and a mole.
One other incident in the chequered history of Antwerp
deserves mention. In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian
insurgents, but the citadel continued to be held by a Dutch
garrison under General Chassi. For a time this officer subjected
the town to a periodical bombardment which inflicted much
damage, and at the end of 1832 the citadel itself was besieged
by a French army. During this attack the town was further
injured. In December 1832, after a gallant defence,Chasse made
an honourable surrender.
See J L. Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic; C. Seribanii.
Oripnis Antverpiensium; Gens, Hist, de la vilU d'Anvers; Mertens
and Tori's, Geschiedenis van Antwerp, Geaard, Anoers d trovers
Us dees', Annuaire slatisgue de la Belgtque. (DCB)
AKTJ, a Babylonian deity, who, by virtue of being the first
figure in a triad consisting of Anu, Bel and Ea, came to be re-
garded as the father and king of the gods. Anu is so prominently
associated with the city of Erech in southern Babylonia that
there are good reasons for believing this place to have been the
original seat of the Anu cult. If this be correct, then the goddess
Nana (or I&htar) of Erech was presumably regarded as his
consort. The name of the god signifies the " high one " and he
was probably a god of the atmospheric region above the earth —
perhaps a storm god like Adad (q v.), or like Yahweh among the
ancient Hebrews. However this may be, already in the old-
Babylonian period, i.e. before Khammurabi, Anu was regarded
as the god of the heavens and his name became in fact synony-
mous with the heavens, so that in some cases it is doubtful
whether, under the term, the god or the heavens is meant. It
would seem from this that the grouping of the divine powers
recognized in the universe into a triad symbolizing the three
divisions, heavens, earth and the watery deep, was a process
of thought which had taken place before the third millennium
To Anu was assigned the control of the heavens, to Bel the
earth, and to Ea the waters The doctrine once established
remained an inherent part of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion
and led to the more or less complete dissociation of the three
gods constituting the triad from their original local limitations.
An intermediate step between Anu viewed as the local deity
of Erech (or some pther centre), Bel as the god of Nippur, and
Ea as the god of Eridu is represented by the prominence which
each one of the centres associated with the three deities in ques-
tion must have acquired, and which led to each one absorbing
the qualities of other gods so as to give them a controlling
position in an organized pantheon For Nippur we have the
direct evidence that its chief deity, En-lil or Bel, was once
regarded as the head of an extensive pantheon. The sanctity
and, therefore, the importance of Eridu remained a fixed tradition
in the minds of the people to the latest days, and analogy there-
fore justifies the conclusion that Anu was likewise worshipped
in a centre which had acquired great prominence. The summing-
up of divine powers manifested in the universe in a threefold
division represents an outcome of speculation in the schools
attached to the temples of Babylonia, but the selection of Anu,
Bel and Ea for the three representatives of the three spheres
recognized, is due to the importance which, for one reason or
the other, the centres in which Anu, Bel and Ea were worshipped
had acquired in the popular mind. Each of the three must have
been regarded in his centre as the most important member in a
larger or smaller group, so that their union in a triad marks also
the combination of the three distinctive pantheons into a
harmonious whole
In the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria, Anu, Bel and
Ea became the three zones of the ecliptic, the northern, middle
and southern zone respectively . The purely theoretical character
of Anu is thus still further emphasized, and in the annals and
votive inscriptions as well as in the incantations and hymns, he
is rarely introduced as an active force to whom a personal
appeal can be made. His name becomes little more than s>
synonym for the heavens in general and even his title as king
ANUBIS— ANVILLE
«57
or father of the p>ds has little of the- personal element in it. A
consort An turn (or as some scholars prefer to read, Anatum)
b assigned to him, on the theory that every deity must have a
female associate, but Antum is a purely artificial product—a
lifeless symbol playing even less of a part in what may be called
the active pantheon than Ami.
For works of reference sec Babylonian and Assyrian Religion.
CM. Ja.)
ANUBIS (in Egyptian AnUp, written Inpw In hieroglyphs),
the name of one of the most important of the Egyptian gods.
There were two types of canine divinities in Egypt, their leading
representatives being respectively Anubis and Ophois (Wp-wl-wt,
14 opener of the ways "): the former type is symbolized by the
recumbent animal ^"\, the other by a similar animal (in a
stiff standing attitude), carried as an emblem on a standard
^*1fc in war or in religious processions. The former comprised
two beneficent gods of the necropolis; the latter also were
beneficent, but warlike, divinities. They thus corresponded, at
any rate in some measure, respectively to the fiercer and milder
aspects of the dog-tribe In late days the Greeks report that
«fre? (dogs) were the sacred animals of Anubis while those of
Ophois were Xfoot (wolves). The above figure Ifc^ is coloured
Mack as befits a funerary and nocturnal animal: it is more
attenuated than even a greyhound, but it has the bushy tail of
the fox or the jackal. Probably these were the original genu of
the necropolis, and in fact the same lean animal figured passant
-^ is sib " jackal " or " fox." The domestic dog would be
brought into the sacred circle through the increased veneration
for animals, and the more pronounced view in later times of
Anubis as servant, messenger and custodian of the gods.
Anubis was the principal god in the capitals of the XVIIth
and XVIIIth nomes of Upper Egypt, and secondary god in the
Xlllth and probably in the XXIth no me; but his cult was
universal. To begin with, he was the god of the dead, of the
cemetery, of all supplies for the dead, and therefore of embalming
when that became customary. In very early inscriptions the
funerary prayers in the tombs are addressed to him almost
exclusively, and he always took a leading place in them. In the
scene of the weighing of the soul before Osiris, dating from the
New-kingdom onwards, Anubis attends to the balance while
Tboth registers the result. Anubis was believed to have been
the cmbalmer of Osiris: the mummy of Osiris, or of the deceased,
an a bier, tended by this god, is a very common subject on
funerary tablets of the late periods. Anubis came to be con-
sidered especially the attendant of the gods and conductor of
the dead, and hence was commonly identified with Hermes
(cf . the name Hermanubis) ; but the r61e of Hermes as the god
of eloquence, inventor of arts and recorder of the gods was
taken by Thoth. In those days Anubis was considered to be
son of Osiris by Nephthys; earlier perhaps he was son of Re,
the sun-god. In the and century a.d. his aid was "com-
pelled " by the magicians and necromancers to fetch the gods
and entertain them with food (especially in the ceremony of
gazing into the bowl of oil), and he is invoked by them some-
times as the " Good Ox-herd." The cult of Anubis must at all
times have been very popular in Egypt, and, belonging to the
lab and Serapis cycle, was introduced into Greece and Rome s
See Erman, Egyptian Religion; Budge. Cods of tk» Egyptians i
Meyer, ia Zths. J.Acg. Spr. 41-97. (F. Ll. G.)
AMUIADHAFURA, a ruined city of Ceylon, famous for its
ancient monuments. It is situated in the North-central province.
Anuradhapura became the capital of Ceylon in the 5th century
B.C, and attained its highest magnificence about the commence-
ment of the Christian era. In its prime it ranked beside Nineveh
and Babylon in its colossal proportions— its four walls, each 1 6 m.
long, enclosing an area of 356 sq. in-,— in the number of its
inhabitants, and the splendour of its shrines and public edifices.
It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was
anally deserted at a royal residence in a,d. 769. It fell com-
pletely into decay, and it is only of recent years that the jungle
has been cleared away, the ruins laid bare, and some measure
of prosperity brought back to the surrounding country by the
restoration of hundreds of village tanks. The ruins consist of
three classes of buildings, dagobas, monastic buildings, and
pokuncs. The dagobas are bell-shaped masses of masonry,
varying from a few feet to over .1x00 in circumference. Some
of them contain enough masonry to build a town for twenty-five
thousand inhabitants. Remains of the monastic buildings are
to be found in every direction in the shape of raised stone plat-
forms, foundations and stone pillars. The most famous is the
Brazen Palace erected by King Datagamana about 164 B.c
The pokunas are bathing-tanks or tanks for the supply of
drinking-water, which are scattered everywhere through the
jungle. The city also contains a sacred Bo-tree, which is said to
date back to the year 245 B.C. The railway was extended from
Matale to Anuradhapura in 1005. Population: town, 3672;
province, 70,110.
ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon anfill qt onftlti, either that on
which something is " welded " or " folded," cf. German falsen,
to fold, or connected with other Teutonic forms of the word,
cf German amboss, in which case the final syllable is from
" beat," and the meaning is " that on which something is
beaten "), a mass of iron on which material is supported while
being shaped under the hammer (see Forging). The common
blacksmith's anvil is made of wrought iron, often in America
of cast iron, with a smooth working face of hardened steel.
It has at one end a projecting conical beak or bick for use in
hammering curved pieces of metal; occasionally the other end
is also provided with a bick, which is then partly rectangular in
section. There is also a square hole in the face, into which tools,
such as the anvil-cutter or chisel, can be dropped, cutting edge
uppermost. For power hammers the anvil proper is supported
on an anvil block which is of great massiveness, sometimes
weighing over 200 tons for a 12-ton hammer, and this again
rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete
In anatomy the term anvil is applied to one of the bones of the
middle ear*t the incur, which is articulated with the malleus.
ANVILLB, JEAN BAPTISTB BOURGUIGNON V (1697-
1782), perhaps the greatest geographical author of the 18th
century, was born at Paris on the 1 ith of July 1697. His passion
for geographical research displayed itself from early years: at
the age of twelve he was already amusing himself by drawing
maps for Latin authors. Later, his friendship with the anti-
quarian, Abbe* Longuerue, greatly aided his studies. His first
serious map, that of Ancient Greece, was published when he
was fifteen, and at the age of twenty-two he was appointed one
of the king's geographers, and began to attract the attention of
the first authorities. D'Anville's studies embraced everything
of geographical nature in the world's literature, as far as he could
master it: for this purpose he not only searched ancient and
modern historians, travellers and narrators of every description,
but also poets, orators and philosophers. One of his cherished
objects was to reform geography by putting an end to the blind
copying of older maps, by testing the commonly accepted posi-
tions of places through a rigorous examination of all the descrip-
tive authority, and by excluding from cartography every name
inadequately supported. Vast spaces, which had before been
covered with countries and cities, were thus suddenly reduced
almost to a blank.
D'Anville was at first employed in the humbler task of illustrat-
ing by maps the works of different travellers, such as Marchais,
Charlevoix, La bat and Duhalde. For the history of China by
the last-named writer he was employed to make an atlas, which
was published separately at the Hague in 1 737. In 1735 and 1 736
he brought out two treatises on the figure of the earth; but
these attempts to solve geometrical problems by literary material
were, to a great extent, refuted by Maupertuis' measurements
of a degree within the polar circle. D'Anville's historical method
was more successful in his 1 743 map of Italy, which first indicated
numerous errors in the mapping of that country, and was accom-
panied by a valuable memoir (a novelty in such work), showing
r S 8
ANWARI— APALACHICOLA
in full the sources of the design. A trigonometrical survey which
Benedict XIV. soon after had made in the papal states strikingly
confirmed the French geographer's results. In his later years
d' Anville did yeoman service for ancient and medieval geography,
accomplishing something like a revolution in the former;
mapping afresh all the chief countries of the pre-Christian
civilizations (especially Egypt), and by his Memoir e et abrigi
de gtagraphie ancienne et ginirale and his £tatsformis en Europe
apres la chute de I' empire romain en Occident (1771) rendering his
labours still more generally useful. In 1754, at the age of fifty-
seven, he became a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et
Belles Lett res, whose transactions he enriched with many papers.
In 1775 he received the only place in the Academie des Sciences
which is allotted to geography; and in the same year he was
appointed, without solicitation, first geographer to the king.
His last employment consisted in arranging his collection of
maps, plans and geographical materials. It was the roost
extensive in Europe, and had been purchased by the king, who,
however, left him tie use of it during his life. This task per-
formed, he sank into a total imbecility both of mind and body,
which continued for two years, till his death in January 1782.
D'Anville's published memoirs and dissertations amounted to
78, and his maps to 21 1. A complete edition of his works was an-
nounced in 1806 by de Manne in 6 vols, quarto, only two of which
had appeared when the editor died in 1832. See Dacier's Eloge de
d' Anville (Paris, 1802) Besides the separate works noticed above,
d'Anville's maps executed for RoUin's iliUoire ancienne and Histoire
romaine, and his Traiti des mesures anciennes et tnodemes (1769),
deserve special notice.
ANWARI [Auhad-uddin Ali Anwari], Persian poet, was born
in Khorasan early in the 1 2th century. He enjoyed the especial
favour of the sultan Sinjar, whom he attended in all his warlike
expeditions. On one occasion, when the sultan was besieging
the fortress of Hazarasp, a fierce poetical conflict was maintained
between Anwari and his rival Rashidi, who was within the
beleaguered castle, by means of verses fastened, to arrows.
Anwari died at Balkh towards the end of the 1 2th century. The
Diwan, or collection of his poems, consists of a scries of long
poems, and a number of simpler lyrics. His longest piece, Th'
Tears 0/ Kkorassan, was translated into English verse by Captain
Kirk pa trick (see also Persia. Literature).
ANWEILER, or Annweiler, a town of Germany, in the
Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, 8 m. west of Landau, and
on the railway from that place to Zweibrttcken. Pop. 3700.
It is romantically situated in the part of the Haardt called the
Pfalzer Schweiz (Palatinate Switzerland), and is surrounded by
high hills which yield a famous red sandstone. On the Sonnen-
berg (1600 ft.) lie the ruins of the castle of Trifcls, in which
Richard Cceur de Lion was imprisoned in z 193. Hie industries
include cloth-weaving, tanning, dyeing and saw mills. There is
also a considerable trade in wine.
ANZBNGRUBBR, LUDWIG (1839-1889), Austrian dramatist
and novelist, was born at Vienna on the 29th of November 1839.
He was educated at the ReaUchule of his native town, and then
entered a bookseller's shop; from i860 to 1867 he was an actor
without, however, displaying any marked talent, although
his stage experience later stood him in good stead. In 1869 he
became a clerk in the Viennese police department, but having
in the following year made a success with his anti-clerical drama,
Der P/arrer von Kirch/eld, he gave up his appointment and
devoted himself entirely to literature. He died at Vienna on
the 10th of December 1889. Anzengrubcr was exceedingly
fertile in ideas, and wrote a great many plays. They are mostly
of Austrian peasant life, and although somewhat melancholy in
tone are interspersed with bright and witty scenes. Among the
best known are Der Meiueidbauer (187 x), Die Kreuzdschretber
(1872), Der Cwissensumrm (1874), Hand and Hen (1875),
Doppelselbstmord (1875), Das vierU Cebot (1877), and Der Fleck
auf der Ekr' (1889). Anzengruber also published a novel of
considerable merit, Der SchandfUek (1876; remodelled 1884);
and various short stories and tales of village life collected under
the title Wolken und Sunn'schein (1888).
Anzeneruber's collected works, with a biography, were published
In 10 vols, in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897); his correspondence has been
edited by A. Bettelhetm (1902). See A. Bettelheim, /,. Anungmbtr
(1890); L. Rosner. Erinnerungen an L. Anzengrubcr (rtoo):
H. Sittenberger, Studien tur Dramaturgie der Cegenwart (1899);
S. Friedmann, L. Anungruber (1902).
ANZIN, a town of northern France, in the department of
Nord, on the Scheldt, 1} m. N.W. of Valenciennes, of whkh it
is a suburb. Pop. (1906) 14,07 7- Anzin is the centre of im-
portant coal-mines of the Valenciennes basin belonging to the
Anzin Company, the formation of which dates to 17 17. The
metallurgical industries of the place axe extensive, and include
iron and copper founding and the manufacture of steam-engines,
machinery, chain-cables and a great variety of heavy iron
goods. There are also glass-works and breweries.
AONIA, a district of ancient Boeotia, containing the mountains
Helicon and Cithaeron, and thus sacred to the Muses, who are
called by Pope the " Aonian maids."
AORIST (from Gr. dopurret, indefinite), the name given in
Greek grammar to certain past tenses of verbs (first aoritt,
second aorist).
AOSTA (anc. Augusta Praeloria Salassorum) t a town and
episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin,
80 m. N.N.W. by rail of the town of Turin, and 48 m. direct,
situated 1910 ft above sea-level, at the confluence of the Buthicr
and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction of the Great and
Little St Bernard routes. Pop. (1901) 7875. The cathedral,
reconstructed in the nth century (to which one of its campanili
and some architectural details belong), was much altered in the
14th and 17th; it has a rich treasury including an ivory diptych
of 406 with a representation of Honorius. The church of St
Ours, founded in 425, and rebuilt in the 12th century, has good
cloisters (1133), the 15th-century priory is picturesque. The
castle of Bramafam (nth century) is interesting. Cretinism is
common in the district.
After the fall of the Roman empire the valley of Aosta fell
into the hands of the Burgundian kings; and after many changes
of masters, it came under the rule of Count Humbert I. of Savoy
(Biancamano) in 1032. The privilege of holding the assembly
of the states-general was granted to the inhabitants in 1x89.
An executive council was nominated from this body m 1536,
and continued to exist until 1802. After the restoration of the
rule of Savoy it was reconstituted and formally recognized by
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson
Prince Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta. Aosta was
the birthplace of Anselm. For ancient remains see Auccsta
Praetoria Salassorum.
APACHE (apparently from the Zuni name, » " enemy,"
given to the Navaho Indians) a tribe of North American Indians
of Athapascan stock. The Apaches formerly ranged over south-
eastern Arizona and south-western Mexico. The chief divisions
of the Apaches were the Arivaipa, Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone
Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno, Mogollon, Naisha,
Tchikun and Tchishi. They were a powerful and warlike tribe,
constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of
the tribe took place in x886, when the Chiricahuas, the division
involved, were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they
underwent military imprisonment The Apaches are now in
reservations in Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma, and number
between 5000 and 6000.
For details see Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge,
(Washington, 1907) ; also Indians, North American.
APALACHEB (apparently a Choctaw name, - "people on
the other side "), a tribe of North American Indians of Muskho-
gean stock. They have been known since the 16th century, and
formerly ranged the country around Apalaehee Bay, Florida.
About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a successful
mission among them, but early in the 18th century the tribe
suffered defeat at the hands of the British, the mission churches
were burnt, the prirsts killed, and the tribe practically innihii
ated, more than one thousand of them being sold as slaves.
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hedge (Washington,
»9°7).
APALACHICOLA. a city, port of entry, and the county-seat
of Franklin county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the
APAMEA— APATITE
'59
state* on Apalachicola Bay and at the month of the Apalachicola
river. Pop. (1890) 2727; (1000) 3077, of whom 1589 were of
negro descent; (1005) 3244; (1910) 3065. It is served by the
Apalachicola Northern railway (to Chattahoochee, Florida),
and by river steamers which afford connexion with railways
at CarrabcUe about 25 m. distant, at Chalahoochee (or River
Junction), and at Columbus and Bainbridge, Georgia, and by
ocean-going vessels with American and foreign ports. The city
has a monument (1000) to John Gorrie (1803-1855), a physician
who discovered the cold-air process of refrigeration in 1849 (and
patented an kc- machine in 1850), as the result of experiments'
to lower the temperatures of fever patients- The bay is well
protected by St Vincent, Flag, Sand, and St George's islands;
and the shipping of lumber, naval stores and cotton, which
reach the city by way of the river, forms the principal industry.
Before the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apala-
chicola was one of the principal centres of trade in the southern
states, ranking third among the Gulf ports in 1835. In x 9°7 the
Federal government projected a channel across the harbour bar
100 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep and a channel 150 ft. wide and 18 ft.
deep for Link Channel and the West Pass. In 1007 the exports
were valued at $317,838; the imports were insignificant. The
value of the total domestic and foreign commerce of the port
for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 was estimated
at $1,240,000 (76,000 tons) The fishery products, including
oysters, tarpon, sturgeon, caviare and sponges, are also important.
APAMEA. the name of several towns in western Asia.
1. A treasure city and stud-depot of the Scleucid kings in the
valley of the Orontes. It was so named by Selcucus Nicator,
after Apama, his wife. Destroyed by Chosrocs in the 7 th
century a.d., it was partially rebuilt and known as Fdmia by
the Arabs; and overthrown by an earthquake in 1152 It kept
its importance down to the time of the Crusades. The acropolis
hill is now occupied by the ruins of Kalat el-Mudik.
See R. F. Burton and T Drake. Unexplored Syria; E. Sachau,
Re he in Syrien, 1883.
2. A city in Phrygia, founded by Antiochus Soter (from whose
mother, Apama, it received its name), near, but on lower ground
than. Celaenae It was situated where the Marsyas leaves the
hills to join the Maeander, and it became a seat of Scleucid
power, and a centre of Graeco-Roman and Graeco-Hebrew
civilization and commerce. There Antiochus the Great collected
the army with which he met the Romans at Magnesia, and there
two years later the treaty between Rome and the Selcucid
realm was signed. After Antiochus' departure for the East,
Aparnea lapsed to the Pergamenian kingdom and thence to
Rome in 133, but it was resold to Mithradates V., who held it
till 120. After the Mithradatic wars it became and remained a
great centre for trade, largely carried on by resident Italians
and by Jews. In 84 Sulla made it the seat of a convtntus of the
Asian province, and it long claimed primacy among Phrygian
cities. Its decline dates from the local disorganization of the
empire in the 3rd century a.d.; and though a bishopric, it was
not an important military or commercial centre in Byzantine
times. The Turks took it first in 1070, and from the 13th
century onwards it was always in Moslem bands. For a long
period it was one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, commanding
the Maeander road; but when the trade routes were diverted
to Constantinople it rapidly declined, and its ruin was completed
by an earthquake. A Jewish tradition, possibly arising from
a name Cibotus (ark), which the town bore, identified a neigh-
bouring mountain with Ararat. The famous " Noah " coins of
the emperor Philip commemorate this belief. The site is now
partly occupied by Dineir {q.v., sometimes locally known also
as Geiklar, " the gazelles," perhaps from a tradition of the
Permian hunting-park, seen by Xenophon at Celaenae), which is
connected with Smyrna by railway; there are considerable
remains, including a great number of important Graeco-Roman
inscriptions.
See W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. Ii. ;
O. Weber. Dineir-Ce&nes (1892); D. G. Hogarth in Jonrn. Hrtl.
Studies (1886): O Hinchfekt in Trans. Bertin Academy (1875).
(D. G. H.)
3. A town on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the end of a
bridge of boats (zeugma) ; the Til-Barsip of the Assyrian inscrip-
tions, now Birejik (q.v.).
4. The earlier Myrlea of Bithynia, now Mudania (q.v.), the
port of Brusa. The name was given it by Prusias I., who rebuilt it.
5. A city mentioned by Stephanus and Pliny as situated near
the Tigris, the identification of which is still uncertain.
6. A Greek city in Parlhia, near Rhagae.
APARRI. a town of the province of Cagayin, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on the Grande de Cagay&n river near its mouth,
about 55 m. N. of Tuguegarao, the capital. Pop (1903) 18,252.
The valley is one of the largest tobacco-producing sections in
the Philippines; and the town has a considerable coastwise
trade. Her e, too, is a meteorological station.
APATITE, a widely distributed mineral, which, when found
in large masses, is of considerable economic value as a phosphate.
As a mineral species it was first recognized by A. G. Werner in
1786 and named by him from the Greek draraV, to deceive,
because it had previously been mistaken for other minerals,
such as beryl, tourmaline, chrysolite, amethyst, &c. Although
long known to consist mainly of calcium phosphate, it was not
until 1827 that G. Rose found that fluorine or chlorine is an
essential constituent. Two chemical varieties of apatite are to
be distinguished, namely a fluor-apalitc, (CaF) Ca<P,Oi;, and a
cblor-apalilc, (CaCl) Ca«PjOu: the former, which is much the
commoner, contains 423% of phosphorus pent oxide (PjO*)
and 3-8% fluorine, and the latter 4- 10% P a Oi and 6-8%
chlorine. Fluorine and chlorine replace each other in indefinite
proportions, and they may also be in part replaced by hydroxyl,
so that the general formula becomes [Ca (F, CI, OH)) Ca«PaO )2 .
in which the univalent group Ca(F, CI, OH) takes the place
of one hydrogen atom in orthophosphoric acid HiPO«. The
formula is sometimes written in the form 3Caj(PO«)a+CaFj.
Mangan-apalite is a variety in which calcium is largely replaced
by manganese (up to 10% MnO). Cerium, didymium, yttrium,
&c, oxides may also sometimes be present, in amounts up to 5 %.
Apatite frequently occurs as beautifully developed crystals,
sometimes a foot or more in length, belonging to that division
of the hexagonal system in which there is pyramidal hemi-
hedrism. In this type of symmetry, of which apatite is the best
m ! m *
1 ■• 1
U-.v::.".-/-,
Fic. 1.
Fie. 2.
example, there is only one plane of symmetry, which is per-
pendicular to the hexad axis. The arrangement of the pyramidal
faces * and » in fig. a show the hcmihedral character and absence
of the full number of planes and axes of symmetry. Fig. a
represents a highly modified crystal from St Got t hard; a more
common form is shown in fig. 1, which is bounded by the hex-
agonal prism m, hexagonal bipyramid x and basal pinacoid c.
In ka general appearance, apatite exhibits wide variations.
Crystals may be colourless and transparent or white and opaque,
but are often coloured, usually some shade of green or brown,
occasionally violet, sky-blue, yellow, &c. The lustre is vitreous,
inclining to sub-resinous. There is an imperfect cleavage
parallel to the basal pinacoid, and the fracture is conchoid aj.
Hardness 5, specific gravity 32.
Yellowish-green prismatic crystals from Jumilla in Murcia in
Spain have long been known under the name asparagus-stone.
Lazurapatite is a sky-blue variety found as crystals with lapis-
laauli in Siberia; and moroxite is the name given to dull greenish-
blue crystals from Norway and Canada. Francolite, from Wheal
Franco, near Tavistock in Devonshire, and also from several
Cornish mines, occurs as crystallized stalactitic masses. In
i6o
APATURIA— APELLES
addition to these crystallized varieties, there are massive varieties,
fibrous, concretionary, stalactitic, or earthy in form, which are
included together under the name phosphorite (q.v.), and it is
these massive varieties, together with various rock-phosphates
(phosphatic nodules, coprolites, guano, ftc.) which are of such
great economic importance: crystallized apatite is mined for
phosphates only in Norway and Canada.
With regard to its mode of occurrence, apatite is found under
a variety of conditions. In igneous rocks of all kinds It is in-
variably present in small amounts as minute adcular crystals,
and was one of the first constituents of the rock to crystallize
out from the magma. The extensive deposits of chlor-apatite
near KragerS and Bamle, near Brcvik, in southern Norway, are
in connexion with gabbro, the felspar of which has been altered,
by emanations containing chlorine, to scapolite, and titanium
minerals have been developed. The apatite occurring in con-
nexion with granite and veins of tin-stone is, on the other hand,
a fluor-apatite, and, like the other fluorine-bearing minerals
characteristic of tin-veins, doubtless owes its origin to the
emanations of tin fluoride which gave rise to the tin-ore. Special
mention may be here made of the beautiful violet crystals of
fluor-apatite which occur in the veins of tin-ore in the Erz-
gebirge, and of the brilliant bluish-green crystals encrusting
cavities in the granite of Luxullian in Cornwall, Another
common mode of occurrence of apatite is in metamorphic
crystalline rocks, especially in crystalline limestones: in eastern
Canada extensive beds of apatite occur in the limestones associ-
ated with the Laurentian gneisses. Still another mode of occur-
rence is presented by beautifully developed and transparent
crystals found with crystals of felspar and quartz lining the
crevices in the gneiss of the Alps. Crystallized apatite is also
occasionally found in metalliferous veins, other than those of
tin, and in beds of iron ore; whilst if the massive varieties
(phosphorite) be considered many other modes of occurrence
might be cited. (L. J. S.)
APATURIA ('ATaro&pta), an ancient Greek festival held
annually by all the Ionian towns except Ephcsus and Colophon
(Herodotus i. 147). At Athens it took place in the month of
Pyanepsion (October to November), and lasted three days, on
which occasion the various phratries {i.e. clans) of Attica met
to discuss their affairs. The name is a slightly modified form of
Airar6pia»A/iairar6pia, Oftowarbpua, the festival of "common
relationship." The ancient etymology associated it with Axdnj
(deceit), a legend existing that the festival originated in 1100 B.C.
in commemoration of a single combat between a certain Melan-
thus, representing King Thymoetes of Attica, and King Xanthus
of Bocotia, in which Melanthus successfully threw his adver-
sary off his guard by crying that a man in a black goat's skin
(identified with Dionysus) was helping him (Schol. Aristophanes,
A charnians, 146). On the. first day of the festival, called Dorpia
or Dorpeia, banquets were held towards evening at the meeting-
place of the phratries or in the private houses of members. On
the second, Anarrhysis (from oMappOnw, to draw back the
victim's head), a sacrifice of oxen was offered at the public cost
to Zeus Phratrius and Athena. On the third day, Cureotis
(Kovfxumt), children born since the last festival were presented
by their fathers or guardians to the assembled phratores, and,
after an oath had been taken as to their legitimacy and the
sacrifice of a goat or a sheep, their names were inscribed in the
register The name Kovp€umt is derived either from icoOpot,
that is, the day of the young, or less probably from xctpa,
because on this occasion young people cut their hair and offered
it to the gods. The victim was called prior. On this day also
it was the custom for boys still at school to declaim pieces of
poetry, and to receive prizes (Plato, Timacus, 21 b). According
to Hesychius these three days of the festival were followed by a
fourth, called M06a, but this is merely a general term for the
day after any festival.
API (Old Eng. apa; Dutch aap; Old Ger. afo; Welsh tpa\
Old Bohemian op; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an
Imitation of the animal's chatter), the generic English name,
till the 16th century, for animals of the monkey tribe, and still
used specifically for the tailless, manlike representatives of the
order Primates (q.v.). The word is now generally a synonym
for " monkey," but the common verb for both (as transferred
figuratively to human beings) is " to ape," i.e. to imitate.
APELDOORN. a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland,
and a junction station 26} m. by rail W. of Amersfoort. It is
connected by canal north and south with Zwolle and Zutphen
respectively. Pop. (rooo) 25,834- The neighbourhood of Apel-
doorn is very picturesque and well wooded. The Protestant
church was restored after a fire in 1 800. Close by is the favourite
country-seat of the royal family of Holland called the Loo.
It was originally a hunting-lodge of the dukes of Gelderland,
but in its present form dates chiefly from, the time of the Stadt-
holder William III., king of England. Apeldoorn possesses large
paper-mills.
APBLLA. the official title of the popular assembly at Sparta,
corresponding to the ecclesia in most other Greek states. Every
full citizen who had completed his thirtieth year was entitled to
attend the meetings, which, according to Lycurgus's ordinance,
must be held at the time of each full moon within the boundaries
of Sparta. They had in all probability taken place originally
in the Agora, but were later transferred to the neighbouring
building known as the Skias (Paus. iii. 12. 10). The presiding
officers were at first the kings, but in historical times the ephors,
and the voting was conducted by shouts; if the president was
doubtful as to the majority of voices, a division was taken and
the votes were counted. Lycurgus had ordained that the apella
must simply accept or reject the proposals submitted to it,
and though this regulation fell into neglect, it was practically
restored by the law of Thcopompus and Polydorus which em-
powered the kings and elders to set aside any " crooked "
decision of the people (Plut. Lycurg. 6). In later times, too, the
actual debate was almost, if not wholly, confined to the kings,
elders, ephors and perhaps the other magistrates. The apella
voted on peace and war, treaties and foreign policy in general:
it decided which of the kings should conduct a campaign and
settled questions of disputed succession to the throne: it elected
elders, ephors .and other magistrates, emancipated helots and
perhaps voted on legal proposals. There is a single reference
(Xen. Hell. iii. 3. 8) to a "small assembly" (^ §uxpa\
KakovpkvT) UkXijcicl) at Sparta, but nothing is known as to
its nature or competence. The term apella does not occur in
extant Spartan inscriptions, though two decrees of Gythium
belonging to the Roman period refer to the fuya\ai driXXcu
(Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage arcktologiquc, ii\, Nos. 242a, 241).
See G. Gilbert. Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens
(Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 49 ff. ; Studien tur altspartanischen Ceuhuktm
(Gottingcn, 1872), pp. 131 ff.;G. F. Schomann. Antiquities of Greet*;
The State (Eng. trans., 1880), pp. 234 ff. ; Dc eccUuis Locedatmoniorum
(Grief swald. 1836) [ = Opusc. academ. I pp. 87 ff.l; C. O. M filler.
History and Antiquities of the Doric Race (Eng. trans., 2nd ed. 1839).
book fii. eh. 5, $| 8-10; G. BusoJt, Die triechischen Stoats- uud
RechtiaUertumer, 1887 (in Iwan Mutter's Uandbuch der hUunukom
AUertumnrisuusckaft, iv. l),'| 90; Criechische Gcsdiickte (and ed.).
L p. 55*ff. (M.N.T.)
APELLES, probably the greatest painter of antiquity. He
lived from the time of Philip of Macedon till after the death of
Alexander. He was of Ionian origin, but after he had attained
some celebrity he became a student at the celebrated school of
Sicyon, where he worked under Pamphilus. He thus combined
the Dorian thoroughness with the Ionic grace. Attracted to
the court of Philip, he painted him and the young Alexander
with such success that he became the recognized court painter
of Macedon, and his picture of Alexander holding a thunderbolt
ranked with the Alexander with the spear of the sculptor
Lysippus. Other works of Apcllcs had a great reputation in
antiquity, such as the portraits of the Macedonians Gitus,
Archelaus and Antigonus, the procession of the high priest of
Artemis at Ephcsus, Artemis amid a chorus of maidens, a great
allegorical picture representing Calumny, and the noted paint*
ing representing Aphrodite rising out of the sea. Of none
of these works have we any copy, unless indeed we may
consider a painting of Alexander as Zeus in the house of the
Vettii at Pompeii as a reminiscence of his work; but some of
APELLICON— APENNINES
i6r
the Italian artists of the Renaissance repeated the subjects, in
a vain hope of giving some notion of the composition of them.
Few things are more hopeless than the attempt to realize
the style of a painter whose works have vanished. But a great
wealth of stories, true or invented, clung to Apelles in antiquity;
and modern archaeologists have naturally tried to discover what
they indicate. We are told, for example, that he attached great
value to the drawing of outlines, practising every day. The tale
is well known of his visit to Protogenes, and the rivalry of the
two masters as to which could draw the finest and steadiest line.
The power of drawing such lines is conspicuous in the decoration
of red-figured vases of Athens. Apelles is said to have treated
his rival with generosity, for he increased the value of his pictures
by spreading a report that he meant to buy them and sell them
as his own. Apelles allowed the superiority of some of his
contemporaries in particular matters: according to Pliny he
admired the dispositio of Melanthius, i*. the way in which he
spaced his figures, and the mensurae of Asclepiodorus, who
must have been a great master of symmetry and proportion.
It was especially in that undefinablc quality "grace" that
Apelles excelled. He probably used but a small variety of
colours, and avoided elaborate perspective: simplicity of
design, beauty of line and charm of expression were his chief
merits. When the naturalism of some of his works is praised —
for example, the hand of his Alexander is said to have stood out
from the picture— we must remember that this is the merit
always ascribed by ignorant critics to works which they admire.
In fact the age of Alexander was one of notable idealism, and
probably Apelles succeeded in a marked degree in imparting to
his figures a beauty beyond nature.
Apelles was also noted for improvements which he introduced
in technique. He had a dark glaze, called by Pliny akromentum,
whkh served both to preserve his paintings and to soften their
colour. There can be little doubt that he was one of the most
bold and progressive of artists. (P. G.)
APELLICON, a wealthy native of Teos, afterwards an Athenian
citizen, a famous book collector. He not only spent large turns
in the acquisition of his library, but stole original documents
from the archives of Athens and other cities of Greece. Being
detected, he fled in order to escape punishment, but returned
when Athenkm (or Aristion), a bitter opponent of the Romans,
had made himself tyrant of the city with the aid of Mithradates.
Athenkm sent him with some troops to Delos, to plunder the
treasures of the temple, but he showed little military capacity.
He was surprised by the Romans under the coatmand of Orobius
(or Orbtus), and only saved his life by flight. He died a little
later, probably in 84 B.C.
Apellicon's chief pursuit was the collection of rare and import-
ant books. He purchased from the family of Neleus of Skepsis
in the Tread manuscripts of the works of Aristotle and Theo-
phrastus (including their libraries), which had been given to
Neleus by Theophrastus himself, whose pupil Neleus had been.
They had been concealed in a cellar to prevent their falling into the
hands of the book-collecting princes of Pergamum, and were in
a very HilapHatM condition. Apellicon filled in the lacunae, and
brought out a new, but faulty, edition. In 84 Sulla removed
Apellicon's library to Rome (Strabo xiiL p. 600; Plutarch,
Suiia, 26). Here the MSS. were handed over to the grammarian
Tyrannion, who took copies of them, on the basis of which the
peripatetic philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes prepared an
edition of Aristotle's works. Apellicon's library contained a
remarkable old copy of the Iliad. He is said to have published
a biography of Aristotle, in which the calumnies of other bio-
graphers were refuted.
APEMMINB8 (Gr. 'Aremwr, Lat Appenttinuf-in both
cases used in. the singular), a range of mountains traversing
the entire peninsula of Italy, and forming, as it were, the
backbone of the country. The name is probably derived from
the Celtic pen, a mountain top: it originally belonged to the
northern portion of the chain, from the Maritime Alps to Ancona;
and Folybras is probably the first writer who applied it to the
whole chain, making, indeed, no distinction between the
Apennines and the Maritime Alps, and extending the former
name as far as Marseilles. Classical authors do not differentiate
the various parts of the chain, but use the name as a general
name for the whole. The total length is some 800 m. and the
maximum width 70 to 80 m.
Divisions. — Modern geographers divide the range into three
parts, northern, central and southern.
1. The northern Apennines are generally distinguished (though
there is no real solution of continuity) from the Maritime Alps
at the Bocehetta dell' Altare, some 5 m. W. of Savona on the
high road to Turin. 1 They again arc divided into three parts —
the Ligurian, Tuscan and Umbrian Apennines. The Ligurian
Apennines extend as far as the pass of La Cisa in the upper
valley of the Magra (anc. Macro) above Spezia; at first they
follow the curve of the Gulf of Genoa, and then run east-south-east
parallel to the coast. On the north and north-east lie the broad
plains of Piedmont and Lorobaxdy, traversed by the Po, the
chief tributaries of which from the Ligurian Apennines are the
Scrivia (0/tf6rib).Trebbi» {Trebia) and Taro {Torus), TheTanaro
(Tartarus), though largely fed by tributaries from the Ligurian
Apennines, itself rises in the Maritime Alps, while the rivers
on the south and south-west of the range are short and unim-
portant. The south side of the range rises steeply from the
sea, leaving practically no coast strip: its slopes are sheltered
and therefore fertile and highly cultivated, and the coast towns
are favourite winter resorts (see Riviera). The highest point
(the Monte Bue) reaches 5015 ft. The range is crossed by several
railways— the line from Savona to Turin (with a branch at Ceva
for Acqui), that from Genoa to Ovada and Acqui, the main lines
from Genoa to Novi, the junction for Turin and Milan (both
of which 1 pass under the Monte dci Giovi, the ancient Mons
Ioventius, by which the ancient Via Postumia ran from Genua
to Dertona), and that from Spezia to Parma under the pass of
La Cisa.* All these traverse the ritjge by long tunnels— that on
the new line from Genoa to Honco is upwards of 5 m. in length.
The Tuscan Apennines extend from the pass of La Cisa to the
sources of the Tiber. The main chain continues to run in an
east-south-east direction, but traverses the peninsula, the west
coast meanwhile turning almost due south. From the northern
slopes many rivers and streams run north and north-north-east
into the Po, the Secchia (Socio) and Panaro (Scultmno) being
among the most important, while farther east most of the rivers
are tributaries of the Reno (anc. RAc*hj). Other small streams,
e.g. the Ronco (Bedcsu) and Montone ( Utu), which flow into the
sea together east of Ravenna, were also tributaries of the Po;
and the Savio (Sapis) and the Rubicon seem to be the only
streams from this side of the Tuscan Apennines that ran directly
into the sea in Roman days. From the south-west side of the
main range the Arno(«; .».) and Serchio run into the Mediterranean.
This section of the Apennines is crossed by two railways, from
Pistoia to Bologna and from Florence to Faerua, and by several
good high roads, of which the direct road from Florence to
Bologna over the Futa pass is of Roman origin; and certain
places in it are favourite summer resorts. The highest point of
the chain is Monte Cimone (7 103 ft.). The so-called Alpi Apuane
(the Apuani were an ancient people of Liguria), a detached chain
south-west of the valley of the Serchio, rise to a maximum height
of 6100 ft ' They contain the famous marble quarries of Carrara.
The greater part of Tuscany, however, is taken up by lower bills,
which form no part of the Apennines, being divided from the
main chain by the valleys of the Arno, Chiana (Clanis) and
Paglia (Pallia). Towards the west they are rich in minerals and
chemicals, which the Apennines proper do not produce.
The Umbrian Apennines extend from the sources of the Tiber
to (or perhaps rather beyond) the pass of Scheggia near Cagli,
where the ancient Via FUminia crosses the range. The highest
point is the Monte Nerone (501 o ft). The chief river is the Tiber
itself: the others, among which the Foglia (Pisaurus), Metauro
1 The ancient Via Aemilia, built in 109 B.C., led over this pass,
but originally turned east to Dertona (mod. Tortona).
• There are two separate lines from Sampierdarena to Ronco
1 This pass was also traversed by a narades* Roman road.
l62
APENNINES
(MeUturus) and Esino* may be mentioned, run north-east into
the Adriatic, which is some 30 m. from the highest points of the
chain. This portion of the range is crossed near its southern
termination by a railway from Foligno to Ancona (which at
Fabriano has a branch to Mace rata and Porto Civitanova, on
the Adriatic coast railway), which may perhaps be conveniently
regarded as its boundary.* By some geographers, indeed, it is
treated as a part of the central Apennines.
2. The central Apennines are the most extensive portion of
the chain, and stretch as far as the valley of the Sangro {Sangrus).
To the north arc the Monti Sibillini, the highest point of which
is the Monte Vet tore (8128 ft.). Farther south three parallel
chains may be traced, the westernmost of which (the Monti
Sabini) culminates to the south in the Monte Viglio (7075 ft.),
the central chain in the Monte Terminillo (7260 ft.), and farther
south in the Monte Velino (8160 ft.), and the eastern in the
Gran Sasso d'ltalia (9560 ft.), the highest summit of the Apen-
nines, and the Maiella group (Monte Amaro, 91 70 ft.). Between
the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti, the valley
of the Salto (Himella), and the Lago Fucino; while between the
central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona.
The chief rivers on the west are the Nera (Nor), with its tribu-
taries the Velino ( V din us) and Salto, and the Anio, both of which
fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of
small rivers which flow into the Adriatic, from which the highest
points of the chain are some 25 m. distant, such as the Potenza
(Flosis), Chienti (Cltuntus), Tcnna {Tinmx), Tronto (Truentus),
Tordino (Hclvinus), Vomano (Vomanus), kc. The Pescara
(Aternus), which receives the Aterno from the north-west and
the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the
Sangro.
The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome
to Castelammare Adriatico via Avezzano and Sulmona: the
railway from Orte to Terai (and thence to Foligno) follows the
Nera valley; while from Term a line ascends to the plain of
Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it
follows the valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times
the Via Salaria, Via Caecilia and Via Valeria-Claudia all ran
from Rome to the Adriatic coast. The volcanic mountains of
the province of Rome arc separated from the Apennines by the
Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini, or Volscian mountains, by
the valleys of the Sacco and Liri.
3. In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro
valley, the three parallel chains are broken up into smaller
groups; among them may be named the Matese, the highest
point of which is the Monte Miletto (6725 ft.). The chief rivers
on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano (anc. Lifts), with its
tributary the Sacco (Trcrus), the Volturno (Voliumus), Sebeto
(Sabaius), Sarno (Sarnus), on the north the Trigno (Trinius),
Biferno (Tifernus), and Fortore (Pronto). The promontory of
Monte Gargano, on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the
volcanic groups near Naples. The district is traversed from
north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to
Benevento and on to Avellino, and from south-west to north-
cast by the railways from Caianello via Isemia to Campobasso
and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from
Nocera and Avellino to Rocchetta S. Antonio, the junction for
Foggia, Spinazzota (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto) and Potenza.
Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via
Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road
went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi, while the Via
Traiana ran nearly to Foggia and thence to Bari.
The valley of the Ofanto (Aufidus), which runs into the
Adriatic close to Barletta, marks the northern termination of
the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata),
which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the
Sele (on the west) and Basiento (on the east)— which form the
line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to
1 This river (anc. Aesis) was the boundary of Italy proper in the
3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.
1 The Monte Concro. to the south of Ancona, was originally an
island of the Pliocene sea.
Metaponto— the second range begins to run due north and
south as far as the plain of Sibari (Sybaris). The highest point
is the Monte Follino (73 25 ft.). The chief rivers are the Sele
(Sitarus)— joined by the Negro ( T onager) and Calore (Color)—
on the west, and the Bradano (Bradanus), Basiento (Castuntui),
Agri (Aciris), Sinni (Siris) on the east, which flow into the gulf
of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are
only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west,
inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some
40 m. The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagooegro,
ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to
Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia,
which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and
thence followed it to Reggio The Via Herculia, a branch of
the Via Traiana, ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient
Ncrulum. At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through
which the rivers Coscile (Sybaris) and Crati (CratkU) flow to
the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the
peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the
granite mountains of Calabria (anc. Bruit it) begin. The first
group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulls of S.
Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest
point reached is 6330 ft. (the Botte Donato). The forests which
covered it in ancient times supplied the Greeks and Sicilians
with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from S. Eufemia to
Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an
ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The
second group extends to the south end of the Italian peninsula,
culminating in the Aspromonte (6420 ft.) to the cast of Reggio
di Calabria. In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant.
Character.— The Apennines are to some extent clothed with
forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical
times (Pliny mentions especially pine, oak and beech woods,
Hist. Nat. xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in
comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling,
and though serious attempts at reafforestation have been made
by the government, much remains to be done. They also furnish
considerable summer pastures, especially in the Abruzzi: Pliny
{Hist. Nat. xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the
forests wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being
protected against them by large sheep-dogs; bears, however,
which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely dis-
appeared. Nor are the wild goats called rota*, spoken of by
Varro (R. R. II. i. 5), which may have been either chamois
or steinbock, to be found. Brigandage appears to have been
prevalent in Roman times in the remoter parts of the Apennines,
as it was until recently: an inscription found near the Furlo
pass was set up in ad. 246 by an evocatus Augusts (a member
of a picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of
twenty men from the Ravenna fleet (G. Henzen in Rdmiscke
MitUilungcn, 1887, 14). Snow lies on the highest peaks of the
Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no
minerals, but there are a considerable number of good mineral
springs, some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca,
Monte Catini, Monsummano, Porretta, Telese,&c), while others
are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini, Cindano, &c), the water
of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water
elsewhere. (T. As.)
Geology.— The Apennines are the continuation of the Alpine
chain, but the individual zones of the Alps cannot be traced into
the Apennines. The zone of the Brianconnais (see Alps) may
be followed as far as the Gulf of Genoa, but scarcely beyond,
unless it is represented by the Trias and older beds of the Apuan
Alps. The inner zone of crystalline and schistose rocks which
forms the main chain of the Alps, is absent in the Apennines
except towards the southern end. The Apennines, indeed,
consist almost entirely of Mesosotc and Tertiary beds, like the
outer zones of the Alps. Remnants of a former inner zone of
more ancient rocks may be seen in the Apuan Alps, in the islands
off the Tuscan coast, in the Catena Metaihfcra, Cape Ciroeo and
the island of Zannonc, as well as in the Calabrian peninsula.
These remnants lie at a comparatively low level,, and excepting
APENRADE— APHASIA
163
the Apuan Alps and the Calabrian peninsula they do not now
form any part of the Apennine chain. But that in Tertiary
times there was a high interior zone of crystalline rocks is
indicated by the character of the Eocene beds in the southern
Apennines. These are formed to a large extent of thick con-
glomerates which are, full of pebbles and boulders of granite and
schist. Many of the boulders are of considerable size and they
are often still angular. There is now no crystalline region from
which they could reach their present position; and this.and
other considerations have led the followers of E. Sueas to conclude
that even in Tertiary times a large land mass consisting of
ancient rocks occupied the space which is now covered by the
southern portion of the Tyrrhenian Sea. This old land mass
has been called Tyrrhenis, and probably extended from Sicily
into Latium and as far west as Sardinia. On the Italian border
of this land there was raised a mountain chain with an inner
crystalline zone and an outer zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary
beds. Subsequent faulting has' caused the subsidence of the
greater part of Tyrrhenis, including nearly the whole of the
inner zone of the mountain chain, and has left only the outer
zones standing as the present Apennines.
Be this as it may, the Apennines, excepting in Calabria, are
formed chiefly of Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene and
Miocene beds. In the south the deposits, from the Trias to the
middle Eocene, consist mainly of limestones, and were bid
down, with a few slight interruptions, upon a quietly subsiding
sea-floor. In the later 'part of the Eocene period began the
folding which gave rise to the existing chain. The sea grew
shallow, the deposits became conglomeratic and shaly, volcanic
eruptions began, and the present folds of the Apennines were
initiated. The folding and consequent elevation went on until
the dose of the Miocene period when a considerable subsidence
look place and the Pliocene sea overspread the lower portions
of the range. Subsequent elevation, without folding, has raised
these Pliocene deposits to a considerable height — in some cases
over 3000 ft. and they now lie almost undisturbed upon the
older folded beds. This last elevation led to the formation of
numerous lakes which are now filled up by Pleistocene deposits.
Both volcanic eruptions and movements of elevation and
depression continue to the present day on the shores of the
Tyrrhenian Sea. In the northern Apennines the elevation of the
5-ta floor appears to have begun at an earlier period, for the
Upper Cretaceous of that part of the chain consists largely of
sandstones and conglomerates. In Calabria the chain consists
chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks; it is the Mesozoic and
Tertiary zone which has here been sunk beneath the sea.
Similar rocks are found beneath the Trias farther north, in some
of the valleys of Basilicata. Glaciers no longer exist in the
Apennines, but Post-Pliocene moraines have been observed in
Basilicata.
References.— G. do Lorenzo, " Stud* di geotogia nell' Appennino
Meridional*/' Atti d. R. Accad. d. Set. Fis. e Mat., NapOH, eer. 2,
vol. via., no. 7 (1806); F. Sacco. "L' Appennino settentrionale,"
5etf. Soe. ge<*. Itat. (1803-1899). (P. La.)
APENRADE, a town of Germany in the Prussian province
of Schleswig, beautifully situated on the Apenrade Fjord, an
arm of the Little Belt, 38 m. N. of the town of Schleswig. Pop,
(1000) 5952. It is connected by a branch line with the main
railway of Schleswig, and possesses a good harbour, which affords
shelter for a large carrying trade. Fishing, shipbuilding and
various small factories provide occupation for the population.
The town is a bathing resort, as is Elisenlund close by.
APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open), an opening. In
optics, it is that portion of the diameter of an object-glass or
mirror through which light can pass free from obstruction. It
is equal to the actual diameter of the cylinder of rays admitted
by a telescope.
APEX, the Latin word (pi. apices) for the top, tip or peak
of anything. A diminutive " apiculus " is used in botany.
APHAnTTE. a name given (from the Gr. d^ai%, invisible)
to certain dark- coloured igneous rocks which are so finegrained
that their component minerals arc not detected by the unaided
eye. They consist essentially of plagiodase felspar, with horn-
blende or augite, and may contain also biotite, quartz and a
limited amount of orthoclase, Although a few authorities still
recognize the aphanites as a distinct class, most systematic
penologists, at the present time, have discarded it, and regard
these rocks as merely structural fades of other species. Those
which contain hornblende are uniform, fine-grained diorites,
vogesites, frc, while when pyroxene predominates they are
ascribed to the dolerites, quartz-dolerites, &c. Hence, any rock
which is compact, crystalline and fine grained, is frequently
said to be apkanitic, without implying exactly to Which of the
principal rock groups it really belongs.
APHASIA 1 (from Gr. a, privative, and 4*>t«, speech), a term
which means literally inability to speak, and is used to denote
various defects in the comprehension and expression of both
spoken and written language which result from lesions of the
brain. Aphasic disorders may be classed in two groups: — first,
receptive or sensory aphasia, which comprises (a) inability to
understand spoken language (auditory aphasia), and (0) inability
to read (visual aphasia, or alexia)', second, emissive or motor
aphasia, under which category are included (a) inability to speak
(motor vocal aphasia, or aphemia), and (0) inability to write
(motor graphic aphasia, or agraphia). It has been shown that
each of these defects is produced by destruction of a special
region of the cortex of the brain. These regions, which are
termed the speech centres, are, in right-handed people, situated
in the left cerebral hemisphere; this is the reason why aphasia
is so commonly associated with paralysis of the right side of the
body.
A study of the acquisition of the faculty of speech throws
light upon the education of the speech centres, and helps to
elucidate their physiological interaction and the phenomena of
aphasia. The auditory speech centre is the first to show signs
of functional activity, for within a few months of birth the child
begins to understand spoken language. Some months later the
motor vocal speech centre begins to functionate. The memories
of the auditory word images which are stored up in the auditory
speech centre play a most important part in the process of
learning to speak. The child born deaf grows up mute. The
visual speech centre comes into activity when the child is taught
to read. Again, when he learns to write and thus begins to
educate his graphic centre, he is constantly calling upon his
visual speech centre for the visual images of the words he wishes
to produce. From these remarks it will be seen that there is a
very intimate association between the auditory speech centre
and the motor vocal speech centre, also between the visual speech
centre and the graphic centre.
Auditory Aphasia. — The auditory speech centre is situated in
the posterior part of the first and second temporo-sphenoidal
convolutions on the left side of the brain. Destruction of this
centre causes " auditory aphasia." Hearing is unimpaired but
spoken language is quite unintelligible. The subject of auditory
aphasia may be compared to an individual who is listening to a
foreign language of which he does not understand a word.
Word deafness, a term often used as synonymous with auditory
aphasia, is misleading and should be abandoned. Auditory
aphasia commonly interferes with vocal expression, for the
1 Fn 1006 Pierre foaric of Paris expressed views (La Srmaine
medicate. May 2t and October 17, and elsewhere) upon the ques-
tion of aphasia which have given rise to much animated controversy,
since they are in many respects at complete variance with the
classical conception which has been represented in the present
article. Marie holds that Broca's convolution plays no special roie
in the function of speech. He admits that a lesion in the region of
the lenticular nucleus is followed by inability to speak, but this
defect is. in his opinion, to be regarded as an anarthna. He further
admits the production of sensory aphasia— the aphasia of vVcrmrkc,
a* he prefers to call it after its discoverer— by lesions which destroy
the angular and supramarginai gyri. and the upper two temporo-
sphenotdal convolutions, but he regards the essential foundation of
sensory aphasia as a diminution ol intelligence. There are. in his
opinion, no sensory images of language. Motor aphasia is, he believes,
nothing more than a combination of sensory aphasia and anarthna
These conclusions have been vigorously attacked, more especially
by Dejerine of Paris (La Press* medUaie. July 1906 and elsewhere).
164
APHELION— APHIDES
majority of people when they speak do so by recalling the
auditory memories of words stored up in the auditory speech
centre. Amnesia ver bolts is employed to designate failure to
call up in the memory the images of words which are needed for
purposes of vocal expression or silent thought.
Visual Aphasia or Alexia. — The visual speech centre, which is
located in the left angular gyrus, Is connected with the two
centres for vision which are situated one in either occipital lobe.
Destruction of the visual speech centre produces visual aphasia
or alexia. Word blindness, sometimes used as the equivalent
of visual aphasia, is, like word deafness, a misleading term.
The individual is not blind, he sees the words and letters per-
fectly, but they appear to him as unintelligible cyphers. When
the visual speech centre is destroyed, the memories of the visual
images of words are obliterated and interference with writing,
a consequence of amnesia verbalis, results. On the other hand,
when the lesion is situated deeply in the occipital lobe, and does
not implicate the cortex, but merely cuts off the connexions of
the angular gyrus with both visual centres, agraphia is not
produced, fox the visual word centre and its connexion with
the graphic centre are still intact (pure, or sub-cortical word
blindness).
Molar Vocal Aphasia or Aphonia— The centre for motor
vocal speech is situated in the posterior part of the third left
frontal convolution and extends on to the foot of the left ascend-
ing frontal convolution (Broca's convolution). Complete destruc-
tion of this region produces loss of speech, although it often
happens that a few words, such as " yes " and " no," and, it
may be, emotional exclamations such as "Oh! dear I" and the
like are retained. The utterance of unintelligible sounds is still
possible, however, and there is neither defective voice production
(aphonia) nor paralysis of the mechanism of articulation. The
individual can recall the auditory and visual images of the words
which he wishes to use, but his memory for the complicated,
co-ordinated movements which he acquired in the process of
learning to speak, and which are necessary for vocal expression,
has been blotted out. In the great majority of cases of motor
vocal aphasia there is associated agraphia, a circumstance which
is perhaps to be accounted for by the proximity of the graphic
centre. When the lesion is situated below the cortex of Broca's
convolution but destroys the fibres which pass from it towards
the internal capsule, agraphia is not produced (sub-cortical or
pure motor vocal aphasia). Destruction of the auditory speech
centre is, as we have seen, commonly accompanied by more or
less interference with vocal speech, a consequence of amnesia
verbalis.
Agraphia. — Discussion still rages as to the presence of a special
writing centre. Those who favour the separate existence of a
graphic centre locate it in the second left frontal convolution.
It may be that the want of unanimity as to the graphic
centre is to be explained by an anatomical relationship so close
between the graphic centre and that for the fine movement of
the hand that a lesion in this situation which produces agraphia
must at the same time cause a paralysis of the hand. Destruction
of the visual speech centre by obliterating the visual memories of
words (amnesia verbalis) produces agraphia. Further, several
instances are on record in which agraphia has followed destruc-
tion of the commissure between the visual speech centre and the
graphic centre. As already mentioned, agraphia is very often
associated with motor vocal aphasia.
A number of aphasic defects arc met with in addition to those
already mentioned. Thus paraphasia is a condition in which
the patient makes use of words other than those he intends.
He may mix up his words so that his conversation is quite
unintelligible. In the most pronounced forms he gabbles away,
employing unrecognizable sounds in place of words (jargon and
gibberish aphasia). Paragraphia is a similar defect which occurs
in writing. Both paraphasia and paragraphia may be produced
by partial lesions of the sensory speech centres or of the com-
missures which connect these with the motor centres. Object
blindness (syn. mind-blindness) refers to an inability to recognize
an object or its uses by the aid of sight alone. The probable
explanation would seem to be that the ordinary centre for vision
has been isolated from the other sensory centres with which it
is connected. Not uncommonly there is associated visual
aphasia. Optic aphasia was introduced to designate a somewhat
similar state in which, although the uses of an object are recog-
nized, the patient cannot name it at sight, yet, if it is of such a
nature that it appeals directly to one of the other senses, he may
at once be able to name it. Tactile aphasia is a rare defect in
which there exists an inability to recognize an object by touch
alone although the qualities which, under normal circumstances,
suffice for its detection can be accurately described. Ammsia,
or loss of the musical faculty, may occur in association with or
independent of aphasia. There is reason for believing that
special receptive and emissive centres exist for the musical
sense exactly analogous to those for speech.
The speech centres are all supplied by the left middle cerebral
artery. When this artery is blocked close to its origin by an
embolus or thrombus, total aphasia results. It may be, however,
that only one of the smaller branches of the artery is obstructed,
and, according to the region of the brain to which this branch
is distributed, one or more of the speech centres may be destroyed.
Occlusion of the left posterior cerebral artery causes extensive
softening of the occipital lobe and produces pure word blindness.
Further, a tumour, abscess, haemorrhage or meningitis may be
so situated as to damage or destroy the individual speech centres
or their connecting commissures. The amount of recovery to
be expected in any given case depends upon the nature, situation
and extent of the lesion, and upon the age of the patient. Even
after complete destruction of the speech centres, perfect recovery
may take place, for the centres in the right hemisphere of the
brain are capable of education. This is only possible in young
individuals. In the great majority of instances the nature of
the lesion is such as to render futile all treatment directed
towards it removal. In suitable cases, however, the education
of the right side of the brain may be very greatly assisted by an
intelligent application of scientific methods.
BiDMOGRAFHY. — Broca, Bulletin de la SocitU anatomique (1861):
Wernicke, Der Aphasische Symptomcn-complex (Brcsuu, 1874);
Kussmaul, Ziemssen's Cychpaedta, vol. xiv. p. 759: Wyllic. The
Disorders of Speech (1895): Elder, Aphasia and the Cerebral Speech
Mechanism (1897): Collins, The Faculty of Speech (1897); Baalian.
Aphasia and oilier Speech Defect i (1898) ; Byrom BramwcU, " Will-
making and Aphasia," British Medical Journal (1897): "The
Mortson Lectures on Aphasia," The Lancet (1906). See also the
works of Charcot, H lightings Jackson. Dejerinc, Lichtheim, Pit res.
Grasset, Ross, Broadbcnt. MilK Raleman. Mirallie, Exncr, Marie
and others. (J- B. T.)
APHELION (from Gr. o>6, from, and JfXtos, sun), in astronomy,
that point of the orbit of a planet at which it is most distant
from the sun. Apogee, Apoccntrc, Aposalurnium, &c. arc terms
applied to those points of the orbit of a body moving around a
centre of force — as the Earth, Saturn, &c— at which it is
farthest from the central body.
APHBMIA (from Gr. a, without, and <Htnn, speech), in patho-
logy, the loss of the power of speech (see Aphasia).
APHIDES (pi. of Aphis), minute insects, also known as
" plant-lice," " Wight," and "green-fly," belonging to the
homopterous division of the order Hcmiplera, with long antennae
and legs, two- jointed, two-clawed tarsi, and usually a pair of
abdominal tubes through which a waxy secretion is exuded.
These tubes were formerly supposed to secrete the sweet substance
known as " honey-dew " so much sought after by ants; but
this is now known to come from the alimentary canal. Both
winged and wingless forms of both sexes occur, and the wings
when present arc normal in number, that is to say two pairs.
Apart from their importance from the economic standpoint.
Aphides are chiefly remarkable for the phenomena connected
with the propagation of the species. The following brief
summary of ijiat takes place in the plant-louse of the rose
(Aphis rosae), may be regarded as typical of the family, though
exceptions occur in other species. Eggs produced in the autumn
by fertilized females remain on the plant through the winter
and hatching in the spring give rise to. female individuals
which may be winged or wingless. From these females are bora
APHORISM— APHRAATES
165
parthenogenetically, that is to say without the intervention of
males, and by a process that has been compared to internal bud-
ding, large numbers of young resembling their parents in every
particular except size, which themselves reproduce their kind
in the same way. This process continues throughout the summer,
generation after generation being produced until the number
of descendants from a single individual of the spring-hatched
brood may amount to very many thousands. In the autumn
winged males appear, union between the sexes takes place and
the females lay the fertilized eggs which are destined to carry
the species through the cold months of winter. If, however,
the food-plant is grown in a conservatory where protection
against cold is afforded, the aphides may go on reproducing
agamogcnctically without cessation for many years together.
Not the least interesting features connected with this strange
life-history are the facts that the young may be born by the
oviparous or viviparous methods and either gamogenetically
or agamogenetically, and may develop into winged forms or
remain wingless, and that the males only appear in any number
at the close of the season. Although the factors which determine
these phenomena are not clearly understood, it is believed that
the appearance of the males is connected with the increasing
cold of autumn and the growing scarcity of food, and that the
birth of winged females is similarly associated with decrease in
the quantity or vitiation of the quality of the nourishment
imbibed. Sometimes the winged females migrate from the
plant they were born on to start fresh colonics on others often
of quite a different kind. Thus the apple blight (Aphis mali)
after producing many generations of apterous females on its
typical food-plant gives rise to winged forms which fly away
and settle upon grass or corn-stalks.
Closely related to the typical aphides is Phylloxera vaslatrix,
the insect which causes enormous loss by attacking the leaves
and roots of vines. It* life-history is somewhat similar to that of
Aphis rosae summarized above. In the autumn a single fertile
egg is laid by apterous females in a crevice of the bark of the
vine where it is protected during the winter. From this egg in
the spring emerges an apterous female who makes a gall in the
new leaf and lays therein a large number of eggs. Some of the
apterous young that are hatched from these form fresh galls
and continue to multiply in the leaves, others descend to the
root of the plant, becoming what are known as root-forms.
These, like the parent form of spring, reproduce parthenogenetic-
ally, giving rise to generation after generation of egg-laying
individuals. In the course of the summer, from some of these
eggs arc hatched females which acquire wings and lay eggs from
which wingless males and females are born. From the union of
the sexes comes the fertile egg from which the parent form of
spring is hatched.
See generally C. B. Buckton, British Aphides (Ray Soc. 1876-
1SS3) ; also Economic Entomology. (R. I. P.)
APHORISM (from the Gr. d^op^etr, to define), literally a
distinction or a definition, a term used to describe a principle
expressed tersely in a few telling words or any general truth
conveyed in a short and pithy sentence, in such a way that when
once heard it is unlikely to pass from the memory. The name
was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, a long series of
propositions concerning the symptoms and diagnosis of disease
and the art of healing and medicine. The term came to be
applied later to other sententious statements of physical science,
and later still to statements of all kinds of principles. Care
must be taken not to confound aphorisms with axioms. Aphor-
isms came into being as the result of experience, whereas axioms
are self-evident truths, requiring no proof, and appertain to
pure reason. Aphorisms have been especially used in dealing with
subjects to which no methodical or scientific treatment was
applied till late, such as art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence
and politics. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates form far the most
celebrated as well as the earliest collection of the kind, and it
may be interesting to quote a few examples. " Old men support
abstinence well: people of a ripe age less well: young folk
badly, and children less well than all the rest, particularly those
of them who are very lively." " Those who are very fat by nature
are more exposed to die suddenly than those who are thin."
" Those who eject foaming blood, eject it from the lung."
"When two illnesses arrive at the same time, the stronger
silences the weaker." The first aphorism, perhaps the best
known of all, which serves as a kind of introduction to the book,
runs as follows: — " Life is short, art is long, opportunity fugitive,
experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult: it is necessary
not only to do oneself what is right, but also to be seconded by
the patient, by those who attend him, by external circum-
stances." Another famous collection of aphorisms is that of the
school of Salerno in Latin verse, in which Joannes de Meditano,
one of the most celebrated doctors of the school of medicine of
Salerno, has summed up the precepts of this school. The book
was dedicated to a king of England. It is a disputed point as
to which king, some authorities dating the publication as at 1066,
others assigning a later date. The dedication gives the following
excellent advice: —
" Anglorum regi acribit schola tota Salernae.
Si vis incolumem, si vis tc redderc sanum,
Curas tolle graves: irasci credc profanum :
Parce mero: cocnato parum; non sit tibi vanum
Surgere post epulas: somnum fuge roeridianum:
Ne mictum ratine, nee comprimc fortiter anum:
Haec bene si serves, tu longo tempore vives."
Another collection of aphorisms, also medical and also in
Latin, is that of the Dutchman Hermann Boerhaave, published
at Leiden in the year 1709; it gives a terse summary of the
medical knowledge prevailing at the time, and is of great interest
to the student of the history of medicine.
APHRAATES (a Greek form of the Persian name Aphrahat or
Pharhadh), a Syriac writer belonging to the middle of the 4th
century a. o., who composed a scries of twenty-three expositions
or homilies on points of Christian doctrine and practice. The
first ten were written in 337, the following twelve in 344, and
the last in 345. 1 The author was early known as hakkimd
phdrsdyd ("the Persian sage"), was a subject of Sapor II., and
was probably of heathen parentage and himself a convert from
heathenism. He seems at some time in his life to have assumed
the name of Jacob, and is so entitled in the colophon to a MS.
of a.d. 512 which contains twelve of his homilies. Hence he was
already by Gcnnadius of Marseilles (before 496) confused with
Jacob, bishop of Nisibis; and the ancient Armenian version of
nineteen of the homilies has been published under this latter
name. But (1) Jacob of Nisibis, who attended the council of
Nicaea, died in 338; and (2) our author, being a Persian subject,
cannot have lived at Nisibis, which became Persian only by
Jovian's treaty of 363. That his name was Aphrahat or
Pharhadh we learn from comparatively late writers — Bar Bahlul
(loth century), Elias of Nisibis (nth), Bar-Hcbraeus, and
'Abhd-Ishd*. George, bishop of the Arabs, writing in a.d. 7 14 to a
friend who had sent him a series of questions about the " Persian
sage," confesses ignorance of his name, home and rank, but
infers from his homilies that he was a monk, and of high esteem
among the clergy. The fact that in 344 he was selected to draw
up a circular letter from a council of bishops and other clergy to
the churches of Seleucia and Ctesiphon and elsewhere— included
in our collection as homily 14— is held by Dr W. Wright and
others to prove that he was a bishop. According to a marginal
note in a 14th-century MS. (B.M. Orient 1017), he was " bishop
of Mar Mattai," a famous monastery near Mosul, but it is un-
likely that this institution existed so early. The homilies of
Aphraates are intended to form, as Professor Burkitt has shown,.
" a full and ordered exposition of the Christian faith." The
standpoint is that of the Syriac-speakiag church, before it was
touched by the Arian controversy. Beginning with faith as the
foundation, the writer proceeds to build up the structure of
doctrine and duty. The first ten homilies, which form one
division completed in 337, are without polemical reference;
1 Horn. l-aa begin with the letters of the Syriac alphabet in suc-
cession. Their present order in the Syriac MSS. is therefore right.
The ancient Armenian version, published by Antonelli in 1756, hat
only 19 of the homilies, and those in a somewhat different order.
i66
APHRODITE
their subjects ate faith, love, fasting, prayer, wars (a somewhat
mysterious setting forth of the conflict between Rome and
Persia under the imagery of Daniel), the sons of the covenant
(monks or ascetics), penitents, the resurrection, humility,
pastors. Those numbered n-12, written in 344, are almost all
directed against the Jews; the subjects are circumcision,
passover, the sabbath, persuasion (the encyclical letter referred
to above), distinction of meats, the substitution of the Gentiles
for the Jews, that Christ is the Son of God, virginity and holiness,
whether the Jews have been finally rejected or are yet to be
restored, provision for the poor, persecution, death and the last
times. Ine 23rd homily, on the " grape kernel " (Is. lxv. 8),
written in 344, forms an appendix on the Messianic fulfilment of
prophecy, together with a treatment of the chronology from
Adam to Christ. Aphraates impresses a reader favourably by
his moral earnestness, his guilelessness, his moderation in con-
troversy, the simplicity of his style and language, his saturation
with the ideas and words of Scripture. On the other hand, he is
full of cumbrous repetition, he lacks precision in argument and
is prone to digression, his quotations from Scripture are often
inappropriate, and he is greatly influenced by Jewish exegesis.
He is particularly fond of arguments about numbers. How
wholly he and bis surroundings were untouched by the Arian
conflict may be judged from the 17th homily — " that Christ is
the Son of God." He argues that, as the name " God " or " Son
of God " was given in the O.T. to men who were worthy, and as
God does not withhold from men a share in His attributes — such
as sovereignty and fatherhood— it was fitting that Christ who
has wrought salvation for mankind should obtain this highest
name. From the frequency of his quotations, Aphraates is a
specially important witness to the form in which the Gospels
were read in the Syriac church in his day; Zahn and others
have shown that he— mainly at least— used the DiaUssaron.
Finally, he bears important contemporary witness to the suffer-
ings of the Christian church in Persia under Sapor (Shapur) II.
as well as the moral evils which had infected the church, to the
sympathy of Persian Christians with the cause of the Roman
empire, to the condition of early monastic institutions, to the
practice of the Syriac church in regard to Easter, &c
Editions by W. Wright (London, 1869), and J. Parisot (with
Latin translation, Paris. 1894); the ancient Armenian version of
19 homilies edited, translated into Latin, and annotated by Anto-
nelli (Rome, 1756)- Besides translations of particular homilies by
G. Bickell and E. VV. Budge, the whole have been translated by
G. Bert (Leipzig. 1888). Cf. also C. J. F. Sasse. Proleg. in Aphr.
Sapient is Ptrsae srrmones homilclicos (Leipzig, 1879); j. Forget,
De Vila el Scripiis Aphraatis (Louvain, 1882); F. C. Burkitt, Early
Eastern Christianity (London, 1904); J. Labourt, Le Christianisme
dans f empire terse (Paris, 1904); J. Zahn, Forsckungen I.;
" Aphraates and the Diatcssaron," vol. ii. pp. i8o»i86 of Burkitt's
Evangelion Da-Metharreshe (Cambridge, 1904); articles on
" Aphraates and Monasticism," by R. H. Connolly and Burkitt
in Journal of Theological Studies (1905) PP- 522-539; (1906) pp.
10-15. (N. M.)
APHRODITE, 1 the Greek goddess of love and beauty, counter-
part of the Roman Venus. Although her myth and cult were
essentially Semitic, she soon became Hcllcnized and was admitted
to a place among the deities of Olympus. Some mycologists
hold that there already existed in the Greek system an earlier
goddess of love, of similar attributes, who was absorbed by the
Asiatic importation; and one writer (A. Enmann) goes so far
as to deny the oriental origin of Aphrodite altogether. It is
therefore necessary first to examine the nature and character-
istics of her Eastern prototype, and then to see how far they
reappear in the Greek Aphrodite.
Among the Semitic peoples (with the notable exception of
the Hebrews) a supreme female deity was worshipped under
different names— the Assyrian Ishtar, the Phoenician Ashtoreth
(Astarte), the Syrian Atargatis (Derketo), the Babylonian Bclit
(Mylitta), the Arabian Hat (Al-ilat). The article " Aphrodite "
» No satisfactory etymology of the name has been given ; although
the first pan is usually referred to 4*>6t ("the sea foam"), it is
equally probable that it is of Eastern origin. F. Homoll (JakrbAcker
fir elasstscke Philologie, exxv., 1882) explains it as a corruption of
Ashtofeth ; for other derivations ace O. Gruppe, Gnechische Mytho-
logie, ii. p. 1448, note a.
in Roschcr's Lexikon der Mythologie is based upon the theory
that all these were originally moon-goddesses, on which assump-
tion all their functions are explained. This view, however, has
not met with general acceptance, on the ground that, in Semitic
mythology, the moon is always a male divinity; and that the
full moon and crescent, found as attributes of Astarte, are due
to a misinterpretation of the sun's disk and cow's horns of Isis,
the result of the dependence of Syrian religious art upon Egypt.
On the other hand, there is some evidence in ancient authorities
(Herodian v. 6, 10; Lucian, De Dea Syria, 4) that Astarte and
the moon were considered identical.
This oriental Aphrodite was worshipped as the bestower of
all animal and vegetable fruitfulness, and under this aspect
especially as a goddess of women. This worship was degraded
by repulsive practices (e.g. religious prostitution, self-mutilation),
which subsequently made their way to centres of Phoenician
influence, such as Corinth and Mount Eryx in -Sicily. In this
connexion may be mentioned the idea of a divinity, half male,
half female, uniting in itself the active and passive functions of
creation, a symbol of luxuriant growth and productivity. Such
was the bearded Aphrodite of Cyprus, called Aphroditos by
Aristophanes according to Macrobius, who mentions a statue
of the androgynous divinity in his Saturnalia (iii. 8. 2; see also
Heuiafhroditus). The moon, by its connexion with men-
struation, and as the cause of the fertilizing dew, was regarded as
exercising an influence over the entire animal and vegetable
creation.
The Eastern Aphrodite was closely related to the sea and the
element of moisture; in fact, some consider that she made her
first appearance on Greek soil rather as a marine divinity than
as a nature goddess. According to Syrian ideas, as a fish goddess,
she represented the fructifying power of water. At Ascalon
there was a lake full of fish near the temple of Atargatis-Derketo,
into which she was said to have been thrown together with her
son Ichthys (fish) as a punishment for her arrogance, and to
have been devoured by fishes; according to another version,
ashamed of her amour with a beautiful youth, which resulted
in the birth of Semiramis, she attempted to drown herself, but
was changed into a fish with human face (see Atargatis). At
Hierapolis (Bambyce) there was a pool with an altar in the
middle, sacred to the goddess, where a festival was held, at which
her images were carried into the water. Her connexion with the
sea is explained by the influence of the moon on the tides, and
the idea that the moon, like the sun and the stars, came up from
the ocean.
The oriental Aphrodite is connected with the lower world, and
came to be looked upon as one of its divinities. Thus, Ishtar
descends to the kingdom of Hat the queen of the dead, to find
the means of restoring her favourite Tammux (Adon, Adonis)
to life. During her stay all animal and vegetable productivity
ceases, to begin again with her return to earth— a dear indication
of the conception of her as a goddess of fertility. This legend,
which strikingly resembles, that of Persephone, probably refers
to the decay of vegetation in winter, and the reawakening of
nature in spring (cf. Hyactnthus). The lunar theory connects
it with the disappearance of the moon at the time of change or
during an eclipse.
Another aspect of her character is that of a warlike goddess,
armed with spear or bow, sometimes wearing a mural crown,
as sovereign lady and protectress of the locality where she was
worshipped. The spear and arrows are identified with the
beams of the sun and moon.
The attributes of the goddess were the ram, the he-goat, the
dove, certain fish, the cypress, myrtle and pomegranate, the
animals being symbolical of fertility, the plants remedies against
sterility.
The worship of Aphrodite at an early date was introduced
into Cyprus, Cythera and Crete by Phoenician colonists, whence
it spread over the whole of Greece, and as far west as Italy and
Sicily. In Crete she has been identified with Ariadne, who,
according to one version of her story, was put ashore in Cyprus,
where she died and was buried in a grove called after the name
APHRODITE
167
of Ariadne-Aphrodite (L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek Stales,
H p. 663) . Cyprus was regarded as her true home by the Greeks,
and Cythera was one of the oldest seats of her worship (cf. her
titles Cytherca, Cypris, Paphia, Amathusia, Idalia— the last
three from places in Cyprus). In both these islands there
lingered a definite tradition of a connexion with the cult of the
oriental Aphrodite Urania, an epithet which will be referred to
later. The oriental features of her worship as practised at
Corinth are due to its early commercial relations with Asia
Minor; the fame of her temple worship on Mount Eryx spread
to Carthage, Rome and Latium.
In the Iliad, Aphrodite is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, a
name by which she herself is sometimes called. This has been
supposed to point to a confusion between Aphrodite and Hebe,
I the daughter of Zeus and Hera, Dione being an Epirot name
J for the last-named goddess: In the Odyssey, she is the wife of
I Hephaestus, her place being taken in the Iliad by Chans, the
! personification of grace and divine skill, possibly supplanted
! by Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. Her amour
I with Ares, by whom she became the mother of Harraonia, the
wife of Cadmus, is famous (Od. viii. 266). From her relations
with these acknowledged Hellenic divinites it is argued that there
once existed a primitive Greek goddess of love. This view is
examined in detail and rejected by Farnell (Cults, ii. pp. 619-626).
It is admitted that few traces remain of direct relations of the
Greek goddess to the moon, although such possibly survive in
the epithets waau^arfs, ikOTt.pl*, oiip+vla. It is suggested that
this is due to the fact that, at the time of the adoption of the
oriental goddess, the Greeks already possessed lunar divinities
in Hecate, Selene, Artemis. But, although her connexion with
the moon has practically disappeared, in all other aspects a
development from the Semitic divinity is clearly manifest.
Aphrodite as the goddess of all fruitfulness in the animal and
vegetable world is especially prominent. In the Homeric hymn
to Aphrodite she is described as ruling over all living things on
earth, in the air, and in the water, even the gods being subject
to her influence. She is the goddess of gardens, especially
worshipped in spring and near lowlands and marshes, favourable
to the growth of vegetation. As such in Crete she is called
Antheia (" the flower-goddess "), at Athens iv rqirois (" in the
gardens "), and Iv xaXApois (" in the reed-beds ") or to «Xa
(" in the marsh ") at Samos. Her character as a goddess of
vegetation is clearly shown in the cult and ritual of Adonis
(?.«.; also Farnell, ii. p. 644) and Attis (q.v.). In the animal
world she is the goddess of sexual impulse; amongst men, of
birth, marriage, and family life. To this aspect may be referred
the names Genetyllis (" bringing about birth "), Anna (&pw,
" to join," #.*., in marriage, cf. Harmonia), Nymphia (" bridal
goddess "), Kourotrophos (" rearer of boys "). Aphrodite
Apaturus (see G. M. Hirst in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxiii,
1903) refers to her connexion with the clan and the festival
Apaturia, at which children were admitted to the phr atria. It
is pointed out by Farnell that this cult of Aphrodite, as the
patroness of married life, is probably a native development of
the Greek religion, the orienial legends representing her by no
means as an upholder of the purer relations of man and woman.
As the goddess of the grosser form of love she inspires both men
and women with passion (kurrpofta, " turning them to "
thoughts of love), or the reverse (Aroorpo^a, " turning them
stay "). Upon her male favourites (Paris, Theseus) she bestows
the fatal gift of seductive beauty, which generally leads to
disastrous results in the case of the woman (Helen, Ariadne).
As jtttxorfn* (" contriver ") she acts as an intermediary for
bringing lovers together, a similar idea being expressed in vpa$it
(of "success" in love, ot=creairix). The two epithets avBpoipovos
(" man-slayer ") and oowapopa, (" man-preserver ") find an
illustration in the pseudo-Plautine (in the if creator) address to
Astarte, who is described as the life and death, the saviour and
destroyer of men and gods* It was natural that a personality
invested with such charms should be regarded as the ideal of
womanly beauty, but it is remarkable that the only probable
instance in which she appears as such is as Aphrodite popQb
(" form ") at Sparta (O. Gruppe suggests the meaning " ghost,' 1
C. Tumpel the " dark one," referring to Aphrodite's connexion
with the lower world). The function of Aphrodite as the
patroness of courtesans represents the most degraded form of
her worship as the goddess of love, and is certainly of Phoenician
or Eastern origin. In Corinth there were more than a thousand
of these Up6bov\oi (" temple slaves "), and wealthy men made
it a point of honour to dedicate their most beautiful slaves to
the service of the goddess.
Like her oriental prototype, the Greek Aphrodite was closely
connected with the sea. Thus, in the Hesiodic account of her
birth, she is represented as sprung from the foam which gathered
round the mutilated member of Uranus, and her name has been
explained by reference to this. Further proof may be found in
many of her titles— dyaJuojifonf (" rising from the sea "), efarXota
(" giver of prosperous voyages "), ya\rivala (" goddess of fair
weather"), xarammria ("she who keeps a look-out from the*
heights ")— in the attribute of the dolphin, and the veneration
in which she was held by seafarers. Aphrodite Aineias, the
protectress of the Trojan hero, is probably also another form
of the maritime goddess of the East (see E. WSrner, article
" Aineias " in Roscher's Lexikon, and Farnell. ii. p. 638), which
originated in the Troad, where Aphrodite Aineias may have
been. identical with the earth-goddess Cybele. The title tyunros
is connected with the legend of Aeneas, who is said to have
dedicated to his mother a statue that represented her on horse-
back. Remembering the importance of the horse in the cult
of the sea-god Poseidon, it is natural to associate it with Aphro-
dite as the sea-goddess, although it may be explained with
reference to her character as a goddess of vegetation, the horse
being an embodiment of the corn-spirit (see J. G. Frazer, Tke
Golden Bough, ii., 1900, p. 281).
Like Ishtar, Aphrodite was connected with the lower world.
Thus, at Delphi there was an image of Aphrodite hxrv/ifiia
(" Aphrodite of the tomb ") t to which the dead were summoned
to receive libations; the epithets rvn0wpvx<» ("grave-digger"),
livxla (" goddess of the depths "), ntXatvit (" the dark one "),
the grave of Ariadne-Aphrodite at Amatbus, and the myth of
Adonis, point in the same direction.
The cult of the armed Aphrodite probably belongs to the
earlier period of her worship in Greece, and down to the latest
period of Greek history she retained this character in some of the
Greek states. The cult is found not only where oriental influence
was strongest, but in places remote from it, such as Sparta,
where she was known by the name of Areia (" the warlike "),
and there are numerous references in the Anthology to an
Aphrodite armed with helmet and spear. It is possible that the
frequent association of Aphrodite with Ares is to be explained
by an armed Aphrodite early worshipped at Thebes, the most
ancient scat of the worship of Ares.
The most distinctively oriental title of the Greek Aphrodite
is Urania, the Semitic " queen of the heavens." It has been
explained by reference to the lunar character of the goddess,
but more probably signifies "she whose seat is in heaven,"
whence she exercises her sway over the whole world — earth, sea,
and air alike. Her cult was first established in Cy thcra, probably
in connexion with the purple trade, and at Athens it is associated
with the legendary Porphyrion, the purple king. At Thebes,
Harmonia (who has been identified with Aphrodite herself)
dedicated three statues, of Aphrodite Urania, Pandemos, and
Apostrophia. A few words must be added on the second of
these titles. There is no doubt that Pandemos was originally an
extension of the idea of the goddess of family and city life to
include the whole people, the political community. Hence the
name was supposed to go back to the time of Theseus, the reputed
author of the reorganization of Attica and its demes. Aphrodite
Pandemos was held in equal regard with Urania; she was called
ae/anj ("holy"), and was served by priestesses upon whom strict
chastity was enjoined. In time, however, the meaning of the
term underwent a change, probably due to the philosophers
and moralists, by whom a radical distinction was drawn be-
tween Aphrodite Urania and Pandemos. According to Plato
1 68
APHTHONIU&— APIS
(Symposium, 180), there are two Aphrodites, " the elder, having
no mother, who is called the heavenly Aphrodite— she is the
daughter of Uranus; the younger, who is the daughter of Zeus
and Dione— her we call common." The same distinction is
found in Xenophon's Symposium (viii. 9), although the author is
doubtful whether there are two goddesses, or whether Urania
and Pandemos are two names for the same goddess, just as Zeus,
although one and the same, has many titles; but in any case,
he says, the ritual of Urania is purer, more serious, than that of
Pandemos. The same idea is expressed in the statement (quoted
by Athenacus, 569 J, from Nicandcr of Colophon) that after
Solon's time courtesans were put under the protection of Aphro-
dite Pandemos. But there is no doubt that the cult of Aphrodite
was on the whole as pure as that of any other divinities, and
although a distinction may have existed in later times between
the goddess of legal marriage and the goddess of free love, these
titles do not express the idea. Aphrodite Urania was represented
in Greek art on a swan, a tortoise or a globe; Aphrodite Pan-
demos as riding on a goat, symbolical of wantonness. (For the
legend of Theseus and Aphrodite hnrpayta, "on the goat," see
Farnell, Culls, ii. p. 633-)
To her oriental attributes the following may be added: the
sparrow and hare (productivity), the wry-neck (as a love-charm,
of which Aphrodite was considered the inventor), the swan and
dolphin (as a marine divinity), the tortoise (explained by Plutarch
as a symbol of domesticity, but connected by Gruppe with the
marine deity), the rose, the poppy, and the lime tree.
In ancient art Aphrodite was at first represented clothed,
sometimes seated, but more frequently standing; then naked,
rising from the sea, or after the bath. Finally, all idea of the
divine vanished, and the artists merely presented her as the
type of a beautiful woman, with oval face, full of grace and
charm, languishing eyes, and laughing mouth, which replaced
the dignified severity and repose of the older forms. The most
famous of her statues in ancient times was that at Cnidus, die
work of Praxiteles, which was imitated on the coins of that town,
and subsequently reproduced in various copies, such as the
Vatican and Munich. Of existing statues the most famous is
the Aphrodite of Melos (Venus of Milo), now in the Louvre,
which was found on the island in 1830 amongst the ruins of the
theatre; the Capitoline Venus at Rome and the Venus of Capua,
represented as a goddess of victory (these two exhibit a lofty
conception of the goddess); the Medicean Venus at Florence,
found in the porticus of Octavia at Rome and (probably wrongly)
attributed to Cleomenes; the Venus stooping in the bath, in the
Vatican; and the Callipygos at Naples, a specimen of the most
sensual type.
For the oriental Aphrodite see E. Meyer* article " Astarte " in
W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. and Wolf Baudissin,
articles "Astarte" and "Atarjgatis" in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyhlopddie JUr protestantische Theohgit', for the Greek, articles
in Roachcr's Lexikon and Pauly-wissowa's Realencyclopddie;
L. Prcller, Griechische Mythotogie (4th ed. by C. Robert); L. R.
Farnell, Cults of the Creek States, ii. (1896); 0. Gruppe, Griechische
Mythologie una Religionsgeschichte, ii. (1906); L. Dyer, The Cods
in Greece (1891) ; A. Enmann, Kypros una der Ursprung des Aphro-
dite-Knits (1886). W. H. Engcl, Kypros, ii. (1841). and J. B. Lajard,
Recherches sur le culU de VHus (1837), may still be consulted with
advantage. For Aphrodite in art sec J. J. Bernoulli, Aphrodite
(1873); W. J. Stillman, Venus and Apollo in Painting and Sculpture
(1897). In the article Greek Akt, figs. 71 (pi. v.) and 77 (pi. vi.)
represent Aphrodite of Cnidus and Melos respectively. (J . H . F. )
APHTHONIUS, of Antioch, Greek sophist and rhetorician,,
flourished in the second half of the 4th century a.d., or even later.
Nothing is known of his life, except that he was a friend of
Libanius and of a certain Eutropius, perhaps the author of the
epitome of Roman history. We possess by him npoyvuvaapara,
a text-book on the elements of rhetoric, with exercises for the
use of the young before they entered the regular rhetorical
schools. They apparently formed an introduction to the Ttx**!
of Hermogcncs. His style is pure and simple, and ancient critics
praise his " Atticism." The book maintained its popularity as
late as the 17th century, especially in Germany. A collection of
forty fables by Aphthonius, after the style of Aesop, is also extant.
Spengel, Rhetores Craeci, K.; Finckh, Aphthonii Progymnasmata
(186s); Hoppkhler, De Theone. Hermogene. Aphthonioqne Pro-
gymnasmatum Scriptoribus (1884); edition of the fables by Furia
(1810).
APHTHONIUS, ABUTJS FBSTTJS, Latin grammarian, possibly
of African origin, lived in the 4th century a.o. He wrote a
metrical handbook in four books, which has been incorporated
by Marius Victorinus in his system of grammar.
Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.; Schults, Quibus Audoribut AdtUM
Festus Aphthonius usus sit (1885).
APICIUS, the name of three celebrated Roman epicures.
The second of these, M. Gavins Apicius, who lived under Tiberius,
is the most famous (Seneca, Consol. ad Hehiam, 10). He in-
vented various cakes and sauces, and is said to have written on
cookery. The extant De Re Coquinaria (ed. Schuch, 1874), a
collection of receipts, ascribed to one Caelius Apicius, is founded
on Greek originals, and belongs to the 3rd century a.d. It is
probable that the real title was Caelii Apicius, Apicius being
the name of the work (cp. Taciti Agricala), and De Re Coquinaria
a sub-title.
APICULTURE (from Lat. apis, a bee), bee-keeping (see Bee).
So also other compounds of api-. Apiarium or apiary, a bee-
house or hive, is used figuratively by old writers for a place of
industry, e.g. a college.
APION, Greek grammarian and commentator on Homer,
born at Oasis in Libya, flourished in the first half of the 1st
century aj>. He studied at Alexandria, and headed a deputation
sent to Caligula (in 38) by the Alexandrians to complain of the
Jews: his charges were answered by Josephus in his Contra
Apionem. He settled at Rome — it is uncertain when — and
taught rhetoric till the reign of Claudius. Apion was a man of
great industry and learning, but extremely vain. He wrote
several works, which are lost. The well-known story of
Androclus and the lion, preserved in Aulus Gellius, is from his
Af-yvTTioxd; fragments of his VKQvaw 'O/iijpucai are printed
in the Etymologicum Gudianum, ed. Sturz, 1818.
APIS or Hapis, the sacred bull of Memphis, in Egyptian ffp,
Hape, Hope. By Manetho his worship is said to have been
instituted by Kaiechos of the Second Dynasty. Hape is named
on very early monuments, but little is known of the divine
animal before the New Kingdom. He was entitled " the re-
newal of the life " of the Mcmphite god Ptah: but after death
he became Osorapis, i.e. the Osiris Apis, just as dead men were
assimilated to Osiris, the king of the underworld. -This Osorapis
was identified with Serapis, and may well be really identical
with him (sec Serapis): and Greek writers make the Apis an
incarnation of Osiris, ignoring the connexion with Ptah. Apis
was the most important of all the sacred animaln in Egypt,
and, like the others, its importance increased as time went on.
Greek and Roman authors have much to say about Apis, the
marks by which the black bull-calf was recognized, the manner
of his conception by a ray from heaven, his house at Memphis
with court for disporting himself, the mode of prognostication
from his actions, the mourning at his death, nil costly burial
and the rejoicings throughout the country when a new Apis
was found. Mariette's excavation of the Serapeum at Memphis
revealed the tombs of over sixty animals, ranging from the
time of Amenophis m. to that of Ptolemy Alexander. At first
each animal was buried in a separate tomb with a chapel built
above it. Khamuis, the priestly son of Rameses II. (c. 1300
B.C.), excavated a great gallery to be lined with the tomb
chambers; another similar gallery was added by Psammeti-
chus L The careful statement of the ages of the animals in
the later instances, with the regnal dates for their birth, eu-
thronization and death have thrown much light on the
chronology from the XXIInd dynasty onwards. The name
of the mother-cow and the place of birth are often recorded.
The sarcophagi are of immense size, and the burial must have
entailed enormous expense. It is therefore remarkable that
the priests contrived to bury one of the animals in the fourth
year of Cambyses.
See Tablonski, Pantheon, ii. ; Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, fl.
330; Mariette-Maspero, he Serapeum de Memphis. (F. Ll. G)
APLITE— APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
169
APUTB, in petrology, the name given to introsive rock In
which quarts and felspar are the dominant minerals. Aplites
are usually very fine-grained, white, grey or flesh-coloured, and
their constituents are visible only with the help of a magnifying
lens. Dykes and threads of aplite are very frequently to be
observed traversing granitic bosses; they occur also, though
in less numbers, in syenites, diorites, qiiartx-diabases and
gabbros.. Without doubt they have usually a genetic affinity
to the rocks they intersect. The aplites of granite areas, for
example, are the last part of the magma to crystallize, and
correspond in composition to the quartzo-felspathic aggregates
which fill up the interspaces between the early minerals in the
main body of the rock. They bear a considerable resemblance
to the eutectic mixtures which are formed on the cooling of
solutions of mineral salts, and remain liquid till the excess of
cither of the components has separated out, finally solidifying
en masse when the proper proportions of the constituents and a
suitable temperature are reached. The essential components
of the aplites are quarU and alkali felspar (the latter usually
orthoclase or microperthitc). Crystallization has been appar-
ently rapid (as the rocks are so fine-grained), and the ingredients
have solidified almost at the same time. Hence their crystals
are rather imperfect and fit closely to one another in a sort of
fine mosaic of nearly equi-dimensional grains. Porphyritic
felspars occur occasionally and quartz more seldom; but the
relation of the aplites to quartz-porphyries, granophyres and
felsitea is very dose, as all these rocks have nearly the same
chemical composition. Yet the aplites associated with diorites
and quartz-diabases differ in minor respects from the common
aplites, which accompany granites. The accessory minerals
of these rocks are principally oligodaac, muscovite, apatite and
zircon. Biotite and all ferromagnesian minerals rarely appear
in them, and never are in considerable amount Riebeckite-
granites (paisanites) have close affinities to aplites, shown
especially in the prevalence of alkali felspars. Tourmaline also
occurs in some aplites. The rocks of this group are very frequent
in all areas where masses of granite are known. They form
dykes and irregular veins which may be only a few inches or
many feet in diameter. Less frequently aplite forms stocks
or bosses, or occupies the edges or irregular portions of the
interior of outcrops of granite. The syenite-aptites consist
mainly of alkali felspar; the diorite-aptites of pkgioclase;
there are nepheline^earmg aplites which intersect some
daeolite-syenitea. In all cases they bear the same relation to
the parent masses. By increase of quartz aplites pass gradually,
in a few localities, through highly quartzose modifications
(beresjte, ftc.) into quartz veins. (J. S. F.)
APNOBA (Gr. flrrota, from a-, privative, r*W, to breathe),
a technical term for suspension of breathing.
AP0CALYP8B (Gr. asok&Xu^is, disclosure), a term applied
to the disclosure to certain privileged persons of something
hidden from the mass of men. The Greek root corresponds
in the Septuagmt to the Heb. gdWi, to reveal The last book
of the New Testament bears in Greek the title 'AxtMcdXwtsf
IwAvsou, and is frequently referred to as the Apocalypse
of John, but in the English Bible it appears as the Revelation
of St John the Divine (see Revelation). Earlier among
the heuemstic Jews the term was used of a number of
writings which depicted in a prophetic and parabolic way the
end or future state of the world (e.g. Apocalypse of Baruck),
the whole class is sow commonly known as Apocalyptic
Literature (q.i.).
APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE, a secret society founded
fn Italy in 1693 to defend the church against the expected
Antichrist. Agostino Gabrino, the son of a merchant of
Brescia, was its founder. On Palm Sunday 1693, when the
choir of St Peter's was chanting Qui* est isle Hex Chriaef
Gabrino, Sword in hand, rushed to the altar crying Ego sum Rex
Gloria*. Though Gabrino was treated as a madman, the society
flourished, until a member denounced it to the Inquisition, who
arrested the knights. Though chiefly mechanics they always
carried swords even when at work, and wore on their breasts a
star with seven rays. Gabrino styled himself monarch of the
Holy Trinity. He was credited by his enemies with a desire
to introduce polygamy.
APOCALYPTIC UTBRATURB, The Apocalyptic literature
of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period,
from the centuries following the exile down to the close of the
middle ages. In the present survey we shall limit ourselves to
the great formative periods in this literature— in Judaism to
200 b.c. to jU>. 100, and in Christianity to aj>. 50 to 350 or
thereabouts.
The transition from prophecy to apocalyptic (SltokoXOittup,
to reveal something hidden) was gradual and already accom-
plished within the limits of the Old Testament. Beginning in
the bosom of prophecy, and steadily differentiating itself from
it in its successive developments, it never came to stand in
absolute contrast to it. Apocalyptical elements disclose them-
selves in the prophetical books of Ezekiel, Joel, Zechariah,
while in Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. and xxxiii. we find well-developed
apocalypses; but it is not until we come to Daniel that we have
a fully matured and classical example of this class of literature.
The way, however, had in an especial degree been prepared for
the apocalyptic type of thought and literature by Ezekiel, for
with him the word of God had become identical with a written
book (ii. o-iii 3) by the eating of which he learnt the will of God,
just as primitive man conceived that the eating of the tree in
Paradise imparted spiritual knowledge. When the divine word
is thus conceived as a written message, the sole office of the
prophet is to communicate what is written.. Thus the human
element is reduced to zero, and the conception of prophecy
becomes mechanical. And as the personal element disappears
in the conception of the prophetic calling, so it tends to disappear
in the prophetic view of history, and the future comes to be
conceived not as the organic result of the present under the
divine guidance, but as mechanically determined from the
beginning in the counsels of God, and arranged under artificial
categories of time. This is essentially the apocalyptic conception
of history, and Ezekiel may be justly represented as in certain
essential aspects its founder in Israel.
We shall now consider (L) Apocalyptic, its origin and general
characteristics; (II.) Old Testament Apocalyptic; (III.) New
Testament Apocalyptic.
L Apocalyptic— its Origin and General Characteristics
i. Sources of Apocolyptic,-*Th& origin of Apocalyptic is to
be sought in (a) unfulfilled prophecy and in (6) traditional
elements drawn from various sources.
(a) The origin of Apocalyptic is to be sought in unfulfilled
prophecy. That certain prophecies relating to the coming
kingdom of God had clearly not been fulfilled was a matter of
religious difficulty to the returned exiles from Babylon. The
judgments predicted by the pre-ezilic prophets had indeed been
executed to the letter, but where were the promised glories of
the renewed kingdom and Israel's unquestioned sovereignty
over the nations of the earth? One such unfulfilled prophecy
Ezekiel takes up and reinterprets in such a way as to show that
its fulfilment is still to come. The prophets Jeremiah (iv.-vi)
and Zephaniah had foretold the invasion of Judah by a mighty
people from the north, But as this northern foe had failed to
appear Ezekiel re-edited this prophecy in a new form as a final
assault of Gog and his hosts on Jerusalem, and thus established
a permanent dogma in Jewish apocalyptic, whkh in due course
passed over into Christian.
But the non-fulfilment of prophecies relating to this or that
individual event or people served to popularize the methods of
apocalyptic in a very slight degree in comparison with the non-
fulfilment of the greatest of all prophecies— the advent of the
Messianic kingdom. Thus, though Jeremiah had promised that
after seventy years (xxv. 11., xxix. 10) Israel should be restored
to their own land (xxiv. $, 6), and then enjoy the blessings of the
Messianic kingdom under the Messianic king (xxiii. 5, 6), this
period passed by and things remained as of old. 'Haggaj and
Zerhirinn explained the delay by the failure of judah to rebuild
170
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
the temple, and so generation after generation the hope of the
kingdom persisted, sustained most probably by ever-fresh
reinterpretations of ancient prophecy, till in the first half of the
and century the delay is explained in the Books of Daniel and
Enoch as due not to man's shortcomings but to the counsels
of God. The 70 years of Jeremiah are interpreted by the
angel In Daniel (ix. 25-27) as 70 weeks of years, of which 69}
have already expired, while the writer of Enoch (lxxxv.-xc.)
interprets the 70 years of Jeremiah as the 70 successive reigns
of the 70 angelic patrons of the nations, which are to come to
a dose in his own generation.
But the above periods came and passed by, and again the
expectations of the Jews were disappointed. Presently the
Greek empire of the East was overthrown by Rome, and in due
course this new phenomenon, so full of meaning for the Jews,
called forth a new interpretation of Daniel. The fourth and
last empire which, according to Daniel vii. 10-25, w** to be Greek,
was now declared to be Roman by the Apocalypse of Baruch
(xxxvi.-xl.) and 4 Ezra (x. 60-xii. 35). Once more such ideas
as those of " the day of Yahweh " and the " new heavens and
a new earth " were constantly re-edited with fresh nuances in
conformity with their new settings. Thus the inner development
of Jewish apocalyptic was always conditioned by the historical
experiences of the nation.
(ft) Another source of apocalyptic was primitive mythological
and cosmohgical traditions, in which the eye of the seer could
see the secrets of the future no less surely than those of the past.
Thus the six days of the world's creation, followed by a seventh
of rest, were regarded as at once a history of the past and a fore-
casting of the future. As the world was made in six days its
history would be accomplished in six thousand years, since each
day with God was as a thousand years and a thousand years as
one day; and as the six days of creation were followed by one
of rest, so the six thousand years of the world's history would be
followed by a rest of a thousand years (2 Enoch xxxii. 2-xxxiii. 2).
Of primitive mythological traditions we might mention the
primeval serpent, leviathan, behemoth, while to ideas native to
or familiar in apocalyptic belong those of the seven archangels,
the angelic patrons of the nations (Deut. xxxii. 8, in LXX. ; Isaiah
xxiv. ax; Dan. x. 13, 20, &c.) t the mountain of God in the north
(Isaiah xiv. 13; Exek. i. 4, &c), the garden of Eden.
ii. Object and Contents of Apocalyptic.— The object of this
literature in general was to solve the difficulties connected with
the righteousness of God and the suffering condition of His
righteous servants on earth. The righteousness of God postulated
according to the law the temporal prosperity of the righteous
and the temporal prosperity of necessity; for as yet there was
no promise of life or recompense beyond the grave. But tin's
connexion was not found to obtain as a rule in life, and the
difficulties arising from this conflict between promise and ex-
perience centred round the lot of the righteous as a community
and the lot of the righteous man as an individual. Old Testament
prophecy had addressed itself to both these problems, though it
was hardly conscious of the claims of the latter. It concerned
itself essentially with the present, and with the future only as
growing organically out of the present. It taught the absolute
need of personal and national righteousness, and foretold the
ultimate blessedness of the righteous nation on the present earth.
But its views were not systematic and comprehensive in regard
to the nations in general, while as regards the individual it held
that God's service here was its own and adequate reward, and
saw no need of postulating another world to set right the evils of
this. But later, with the growing claims of the individual and
the acknowledgment of these in the religious and intellectual life,
both problems, and especially the latter, pressed themselves
irresistibly on the notice of religious thinkers, and made it
impossible for any conception of the divine rule and righteousness
to gain acceptance, which did not render adequate satisfaction
to the claims of both problems. To render such satisfaction was
the task undertaken by apocalyptic, as well as to vindicate the
righteousness of God alike in respect of the individual and of the
nation. To justify their contention they sketched in outline
the history of the world and mankind, the origin of evil and its
course, and the final consummation of all things. Thus they
presented In fact a theodicy, a rudimentary philosophy of religion.
The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, even in
this world the faithful community should attain its rights in an
eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessed-
ness here and eternal blessedness hereafter. So far as regards
the righteous community. It was, however, in regard to the
destiny of the individual that apocalyptic rendered its chief
service. Though the individual might perish amid the disorders
of this world, he would not fail, apocalyptic taught, to attain
through resurrection the recompense that was his due in the
Messianic kingdom or in heaven itself. Apocalyptic thus forms
the indispensable preparation for the religion of the New
Testament
iii. Form of Apocalyptic. — The form of apocalyptic is a literary
form; for we cannot suppose that the writers experienced the
voluminous and detailed visions we find in their books. On the
other hand the reality of the visions is to some extent guaranteed
by the writer's intense earnestness and by his manifest belief
in the divine origin of his message. But the difficulty of regarding
the visions as actual experiences, or as in any sense actual, is
intensified, when full account is taken of the artifices of the
writer; for the major part of his visions consists of what is to
him really past history dressed up in the guise of prediction.
Moreover, the writer no doubt intended that his reader should
take the accuracy of the prediction (?) already accomplished
to be a guarantee for the accuracy of that which was still un-
realized. How, then, it may well be asked, can this be consistent
with reality of visionary experience ? Are we not here obliged
to assume that the visions are a literary invention and nothing
more?
However we may explain the inconsistency, we are precluded
by the moral earnestness of the writer from assuming the visions
to be pure inventions. But the inconsistency has in part been
explained by Gunkd, who has rightly emphasized that the
writer did not freely invent his materials but derived them in
the main from tradition, as he held that these mysterious tradi-
tions of his people were, if rightly expounded, forecasts of the
time to come. Furthermore, the visionary who is found at most
periods of great spiritual excitement was forced by the prejudice
of his time, which refused to acknowledge any inspiration in the
present, to ascribe his visionary experiences and reinterpretations
of the mysterious traditions of his people to some heroic figure
of the past. Moreover, there will always be a difficulty in deter-
mining what belongs to his actual vision and what to the literary
skill or free invention of the author, seeing that the visionary
must be dependent on memory and past experience for the forms
and much of the matter of the actual vision.
iv. Apocalyptic as distinguished from Prophecy.— We have
already dwelt on certain notable differences between apocalyptic
and prophecy; but there are certain others that call for attention.
(a) In the Nature of its Message. — The message of the prophets
was primarily a preaching of repentance and righteousness if the
nation would escape judgment; the message of the apocalyptic
writers was of patience and trust for that deliverance and reward
were sure to come.
(b) By its dualistic Theology.— Prophecy believes that this
world is God's world and that in this world His goodness and
truth will yet be vindicated. Hence the prophet prophesies of
a definite future arising out of and organically connected with
the present. The apocalyptic writer on the other hand despairs
of the present, and directs his hopes absolutely to the future, to
a new world standing in essential opposition to the present.
(Non fecit Altissimus unum saeculum sed duo, 4 Ezra vii. so.)
Here we have essentially a dualistic principle, which, though it
can largely be accounted for by the interaction of certain inner
tendencies and outward sorrowful experience on the part of
Judaism, may ultimately be derived from Mazdean influences.
This principle, which shows itself dearly at first in the conception
that the various nations are under angelic rulers, who are in a
greater or less degree in rebellion against God, as in Danid and
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
171
Enoch, grows in strength with each succeeding age, till at last
Satan is conceived as " the ruler of this world " (John adi. 31)
or " the god of this age " (2 Cor. hr. 4). Under the guidance
of such a principle the writer naturally expected the world's
culmination in evil to be the immediate precursor of God's
intervention on behalf of the righteous, and every fresh growth
in evil to be an additional sign that the time was at hand. The
natural concomitant in conduct of such a belief is an uncom-
promising asceticism. He that would live to the next world
must shun this. Visions are vouchsafed only to those who to
prayer have added fasting.
(c) By pseudonymous Authorship.— Vie have already touched
on this characteristic of apocalyptic. The prophet stood in
direct relations with his people; his prophecy was first spoken
and afterwards written. The apocalyptic writer could obtain
no hearing from his contemporaries, who held that, though God
spoke in the past, " there was no more any prophet" This
pessimism and want of faith limited and denned the form in
which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed
as a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous
authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly
addressed his book to future generations. Generally directions
as to the hiding and sealing of the book (Dan. xii.4, 9; 1 Enoch
i. 4 ; Asa. Mos. i. 16-18) were given in the text in order to explain
its publication so long after the date of its professed period.
Moreover, there was a sense in which such books were not
wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of ancient
prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and, though they might
recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as
their own inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the
eyes of its writer be in some degree but a fresh edition of the
traditions naturally attaching themselves to great names in
Israel's past, and thus the books named respectively Enoch,
Noah, Ears would to some slight extent be not pseudonymous.
(d) By its comprehensive end deterministic Conception of
History. — Apocalyptic took an indefinitely wider view of the
world's history than prophecy. Thus, whereas prophecy had
to deal with temporary reverses at the hands of some heathen
power, apocalyptic arose at a time when Israel had been subject
for generations to the sway of one or other of the great world*
powers, Hence to harmonise such difficulties with belief in
God's righteousness, it had to take account of the role of such
empires in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and downfall
of each in tun, till finally the lordship of the world passed into
the hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events
belonged in the main to the past, but the writer represented
them as still in the future, arranged under certain artificial
categories of time definitely determined from the beginning in
toe cownarh of God and revealed by Him to His servants the
prophets. Determinism thus became a leading characteristic of
Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history became severely
n. Old Testament Apocalywic
Isaiah niv. — sxvii.; xxxiii.; xsxiv.-xxxv.
(Jeremiah xxxiii- 14-36 ?)
Ezekicl ii. 8; xxxvui.-xxxix.
Joel iii. 0-17.
Zech. xii.-xiv.
Daniel.
We cannot enter here into a discussion of the above passages
and books. 1 All are probably pseudepigraphic except the
passages from Ezekiel and JoeL Of the remaining passages and
books Daniel belongs unquestionably to the Maccabean period,
and die rest possibly to the same period. Isaiah xxxiii. was
probably written about 163 b.c. (Duhm and Marti); Zech.
xiL-xxv. about too B.C., Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. about 128 B.C., and
xnriv.-xxxv. sometime in the reign of John Hyrcanus. Jeremiah
xxxiii 14-36 is assigned by Marti to Maccabean times, but this
is highly questionable.
1 See the separate headings for the various apocalyptic books
mentioned in this article.
ii. Extra-canonical?-—
(a) Palestinian >—
(300-100 B.C.)
Book of Noah.
1 Enoch vL-xxxvi. ; lxxu.-xc
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs
(too b.c. to 1 B.C.)
1 Enoch i.-v. : xxxvii.-lxxi. ; xci.-civ.
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs, U. T. Ley. x., xiv.-xvi.,
T. Jud. xxi 6-xxiii, T. Zeb. U.. T. Dan. v. 6, 7.
Psalms of Solomon.
(a.d. i-ioo and- later.)
Assumption of Moses.
Apocalypse of Baruch.
4 Ezra.
Greek Apocalypse of Baruch.
Apocalypse of Zephaniah.
Apocalypse of Abraham.
Prayer* of Joseph.
Book of Eldadand Monad.
Apocalypse of Elijah.
(b) HeUcmstiiZ-
2 Enoch.
Oracles of Hystaspes.
Testament of Job.
Testaments of the III. Patriarchs.
Sibylline Oracles (excluding Christian portions).
Booh of Noah.— Though this book has not come down to us
independently, it has in large measure been incorporated in
the Ethiopic Book of Enoch, and can in part be reconstructed
from it The Book of Noah is mentioned hi Jubilees x. 13, xxi 10.
Chapters b., Ixv.-hrix. 25 of the Ethiopic Enoch are without
question derived from it. Thus Ix. x runs: " In the year 500, In
the seventh month ... in the tifie of Enoch." Here the editor
simply changed the name Noah in the context before him into
Enoch, lor the statement is based on Gen. v. 32, and Enoch
lived only 365 years. Chapters vi.-xi are clearly from the same
source; tor they make no reference to Enoch, but bring forward
Noah (x. 1) and treat of the sin of the angels that led to the
flood, and of their temporal and eternal punishment This
section is compounded of the Semjaxa and Axaxel myths, and
in Its present composite form is already presupposed by x Enoch
Ixxxviii.-xc Hence these chapters are earlier than 166 B.C.
Chapters evi-evn. of the same book are probably from the same
source; likewise tiv. 7-lv. 2, and Jubilees vii. 20-39, x. 1-15.
la the former passage of Jubilees the subject-matter leads to
this identification, as well as the fact that Noah is represented
aa speaking in the first person, although throughout Jubilees it
is the angel that speaks. Possibly Eth. En. xK. 3-8, xiifi.-xliv.,
hx. are from the same work. The book may have opened with'
Eth. En. cvi-cviL On these chapters may have followed Eth.
En. vi.-xL, lxv.-hdx. 35, lx., xli. 3-8, xliii.-xliv., Uv. Hv. a;
Jubilees vii. 26-39, x. 1*15.
The Hebrew Book of Noah, a later work, is printed in Jellinek's
Bet ha-Midrasch, iii. .155-156, and translated into German in
Ronsch, Das Buck der JubUSen, 38 c-387. It is based on the part
of the above Book of Noah which is preserved in the Booh of
Jubilees. The portion of this Hebrew work which is derived
from the older work is reprinted in Charles's Ethiopic Version
of the Hebrew Booh of Jubilees, p. 179.
1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Booh of Enoch.— This is the most
important of all the apocryphal writings for the history of
religious thought Like the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Megil-
loth and the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five parts,
which, as we shall notice presently, spring from five different
sources. Originally written partly in Aramaic (*\*. vi^xxxvi.) and
partly in Hebrew (i.-vi, xxxvii.-cviii.), it was translated into
Greek, and from Greek foto Ethio'pk and possibly Latin. Only
one-fifth of the Greek version in two forms survives. The various
elements of the book were written by different authors at different
dates, vi.-xxxvi was written before 166 B.C., lxxii.-rxxxh\
before the Booh of Jubilees, ix. before 120 B.C. or thereabouts,
lxxxfii.-xc about 166 b.c, i.-v., xd.-dv. before 95 B.C., and
xxxvii.-lxxi. before 64 B.C. There are many interpolations
drawn mainly from the Book of Noah.
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs.— This book, ia some respects
«7*
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
the most important of Old Testament apocrypha, haa only
recently come into its own. Till a few years ago, owing to
Christian interpolations, it was taken to be a Christian apocryph,
written originally in Greek in the 2nd century a.d. Now it is
acknowledged by Christian and Jewish scholars alike to have
been written in Hebrew in the 2nd century B.C. From Hebrew
it was translated into Greek and from Greek into Armenian and
Slavonic. The versions have come down in their entirety, and
small portions of the Hebrew text have been recovered from
later Jewish writings. The Testaments were written about the
same date as the Book of Jubilees, These two books form the
only Apology in Jewish literature for the religious and civil
hegemony of the Maccabees from the Pharisaic standpoint.
To the Jewish interpolation of the xst century B.C. (about 60-40),
i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.; T. Jud. rrii.-xxiiL, &c, a large
interest attaches; for these, like 1 Enoch xcL-dv. and the Psalms
of Solomon, constitute an unmeasured attack on every office —
prophetic, priestly and kingly— administered by the Maccabees.
The ethical character of the book is of the highest type, and its
profound influence on the writers of the New Testament is yet
to be appreciated. (See Testaments of the XII. Patbiabchs.)
Psalms of Solomon.— -These psalms, in all eighteen, enjoyed
but small consideration in early times, for only six direct refer-
ences to them are found in early literature. Their ascription to
Solomon is due solely to the copyists or translators, for no such
claim is made in* any of the psalms. On the whole, Ryle and
James are no doubt right in assigning 70-40 B.C. as the limits
within which the psalms were written. The authors were
Pharisees. They divide their countrymen into two classes —
" the righteous," ii. 38-39, iii. 3-5, 7, 8, &c, and " the sinners,"
ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9, &c; " the saints," iii. xo, &c, and " the
transgressors," iv. n, &c. The former are the Pharisees; the
latter the Sadducees. They protest against the Asmonaean
house for usurping the throne of David, and laying violent hands
on the high priesthood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of
the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right and
establish the supremacy of Israel. Pss. xvii.-xviii. and i.-rvi.
cannot be assigned to the same authorship. The hopes of the
Messiah are confined to the former, and a somewhat different
eschatology underlies the two works. Since the Psalms were
written in Hebrew, and intended for public worship in the
synagogues, it is most probable that they were composed in
Palestine. (See Solomon, The Psalms of.)
The Assumption of U oses.— This book was lost for many cen-
turies till a large fragment of it was discovered and published by
Ceriana in x86i (lfonumcnta Sacra, I. i. 55-64) from a palimpsest
of the 6th century. Very little was known about the contents
of this book prior to this discovery. The present book is possibly
the long-lost AicJHirn Muvatwt mentioned in some ancient
lists, for it never speaks of the assumption of Moses, but always
of his natural death. About a half of the original Testament is
preserved in the Latin version. The latter half probably dealt
with questions about the creation. With this " Testament "
the " Assumption," to which almost all the patristic references
and that of Jude are made, was subsequently edited. The book
was written between 4 B.C. and aj>. 7. As for the author, he
was no Essene, for he recognises animal sacrifices and cherishes
the Messianic hope; he was not a Sadducee, for he looks forward
to the establishment of the Messianic kingdom (x.); nor a Zealot,
for the qufctistic ideal is upheld (ix.), and the kingdom is estab-
lished by God Himself (x.). He is therefore a Chasid of the
ancient type, and glorifies the ideals which were cherished by
the old Pharisaic party, but which were now being fast disowned
in favour of a more active role in the political life of the nation.
He pours his most scathing invectives on the Sadducees, who
are described in vii. in terms that recall the anti-Sadducean
Psalms of Solomon. His object, therefore, is to protest against
the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party through its
adoption of popular Messianic beliefs and political ideals. (See
also Moses, Assumption of.)
Apocalypse of Baruck— The Syriac.— This apocalypse has
survived only in the Syriac version. The Syriac is a translation
from the Greek; and the Greek in turn from the Hebrew. The
book treats of the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woea
of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the
present, as well as of theological questions relating to original
sin, free will, works, ftc The views expressed on several off
these subjects are often conflicting. We must, therefore,
assume a number of independent sources put together by
an editor or else that the book is on the whole the work of
one author who made use of independent writings but failed
to blend them intoonVhannonious whole. In its present form
the book was written soon after a.d. 70. For fuller treatment
see Bakucb.
4 Ezra.— This apocryph is variously named. In the first
Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called x Ezra; in some Latin
MSS. and in the English authorized version it is 9 Ezra, and in
the Armenian 3 Ezra. With the majority of the Latin MSS. we
designate the book 4 Ezra. In its fullest form this apocryph
consists of sixteen chapters, but i.-ii. and xv.-xvi. are of different
authorship from each other and from the main work iii.-xiv.
The book was written originally in Hebrew. There are Latin,
Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic (two), and Armenian versions. The
Greek version is lost. This apocalypse is of very great import-
ance, on account of its very full treatment of the theological
questions rife in the latter half of the xst century of the Christian
era. The book, even if written by one author, was based on a
variety of already existing works. It springs from the same
school of thought as the Apocalypse of Baruck, and its affinities
with the latter are so numerous and profound that scholars have
not yet come to any consensus as to the relative priority of either.
In its present form it was composed a.d. 80-100. For fuller
treatment see Ezra.
Apocalypse of Baruck— The Greek.-*-Ttds work is referred to
by Origen (de Princip. II. iii. 6): u Dcnique etiam Baruch
prophetae librum in assertionis hujus testimonium vocant, quod
ibi de septem mundis vel caelis evidentius indicatur." This
book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. The former
was translated by Bonwetsch in 1806, in the Nachrichlen von
der konigl. Ges. der Wiss. xu G9U. pp. ox-iox; the latter by
James in 1897 in Anecdota, ii. 84-04, with an elaborate intro-
duction (pp. li.-lxxL). The Slavonic is only of secondary value,
as it is merely an abbreviated form of the Greek. Even the
Greek cannot claim to be the original work, but only to be a
recension of it; for, whereas Origen states that this apocalypse
contained an account of the seven heavens, the existing Greek
work describes only five, and the Slavonic only two. As the
original work presupposes a Enoch and the Syriac Apocalypse of
Baruck and was known to Origen, it was written between
a.d. 80 and 900, and nearer the earlier date than the later, as it
would otherwise be hard to understand how it came to circulate
among Christians. The superscription shows points of con-
nexion with the Rest of the Words of Baruch, but little weight
can be attached to the fact, since titles and superscriptions
were so frequently transformed and expanded in ancient times.
As James and Rohler have pointed out, part of section 4 on the
Vine is a Christian addition. A German translation of the Greek
appears in Kautzsch's Apok. u. Pseud, ii. 448-457, and a strong
article by Kohler on the Jewish authorship of the book in
the Jewish Encyclopedia, ii. 540-551. (See Babuch.)
Apocalypse of Abraham. — This book is found only in the
Slavonic (edited by Bonwetsch, Studien tur Geschichle d. Tkeo-
logie und Kvrche, 1897), a translation from the Greek. It is of
Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser.
The first part treats of Abraham's conversion, and the second
forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. xv. This book wan
possibly known to the author of the Clem. Recognitions, I 3*,
a passage, however, which may refer to Jubilees. It is moat
probably distinct from the 'AsocaXi^it 'Aflomku used by the
gnostic Sethites (Epiphanius, Haer. xxxix. 5), which was very
heretical. On the other hand, it is probably identical with the
apocryphal book 'AQpaap mentioned in the Sticboxnetry off
Nicephorus, and the Synopsis Athanasii, together with the
Apocalypses of Enoch, 6c.
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
173
Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph.-- The Prayer of Joseph
h quoted by Origen [In Joann. II. xxv. (Lommatasch, i. 147,
148) ; in Gen. III. ix. (Lommatxsch, viiL 30-31)). The fragments
in Origen represent Jacob as speaking and claiming to be " the
first servant in God's presence," " the first-begotten of every
creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who
wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with
Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously
anti-Christian. (Sec SchUrcr\ iii, 36s- 266.)
Book of Eldad and liodad.—This book was written in the
name of the two prophets mentioned in Num xi. 26-39. Il
consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. xL 26-29, mainly
of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel. The Shepherd
of Hennas quotes it Vis. ii. 3. (See Marshall in Hastings' Bible
Dictionary, i. 677.)
Apocalypse of Elijah.— This apocalypse is mentioned in two
of the lists of books. Origen, Ambrosiaster, and Euthalius
ascribe to it 1 Cor. ii. 9. If they are right, the apocalypse is
pre-Pauline. The peculiar form in which 1 Cor. ii. 9 appears
in Clemens Alex. Protrept. z. 94, and the Const. Apost. vii. 32,
shows that both have the same source, probably this apocalypse.
Epiphanias (Haer. xlii., ed. Oehler, vol. ii 678) ascribes to this
work Eph. v. 14. Isr. Levi {Rome des Hudes jmives, 1880, i.
108 sqq) argues for the existence of a Hebrew apocalypse of
Elijah from two Talmudic passages. A late work of this name
has been published by Jcllinek, Bet ka-klidrasck, 1855, iii. 65-68,
and Butten wieser in 1 897. Zahn , Gcsch. des N. T. Kanons, ii. 801-
8x0. assigns this apocalypse to the 2nd century kjk (See
SchOrei* iii. 867-271)
Apocalypse of Zepkaniak.— Apart from two of the lists this
work is known to us in its original form only through a citation
in Clem. Alex. Strom, v. 11, 77. A Christian revision of it is
probably preserved in the two dialects of Coptic. Of these the
Akhmim text is the original of the Sahidic. These texts and
their translations have been edited by Stcindorff, Die Apokalypse
des Elias, cine unbehannU Apokalypse und BrucksUUke der
Sopkomas-Apokolypse (1809). As Schurcr. {Tkeol. Literature
sdtung, 1809, No. I. 4-8) has shown, these fragments belong
most probably to the Zephaniah apocalypse. They give descrip-
tions of heaven and hell, and predictions of the Antichrist. In
their present form these Christianised fragments are not earlier
than the 3rd century. (See Schttrer, Gesck. des jmt Volket*,
iii. 271-273.)
* Enoch, or the Slavonic Enoch, or the Book of tke Secrets of
Enoch. — This new fragment of the Enochic literature was recently
brought to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and
Servia. The book in its present form was written before aj>. 70
in Greek by an orthodox Hellenistic Jew, who lived in Egypt.
For a fuller account see Enoch.
Oracles of Hystaspcs.— See under N. T. Apocalypses, below.
Testament of Job. — This book was first printed from one MS.
by Mai, ScnpL Vet. Not. Coll. (1833). VII. i 180, and translated
into French in Migne's Dkt. des Apocrypkes, u. 403. An
excellent edition from two MSS. is given by M. R. James,
Apocrypha Anecdota, ii. pp. lxxii.-di., 104-137. who holds that the
book in its present form was written by a Christian Jew in Egypt
on the basts of a Hebrew Midrash on Job in the 2nd or 3rd cen-
tury aj>. Xohkr (Kokut Memorial Volume, 1897, pp. 264-338)
has given good grounds for regarding the whole work, with the
exception of some interpolations, as " one of the most remark-
able productions of the pre-Christian era, explicable only when
viewed in the light of Hasidean practice." See Jewish Encycl.
vii Joo-202.
Testaments 'of Ike III. Palriarcks.—TQZ an account of these
three Testaments (referred to in the Apost. Const, vi. 16), the
first of which only is preserved in the Greek and is assigned by
James to the and century a.d., see that scholar's " Testament of
Abraham," Texts and Studies, ii. a (1892), which appears in two
recensions from six and three MSS. respectively, and Vassiliev's
Anecdota Graeco-Bytantina (1893), pp. 292-308, from one MS.
already used by James. This work was written in Egypt,
according to James, and survives also in Slavonic, Rumanian,
Ethiopic, and Arabic versions. It deals with Abraham's re-
luctance to die and the means by which his death was brought
about. James holds that this book is referred to by Origen
{Horn, in Luc. xxxv.), but this is denied by Schiirer, who also
questions its Jewish origin. With JLhe exception of chaps, x.-xi.,
it is really a legend and not an apocalypse. An English transla-
tion of James's texts will be found in the Anle-Nicene Christian
Library (Clark, 1897), pp. 185-201. The Testaments of Isaac
and Jacob are still preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic (see James,
op. cit. 140-161). See Testaments of the III. Patriarchs.
Sibylline Oracles.— Of the books which have come down to us
the main part is Jewish, and was written at various dates,
iii. 97-829, iv.-v. are decidedly of Jewish authorship, and
probably xi.-xii., xiv. and parts of i.-ll The oldest portions are
in iii., and belong to the 2nd century B.C.
III. New Testament Apocalyptic
When we pass from Jewish literature to that of the New
Testament, we enter into a new and larger atmosphere at once
recalling and transcending what had been best in the prophetic
periods of the past. Again the heavens had opened and the
divine teaching come to mankind, no longer merely in books
bearing the names of ancient patriarchs, but on the lips of
living men, who had taken courage to appear in person as God's
messengers before His people. But though Christianity was in
spirit the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, it was no less
truly the child of that Judaism which had expressed its highest
aspirations and ideals in pseudepigraphic and apocalyptic
literature. Hence we shall not be surprised to find that the
two tendencies are fully represented in primitive Christianity,
and, still more strange as it may appear, that New Testament
apocalyptic found a more ready hearing amid the stress and
storm of the xst century than the prophetic side of Christianity,
and that the type of the forerunner on the side of its declared
asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than
that of Him who came " eating and drinking/' declaring both
worlds good and both Cod's.
Early Christianity had thus naturally a special fondness for
this class of literature. It was Christianity that preserved Jewish
apocalyptic, when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into
Rabbinism, and gave it a Christian character either by a forcible
exegesis or by a systematic process of interpolation. Moreover,
it cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of
its own ideas. Though apocalyptic served its purpose in the
opening centuries of the Christian era, it must be confessed that
in many of its aspects its ofhee is transitory, as they belong not
to the essence of Christian thought When once it had taught
men that the next world was God's world, though it did so at
the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had achieved
its real task, and the time had come for it to quit the stage of
history, when Christianity appeared as the heir of this true
spiritual achievement. But Christianity was no less assuredly
the heir of ancient prophecy, and thus as spiritual representative
of what was true in prophecy and apocalyptic; its essential
teaching was as that of its Founder that both worlds were of God
and that both should be made God's.
(i.) Canonical: —
Apocalypse in Mark xiii. (Matthew xxiv., Luke xxi.).
2 Thessalonians ii.
Revelation.
(ii.) Extra-Canonical. —
Apocalypse of Peter.
Testament of Hexekiah.
Testament of Abraham.
Oracles of Hystaspes.
Vision of Isaiah.
Shepherd of Hernias.
5 Ezra.
6 Ezra.
Christian Sibylline*. _ .
Apocalypses of Paul. Thomas and 9tephen. .
Apocalypses of Eadrai, Paul, John, Peter, The Virgin,
Scdrech, Daniel.
Revelations of Bartholomew.
Question* of Ba rt holo mew .
17+
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
Apocalypse in Mark xiii. — According to the teaching of the
Gospels the second advent was to take the world by surprise.
Only one passage (Mark xiii. * Matt. xxiv. ~Lukexxi.) conflicts
with this view, and is therefore suspicious. This represents the
second advent as heralded by a succession of signs which are
unmistakable precursors of its appearance, such as wars, earth"
quakes, famines, the destruction of Jerusalem and the like. Our
suspicion is justified by a further examination of Mark xiii. For
the words " let him that readeth understand " (ver. 14) indicate
that the prediction referred to appeared first not in a spoken ad-
dress but in a written form, as was characteristic of apocalypses.
Again, in ver. 30, it is declared that this generation shall not pass
away until all these things be fulfilled, whereas in 32 we have
an undoubted declaration of Christ " Of that day or of that hour
knowcth no one, not even the angels in heaven, neither the Son,
but the Father." On these and other grounds verses 7, 8, 14-20,
24-27, 30, 31 should be removed from their present context.
Taken together they constitute a Christian adaptation of an
originally Jewish work, written ajd. 67-68, during the troubles
preceding the fall of Jerusalem. The apocalypse consists of
three Acts: Act i. consisting of verses 7, 8, enumerating the
woes heralding the parusia, Act ii. describing the actual tribula-
tion, and Act iii. the parusia itself. (See Wcndt, Lekre Jcsu, i. *
12-21; Charles, Eschatology, 325 sqq.; H. S. Holtxmann,
N. T. Theol. 1-325 sqq. with literature there given.)
2 Thessalonians ii. — The earliest form of Pauline eschatology
is essentially Jewish. He starts from the fundamental thought
of Jewish apocalyptic that the end of the world will be brought
about by the direct intervention of God when evil has reached
its climax. The manifestation of evil culminates in the Anti-
christ whose parusia (2 Thess. ii. 9) is the Satanic counterfeit of
that of the true Messiah. But the climax of evil is the immediate
herald of its destruction; for thereupon Christ will descend from
heaven and destroy the Antichrist (ii. 8). Nowhere in his later
epistles does this forecast of the future reappear. Rather under
the influence of the great formative Christian conceptions he
parted gradually with the eschatology he had inherited from
Judaism, and entered on a progressive development, in the course
of which the heterogeneous elements were for the most part
silently dropped.
Revelation.— Since this book is discussed separately we shall
content ourselves here with indicating a few of the conclusions
now generally accepted. The apocalypse was written about
a.d. 06. Its object, like other Jewish apocalypses, was to en-
courage faith under persecution; its burden is not a call to
repentance but a promise of deliverance. It is derived from
one author, who has made free use of a variety of elements,
some of which are Jewish and consort but ill with their new
context. The question of the pseudonymity of the book is still
an open one.
Apocalypse of Peter. -~ Till 1892 only some five or more frag-
ments of this book were known to exist. These are preserved
in Clem. Alex, and in Macarius Magnes (see Hilgenfeld, NT.
extra Can. iv. 74 sqq.; Zahn, Gesch. Kanons, ii. 818-819). It a
mentioned in the Muratorian Canon, and according to Eusebius
(H.E. vi. 14. z) was commented on by Clement of Alexandria.
In the fragment found at Akhmim there is a prediction of the
last things, and a vision of the abode and blessedness of the
righteous, and of the abode and torments of the wicked.
Testament of Hczckiak. — This writing is fragmentary, and has
been preserved merely as a constituent of the Ascension of
Isaiah. To it belongs iii. i3D-iv. 18 of that book. It is found
under the above name, Aia^rjKr) 'Efoofov, only in Cedrenus i. 1 20-
121, who quotes partially iv. 1 2. 14 and refers to iv. 1 5-18. For
a full account see Isaiah, Ascension of.
Testament of Abraham. — This work in two recensions was
first published by James, Texts and Studies, ii. 2. Its editor is
of opinion that it was written by a Jewish Christian in Egypt
in the and century a.d., but that it embodies legends of an earlier
date, and that it received its present form in the 9th or 10th
century. It treats of Michael being sent to announce to Abraham
his death: of the tree speaking with a human voice (iii.), Michael's
sojourn with Abraham (iv.-v.) and Sarah's recognition of him as
one of the three angels, Abraham's refusal to die (vii.),and the
vision of judgment (x.-xx.).
Oracles of Hystas pes.— This eschatological worjt (Xprjctt*
"torhorov: so named by the anonymous 5th-century writer in
Buresch, Klaros, 1889, p. 95) is mentioned in conjunction with
the Sibyllines by Justin (A pal. i. 20), Clement of Alexandria
(Strom, vi. 5), and Lactantius (Inst. VII. xv. 19; xviii. 2-3).
According to Lactantius, it prophesied the overthrow of Rome
and the advent of Zeus to help the godly and destroy the wicked,
but omitted all reference to the sending of the Son of God.
According to Justin, it prophesied the destruction of the world
by fire. According to the Apocryph of Paul, cited by Clement,
Hystaspes foretold the conflict of the Messiah with many kings
and His advent. Finally, an unknown sth-century writer (see
Buresch, Klaros, 1889, pp. 87-126) says that the Orades of
Hystaspes dealt with the incarnation of the Saviour. The work
referred to in the last two writers has Christian elements, which
were absent from it in Lactantius's copy. The lost oracles were
therefore in all probability originally Jewish, and subsequently
re-edited by a Christian.
Vision of Isaiah. — This writing has been preserved, in its
entirety in the Ascension of Isaiah, of which it constitutes
chaps, vi.-xi. Before its incorporation in the latter work it
circulated independently in Greek. There are independent
versions of these chapters in Latin and Slavonic. (See Isaiah,
Ascension or.)
Shepherd of Hennas. — In the latter half of the and century
this book enjoyed a respect bordering on that paid to the writings
of the New Testament. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria and
Origen quote it as Scripture, though in Africa it was not held in
such high consideration, as Tertullian speaks slightingly of it. The
writer belongs really to the prophetic and not to the apocalyptic
school. His book is divided into three parts containing visions,
commands, similitudes. In incidental allusions he lets us know
that he had been engaged in trade, that his wife was a termagant,
and that his children were ill brought up. Various views have
been held as to the identity of the author. Thus some have
made him out to be the Hennas to whom salutation is sent at
the end of the Epistle to the Romans, others that he was the
brother of Pius, bishop of Rome in the middle of the and century,
and others that he was a contemporary of Clement, bishop of
Rome at the close of the 1st century. Zahn fixes the date at 97,
Salmon a few years later, Lipsius 14a. The literature of this
book (see Hermas, Shepherd of) is very extensive. Among
the chief editions are those of Zahn, Der Hirt des Her mas (1868) ;
Gebhardt and Harnack, Patres Apostolici (1877, with full biblio-
graphical material); Funk, Patres A post. (1878). Further see
Harnack, Gesch. d. aluhristl. Liter atur, i. 49-58; II. i. 357-267,
437 f-
5 Esra.— This book, which constitutes in the later MSS. the
first two chapters to 4 Ezra, falls obviously into two parts. The
first (i. 5— ii. 9) contains a strong attack on the Jews whom it
regards as the people of God; the second (ii. 10-47) addresses
itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the
heavenly kingdom. It is not improbable that these chapters are
based on an earlier Jewish writing. In its present form it may
have been written before a.d. 200, though James and other
scholars assign it to the 3rd century. Its tone is strongly
anti-Jewish. The style is very vigorous and the materials of
a strongly apocalyptic character. See Hilgenfeld, Mtssias
Judaeorum (1869); James in Bensly's edition of 4 Esra, pp.
xxxviii.-lxxx.; Weinel in Hennecke's N.T. Apokryphen, 331-336.
6 Esra.— Thia work consists of chapters xv.-xvi. of 4 Exra.
It may have been written as an appendix to 4 Esra, as it has no
proper introduction. Its contents relate to the destruction of
the world through war and natural catastrophes— -for the heathen
a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God
one of admonition and comfort. There is nothing specifically
Christian in the book, which represents a persecution which
extends over the whole eastern part of the Empire. Moreover,
the idiom is particularly Semitic. Thus we have xv. 8 net
APOCATASTASIS— APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
175
susHtuho in Ins quae inique exercent, that is a «w: in 9 vindieans
nudicabo: in 22 non parcel dexlera m*o super peccatores*>
axurorat . . . fcri— Sy . . .Vnr. In verses 9, ip the manifest
corruptions may be explicable from a Semitic background.
There are other Hebraisms in the text. It is true that these
might have been due to the writer's borrowings from earlier
Greek works ultimately of Hebrew origin. The date of the book
is also quite uncertain, though several scholars have ascribed it
to the 3rd century.
Christian SibyUincs.—Cntic& are still at variance as to the
extent of the Christian Sibylline*. It is practically agreed that
vi.-viii. are of Christian origin. As for i.-ii.,'xi.-xiv. most writers
are in favour of Christian authorship; but not so Geffcken (cd.
Sibyll., rooa), who strongly insists on the Jewish origin of large
sections of these books.
Apocalypse* of Paid, Thomas and Stephen.— These are men-
tioned in the Gelasian decree. The first may possibly be the
'krafieewobo Haftta* mentioned by Epiphanius (Haer. xxxviii. 2)
as current among the Cainites. It is not to be confounded with
the apocalypse mentioned two sections later.
Apocalypse 0/ Esdros.—Thiz Greek production resembles the
more ancient fourth book of Esdraa in some respects. The
prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions
God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially
occupies his thoughts. Since they have sinned in consequence
of Adam's fall, their fate is considered worse than that of the
irrational creation. The description of the tortures suffered in
the infernal regions is tolerably minute. At last the prophet
consents to give up his spirit to God, who has prepared for him
a crown of immortality. The book is a poor imitation of the
ancient Jewish one. It may belong, however, to the and or 3rd
centuries o£ the Christian era. See Teschendorf, Apocalypses
Apocryphae, pp. *4-33.
Apocalypse ef Paul.— This work (referred to by Augustine,
TrackU. in Jean* 98) contains a description of the things which
the apostle saw in heaven and hell. The text, as first published
intheoriginal Greek by Tischendorf {Apocalypses Apocr. 34-69)1
consists of fifty-one chapters, but is imperfect. Internal evidence
assigns it to the time of Tbeodosius, i.e. about aj>. 388. Where
the author lived is uncertain. Dr Perkins found a Syriac MS.
of this apocalypse, which he translated into English, and printed
in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1864, vol. via.
This was republished by Tischendorf below the Greek version in
the above work. In 1893 the Latin version from one MS. was
edited by M. R. James, Texts and Studies* ii. 1-42, who shows
that the Latin version is the completest of the three, and that
the Greek in its present form is abbreviated.
Apocalypse of John (Teschendorf, Apocalypses Apocr. 70 sqq.)
contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection
and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked,
as well as the bliss of the righteous. It appears to be the work
of a Jewish Christian. The date is late, for the writer speaks of
the " venerable and holy images," as well as " the glorious and
precious crosses and the sacred things of the churches " (xiv.),
which points to the 5th century, when such things were first
introduced into churches. It is a feeble imitation of the canonical
apocalypse.
Arabic Apocalypse ef Peter contains a narrative of events from
the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ.
The book is said to have been written by Clement, Peter's
disciple. This Arabic work has not been printed , but a summary
of the contents is given by Nicoll in his catalogue of the Oriental
MSS. belonging to the Bodleian (p. 49, xlviii.). There are
eighty-cigbt chapters. It is a late production; for Ishmaelites
are spoken of, the Crusades, and the taking of Jerusalem. See
Tischendorf, Apocalypses Apocr. pp. xx.-xxiv.
The Apocalypse of Ike Virgin, containing her descent into hell,
is not published entire, but only several portions of it from Greek
MSS. in different libraries, by Tischendorf in his Apocalypses
Apocryphae, pp. 95 sqq. ; James, Texts and Studies, ii. 3. 109-126.
Apocalypse of Stdrach. — This late apocalypse, which M. R.
James assigns to the roth or nth century, deals with the subject
of intercession for sinners and Scdrach's unwillingness to die.
•See James, Texts and Studies, ii. 3. 127-137.
Apocalypse of Daniel. — See- Vassiliev's Anecdota Graeco-
Byeantina (Moscow, 1893), pp. 38-44; Uncanomcal Books of the
Old Testament (Venice, 1901), pp. 237 sqq., 387 sqq.
The Revelations of Bartholomew. — Dulaurier published from a
Parisian Sahidic MS., subjoining a French translation, what is
termed a fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholo-
mew (Fragment des revelations apocryphes do Saint BarthHemy,
cVc, Paris, 1835), and of the history of the religious communities
founded by St Pachomius. After narrating the pardon obtained
by Adam, it is said that the Son ascending from Olivet prays the
Father on behalf of His apostles; who consequently receive
consecration from the Father, together with the Son and Holy
Spirit— Peter being made archbishop of the universe. The late
date of the production is obvious.
Questions of St Bartholomew.— -See Vassiliev, Anee. Graeco-
Bywautina (1 893) , pp. 10-2 2. The introduction, which is wanting
in the Greek MS., has been supplied by a Latin translation from
the Slavonic version (see pp. vii.-fac.). The book contains dis-
closures by Christ, the Virgin and Beliar and mudhof the subject-
matter is ancient. . (R. H. -C.)
APOCATASTASIS, a Greek word, meaning " re-establish-
ment," used as a technical scientific term for a return to a
previous position or condition.
. APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE. The history of the earlier
usage of the term "Apocrypha" (from 6xokpvttw, to hide)
is not free from obscurity. We shall therefore enter at once on
a short account of the origin of this literature in Judaism, of its
adoption by early Christianity, of the various meanings which
the term " apocryphal " assumed in the course of its history,
and having so done we shall proceed to classify and deal with the
books that belong to this literature. The word most generally
denotes writings which claimed to be, or were by certain sects
regarded as, sacred scriptures although excluded from the
canonical scriptures.
Apocrypha in Judaism.— Certain circles in Judaism, as the
Essenes in Palestine (Josephus, B.J. ii. 8. 7) and the Therapeutae
(Philo, De Vita Contempt, ii. 475, ed. Mangey) in Egypt possessed
a secret literature. But such literature was not confined to the
members of these communities, but had been current among the
Chasids and their successors the Pharisees. 1 To this literature
belong essentially the apocalypses which were published in fast
succession from Daniel onwards. These works bore, perforce, the
names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to procure them a
bearing among the writers' real contemporaries. To reconcile
their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity
the alleged author is represented as " shutting up and sealing "
(Dan. xii. 4, 9) the book, until the time of its fulfilment had
arrived; for that it was not designed for his own generation
but for far-distant ages (1 Enoch i. 2,cviii. i.;Ass.Mos.i. x6, 17).
It is not improbable that with many Jewish enthusiasts this
literature was more highly treasured than the canonical scrip-
tures. Indeed, we have a categorical statement to this effect in
4 Ezra xiv. 44 sqq., which tells how Ezra was inspired to dictate
the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the overthrow
of Jerusalem: " In forty days they wrote ninety-four books:
and it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the
Highest spake, saying : the first that thou hast written publish
openly that the worthy and unworthy may read it; but keep the
seventy last that thou mayst deliver them only to such as be
wise among the people; for in them is the spring of understand-
ing, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge."
Such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original conception
of the term. In due course the Jewish authorities were forced
to draw up a canon or book of sacred scriptures, and mark them
off from those which claimed to be such without justification.
1 Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim toan esoteric tradition.
Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicttv o( the 24 books,
it claimed the possession of an oral law handed clown from Moses,
and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances
the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced the written
in the regard of Judaism.
176
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
The true scriptures, according to the Jewish canon (Yad. ili. 5;
Toseph. Yad. ii. 3), were those which defiled the hands of such as
touched them. But other scholars, such as Zahn, Schiirer, Porter,
state that the secret books with which we have been dealing
formed a class by themselves and were called " Genuizim "
(onm), and that this name and idea passed from Judaism
oVer into the Greek, and that &*-6xpv0a (kQXta is a translation
of gmim onw. But the Hebrew verb does not mean " to
hide " but " to store away/' and is only used of things in them-
selves precious. Moreover, the phrase is unknown in Tahnudic
literature. The derivation of this idea from Judaism has there-
fore not yet been established. Whether the Jews had any distinct
name for these esoteric works we do not know. For writings that
stood wholly without the pale of sacred books such as the books
of heretics or Samaritans they used the designation Hisonim,
Sanh. z. x (rcun onto and owon **iso). To this class in later
times even Sirach was relegated, and indeed all books not in-
cluded in the canon (Midr. r. Num. 14 and on Kohcleth xii. xa;
cf. Jer. Sabb. 16) .* In Aqiba's time Sirach and other apocryphal
books were not reckoned among the Hisonim; for Sirach was
largely quoted by rabbis in Palestine till the 3rd century a.d.
Apocrypha in Christianity.— Christianity as it springs from its
Founder had no secret or esoteric teaching. It was essentially
the revelation or manifestation of the truth of God. But as
Christianity took its origin from Judaism, it is not unnatural
that a large body of Jewish ideas was incorporated in the system
of Christian thought. The bulk of these in due course underwent
transformation either complete or partial, but there was always
a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent elements existing side
by side with the essential truths of Christianity. This was no
isolated phenomenon; for in every progressive period of the
history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine of God
advancing in depth and fulness: on the other we have cosmo-
logical, eschatological and other survivals, which, however
justifiable in earlier stages, are in unmistakable antagonism with
the theistic beliefs of the time. The eschatology of a nation— and
the most influential portion of Jewish and Christian apocrypha
are eschatological— is always the last part of their religion to
experience the transforming power of new ideas and new
facts.
Now the current religious literature of Judaism outside the
canon was composed of apocryphal books, the bulk of which
bore an apocalyptic character, and dealt with the coming of
the Messianic kingdom. These naturally became the popular
religious books of the rising Jewish-Christian communities, and
were held by them in still higher esteem, if possible, than by the
Jews. Occasionally these Jewish writings were re-cditcd or
adapted to their new readers by Christian additions, but on the
whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a system of
reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of
Christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies. Christianity,
moreover, moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as Judaism,
gave birth to new Christian apocryphs, though, in the case of most
of them, the subject matter was to a large extent traditional and
derived from Jewish sources.
Another prolific source of apocryphal gospels, acts and
apocalypses was Gnosticism. While the characteristic features
of apocalyptic literature were derived from Judaism, those of
Gnosticism sprang partly from Greek philosophy, partly from
oriental religions. They insisted on an allegorical interpretation
of the apostolic writings: they alleged themselves to be the
guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid claim to pro-
phetic inspiration. With them, as with the bulk of the Christians
of the xst and 2nd centuries, apocryphal books as such were
highly esteemed. They were so designated by those who valued
them. It was not till later times that the term became one
of reproach.
We have remarked above that the Jewish apocrypha— especi-
ally the apocalyptic section and the host of Christian apocryphs—
became the ordinary religious literature of the early Christians.
And this is not strange seeing that of the former such abundant
1 See Porter in Hastings' Bible Did, i. tu.
use was made by the writers of the New Testament.* Thus Jude
quotes the Book of Enoch by name, while undoubted use of this
book appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The influence of
the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is still more apparent
in the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels, and the same holds
true of Jubilees and the Assumption of Moses, though in a very
slight degree. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were
believed in by the writer of the Ep. of Barnabas, Irenaeus,
Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria. But the high position
which apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was
undermined by a variety of influences. All claims to the posses-
sion of a secret tradition were denied (Irenaeus ii. 27. s, iii. 2. 1,
3. x ; Tertullian, Praeseript. 33-27): true inspiration was limited
to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church
was required as a proof of apostolic authorship. Under the
action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass
into the class of spurious and heretical writings.
The Term 'M^ocry^J^.''— Turning now to the consideration
of the word " apocryphal " itself, we find that in its earliest use
it was applied in a laudatory sense to writings, (1) which were
kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge
which was too profound or too sacred to be imparted to any save
the initiated. Thus it occurs in a magical book of Moses, which
has been edited from a Leiden papyrus of the 3rd or 4th century
by Dieterich (Abraxas, 109). This book, which may be as old as
the xst century, is entitled: " A holy and secret Book of Moses,
called eighth, or holy" (Muwcok Upa 0i/9A©« awoxpv^os
ertxaXovpiini 6yS6n 4 tyia). The disciples of the Gnostic Prodxcu*
boasted (Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 15. 69) that they possessed the
secret (aroxptyow) books of Zoroaster. 4 Ezra is in its author's
view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the
canonical scriptures (xiv. 44 sqq.) because of its transcendent
revelations of the future. It is in a like laudatory meaning that
Gregory reckons the New Testament apocalypse as kv ivmipv^ott
(Oratio in suam ordinationem, iii. 549, cd. Migne: cf. Epiphanius,
Haer. 1L 3). The word enjoyed high consideration among the
Gnostics (cf. Acts of Thomas, 10, 37, 44). (3) But the word warn
applied to writings that were kept from public circulation not
because of their transcendent, but of their secondary or question-
able value. Thus Origen distinguishes between writings which
were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: 7p«4#
pj) jxpotihtf fib iv rots xotKHS *oi oeiqfwnevulvms
/3t0XIot5 tUdt h* 61% to aroffpC>4oit jxpoubji (Origen's Ccrnnu
in Matt., x. 18, on Matt. xiii. 57, ed. Lommatxsch iii. 49 sqq.).
Cf. Epist. ad Africam, ix. (Lommatxsch xvii. 31): Euseb. H.E. iL
23, 25 ; iii. 3, 6. See Zahn, Gesch. Kanons, i. 126 sqq. Thus the
meaning of aroicpu^of is here practically equivalent to " excluded
from the public use of the church/' and prepares the way for the
third and unfavourable sense of this word. (3) Trie word came
finally to mean what is false, spurious, bad, heretical. If we
may trust the text, this meaning appears in Origen (Prole?, in
Cant. C antic., Lommatxsch xiv. 325): " De scripturis his, quae
appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in sis corrupt* et
contra fidem vcram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non piacuit
iis dari locum nee admitti ad auctoritatem."
In addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the
term appear in the western church. Thus the Gelasian Decree
includes the works of Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of
Alexandria, under this designation. Augustine ( De Cm, Dei,
xv. 23) explains it as meaning obscurity of origin, while Jerome
(Prologus Caleatus) declares that all books outside the Hebrew
canon belong to this class of apocrypha. Jerome's practice,
however, did not square with his theory. The western church
did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, but retained the
word in its original meaning, though great confusion prevailed.
Thus the degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books
have been held in the church has varied much according to place
and time. As they stood in the Septuagint or Greek canon, along
* The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with
several of the apocryphal books. Thus James I 19 shows depend-
ence on Sirach v. 1 1. Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26. Romans ix. tl
on Wisdom xv. 7, a Cor. v. 1, 4 oa Wisdom ix. 15. Ac
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
»77
with the other books, and with 00 marks of distinction, they were
practically employed by the Greek Fathers in the same way as
the other books; hence Origan, Clement and others often cite
them as " scripture," " divine scripture," " inspired," and the
like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine, and
familiar with the Hebrew canon, rigidly exclude all but the books
contained there. This view as reflected, for example, in the
canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of
Jerome. Augustine, however (De Doct. Christ, ii. 8), attaches
himself to the other side. Two well-defined views in this way
prevailed, to which was added a third, according to which the
books, though not to be pot in the same rank as the canonical
scriptures of the Hebrew collection, yet were of value for moral
uses and to be read in congregation*,— and hence they were
called " ecclesiastical "—-a designation first found in Rufinus
(•*. 410). Notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held
-in Africa, which were in favour of the view of Augustine, these
diverse opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to
prevail in the church down through the ages till the great dog-
malic era of the Reformation. At that epoch the same three
opinions were taken up and congealed into dogmas, which may
be considered characteristic of the churches adopting them. In
1 $46 the council of Trent adopted the canon of Augustine,
declaring " He is also to be anathema who does not receive these
entire books r with all their parts, as they have been accustomed
to be read in the Catholic Church, and arc found in the ancient
editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The
whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1st and
ad Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasses, were declared canonical
at Trent. On the other hand, the Protestants universally
adhered to the opinion that only the books in the Hebrew
collection are canonical. Already Wycliffe had declared that
" whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-
five (Hebrew) shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without
authority or behef." Yet among the churches of the Reforma-
tion a milder and a severer view prevailed regarding the apocry*
pha. Both in the German and English translations (Luther's,
1537; Coverdale's, 1535, &c.) these books are separated from
the others and set by themselves; but wmle in some confessions,
e.g. the Westminster, a decided judgment is passed on them,
that they are not " to be any otherwise approved or made use
of than other human writings," a milder verdict is expressed
regarding them in many other quarters, «.g. in the " argument "
prefixed to them in the Geneva Bible; in the Sixth Article of the
Church of England, where it is said that " the other books the
church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners,"
though not to establish doctrine; and elsewhere.
Old Testament Apocryphal Books
We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books:
first the Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and
New Testament apocryphal literature.
1. The Apocrypha Proper, or the apocrypha of the Old
Testament as used by English-speaking Protestants, consists of
the following books: x Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions
to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Epistle
of Jeremy, Additions to Daniel (Song of the Three Holy Children,
History of Susannah, and Bel and the Dragon), Prayer of
if gn » f ff« f 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha
Proper constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the
Roman Church over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this
surplusage is in turn derived from the Septuagint, from which
the old Latin version was translated, it thus follows that the
difference between the Protestant and the Roman Catholic Old
Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference
between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old
Testament. But this is only true with certain reservations;
(or the Latin Vulgate was revised by Jerome according to the
Hebrew, and, where Hebrew originals were wanting, according to
the Septuagint. Furthermore, the Vulgate rejects 3 and 4
Maccabees and Psalm elf., which generally appear in the Septua-
gint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject 4 Can*
II. 4
which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper.
Luther's Bible, moreover, rejects also 3 Eara. It should further
be observed that the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and
3 and 4 Eara after the New Testament as apocryphal.
It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not
open to some objection. In any case the classification must be
to some extent provisional, since scholars are still divided as to
the original language, date and place of composition of some of
the books which must come under our classification. 1 We may,
however, discriminate (i.) the Palestinian and (ii.) the Hellenistic
literature of the Old Testament, though even this distinction is
open to serious objections. The former literature was generally
written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in Greek; the latter
naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we shall
distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the
subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we
have to treat will be classed as: (a) Historical, (b) Legendary
(Haggadic), (c) Apocalyptic, (d) Didactic or Sapiential.
The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows: —
i. Palestinian Jewish Literature:—
(a) Historical. (c) Apocalyptic
1 (i.e. 3) E*ra. a (14. 4) Ezra (see also
1 Maccabees. under separate article
on Apocalyptic Lit-
ERATURE.
(0) Legendary. (d) Didactic.
Book of Baruch (sec . Sirach (see Ecclesias-
Baruch). ticus).
Judith. Tobit.
ii Hellenistic Jewish Literature:—
Historical and Legendary. Didactic.
Additions to Daniel fa.v.V Book of Wisdom (tee Wis-
„ „ Esther (qx.). dou, Book Or.)
Epistle of Jeremy ({.p.):
9 Maccabees (q.v.).
Prayer of Manasses (see Max asses).
Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they
call for 00 further notice here.
Literature.— Texts:— Holmes and Parsons, Vet. Test. Craecum
cum par. lectionibus (Oxford, 1 798-1827); Swcte, Old Testament in
Creek, i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1 887-1 894); Fritzsche, Libri Apocrypki
V. T. Greece (1871). Commentaries:— O. F. Fritzsche and Grimm,
Kurttef. exegtt. Handbmch em den Apoh. des A.T. (Leiprig, 1851-
i860); E. C. Bissell. Apocrypha of the Old Testament (Edinburgh,
1880); Zdckler, Apoh. des A.T. (Munchen, 1891); Wace, The
Apocrypha ("Speaker's Commentary") (1888). Introduction and
General Literature:— E. Schurcr*. Ceschichte des tod. Volkts, vol. its.
13S *qq., and his article on " Apokryphen " in Herzog's RealencyhL
i. 622-655: Porter in Hastings' Bible Die, i. ill- 123.
2(a). Other Old Testament Apocryphal Literature:--.
(a) Historical. (c) Apocalyptic
History of Johannes Hyr- (See separate article.)
canus.
(6) Legendary. (d) Didactic or Sapiential.
Book of Jubilees. Pirke Aboth.
Paralipomena Jeremiae, or
the Rest of the Words
of Baruch.
Martyrdom of Isaiah.
Pseudo-Philo's Liber
Antiquitatum.
Books of Adam.
Jannes and Jambres.
Joseph and Asenath.
(a) Historical.— -The History of Johannes Hyrcanus is men-
tioned in 1 Mace. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered
of its existence elsewhere. It must have early passed out of
circulation, as it was unknown to Josephus.
(b) Legendary.— The Booh 0/ Jubilees was written in Hebrew
by a Pharisee between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to
the high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees
some years before his death in 105 B.C. Jubilees was translated
into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is
1 Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasses
are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in Pales-
tine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed
under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic Enoch
goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though most
of it was written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.
178
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. Jubilees h the most
advanced pre-Christian representative of the midrashic tend-
ency, which was already at work in the Old Testament x and a
Chronicles. As the chronicler rewrote the history of Israel and
Judah from the basis of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited
from the Pharisaic standpoint of his time the book of Genesis and
the early chapters of Exodus. His work constitutes an enlarged
targum on these books, and its object is to prove the everlasting
validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was superior
to time. Writing in the palmiest days of the Maccabcan
dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic
kingdom. This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah
sprung not from Judah but from Levi, that is, from the reigning
Maccabcan family. This kingdom was to be gradually realized
on earth, the transformation of physical nature going hand in
hand with the ethical transformation of man. (For a fuller
account see Jubilees, Book of.)
Par ait pome na Jcremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch. —
This book has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and
Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1600, and
next by Ceriani in 1868 under the title Paralipomena Jeremiae.
It bears the same name in the Armenian, but in Ethiopic it is
known by the second title. (See under Baruch.)
Martyrdom of Isaiah. — This Jewish work has been in part
preserved in the Ascension of Isaiah. To it belong L 1 , 2», 6*- 13*;
ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12; v. i'- 1 4 of that book. It is of Jewish origin,
and recounts the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh.
(Sec Isaiah, Ascension op.)
Pscudo-Philo's Liber Anliquitalum Biblicarum. — Though the
Latin version of this book was thrice printed in the 16th century
(in 1527, 1550 and 1599), it was practically unknown to modern
scholars till it was recognized by Conybeare and discussed by
Cohn in the Jewish Quarterly Review, 1808, pp. 279-332. It is
an Haggadic revision of the Biblical history from Adam to the
death of Saul. Its chronology agrees frequently with the LXX.
against that of the Massorctic text, though conversely in a few
cases: The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the Greek.
Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is
occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in
others the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one
or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both.
On many grounds Cohn infers a Hebrew original. The cscha-
tology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the Book of
Enoch. In fact, Eth. En. Ii 1 is reproduced in this connexion.
Prayers of the departed are said to be valueless. The book was
written after a.d. 70; for, as Cohn has shown, the exact date of
the fall of Herod's temple is predicted.
Life of Adam and £t*.— Writings dealing with this subject
are extant in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and
Arabic. They go back undoubtedly to a Jewish basis, but in
some of the forms in which they appear at present they are
christianized throughout. The oldest and for the most part
Jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in Greek,
Armenian, Latin and Slavonic, (i.) The Greek Mrynovt vtpl
'\5an koI ESat (published under the misleading title 'AtwcAXi^it
Mwuaew* in Teschendorf's Apocalypses Apotryphae, 1866) deals
with the Fall and the death of Adam and Eve. Ceriani edited this
text from a Milan MS. (Monumcnla Sacra et Profana, v. 1).
This work is found also in Armenian, and has been published
by the Mechitharist community in Venice in their Collection of
Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament, and translated by
Conybeare (Jewish Quarterly Review, vii. 216 sqq., 1895), an ^ by
Issavcrdcns in 1901. (ii.) The Vila Ad at el Evae is closely related
and' in part identical with (i.). It was printed by W. Meyer in
Abh. d. Munch. Akad., Philos.-philol. CI. xiv., 1878. (in.) The
Slavonic Adam book was published by Jajic" along with a Latin
translation (Denksckr. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wiss. xlii., 1893).
This version agrees for the most part with (i.) . It has, moreover,
a section, §§ 28-39, which though not found in (i.) is found in (ii.).
Before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other
members of this literature, which, though derivable ultimately
from Jewish sources, are Christian in their present form, (iv.)
The Book of Adam and Eve, ebo called the Conflict of Adam and
Eve with Satan, translated from the Ethiopic (1882) by Milan.
This was first translated by Dillmann (Das ehrisiL Adambuck
des Morgenlandes, 1853), and the Ethiopic book first edited by
Trump (Abh. d. Munch. Akad. xv., 1870-1881). (v.) A Syriac
work entitled Die Schatzhthie translated by Bezold from three
Syriac MSS. in 1883 and subsequently edited in Syriac in 1888.
This work has close affinities to (iv.), but is said by Dillmann to
be more original, (vi.) Armenian books on the Death of Adam
(Uncanonical Writings ofO.T. pp. 84 sqq., 1901, translated from
the Armenian), Creation and Transgression of Adam (op. cii.
39 sqq.), Expulsion of Adam from Paradise (op. tit. 47 sqq.),
Penitence of Adam and Em (op. cit. 71 sqq.) are mainly later
writings from Christian hands.
Returning to the question of the Jewish origin of i., ii, iiL, we
have already observed that these spring from a common originaL
As to the language of this original, scholars are divided. The -
evidence, however, seems to be strongly in favour of Hebrew.
How otherwise are we to explain such Hebraisms (or Syriadsms)
as W A*« to IXokv 4£ *W (5 9 ),oS cZrc . . . #r* 4*7*1***
atari) (§ 21). For others see {$ 23, 33. Moreover, as Fuchs
has pointed out, in the words fan kv ucerahu addressed to
Eve (5 35) there is a corruption of n'tan into otav Thus
the words were: " Thou shalt have pangs." In fact, Hebraisms
abound throughout this book. (See Fuchs, Apok. «. Pseud,
d. A.T. ii 511; Jewish Encyc. L 179 sq.)
Jannes and Jambres. — These two men are referred to in
2 Tim. iiL 8 as the Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses.
The book which treats of them is mentioned by Origen (ad
Matt, xxiii. 37 and xxvii. 9 [Jannes et Mambres Liber]), and in
the Gelasian Decree as the Paenitentia Jamnis et Mambre. The
names in Greek are generally 'IajvJjt «al 'latfpw <-onaoi nv)
as in the Targ.-Jon. on Exod. i. 15; vii. xi. In the Talmud
they appear as moot urn*. Since the western text of 2 Tim. iiL 8
has Mau&pnt, Westcott and Hort infer that this form was derived
from a Palestinian source. These names were known not only
to Jewish but also to heathen writers, such as Pliny and Apuleius.
The book, therefore, may go back to pre-Christian times. (See
Schurer 1 iiL 292*204; Ency. Biblica, iL 2327-2320.)
Joseph and Asenath.— The statement in Gen. xlL 45, 50 that
Joseph married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave
offence to later Judaism, and gave rise to the fiction that Ascnath
was really the daughter of Shechem and Dinah, and only the
foster-daughter of Potiphcrah (Targ.-Jon. on Gen. xlL 45;
TractaU Sopherim, xxi. 9; Jaikut Shimoni, c 134. See Oppcn-
heim, Pabula Josephi et Asemethae, 1886, pp. 2-4). Origcn also
was acquainted with some form of the legend (Selecta in Gemsin.
ad Gen. xli. 45, ed. Lommatzsch, viii. 80-90). The Christian
legend, which is no doubt in the mam based on the Jewish, is
found in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic and Medieval Latin.
Since it is not earlier than the 3rd or 4th century, it will be
sufficient here to refer to Smith's Diet, of Christ. Biog. i. 176-177;
Hastings' Bible Diet. i. 162-163; Schurer, iii. 289-291.
(d) Didactic or Sapiential.— The Pirke Aboth, a collection of
sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate
of the Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to
some sixty Jewish teachers, belonging for the most part to the
years a.d. 70-170, though a few Qf them are of a much earlier
date. The book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as
the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings are often
admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, "Who is wise? He that learns
from every man. . . . Who is mighty? He that subdues his
nature. . . . Who is rich? He that is contented with his lot.
. . . Who is honoured? He that honours mankind." (See
further Puke Aboth.)
2 (b). New Testament Apocryphal Ltieraturt^~
(a) Gospels :—
Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish
writings.
Gospel according to the Egyptians.
„ .. „ Hebrews.
Protevangcl of James.
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
179
Gospel of Nieodemos.
„ „ Peter.
„ „ Thomas.
„ „ the Twelve.
Gnostic gospels of Andrew. Aperies, Barnabas, Bartholo-
mew, Basilides, Cerintbus and some seventeen others.
f» Acts and Teachings of the Apostles*—
Acts of Andrew and later forms of these Acts.
M John.
„ Paul.
„ Peter.
Preaching of Peter.
Acts of Thomas.
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,
Apostolic constitutions.
(c) Epistles:—
The Abgar Epistles.
Epistle of Barnabas.
„ „ Clement.
M Clement's " and Epistle of the Corinthians.
„ Epistles on Virginity.
„ „ to James.
Epistles of Ignatius.
Epistle of Polycarp.
Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians.
3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians.
(d) Apocalypses: see under Apocalyptic LiTERATims.
(a) Gospels.*— Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian
and Jewish Sources. — Under the head of canonical sayings not
found in the Gospels only one is found, ix. that in Acts xx. 35.
Of the rest the uncanonical sayings have been- collected by
Preuschen (Rest* der ausserhanonischen Eoangelien, 1001, pp.
44-47). A different collection will be found in Hennecke,
N Tliehe A pok. 0-11. The same subject is dealt with in the
elaborate volumes of Reach (Aussercanonische ParalleUexte 9*
den Eoangelien, vols, i.-iii., 1803*1895).
To this section belongs also the FayumCospel Fragment and the
Login published by Grenfell and Hunt. 1 The former contains
two sayings of Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the
canonical gospels, Matt xxvi. 3 1-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The papy-
rus, which is of the 3rd century, was discovered by Bickell among
the Raincr collection, who characterised it (Z. /. kelk. Tktol.,
1885, pp. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels
mentioned in Luke i. x. On theother hand, it has been contended
that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily. (See
Zahn, Gessh. Kanons, ii. 780-790; Harnock, Teste und Untcr-
suchungen, v. 4; Preuschen, op. cit. p. 19.) The Logic (q.t.) is
the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf, by
its discoverers Grenfell and Hunt They think the papyrus
was probably written about aj>. aoo. According to Harnack,
it is an extract from the Gospel of the Egyptians: All the passages
referring to Jesus in the Talmud are given by Laible, Jesus
Christus im Talmud, with an appendix, "Die talmudischen
Teste," by G. Dalman (2nd ed. xooi). The first edition of this
work was translated into English by A. W. Streane (Jesus Christ
in Ike Talmud, 1893). In Hennecke's N Tliehe A pok. Hondbuck
(pp. 47-7 1 )thereia a valuable study of this question by A. Meyer,
entitled Jesus, Jesu JUnger und das Evangeiium im Talmud und
mrwandienjudischen Schriften, to which also a good bibliography
of the subject is prefixed.
Gospel according to the Egyptians.— This gospel is first men-
tioned by Clem. Alex. (Strom, iii. 6. 45; 9< 631 66; 13. 92),
subsequently by Origen (Horn, in Luc. i) and Epiphanius
(Hacr. lxii. 2), and a fragment is preserved in the so-called
a Clem. Rom. xii. 2. It circulated among various heretical
circles; amongst the Encratites (Clem. Strom, iii. 9), the Nsas-
senes (Hippolyt Philos. v. 7), and the Sabellians (Epiph. Haer.
lxii. 2). Only three or four fragments survive; see Lipsius
(Smith sod Wace, Diet, of Christ. Bio?. H. 71 2, 713); Zahn,
Gere*. Kanons, ii. 628-642; Preuschen, Rests d. ausscrhanon-
nxhem B oa ngcli e Uy 1901, p. 2, which show that ft was a product
of pantheistic Gnosticism. With this pantheistic Gnosticism
is tHwr***** a severe asceticism. The distinctions of sex are
1 These editors have discovered (1007) a gospel fragment of the
2nd century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a
chief priest—* Pharisee.
one day to come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows
naturally on this view. Hence Christ is represented as coming
to destroy the work of the female (Clem. Alex. Strom, iii. 9. 63).
Lipsius and Zahn assign it to the middle of the 2nd century.
It may be earlier.
Prolevangcl of James.— This title was first given in the 16th
century to a writing which is referred to as The Book of James
(1) JHpXot 'Ioxctyfoi/) by Origen (torn. xi. in Matt.). Its author
designates it as 'loropia. For various other designations see
Teschendorf, Evang. Apocr? 1 seq. The narrative extends from
the Conception of the Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. Lipsius
shows that in the present form of the book there is side by side
a strange 1 * admixture of intimate knowledge and gross ignorance
of Jewish thought and custom," and thai accordingly we must
" distinguish between an original Jewish Christian writing and a
Gnostic recast of it." The former was known to Justin(/>ia/.
78, 101) and Clem. Alex. (Strom, vii. 16), and belongs at latest
to the earliest years of the and century. The Gnostic recast
Lipsius dates about the middle of the 3rd century. From these
two works arose independently the Protevougel in its present
form and the Latin pseudo-Matthacus (Evangeiium pscude-
Matthaei). The 'Evangeiium de Nativitate Mariae is a redaction
of the latter. (See Lipsius in Smith's Diet, of Christ. Biog.
ii. 701-703.) But if we except the Zachariah and John group
of legends, it is not necessary to assume the Gnostic recast of
this work in the 3rd century as is done by Lipsius. The author
had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary.
One of these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it
conceives Mary as living in the temple somewhat after the
manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of Isis. The other group
is more in accord with the orthodox gospels. The book appears
to have been written in Egypt, *and in the early years of the
2nd century. For, since Origen states that many appealed to it
in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were sons of
Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current
about a.d. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex,
who (Strom, vi. 93) shows acquaintance with one of the chief
doctrines of the book— the perpetual virginity of Mary. Finally,
as Justin's statements as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and
Mary's descent from David show in all probability his acquaint-
ance with the book, it may with good grounds be assigned to
the first decade of the 2nd century. (So Zahn, GescH. Kanons,
i. 485, 499, 502, 504, 539; ii. 774-780.) For the Greek text see
Teschendorf, Evang. Apocr* 1-50; B. P. Grenfell, An Alex-
andrian erotic Fragment and other Papyri, 1896, pp. 13-17"
for the Syriac, Wright, Contributions to Apocryphal Literature
of the N.T., 1865, pp. 3-7; A. S. Lewis, Studio Sinaitita, xi.
pp. 1-22. See literature generally in Hennecke, N Tliehe A pok.
Handbuch, 106 seq.
Gospel of Nicodemus.— -This title is first met with in the 13th
century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled
In the older MSS. faro/u^uara tov Kvplov 1ii**r 'Inevv Xptorov
rpax&vTa M Uaoriov ITiXfttov: also " Gcsta Salvatoris
Domini . . . inventa Theodosio magno impcratore in Ierusalem
in praetorio Ponlii Pilati in codidbus publicis." See Teschendorf,
Evang. Apocr* pp. 333-335- This work gives an account
of the Passion (i.-xi.), the Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the
Descensus ad Inferos (xvii.-xxvii.). Chapters i.-xvi. arc extant
in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian versions. The two Latin
versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek contain i.-xxvii.
(see Tischendorf. Eoangelia Apocrypha*, pp. 210-458). All
known texts go back to a. d. 425, if one may trust the reference
to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, fot as early as
376 Epiphanius (Haer. i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like
text. In 325 Eusebius (H.E. ii. 2) was acquainted only with
ihthta\hcn Acts of Pilate, and knew nothing of a Christian work.
Tischendorf and Hofraann, however, find evidence of its existence
in Justin's reference to the-AxToIiiXaTW^of. i. 35. 48), and in
Tertullian's mention of the Acta Pilati (Apal. 21), and on this
evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the and century.
But these references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and
Lightfoot Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements
i8o
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
which are found in the Pctrine Gospel, but not in the canonical
gospels, from the original Acta Pilati, while Zahn exactly reverses
the relation of these two works. Rendel Harris (1800) advocated
the view that the Gospel of Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely
a prose version of the Gospel of Nicodemus written originally in
Homeric centones as early as the 2nd century. Lipsius and
DobschttU relegate the book to the 4th century. The question is
not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's Did. of Christ. Biography,
ii. 708-709, and DobschttU in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, iii.
544-547).
Gospel according to the Hebrews. — This gospel was cited by
Ignatius (Ad Smyrnaeos, iii.) according to Jerome (Viris Ulus.
16, and in Jes. lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy
by Zahn, op. cit. 1.921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic
in Hebrew letters, according to Jerome (Adv. Pdag. iii. 2), and
translated by him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations
are lost A collection of the Greek and Latin fragments that
have survived, mainly in Origen and Jerome, will be found in
Hilgenf eld's NT extra Canonem receptum, Nicholson's Gospel
according to the Hebrews (1879), Westcott's Introd. to the Gospels,
and Zahn's Gesch. des NTlkhen Kanons, ii. 642-723; Prcuschen,
op. cit. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in the first
centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew
(Jerome, in Matt. xii. 13; Adv. Pdag. iii. 1). With the canonical
gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent.
It circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed,
according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 722), between the years 135 and 15a
Jerome identifies it with the Gospel of the Twelve (Adv. Pdag.
iii. 2), and states that it was used by the Ebionites (Comm. in
MatL zii. 23). Zahn (op. cit. ii. 662, 724) contests both these
statements. The former he traces to a mistaken interpretation
of Origen (Horn. I. in Luc.). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts
the statements of Jerome (Smith and Wace, Did. of Christian
Biography, ii. 709-7x2), and is of opinion that this gospel, in the
form in which it was known to Epiphaniua, Jerome and Origen,
was " a recast of an older original," which, written originally in
Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia used by St Matthew
and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, " which itself was
only a later redaction of the Logia."
According to the most recent investigations we may conclude
that the Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among
the Nazarenes and Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius
was familiar with the phrase " I am no bodiless demon " — a
phrase which, according to Jerome (Comm. in Is. xviii), belonged
to this Gospel.
The name " Gospel according to the Hebrews " cannot have
been original; for if it had been so named because of its general
use among the Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not
have used this designation. It may have been known simply as
. " the Gospel." The language was Western Aramaic, the mother
tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western
Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the
Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in
isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a frag-
mentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations
from the Old Testament are made from the Massorctic text.
This gospel must have been translated at an early date into
Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible,
and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received
books. The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related
to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities
with Luke. Like Mark it seems to have had no history of the
birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the
literature see Hcnnecke, NTliche Apoh. Handbuch, 21-23.)
Gospel of Peter.— Before 1892 we had some knowlege of this
gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (a.d. 190-203) found
it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as
Docetic (Eusebius, H.B. vi. i>). Again, Origen (In Matt. torn,
xvii. 10) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his
half-brothers. In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at
Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently
by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.
Gospel of Thomas .— This gospel professes to give an account of
our Lord's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more
complete recension bears the title 6a>pa 'IffpcuyXirov $iW*£ov
fard eft tA xcu&xd too Kvptoi/, and treats of the period from
the 7th to the 12th year (Teschendorf, Evangdia Apocrypha*,
1876, 140-157). The more fragmentary recension gives the
history of the childhood from the 5th to the 8th year, and is
entitled Zbyypaupa rod aylov o.toct6\ov Oupa wtfl Hjf Toitucwt
kraarpotfis tov Kvplov (Teschendorf, op. cit. pp. 158-163).
Two Latin translations have been published in this work by the
same scholar— one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong
title, Pseudo-Matthaei Evangdium, on pp. 93-1x2. A Syriac
version, with an English translation, was published by Wright
in 1875. This gospel was originally still more Docetic than it
now is, according to Lipsius. Its present form is due to an ortho-
dox revision which discarded, so far as possible, all Gnostic
traces. Lipsius (Smith's Did. of Christ. Biog. ii. 703) assigns it
to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn (Gesch. Kan. ii.
771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The latter scholar
shows that probably it was used by Justin (Dial. 88). At all
events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, Haer. i. 20)
and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, Refut. v. 7), and subsequently
among the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen
downwards' (Horn. /. in Liu.). If the stichometry of Nicephorus
is right, the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary
compared with its original compass. For literature see Hennecke,
NTliche A po hyphen Handbuch, 132 seq.
Gospel of the Twelve.— Tim gospel, which Origen knew (17ml
/. in Luc.), is not to be identified with the Gospel according to the
Hebrews (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought
to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments
of these two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of
the Gospel of the Twelve have been preserved by Epiphanius
(Haer. xxx. 13-16, 32: see Prcuschen, op. cit. o-n). It began
with an account of the baptism. It was used by the Ebionites,
and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit. it. 742), about
a.d. 170.
Other Gospels mainly Gnostic and almost ail lost.—
Gospel of Andrew. — This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree,
and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (x Ep. iii. 7)
and Augustine (Contra advers. Leg. el Proph. i. 20).
Gospel of Apdles.— Mentioned by Jerome in his Prooem. ad
Matt.
Gospel of Barnabas. — Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see
under Barnabas ad fin.).
Gospel of Bartholomew. — Mentioned by Jerome in his Prooem*
ad Matt, and condemned in the Gelasian Decree.
Gospel of /tori/ifo.— Mentioned by Origen (Tract. 26 in Matt.
xxxiii. 34, and in his Prooem. in Luc.); by Jerome in his Prooem.
in Matt. (See Harnack L 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, Gesch.
Kanons, i. 763-774.)
Gospel of Cerinthus. — Mentioned by Epiphanius (Haer. 1L 7).
Gospd of the Ebionites. — A fragmentary edition of the canonical
Matthew according to Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 13), used by the
Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel.
Gospel of Etc.— A quotation from this gospel is given by
Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the
Gospel of Perfection (E0aTYlh.or rtXautowt) which he touches
upon in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the
expression of complete pantheism.
Gospel of James the Less. — Condemned in the Gelasian Decree.
Wisdom of Jesus Christ. — This third <work contained in the
Coptic MS. referred to under Gospel of Mary gives cosmologies!
disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin.
Apocryph of John. — This book, which is found in the Coptic
MS. referred to under Gospd of Mary and contains cosmologies!
disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus*
account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 20-31). Thus this work
would have been written before 170.
Gospd of Judas Iscariot. — References to this gospel as in use
among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (L 31. 1); Epiphanius
(xxxviii. 1. 3).
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
181
Gospd, The tiring (Bnngetium V***»),— This was a gospel
of the Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, Haer, Ixvi. 2; Photius,
Centra Munich, i.
Gospd of Marcion.—On this important gospel see Zahn, Gesch.
Kanons, L 585-718.
Descent of Mary (rfa*e Moplot ).—This book was an anti-
Jewish legend representing Zacharias as having been put to
death by the Jews because he had seen the God of the Jews in
the form of an ass in the temple (Epiphantus, Hoar. xxvi. 12).
Questions of Mary {Great and Little).— Epiphanius (Haer.
xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this revolting work.
Gospel of Mary.— Thi* gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the
5th century. According to Schmidt's short account, Sitsungs-
berichte d, prtuts. Ahad. d. Wis*. %u. Berlin (1896), pp. 839 sqq.,
this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter (6Xn) and
the progress of the Gnostic soul through die seven planet*.
Gospd of Matthias.— Though this gospel Is attested by Origen
{Horn, in Luc. L), Eusebius, H.E. iii. 35. 6, and the List of
Sixty Books, not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with
Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we are to identify it with the Traditions of
Matthias, from which Clement has drawn some quotations.
Gospel of Perfection (Etangdium perfcctionis).—\Jsai by the
followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, Haer.
XXVL 2.
Gospel of Philip.— This gospel described the progress of a
soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite
character and dates from the and century. A fragment is pre-
served in Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, Rcste, p. 13,
the quotation breaks off too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768.
Gospel of Thaddaeus. — Condemned by the Gelasian Decree.
Gospd of Thomas.— Oi this gospel only one fragment has been
preserved in Hippolytus, Pkilos. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn,
op. cit. L 746 seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595-
Gospd of Truth.— This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus L 1 z. 9,
and was used by the Valentiniana. See Zahn i. 748 sqq.
(by Acts and Teachings o» the Apostles.— Ads of Andrew.
—These Ads, which are of a strongly Encratite character, have
come down to us in a fragmentary condition. They belong to
the earliest ages, for they are mentioned by Eusebius, H.E. iii.
*5; Epiphanius, Haer. xlvii. z; lxi. z; lxiii. 3; Philaster,
Haer. Ixviii., as current among the Manichaeans and heretics.
They are attributed to Leucius, a Docetic writer, by Augustine
ic. Folic. Manich. ii. 6) and Euodius (De Fide c. Mankh. 38}.
Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small
fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section
recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, Acta Apestdorum
Apocrypha, ii. 38-45) is «l*o probably a constituent of the
original work. As regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion
introduced by the multitudinous Catholic revisions of this
section of the Acts, it is practically impossible to restore its
original form. For a complete discussion of the various docu-
ments see Lipsius, Apohryphen Apostdgeschkhie, L 543-°" J
also James in Hastings' BibU Diet. L 92-93; Hennecke, NT.
Apohryphen, in lot. The best texts are given in Bonnet's Ada
Apostolorum Apocrypha, z8o8, II. i. 1-127. These contain also
the Acts of Andrew and Matthew (or Matthias) in which Matthew
(or Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the
anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with
Him, and effects the reacueof Matthew. The legend is found also
in Ethiopic, Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the Acts of Peter and
Andrew, which among other incidents recount the miracle of a
camd passing through the eyeof a needle. This work is preserved
partly in Greek, but in its entirety in Slavonic.
Acts of /oJw.—Ckrnent of Alexandria in his Hypoty poses on
1 John i. 1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these
Acta. Eusebius (H.E. iii. 35. 6), Epiphanius (Haer. xlvii. z)
and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of
Leudus Charinus. It is generally admitted that they were
written in the and century. The text has been edited most
completely by Bonnet, Ada Apostd. Apocr., 1898, 151 -2 16.
The contents might be summarised with Hennecke as follows:—
Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus (xviiL-lv.);
return to Epfrtsus and second sojourn (history of Druefana,
lviiL-lxxxvf,); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His
apparent death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (evi-exv.).
There are manifest gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would
infer from the extent assigned to it {i.e. 3500 stichoi) by Nice-
phorus. According to this authority one-third of the text is now
lost Many chapters are lost at the beginning; there is a gap in
chapter xxxvii., also before Iviii., not to mention others. The
encratite tendency in these Acts i» not so strongly developed
as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (Anecdote, ii. z-25)
has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and
Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are
like affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of
Paul. For a discussion of this work see Zahn, Gesch. Kanons,
ii 856-865; Lipsius, Apoh. Apostdgesch. L 348-542; Hennecke,
NT. Apohryphen, 423^32. For bibliography, Hennecke, NT.
Apoh. Handhuth, 492 sq.
Acts of Paul.— -The discovery of the Coptic translation of
these Acts in Z897, *nd its publication by C. Schmidt (Acta
Pauli aus dor Heiddberger hopHschen Papyrushandschtift
herausgegeben, Leipzig, Z804), have confirmed what had been
previously only a hypothesis that the Acts of Theda had formed
a part of the larger Acta of PauL The Acts therefore embrace
now the following dements?— (o) Two quotations given by
Origen in his Princip. L 2. 3 and his comment on John xx. isv
From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of
Peter was recounted, (b) Apocryphal yd Epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians and Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul. These two
letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give
the historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Strato-
nice, the wife of ApoUophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of
these letters have for the most part disappeared, but they have
been preserved in Syriac, and through Syriac they obtained for
the time being a place in the Armenian Bible immediately after
2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two passages from 3 Corinthians
as words of the apostle, and Ephraem expounded them in his
commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They mustlherefore have
been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th century.
From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian
and maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century.
On the Latin text see Carriere and Berger, Correspondanco
apocr. de S. P. et des Corinthiens, 1801. For a translation of
Ephraem's commentary see Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, Der
Apocr. 3. Korinthien, 70 sqq., 1804. The Coptic version (C
Schmidt, Acta Pauli, pp. 74-82), which is here imperfect, is
clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and Armenian are
from the Syriac (c) The Acts of Paul and Theda. These were
written, according to Tertullian (De Baptismo, 17) by a presbyter
of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery.
This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D.
150), recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Theda
of Iconium. Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but
these are denied by Zahn (Gesch. Kanons, ii. 902). See Lipsius,
op. cit. ii. 424-467; Zahn (op. cit. ii. 892-910). The best text
is .that of Lipsius, Ada Apostd. Apocr., 1801, L 235-272.
There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Slavonic versions.
As we have seen above, these Acts are now recognised as
belonging originally to the Acts of PauL They were, however,
published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496).
Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work.
Theda was most probably a real personage, around whom a
legend had already gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend
the author of the Acts of Paul made use, and introduced into it
certain historical and geographical facts, (d) The healing of
Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra. Through a comparison of the
Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian writing "Caena/"
Rolffs (Hennecke, NT. Apoh. $6t) concludes that this incident
formed originally a constituent of our book, (e) The strife with
beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus
Callistus (H.E. ii. 15) as recounted in the vcpled* of PauL
The identity of tins work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by
a remark of Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. • 0. 4*
182
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs). (/) Martyrdom of PauL The
death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the dose
of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It
is best given by Lipsius, Ada Apostd. Apocr. i. 104-117.
Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting
the fragments of these Acts, only about 000 stichoi out of the
3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as
yet been recovered.
The author was, according to Tertullian (De Baptism.- 17), a
presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts,
forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was
composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyr-
dom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to
embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity
of the and century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and
the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic
and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see
Hennecke, NT. Apok. 358-360.
Acts of Peter. — These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius
(H.E. UL 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet
Commodian about a.d. 250. Harnack, who was the first to
show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic
as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this
period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted
with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not
prove the non-existence of the Acta in question. According to
Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by
this same Leutius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (Gesch.
Kanons, ii. 664) , wrote about 160 {op. cit. p. 848). Schmidt and
Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200
and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written
as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the
Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus,
and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is
difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin Actus
VtrceUenses (which there are good grounds for assuming were
originally called the lipomas Ukrpov) with the Acts of John,
and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made
use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were
by -one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their
affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same
ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought
No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of
Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas
the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem
dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.
For the relation of the Actus Vercettenses to the " Martyrdom of
the holy apostles Peter and Paul " {Acta A postal. Apocr. i. 118*177)
and to the " Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paur' {Acta A postal.
Apocr. u 178-2:14) *** Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe
and Polyxena, first edited by lames (Texts and Studies.u. 3. 1893),
and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well as the
"Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus. bishop of Mesopotamia,
and the Hercsiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputatioms Archelai Episcopi
Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarcnae," in Routh's Reliquiae
Sacra**, v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work.
The text of the Actus Vercellenses is edited by Lipsius. Acta
Atostol. Apocr. i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the
*' Martyrdom of Peter " is published by Lipsius {op. cit. i. 1-22),
Martynum beati Petri AposUUi a Lino episcopo can sen plum. On
the Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original con-
stituent of these Acts, see that writer's work : Die alten Petrusakten
xm Zusammenhang der apokryphen ApotteUiteratur nebst einem
neuentdeckten Fragment, and Texte und Untersuch. N.F. ix. I (1903).
For the literature see Hennecke. Neuleslomentlicke Apokryphen
Handbuch. 395 sqq.
Preaching of Peter,— This book (Ukrpav «4piry/ia) gave the
substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the
name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several
timet as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heradeon had
previously used it (see Origen, In Eoang, Johann. t. xiii. 27).
It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (De Prin. Prarf. 8). It
was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence
Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschutz, as 100-110;
and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain
sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.
They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: Nov. Tost, extra Can.,
1884, iv. 51-65, and by von QobschttU, Das Kerygma Petri,
1893. Salmon (Did. Christ. Biog. iv. 320-330) thinks that this
work is part of a larger work, A Preaching of Peter and a Preach-
ing of Paul, implied in a statement of Lactantius (Inst. Dtv. iv.
21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see Gesch. Kanons, ii.
820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, m Hastings' Bible
Diet. iv. 776.
Acts of Thomas. — This is one of the earliest and most famous
of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by
orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites
(Epiphanius, Haer. xlvii. x), the Manlchaeans (Augustine,
Contra Faust, xxfi. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius bri. x) and
Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which
the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was
originally written in Syriac, as* Burkitt (Journ. of Tkeol. Studies,
i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Noldeke had
previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and
Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in X883 and again in 1003,
ii. 2; the Greek also by James, Apoc. Ante. ii. 28-45, *&d
the Syriac by Wright (Apocr. Acts of the Gospels, 1871, i. 172-
333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus—
therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the
early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, Apokryphen AposSet-
gcschichlen, I. 225-347; Hennecke, N.T. Apokryphen, 473-480.)
Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didache).— This important
work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople
and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently
edited. The bibliography can be found in SchaxTs and In
Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts.
The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is
founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document,
which forms the basis also of the Epistle of Barnabas. The
second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual ano)
discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with
the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different
scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years a.d. 80-120; Harnack
to x 20-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120.
'(See Salmon in Diet, of Christ. Biog. iv. 806-815, also article
DlDACHfi.)
Apostolical Constitutions.— Tor the various collections of
these ecclesiastical regulations — the Syriac Didascalia, EaU-
siastical Canons of the Holy Apostles, &c. — see separate article.
(c) Epistles.— The Abgar Epistles.— These epistles are found in
Eusebius (H.E. i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac.
They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar
Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ/*
answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples,
who should " cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and
peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these
letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See Did.
Christ. Biog. iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.)
The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is
inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best
critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, Ada
Apostohrum Apocrypha, 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also Abgax.)
Epistle of Barnabas.— The special object of this epistle was to
guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism.
The date is placed by some scholars as early as 76-79, by others
as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The
text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and
Harnack in 1878, and Funk In 1887 and xoox. In these works
will be found full bibliographies. (See further Baknabas.)
Epistle of Clement.— The object of this epistle is the restoration
of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by
internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the
years 95~o6- The writer was in all probability the bishop of
Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was
reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (Strom, to. 17.
X05), and as late as the time of Eusebius (H.E. lii. 16) it was still
read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been
published by Gebhardt and Harnack, Pair. A post. Op., 1876,
APODICTIC— APOLLINARIS
183
and in the mailer farm in 1900, Iightfoot*, 1890, Funk', xooi.
The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, Epp. of St
Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac, 1899, and the Old Latin
version by Morin, S. dementis Romani ad Corintkios epistulae
oersio Latina antiquissima, 1804.
"Clements" 2nd Ep. to the Corinthians.— This so-called
letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius
(J3.R. iu. 38. 4)- It is not a letter but really a homily written in
Rome about the middle of the and century. The writer is a
Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to
the Egyptians.
C l ement' s Epistles on Virginity.— The* two letters are pre-
served only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek.
They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome.
Critics have assigned them to the middle of the and century.
They have been edited by Beclen, Louvain, 1856.
Clement's Epistles to James.— On these two letters which are
found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's DicL of Christian
Eiography, i. 559, $70, and Lehmann's monograph, Die Ctemen-
Hsehen Schriften, Gotha, 1 867, in which references will be found to
other sources of information.
Epistles of Ignatius.— -There are two collections of letters
baaring the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105
and x 1 7. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius
to the Ephesians, Msgnrsisns, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians,
Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of
the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary
to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiodnaps,
PhiHppians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection
is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning
of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been
denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention.
The literature is overwhelming m its extent. See Zahn, Patr.
Apost. Op., 1876; Funk*, Die apostoi. Vdter, xooi; Iightfoot 1 ,
Apostolic Pothers, 1889.
Epistle of Polycarp.— The genuineness of this epistle stands
or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's
Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. 423-431; Iightfoot,
Apostolic Fathers, L 620-702; also Polycaxp.
Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians.—
The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to
Iightfoot (see Colossians*, 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation
from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned'in the Muratorian
canon. See Zahn, op. cit. n. 566-585. The Epistle to the
Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see
Zahn ii. 586*592).
For the Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, and Epistle from the
Corinthians to Poult see under " Acta of Paul " above. (R. H. C.)
APODICTIC (Gr. aa-otoxruor, capable of demonstration), a
logical term, applied to judgments which are necessarily true,
as of mathematical conclusions. The term in Aristotelian logic
is o p pose d to dialectic, as scientific proof to probable reasoning.
Kant contrasts apodictical with problematic and assertorical
judgments.
APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-
Weimar, near the river Urn, 9 m. E. by N. from Weimar, on
the main line of railway from Berlin via Halle, to Frankiort-on-
Main. Pop. (xoco) 20,352. It has few notable public buildings,
but possesse s three churches and monuments to the emperor
Frederick III. and to Christian Zimmermann (1750-1842), who,
by introducing the hosiery and cloth manufacture, made Apolda
one of the most important places in Germany in these branches
of industry. It has also extensive dyeworks, bell foundries, and
manufactures of steam engines, boilers and bicycles.
APOLLINARIS, " the Younger " (d. a.d. 390) , bishop of Laodfcea
in Syria. He collaborated with his father ApoUinaris the Elder
in reproducing the Old Testament in the form of Homeric and
Pindaric poetry, and the New after the fashion of Platonic
dialogues, when the emperor Julian had forbidden Christians to
teach the classics. He is best known, however, as a warm
opponent of Arianism, whose eagerness to emphasise the ddty
of Christ and the unity of His person led him so far as a denial
of the existence of a rational human soul (raOt) In Christ's
human nature, this being replaced in Him by a prevailing
principle of holiness, to wit the Logos, so that His body was a
glorified and spiritualised form of humanity. Over against this
the orthodox or Catholic positionmaintained thatChristassumed
human nature in its entirety including the rovs, for only so
could He be example and redeemer. It was held that the system
of ApoUinaris was really Docetism (see Docxtas), that if the
Godhood without constraint swayed the manhood there was no
possibility of real human probation or of real advance in Christ's
manhood. The position was accordingly condemned by several
synods and in particular by that of Constantinople (aj>. 381).
This did not prevent iu having a considerable following, which
after Apolbnaris's death divided into two sects, the more con-
servative taking its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of
Antioch, the other (Polemecns) adding the further assertion
that the two natures were so blended that even the body of
Christ was a fit object of adoration. The whole Apolhnarian
type of thought persisted in what was later the Monophysite
(q.v.) school.
Although ApofKnarii was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has
survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are
concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, e.g. 4 «a?a niovt
-rims, long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These have beep
collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann.
He must be distinguished from the bishop of Hierapotis who bore
the same name, and who wrote one of the early Christian " Apolo-
gies " (c. 170). See A. Hamack, History of Dogma, vols. iii. and iv.
passim-. R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation; G. Voisis,
L*ApoUinarisme (Lou vain, toot); H. Lietzmann, ApoUinaris von
Zaodicea und seine Sckule (Tubingen, 1905).
APOLLINARIS, 8ULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of
Carthage, who flourished in the 2nd century a.d. He taught
Pertinax— himself a teacher of grammar before he was emperor,
— and Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in the highest terms
(iv. 17). He is the reputed author of the metrical arguments to
the Aeneid and to the plays of Terence and (probably) Plautus
(J. W. Beck, De Sulpicio Apollinari t 1884).
APOLLINARIS 81D0WUS, CAIUS SOLLITJS (c. 430-487 or
488), Christian writer and bishop, was born in Lyons about
a.d. 430. Belonging to a noble family, he was educated under
the best masters, and particularly excelled in poetry and polite
literature. He married (about 452) Papianilla, the daughter of
Avitus, who was consul and afterwards emperor. But Majori-
anus, in the year 457, having deprived Avitus of the empire and
taken the city of Lyons, ApoUinaris fell into the hands of the
enemy. The reputation of his learning led Majorianus to treat
him with the greatest respect. In return ApoUinaris composed
a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus),
which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of count. In
467 the emperor Anthcmius rewarded him for the panegyric
which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the
post of prefect of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity of a
patrician and senator. In 472, more for his political than for
his theological abilities, he was chosen to succeed Eparchius in
the bishopric of Arverna (Clermont). On the capture of that city
by the Goths in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active
part in iu defence; but he was afterwards restored by Euric,
king of the Goths, and continued to govern his bishopric as before.
He died in a.d. 487 or 488. His extant works are his Panegyrics
on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius,
Ausonius and Claudian) ; and nine books of Letters and Poems*
whose chief value consists in the light they shed on the political
and literary history of the 5th century. The Letters, which ase
very stilted, also reveal ApoUinaris as a man of genial temper,
fond of good living and of pleasure. The best edition is that in
the Monument a Cermaniae Hislorica (Berlin, 1887), which gives
a survey of the manuscripts.
ApoUinaris Sidonius (the names are commonly inverted by the
French) is the subject of numerous monographs, historical and
literary. See, for bibliography, A. Molinier, Sources de Vhistoire de
France, no. 136 (vol. i.). S. Dill, Roman Society in the Fifth Century,
and T. Hodgkln. Italy and her Invaders (vol. vtt), contain interesting
sections on ApoUinaris. See also Teuffrl and Ebert's histories of
Latin literature,
1 8+
APOLLO
APOLLO (Gr. 'AriXXcw/AvlXXur), in Greek mythology, one
of the most important and many-sided of the Olympian divinities.
No satisfactory etymology of the name has been given, the least
improbable perhaps being that which connects it with the Doric
Air«XXa( M assembly"), 1 so that Apollo would be the god of
political life (for other suggested derivations, ancient and
modern, see C Wernicke in Peuly-Wissowa's Realeneyclopudie).
The derivation of all the functions assigned to him from the idea
of a single original light- or sun-god, worked out in his Lcxikon der
Mytkoiope by Roscher, who regards it as " one of the .most
certain facts in mythology/' has not found general acceptance,
although no doubt some features of his character can be readily
explained on this assumption:
In the legend, as set forth in the Homeric hymn to Apollo
and the ode of Callimachus to Delos, Apollo is the son of Zeus
and Leto. The latter, pursued by the jealous Hera, after long
wandering found shelter in Delos (originally Asteria), where she
bore a son, Apollo, under a palm-tree at the foot of Mount
Cynthus. Before this, Delot—Uke Rhodes, the centre of the
worship of the sun-god Helios, with whom Apollo was wrongly
identified in later times— had been a barren, floating rock, but
now became stationary, being fastened down by chains to the
bottom of the sea. Apollo was born on the 7th day (ifibofiayer^t\
of the month Thargelion according to Delian, of the month
Bysios according to Delphian, tradition. The 7th and 20th,
the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held
sacred to him. In Homer Apollo appears only as the god of
prophecy, the sender of plagues; and sometimes as a warrior,
but elsewhere as exercising the most varied functions. He is
the god of agriculture, specially connected with Aristaeus (qj.),
which, originally a mere epithet, became an independent person-
ality (see, however, Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv. 123).
This side of his character is clearly expressed in the titles Sitakas
(" protector of corn "); Erytinbius (" preventer of blight ");
Pamopius (" destroyer of locusts "); Smintheus (" destroyer of
mice '0, in which, however, some modern inquirers see a totem-
istic significance {e.g. A. Lang, " Apollo and the Mouse," in
Custom and Myth, p. 101; against this, W. W. Fowler, in
Classical Review, November 1892); Eritkius (" god of reapers ") ;
and Pasparius (" god of meal "). He is further the god of
vegetation generally— Mhwwj, " god of pastures " (explained,
however, by Cicero, as " god of law "), Hersos, " sender of the
fertilizing dew." Valleys and groves are under his protection,
unless the epithets Napaeus and Hylates belong to a more primi-
tive aspect of the god as supporting himself by the chase, and
roaming the glades and forests in pursuit of prey. Certain trees
and plants, especially the laurel, were sacred to him. As the
gpd of agriculture and vegetation he is naturally connected with
the course of the year and the arrangement of the seasons, so
important in farming operations, and becomes the orderer of
time (Horomedon, "ruler ot the seasons"), and frequently
appears on monuments in company with the Home.
Apollo is also the protector of cattle and herds, hence Poimnius
(" god of flocks "), Tragius (" of goats "), Kcrtaias (" of horned
animals "). Carneius (probably " horned ") is considered by
some to be a pre-Dorian god of cattle, also connected with
harvest operations, whose cult was grafted on to that of Apollo;
by others, to have been originally an epithet of Apollo, afterwards
detached as a separate personality (Farnell, Cults, iv. p. 131).
The epithet Maleatas, which, as the quantity of the first vowel (a)
shows,* cannot mean god of " sheep " or " the apple-tree," is
probably a local adjective derived from Malea (perhaps Cape
Malea), and may refer to an originally distinct personality,
subsequently merged in that of Apollo (see below). ApoUo him-
self is spoken of as a keeper of flocks, and the legends of his
service as a herdsman with Laomedon and Admetus point in the
same direction. Here probably also is to be referred the epithet
Lyceius, which, formerly connected with Xiw- (" shine ") and
used to support the conception of ApoUo as a light-god, is now
* Hetychius; who also gives the explanation ntxbt ("fold"), in
which case Apollo would be the god of flock* and herd*
* The authority for the quantity is Isyltua.
generally referred to Xfeos ( n wolf ") and explained as he who
keeps away the wolves from the flock (d. \uKotpyes, Xtmoarosot).
In accordance with this, the epithet \woy**fo will not mean
" born of " or " begetting light," but rather " born from the
she-wolf," in which form Leto herself was said to have bees
conducted by wolves to Delos. The consecration of the wolf to
Apollo is probably the relic of an ancient totemistic rdigioa
(Farnell, Cults, i. 41; W. Robertson Smith, Rditum of ike
Semites, new ed., 1894, p. 226).
With the care of the fruits of the earth and the tower animals
is associated that of the highest animal, man, especially the
youth on his passage to manhood. As such Apollo is Kovporab+ot
(" rearer of boys ") and patron of the palaestra. In many places
gymnastic contests form a feature of his festivals and he himself
is proficient in athletic exercises {bay knot). Thus he was
supposed to be the first victor at the Olympic games; he over-
comes Hermes in the foot-race, and Ares in boxing.
The transition is easy to Apollo as a warlike god; in fact, the
earlier legends represent him as engaged in strife with Python,
Tityus, the Cyclopes and the Aloidae. He is Boidromios (" the
helper "), Eleleus (" god of the war-cry "), and the Paean was
said to have been originally a song of triumph composed by him
after his victory over Python. In Homer he frequently appears
on the field, like Ares and Athene, bearing the aegis to frighten
the foe. This aspect is confirmed by the epithets Artyroiaxas
(" god of the silver bow "), Hecatebalos (" the shooter from
afar "), Ckrysaoros (" wearer of the golden sword "), and hit
statues are often equipped with the accoutrements of war.*
The fame of the Pythian oracle at Delphi, connected with the
slaying of Python by the god immediately after his birth, gave
especial prominence to the idea of Apollo as a god of prophec y .
Python, always represented in the form of a snake, sometimes
nameless, is the symbol of the old chthonian divinity whose
home was the place of " enquiry " (smMrfot). When Apollo
Delphinius with his worshippers from Crete took possession of
the earth-oracle Python, he received in consequence the name
Pythius. That Python was no fearful monster, symbolizing the
darkness of winter which is scattered by the advent of spring,
is shown by the fact that Apollo was considered to have been
guilty of murder in slaying it, and compelled to wander for a
term of years and expiate his crime by servitude and purification.
Possibly at Delphi and other places there was an old serpent,
worship ousted by that of Apollo, which may account for expia*
tion for the slaying of Python being considered necessary. In
the solar explanation, the Serpent is the darkness driven away by
the rays of the sun. (On the Delphian cult of ApoUo and its
political significance, see AMFmcryoNY, Delphi, Osacle; and
Farnell, Cults, iv. pp. 179-918.) Oracular responses were also
given at Claros near Colophon in Ionia by means of the water of
a spring which inspired those who drank of it; at Patnra in
Lyda; and at Didyma near Miletus through the priestly family
of the Branchidae. Apollo's oracles, which he did not deliver
on bis own initiative but as the mouthpiece of Zens, were in-
fallible, but the human mind was not always able to grasp their
meaning; hence he is called Loxias (" crooked," " ambiguous ").
To certain favoured mortals he communicated the gift of pro-
phecy (Cassandra, the Cumaean sibyl, Helenus, Melampus and
Epimenides). Although his favourite method was by word of
mouth, yet signs were sometimes used; thus Calchas interpreted
the flight of birds; burning offerings, sacrificial barley, the arrow
of the god, dreams and the lot, all played their part in communi-
cating the will of the gods.
Closely connected with the god of oracles was the god of the
healing art, the oracle being frequently consulted in cases of
sickness. These two functions are indicated by the titles
latromantis (" physician and seer ") and Oulias, probably
meaning " health-giving " (so Suidas) rather than " destructive-"
This side of Apollo's character does not appear in Homer, where
Paieon is mentioned as the physician of the gods. Here again,
as in the case of Aristaeus and Carneius, the question arises
• Hence some have derived " Apollo " from e—XXfra v *to
destroy."
APOLLO
185
whether Paean <ar Paeon) was originally an epithet of Apollo,
subsequently developed into an independent personality, or
an independent deity merged in the later arrival (Farnell, Cults,
iv. p. 334). According to WilamowiU-Mollendorff in his edition
of IsyUus, the epithet Maleatas alluded to above is also connected
with the functions of the healing god, imported into Athens in
the 4th century B.C. with other well-known health divinities.
In this connexion, it is said to mean the " gentle one," who gave
his name to the rock Malion or Maleas (O. Gruppe, Grieckiscke
JfyJswfegw, il 144a) on the Gortynian coast Apollo is further
supposed to be the father oftAsclepius (Aesculapius), whose
ritual is closely modelled upon his. The healing god could
also prevent disease and misfortune of all kinds: hence he is
oXf&iHu* ("avert** of evil") and trerp&raws. Further,
he is able to purify the guilty and to cleanse from sin (here some
refer the epithet farpft>B#ns, in the sense of " physician of the
soul "). Such a task can be fitly undertaken by Apollo, since
be himself underwent purification after slaying Python. Accord-
ing to the Delphic legend, this took place in the laurel grove of
Tempe, and after nine years of penance the god returned, as was
represented in the festival called Stepterion or Sep.terion (see
A. MommtfD, Ddphika, 1878). Thus the old law of blood for
blood, which only perpetuated the crime from generation to
generation, gave way to the milder idea of the expiatory power
of atonement for murder (cf. the court called to hi AcX4m<i> at
Athens, which retained jurisdiction in cases where justifiable
homicide waa pleaded).
The same element of enthusiasm that affects the priestess of
the oracle at Delphi produces song and music. The close con-
nexion between prophecy and song is indicated in Homer
(Odyssey, viii. 488), where Odysseus suggests that the lay of the
fall of Troy by Demodocus wss inspired by Apollo or the Muse.
The metrical form of the oracular responses at Delphi, the
important part played by the paean and the Pythian nomos in
his ritual, contributed to make Apollo a god of song and music,
friend and leader of the Muses (jieuroTtnp). He plays the
lyre at the banquets of the gods, and causes Marsyas to be flayed
alive because he had boasted of his superior skill in playing the
flute, and the ears of Midas to grow long because he had declared
in favour of Fan, who contended that the flute was a better
instrument than Apollo's favourite, the lyre.
A less important aspect of Apollo is that of a marine deity,
doe to the spread of his cult to the Greek colonies and islands.
As such, his commonest name is Dclpkimus, the " dolphin god,"
in whose honour the festival Detphinia was celebrated in Attica.
Tins cult probably originated in Crete, whence the god In the form
of a dolphin led his Cretan worshippers to the Delphian shore*
where he bade them erect an altar in his honour. He is Epibattrius
and Apobaterius (" embarkec " and " discmbarkct "), Nasiotas
(" the islander "), Euryalus (" god of the broad sea ")• Like
Poseidon, he looks forth over his watery kingdom from lofty
cliffs and promontories (oVrotbt, and perhaps dxptros).
These maritime cults of Apollo are probably due to his import'
ance as the god of colonisation, who accompanied emigrants on
their voyage. As such he is AtV w P ("leader"), okfrnjs
("founder"), hniarlrns ("god of the home"). As AfyuuS
(" god of streets and ways "), in the form of a stone pillar with
painted head, placed before the doors of houses, he let in the good
and kept out the evil (see Farnell, Cults, iv. p. 150, who takes
Agyieus* to mean " leader "); on the epithet Prostaterins, he
who " stands before the house," hence " protector," see G. M.
Hirst in journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. (1002). Lastly, as the
originator and protector of civil order, Apollo was regarded as the
founder of cities and legislation. Thus, at Athens, Apollo Potroto
was known as the protector of the Ionians, and the Spartans
referred the institutions of Lycurgus to the Delphic oracle.
Ii has been mentioned above that \V. H. Roscher, in the article
* Apollo" In his Lsxikon det Mytkologi*, derives ail the aspects
and functions of Apollo from the conception of an original light-
and sun-god. The chief objections to this are the following. It
. be shown that on Greek soil Apollo originally had the
; of a sun-god; in Homer, Aeschylus and Plato, the
sun-god Helios is distinctly separated from Phoebus Apollo;
the constant epithet *ptflof, usually explained as the brightness
of the sun, may equally well refer to his physical beauty or
moral purity; XwcrryoTp has already been noticed. It is not
until the beginning of the 5th century B.C. that the identification
makes its appearance. The first literary evidence is a fragment
of Euripides (Pka&Jtim), in which it is especially characterized
as an innovation. The idea was taken up by the Stoics, and in
the Roman period generally accepted. But the fact of the
.gradual development of Apollo as a god of light and heaven, and
his identification with foreign sun-gods, is no proof of an original
Greek solar conception of him. Apollo-Helios must be regarded
as " a late by-product of Greek religion " (Farnell, Cults, iv.
p. 136; Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's RcaUncydopUdu). For
the manner in which the solar theory is developed, reference
must be made to Roschcr's article, but one legend may here be
mentioned, since it helps to trace the spread of the cult of the
god. It was said that Apollo soon after his birth spent a year
amongst the Hyperboreans, who dwelt in a land of perpetual
sunshine, before his return to Delphi. This return is explained
as the second birth of the god and his victory over, the powers
of winter; the name Hyperboreans is explained as the " dwellers
beyond the north wind." This interpretation is now, however,
generally rejected in favour of that of H. L. Ahrens — that
Hyperborei is identical with the Perpherecs (" the carriers "),
who are described as the servants of Apollo, carriers of cereal
offerings from one community to another (Herodotus iv. 53).
This would point to the fact that certain settlements of Apollme
worship along the northernmost border of Greece (Illyria, Thrace,
Macedonia) were in the habit of sending offerings to the god to
a centre of his worship farther south (probably Delphi), advancing
by the route from Tempe through Thessaly, Pherae and Doris
to Delphi; while others adopted the route through Illyria,
Epirus, Dodona, the Malian gulf, Carystus in Euboea, and Tenos
to Delos (Farnell, Cults, iv. p. xoo).
The most usual attributes of Apollo were the lyre and the
bow; the tripod especially was dedicated to him *s the god of
prophecy. Among plants, the bay, used in expiatory sacrifices
and also for making the crown of victory at the Pythian games,
and the palm-tree, undero hich he was born in Delos, were sacred
to him; among animals and birds, the wolf, the roe, the swan,
the hawk, the raven, the crow, the snake, the mouse, the grass-
hopper and the griffin, a mixture of the eagle and the lion
evidently of Eastern origin. The swan and grasshopper symbolize
music and song; the hawk, raven, crow and snake have reference
to his functions as the god of prophecy.
The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the Carneia,
Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and
Thargelia (sec separate articles).
Among the Romans the worship of Apollo was adopted from
the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphian oracle was
consulted as early as the period of the kings during the reign off
Tarquinius Superbus, and in 430 a temple was dedicated to
Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence, and during the Second
Punic War (in 2x2) the Ludi ApoUinares were instituted in his
honour. But it was in the time of Augustus, who considered
himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said
to be his son, that his worship developed and he became one of
the chief gods of Rome, After the battle of Actium, Augustus
enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoil to hint,
and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also
erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the
secular games, for which Horace composed his Carmen Satatlare,
to Apollo and Diana.
Apollo was represented more frequently than any other deity
in, ancient art As Apollo Agyieus he was shown by a simple
conic pillar; the Apollo of Amyclae was a pillar of bronse sur-
mounted by a helmeted head, with extended arms carrying lance
and bow. There were also rude idols of him in wood (xoana), in
which the human form was scarcely recognisable. In the 6th
century, his statues of stone were naked, stiff and rigid in
attitude, shoulders square, limbs strong and broad, hair falling
iS6
APOLLODORUS— APOLLONIUS OF PERGA
down the back. In the riper period of art the type is softer, and
Apollo appears in a form which seeks to combine manhood and
eternal youth. His long hair is usually tied in a large knot above
his forehead. The most famous statue of him is the Apollo
Belvidere in the Vatican (found at Frascati, 1455), an imitation
belonging to the early imperial period of a bronze statue repre-
senting him, with aegis in his left hand, driving back the Gauls
from his temple at Delphi (279 B.C.), or, according to another
view, fighting with the Pythian dragon. In the Apollo Cithar-
oedus or Musagetcs in the Vatican, he is crowned with laurel
and wears the long, flowing robe of the Ionic bard, and his form
is almost feminine in its fulness; in a statue at Rome of the
older and more vigorous type he is naked and holds a lyre in his
left hand; his right arm rests upon his head, and a griffin is
seated at his side. The Apollo Sauroctonus (after Praxiteles),
copied in bronze at the Villa Albani in Rome and in marble at
Paris, is a naked, youthful, almost boyish figure, leaning against
a tree, waiting to strike a lizard climbing up the trunk. The
gigantic statue of Helios (the sun-god), " the colossus of Rhodes/'
by Chares of Lindus, celebrated as one of the seven wonders of
the world, is unknown to us. Bas-reliefs and painted vases
reproduce the contests of Apollo with Tityus, Marsyas, and
Heracles, the slaughter of the daughters of Niobe, and other
nis
ms
ch,
H.
md
*os
nes
c.
tek
its-
sa
fed
> a
F.)
he
_ »t
improvements in perspective and chiaroscuro. What these
were it is impossible to say: perspective cannot have been in
his day at an advanced stage. Among his works were an
Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by lightning.
APOLLODORUS, an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aris-
Urchus and Panaetius the Stoic, who lived about 140 B.C. He
was a prolific and versatile writer. There is extant under his
name a treatise on the gods and the heroic age, entitled Bi/JXio-
01707, a valuable authority on ancient mythology. Modern
critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is an abridgment of a
larger work by him (Ilepl 0cuw).
Edition, with commentary, by heyne 11003;; lexi ny wagner
. 894) (Mytkograpki Greed, vol. 1. Tcubner series). Amongst other
works by him of which only fragments remain, collected in Mailer,
(11
Fragmenta Historicorum Graecontm, may be mentioned: Xpaauta,
a universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 B.C.; rJcpt+Yipif, a
gazetteer written in iambics; Utpl N«£r, a work on the Homeric
catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology ('EnpeXortai).
APOLLODORUS, of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most
important writers of the New Attic comedy, who flourished at
Athens between 300 and 260 B.C. He is to be distinguished from
an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-200), also a writer of comedy,
a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47 comedies and
obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his Hecyra
and Pkormio from the*Ecvpd and 'En&xaftjftpor oT Apollodorus.
Fragments in Koch, Comicorum Attieorum Fragmenta, u. (1884);
sse also Meiaeke, Historia Critica Comicorum Groecorum (1839).
APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who
flourished during the 2nd century a.d. He was a favourite of
Trajan, for whom he constructed the stone bridge over the
Danube (a.d. 104-105). He also planned a gymnasium, a
college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum Trajanum,
within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at Bene*
ventum and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the
Forum is celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of
the kind. On the accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended
by ridiculing his performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus
was banished, and, shortly afterwards, being charged with
imaginary crimes, put to death (Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also
wrote a treatise on Siege Engines (OoXiqpnrrMft), which was
dedicated to Hadrian.
APOLLOKIA, the name of more than thirty dries of antiquity.
The most important are the following: (x) An IUyrian city
(known as Apollonia mr' 'Erloapano or rpdt 'Embatrn^) on the
right bank of the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcy-
raeans. It soon became a place of increasing commercial
prosperity, as the most convenient link between Brundusium
and northern Greece, and as one of the starting-points of the
Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in the war*
against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar,
and towards the dose of the Roman republic acquired fame as a
seat of literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being
educated when the death of Caesar called him to Rome. It
seems to have sunk with the rise of Aulon, and few remains of ita
ruins are to be found. The monastery of Pollina stands on a lull
which probably is part of the site of the old dty. (2) A Thradait
dty on the Black Sea (afterwards SozopoUs, and now Sizebah),
colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal statue of
Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome.
APOLLONIUS, surnamed o ftfaooXot (" the Surry or Crabbed"),
a celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived m the reign*
of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of
his life in his native dty, where he died; he is also said to have
visited Rome and attracted the attention of Antoninus. He
was the founder of sdentific grammar and is styled by Priscian
grammaticorum princeps. Four of his works are extant: Om
Syntax, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on
Pronouns, Conjunctions and Adterbs, ed. Schneider, 1878.
Crammatki Craeci, I in Teubner series; Egger, ApoUemms
Dyscole (1834).
APOLLONIUS, surnamed o/mXojcfe ("the Effeminate"), a
Greek rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about
X2o B.C. After studying under Menedes, chief of the Asiatic
school of oratory, he settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric,
among his pupils being Mark Antony.
APOLLONIUS, surnamed "the Sophist," of Alexandria, a
famous grammarian, who probably lived towards the end of the/
1 st century a.d. He was the author of a Homeric lexicon
(Aefets 'O/iypuooi), the only work of the kind we possess. His
chief authorities were Aristarchus and Apion's Homeric glossary.
Edition by VilloUon (1773). I- Bekker (1833) : Leydc, De Apdlcnii
zopkistae Lexico Homerico (1885); E. W. H/Nicholso '
discovered fragment in Classical Review (Nov. 1897).
Nicholson on a newly*
APOLLONIUS MOLON (sometimes called simply Moloh).
a Greek rhetorician, who flourished about 70 B.C. He was a
native of Alabanda, a pupil of Menedes, and settled at Rhodes.
He twice visited Rome as an ambassador from Rhodes, and
Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured
to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an "Attidz-
ing" tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephua,
violently attacked the Jews.
See C. Mailer, Fragmenta Historicorum Craeeorum, iii. ; E. Sckurer.
History of the Jewish People, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886).
APOLLONIUS OP PERGA [Percaeus], Greek geometer of the
Alexandrian school, was probably born some twenty-five years
later than Archimedes, i.e. about 262 B.C. He flourished in the
reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and Ptolemy Philopator (247-205
B.C.). His treatise on Conies gained him the title of The Great
Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been transmitted
to modern times. AD his numerous other treatises have perished,
save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with general
indications of their contents, by later writers, especially Pappus.
After the Conies in eight Books had been written in a first edition,
ApoUonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised aa
regards Books i.4i., at the instance of one Eudesaus of Pcrgamusn;
APOLLONIUS OF PERGA
187
the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as re-
vised, and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus'
death) to King Attalus I. (241-197 B.C.). Only four Books have
survi ve d in Greek; three more are extant in Arabic; the eighth
has never been found. Although a fragment has been found of a
Latin translation from the Arabic made in the 13th century, it
was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of Books v.-vii.
was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso BoreUi and
Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in
983 by Abu 1-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS.
But the best Arabic translation is that made as regards Books
i.-fv. by HUH ibn Abt Hilil (d. about 883), and as regards Books
v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra (836-901). Halley used for his
translation an Oxford MS. of this translation of Books v.-vii.,
but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only referred to in order to
correct his translation, and it is still unpublished except for a
fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with German transla-
tion (Druguiin, Leipzig, 1 889). Halley added in his edition (1 7 10)
a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by the fact
that Pappus gives lemmas " to the seventh and eighth books "
under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius
himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the
problems solved in the eighth.
The degree of originality of the Conks can best be judged
from Apollonius' own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an "ele-
mentary introduction," i.e. contain the essential principles; the
lest are specialized investigations in particular directions. For
Books i.-iv. he claims only that the generation of the curves
and their fundamental properties in Book i. are worked out
more fully and generally than they were in earlier treatises, and
that a number of theorems in Book iii. and the greater part of
Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use of his prede-
cessors' works, such as Euclid's four Books on Conies, is clear-
from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The gener-
ality of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the funda-
mental property of all the conies the equivalent of the Cartesian
equation referred to oblique axes (consisting of a diameter and
the tangent at its extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique
circular cone in any manner, and the axes appear only as a
particular case after he has shown that the property of the conic
can be expressed in the same form with reference to any new
diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is clearly the form
of the fundamental property (expressed in the terminology of
the " application of areas ") which led him to call the curves for
the first time by the names parabola, ellipse, hyperbola. Books
v.-vii. are clearly Original. Apollonius' genius takes its highest
fight in Book v., where he treats of normals as minimum and
maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve
(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many
normals can be drawn from particular points, finds their feet by
construction, and gives propositions determining the centre of
curvature at any point and leading at once to the Cartesian
equation of the evolute of any conic.
The other treatises of ApoUonius mentioned by Pappus are
— i%t, Abyov arorofiii, Cutting ojf a Ratio; and, TLuplov teoroidb
Cutting off an Area; 3rd, Aiotpurubrn r©^, Determinate Section;
ath, 'E*a4W, Tangencies; 5th, Ncfo«s, Inclinations; 6th, T6mx
fefreoot, Plom Lock Each of these was divided into two books,
and, with the Data, the Porisms and Surface-Loci of Euclid and
the Conies of Apollonius were, according to Pappus, included in
the body of the ancient analysis.
rst. De Rationis Sectione had for its subject the resolution of
the following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in
•each, to draw through a third given point a straight line cutting
the two fixed lines, so that the parts intercepted between the
given points in them and the points of intersection with this
third line may have a given ratio.
xnd. De Spatii Sectione discussed the similar problem which
requires the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be egual
to a given rectangle.
Aa Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of
the 1 7th century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard,
who began a translation of it; Halley finished it and published
it along with a restoration of the second treatise in 1706.
3rd. De Sectione Determinate resolved the problem: Given
two, three or four points on a straight line, to find another point
on it such that its distances from the given points satisfy the
condition that the square on one or the rectangle contained by
two has to the square on the remaining one or the rectangle
contained by the remaining two, or to the rectangle contained
by the remaining one and another given straight line, a given
ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been attempted,
one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1608), another by Alex. Anderson of
Aberdeen, in the supplement to his Apollonius Redivims (Paris,
161 2), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, Opera quaedam
reliqua (Glasgow, 1776).
4th. De Tactionibus embraced the following genera] problem:
Given three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position,
to describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching
the given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, ana
the most interesting from its historical associations, is when the
three given things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes
known as the Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the
1 6th century to Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by
means of a hyperbola. Vieta thereupon proposed a simpler
construction, and restored the whole treatise of Apollonius in a
small work, which he entitled ApoUonius Callus (Paris, xooo).
A very full and interesting historical Account of the problem is
given in the preface to a small work of J. W. Camerer, entitled
Apollonii Pergaei quae super sunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in
hos Libras, cum Observationibus, Grc. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).
5th. De Iuctinalionibus had for its object to insert a straight
line of a given length, tending towards a given point, between
two. given (straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been
given by Marino Ghetaldi, by Hugo d'Omcrique {Geometrical
Analysis, Cadis, 1698), and (the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).
6th. De Loch Planis b a collection of propositions relating to
loci which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives
somewhat full particulars of the propositions, and restorations
were attempted by P. Fermat ((Euvres, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F.
Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and, most successfully of all, by R.
Simson (Glasgow, 1749)*
Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers,
via. (1) Il«pi 908 xvpiov, On the Burning-Glass, where the focal
properties of the parabola probably found a place; (*) Utpl to9
koXMov, On Ike Cylindrical Helix (mentioned by Produs) ; (3) a
comparison of the dodecahedron and the kosahedron inscribed
in the same sphere; (4) 'H sodoAov Tpayuareta, perhaps a work
on the general principles of mathematics in which were included
Apollonius' criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of
Euclid's Elements; ($) Vhcvrotaaw (quick bringing-to-birth), in
which, according to Eutocras, he showed how to find closer
limits for the value of r than the 3+ and 3t? of Archimedes;
(6) an arithmetical work (as to which see Pappus) on a system
of expressing large numbers in language closer to that of common
life than that of Archimedes' Sand-reckoner, and showing how
to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of the
theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from
binomial to multinomial and from ordered to unordered irra-
tionals (see extracts from Pappus' oomm. on Eud. x., preserved
in Arabic and published by Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in
astronomy be is credited by Ptolemy with an explanation of
the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he also
made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have
been called Ep&flon (c).
The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (l)
Apollonii Pergaei Conieorum libri quatmor, ex vertnmi Fredenei
Commandini (Bononiae, 1566). foL ; (*> Apollonii Pergaei Conieorum
libri octo, el Sereni Anluunsu de Sectume Cylindri et Cent libn duo
(Oxoniae, 17 10), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund
Halley) : (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conies given in
1675 byBarrow ; (4) A potlonU Pergaei de Sectione Rationis libri duo:
Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatu libri duo RestUuH: PraemUtitnr,
&c, Opera et Studio Edmundt Halley (Oxoniae, 1706), 410; (5) a
German translation of the Conies by H.. Balsam (Berlin, i860;
(6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (-4 pottonii Pergaei quae Graeeo
188 APOLLONIUS OP RHODES— APOLLONIUS OF TYRE
fr, 1801-1893); (7) T. L. Heath, Apollonius,
wns (Cambridge, 1806) ; see also H. G. Zcutben,
Ualschnitten tm Auertum (Copenhagen, 1886
Prose by Coleridge
Smemihl. Geschkhte
exstant Optra, Leioshj,
Treatise on Conic Sections
Die Lehre von den Kegflscknitten tm Auertum (Copenhagen,
And 1902). (T. L. H.)
APOLLONIUS OF RHODES (Rhooius), a Greek epic poet
and grammarian, of Alexandria, who flourished under the
Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes (222-181 B.C.). He was
the pupil of Caltimachus, with whom he subsequently quarrelled.
In his youth he composed the work for which he is known —
A rgonautica, an epic in four books on the legend of the Argonauts.
When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the
influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his
failure, Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very
successful as a rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was
well received. In recognition of his talents the Rhodians
bestowed the freedom of their city upon him — the origin of his
surname. Returning to Alexandria, he again recited his poem,
this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy Epiphanes
appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he probably
held until his death. As to the Argonautica, Longmus' {De
Subiim. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian's {.Instil, x. x, 54) verdict of
mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the natural-
ness of Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains
some beautiful passages. There is a valuable collection of
scholia. The work, highly esteemed by the Romans, was
imitated by Virgil (Acneid, iv.), Varro Atadnus, and Valerius
Flaccus. Marianus (about a.d. 500) paraphrased it in iambic
trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and
critical works; and KtIitus (the foundations of cities).
Editio Princeps (Florence, 1496) ; Merket-Kcil (with scholia, 1854) :
Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780);
Fawkea (1780); Preston (181 1); Way (1901); ~ "
(1889); see also Couat, La Poisie alexandrine',
der grvxh. Lit. in der alexandrinischen Zeit.
APOLLOHIUS OP TRALLES (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who
flourished in the 2nd century B.C. With his brother Tauriscus,
he executed the marble group known as the Farnese Bull, re-
presenting Zethus and Anphion tying the revengeful Dirce to
the tail of a wild bulL
See Gbbbk Art, pL L fig. 51.
APOLLONIUS OP TYANA, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-
Pythagorean school, born a few years before the Christian era.
He studied at Tarsus and in the temple of Asdepius at Aegae,
where he devoted himself to the doctrines of Pythagoras and
adopted the ascetic habit of life in its fullest sense. He travelled
through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon and India, imbibing
the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and gymnosophists.
The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis and
reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many
have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return
to Europe he was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest
reverence from priests and people generally. He himself claimed
only the power of foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said
that he raised from death the body of a noble lady. In the halo
of his mysterious power he passed through Greece, Italy and
Spain. It was said that he was accused of treason both by Nero
and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means. Finally
he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the
age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of
his hero's life by saying, " Concerning the manner of his death,
if he did die, the accounts are various." The work of Philostratus.
composed at the instance of Julia, wife of Sevetus, is generally
regarded as* a religious work of fiction. It contains a number of
obviously fictitious stories, through which, however, it is not
impossible to discern the general character of the man. In the 3rd
century, Hierodes (o.v.) endeavoured to prove that the doctrines
and the life of Apollonius were more valuable than those of Christ,
and, in modern times, Voltaire and Charles Blount (1654-1693),
the English freethinker, have adopted a similar standpoint. Apart
from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to regard Apollonius
merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we cut
away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated,
we have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured
to infuse into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of
practical morality.
See L. Dyer, Studies of the Cods in Greece (New York, 1891);
A. Chassang. Le Merveilleux dans I'antiquiU ( 1882) ; D. M. TredweU,
Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana (New York, 1886); F. C.
Baur, Apollonius von Tyana una Christus, cd. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig,
1876) — art attempt to show that Philostrauis's story is merely a pagan
counterblast to the New Testament history) ; J. Jesten, A p a B om it a
v. Tyana und sein Biograph Philosiroios (Hamburg, 1885); J. Gott*
sching, Apollonius von Tyana (Berlin, 1880); J. A. Froude. Short
Studies, vol. iv. ; G. R. S. Mead, A potlonius of Tyana (London, 1901) ;
B. L. Gilderslceve. Essays and Studies (New York, 1890); Philo-
stratus '« Life of Apollonius (Eng. trans. New York. 1905) ; O. de B.
Priaulx. The Indian Travels of Apollonius (1873); F. W. G. Camp-
bell, A poll, of Tyana (1908); sec also Neo-Pythagoreakism.
APOLLONIUS OP TYRB, a medieval talc supposed to be
derived from a lost Greek original. The earliest mention of the
story is in the Carmina (Bk. vi. 8, U. 5-6) of Venantius Fox-
tunatus, in the second half of the 6th century, and the romance
may well date from three centuries earlier. It bears a marked
resemblance to the Anlkeia and Habrokomes of Xenophon of
Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining
incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by
asking them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing
their heads. Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had
to do with Antiochus's secret He returned to Tyre, and, to
escape the king's vengeance, set sail in search of a place of refuge.
In Cyrenc he married the daughter of King Archistrates, and
presently t on receiving news of the death of Antiochus, departed
to take possession of the kingdom o'f Antioch, of which he was,
for no dear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife died, or
rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the
sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apol-
lonius left his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care
of guardians who proved false to their trust Father, mother,
and daughter were only reunited after fourteen years' separation
and many vicissitudes. The earliest Latin MS. of this tale,
preserved at Florence, dates from the 9th or 10th century.
The pagan features of the supposed original are by no means
all destroyed, The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse's
grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of
Apollonius's wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia
propounds to her father arc obviously interpolated. They are
taken from the Enigmata of Caelius Firmianus Syroposius. The
many inconsistencies of the story seem to be best explained by
the supposition (E. Rohde, Der grieckiscke Roman, 2nd ecL v
I 9° > PP- 435 <* '£?•) that the Antiochus story was originally
entirely separate from the story of Apollonius's wanderings*
and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance
kept its form through a vast number of medieval re-arrangements,
and there is little change in its outlines as set forth in .the Shake-
spearian play of Pericles.
The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS.. and was printed
S M.Vclser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in Script. Erot. (Didot,
Paris, 1836), and by A. Riesc in the Bm. Teubneriana (1871, new ed.
1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those
of Godfrey of Viterbo in his Pantheon (1 185). where it is related as
authentic history, and in the Cesla Romanorum (cap. 153), which
formed the basis of the German folk-talc by H. SteinhGwel (Augs-
burg, 1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493). the French in Le Viotter
des aistoires romaines (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine
(London, 1376. new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Csnch, sad
Hungarian tales.
In England a translation was made as early as the nth century
(ed. B. Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in Archn fur neuere Sprachen,
1896); there is a Middle English metrical version (I. O. HalKwelt,
A New Bake about Shakespeare, 1850), by a poet who says he was
vicar of Wiraborne; John Cower uses the tale as an example of the
seventh deadly sin in the eighth book of his Confessio A mantis;
Robert Copland translated a prose romance of Kynge ApoUyne of
Tkyre (Wynlcyn de Worde, 1510) from the French; Pericles was
entered at Stationers' Hall in 1 607, and was followed in the neat
year by George Wilkins's novel, The Painfull Adventures of Pericles,
Prynce of Tyre (ed. Tycho Mommsen. Oldenburg, 1957), and George
Lino drew bis play Marina (1738) from the piece associated with
Shakespeare; Orendel, by a Middle High German minnesinger,
contains some of the episodes of Apollonius', Hehwich von Neustadt
wrote a poem of 20.000 lines on Apollonius von Tyrland (c. 1400);
the story was well known In Spanish, Libre de Apdouio (verse, «.
isoo), and in J. de Timoneda's Pairaffuelo (1576); in French much
APOLLOS— APOLOGETICS
189
ef it was embodied (n Jourdain meWmves (13th cent.), and it also
Appears in Italian and medieval Greek. See A. H. Smyth, Shake-
speare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre (Philadelphia. 1898} ; Elimar
Klebs, Die Endklung von A. aus Tyrns (Berlin. 1899); S. Singer,
ApeHonius von Tyrus (HaUe,i895).
APOLL08 ('A*oXX6r; contracted from Apolfenras), an
Alexandrine Jew who after Paul's first visit to Corinth worked
there in a similar way (1 Cor. iiL 6). He was with Paul at a
later date-in Ephesus (1 Cor. zvi. is). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read
of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached
themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names,
though the " division " can hardly have been due to conflicting
doctrines. (See Paul.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we learn that he
spoke and taught with power and success. He may have capti-
vated his hearers by teaching u wisdom," as P. W. Schmiedel
suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently
a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some con*
traduction between Acts zviH. a$ a b and Acts xviii. 25 c, 76 b c;
and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subse-
quent accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and " taught
exactly," he could hardly have been acquainted only with
John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more
thoroughly by Aquila and Prisritta. Martin Luther regarded
Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many
scholars since have shared his view.
Jerome says that Apollos was ao dissatisfied with the division at
Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law;
and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the
Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop.
Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of
Iconiuro in Pbrygia, or of Cacsarca.
See the articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica; Herzog-Hauck,
RoaleucyUopSdie: The Jewish Encyclopaedia-, Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible; and cf. Wdzsacker, Das apostolisehe Ztitator; A. C.
McGiffcrt. History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age.
APOLLYOsT. the "-foul fiend " who assaulted Christian on
his pilgrimage through the Valley of Humiliation in John
Bun van's great allegory. The name (Gr. 'AvoXXfaw), which
means "destroyer" (dsoXXfar, to destroy), is taken from
Rev. ix.ii, where it represents the Hebrew word Abaddon (lit.
" place of destruction," but here personified). The identification
with the Asmodeus (q.v.) of Tobit ha. 8 is erroneous.
APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the
grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a super-
natural revelation and a divine redemption (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3).
The majority of apologists in the past have further believed in
an infallible Bible; but they admit this position can only be
reached at a late stage in the argument. We should note, how-
ever, that even a liberal orthodoxy, wmle saying nothing about
infallibility, is pledged to the essential authority of the Bible;
it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament with F. E. D.
Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a
central position to Church authority, which Roman Catholics
explicitly define as infallible; but this position too is debated
in a late section of their system. On the other hand, there may
be a Christianity which seeks to extricate the " spiritual " from
the" supernatural " (Arnold Toynbee, characterising T .H.Green).
It would only lead to confusion, however, if we called this method
" apologetic" Any single effort in apologetics may be termed
" an apology." More elaborate contrasts have been proposed
between the two words, but are of little practical importance.
I. TheWord itself. —In Greek, avoXoyla is the defendant's reply
(personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the prosecu-
tion— xarmropia. Sometimes defendants' speeches passed into
Bterature, e.g. Plato's splendid version of the A pdogy of Socrates.
Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church
naturally produced literary " Apologies." The word has never
quite lost this connotation of standing on the defensive and
rebutting criticism; e.g. Anselm's Apologia contra instpientem
Gaunilonem (c. ixoo); or the Lutheran Apology for the Augsburg
Confession (1531); or J. H. Newman's Apologia pro vita sua
(1864); or A. B. Brace's Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively
Stated (1899). Of course, defence easily passes into counter-
attack, as when early apologists denounce Greek and Roman
religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And
there is perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics
to the defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a
prophet does not argue; he declares what he feels to be God's
wilL For himself, he rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate
vision of truth; but he differs from most mystics in having a
message for others; and—again unlike most mystics— he
addresses the hearer's conscience, which we might call (in one
sense) the mystic element in every man— or better, perhaps, the
prophetic. -Can the positive grounds for a prophet's message
be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics
is literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive
and pretend to throw the onus probandi upon objectors. But,
if not, then apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only " a
science" in so far as it presents a conscious and systematic plea.
Brace's title, and his programme of "succouring distressed faith,"
imply the latter alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity,
primary and essential; its confirmation by- argument, secondary.
The view has its difficulties; but it is hignly suggestive.
The word 4*0X07*0 is used by Origen {Contra Cel. ii. 65, v. 19)
of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the
adjective " apologetic " and of the substantive " apologetics " is
recent. They are serviceable as* bracketing together (1) Natural
Theology or Theism, (a) Christian Evidences—chiefly " miracles "
and "prophecy"; or, on a more modem view, chiefly the
character and personality of Christ. The lower usage of Apology
(as expression of regret for a mult) has tipped many a sarcasm
besides George IH.'s on the occasion of Bishop Watson's book,
" J did not know that the Bible needed an apology 1 "
H. Apologetics in the Bibie.—Tbe Old Testament does not
argue in support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of
the Wisdom literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf .
T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon; A. S. Peak*, Problem ofSufcr-
ing in ike Old Testament, 1904). The New Testament reflects
chiefly controversy with Jews. Great emphasis is laid upon
alleged fulfilments—striking or fanciful, but very generally
striking to that age— of Old Testament prophecy (Matt especi-
ally; rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are
also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character,
but attribute them to black art (Mark iiL as &c. f ice). On the
other hand, Christians and Jews arc pretty well agreed on natural
theology; so the New Testament tends to take its theism for
granted. However, Rom. L 20 has had great influence on
Christian theology {t.g. Thomas Aquinas) in leading it to base
theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic contention,
aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of Acts.
Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith.
So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often
admitted (xviii. 14; xhc 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).
III. Early Christian.— When we leave the New Testament,
apologetics becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of
Christianity, and even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no
longer Jewish but fully Greek. True there are, as always,
Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr writes a Dialogue frith
Trypho; Origen deals with many anti-Christian arguments
borrowed by Cebus from s certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece
was the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture.
And so Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily
philosophized. One result was to bring natural theology into
the forefront. A pure morality, belief in one God, hopes extend-
ing beyond death— these appealed to the age; the Church
taught them as philosophically true and divinely revealed.
But, further still, philosophy offered a vehicle which could be
applied to the contents of Christianity. The Platonic or eclectic
theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos, made a
place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead.
(John i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or
quite solitary in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the
soul may be maintained on Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as
by St Athanasius {Contra Centes, § 33)—* w "ter who repeatedly
quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in which Platonism
and the Old Testament had already joined partnership. This
190
APOLOGETICS
phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted.
The earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the
soul; Athanasius himself, in De Incarnation* Dei, tf 4* S, tones
down the teaching of Wisdom; and the somewhat eccentric
wiiter Arnobius, a layman— from Justin Martyr downwards
apologetics has always been largely in the hands of laymen —
stands for what has recently been called " conditional immor-
tality "—eternal life for the righteous, the children of God, alone.
AJlied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion
that Greek philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying
the Fathers we constantly find that groundless assertion
uttered in the same breath with the dominant Idealist view,
according to which Greek philosophy was due to incomplete
revelation from the divine Logos.
On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of
cannibalism and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to
meet in secret, and the gossip of a rotten age drew malignant
conclusions. They make counter attacks on polytheism as a
folly and on the shamefulness of obscene myths. Here they are
in line with non-Christian writers or culture-mockers like Lucian
of Samosata; or graver spirits like Porphyry, who champions
Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and does pioneer work
in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament books.
.Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the
continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The
Old Testament was an immense religious asset to the early
church. Their enemies had nothing like it; and— the N.T.
canon being as yet but half formed — the Old Testament was
pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect " argument,"
which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised
by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles
is also urged, though with mare reserve. Formally, every one
in that age admitted the supernatural. The question was,
whose supernatural ? And bow far did it carry you ? Miracle
could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to W. Paky —
a conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are
by Aristidcs (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras
(" elegant "), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in
Latin by Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and
phrase-coiner like T. Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmi-
anus, &c, &c l
As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it.
The age is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire!
Besides notices elsewhere, we find the charge^ specially dealt
with by St Augustine and his friends. Paulus Orosius argues
that the world has always been a vale of tears. Salvian contends
that not the acceptance of Christianity, but the sins of the people
are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly evidence
of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all
was Augustine's own contribution in The City of Cod. Powers
created by worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well
may; "the city of God remaineth!" Whether he meant it
so or not, the saint's argument became a programme and an
apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church under the
leadership of Rome during the middle ages.
IV. Middle Ages. — From the point of view of apologetics, we
may mass together the long stretch of history which covers the
period between the disappearance and the re-appearance of free
discussion. When emperors became converts, the church, so
lately a victim and a pleader for liberty, readily learned to
persecute. Under such conditions there is little scope for
apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt below the
smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two
influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the
Christianised empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly
unconvinced, and, as often, fond of slanders. Many of the
principal medieval attempts in apologetics are directed chiefly
against him, e.g. the Pugio Fidei of Raymond Martini (c xsto),
1 While these writings are of great historical value, they do not,
of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day.
The Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its
petition; Protestantism can use only modern statements.
which became one of Pascal's sources (see V. below), or Peter
Abelard's Dtalogus inter Judaeum Pkilosophum el Christianum.
And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for
Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristo-
telian, texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommed-
anism than the Christians were, caught fire more rapidly,
and in some cases served as an intermediate link or channel
of communication. These two religions anticipated the dis-
cussion of the problem of faith and reason in the Christian
church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides,
faith and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see Arabian
Philosophy). According to Ghazali, in his Destruction of Philo-
sophers, the various schools of philosophy cancel each other;
reason is bankrupt; faith is everything. (So nearly Jehuda
Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason suffices, and faith, with
(what he considers) its dreams of immortality and the like, is
useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian theology, how*
ever, strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were
applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic
faiths; Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in
teaching a trinity of divine persons, and Platonism of a certain
order long dominated the middle ages as part of the Augustinian
tradition. In sympathy with this Platonism, the medieval
church began by assuming the entire mutual harmony of faith
and reason. Such is the teaching, along different lines, alike
of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge
of Aristotle's texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory
of a supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism,
Albertus Magnus, and his still more distinguished pupil Thomas
Aquinas, mark certain doctrines as belonging to faith but not
to reason. They adhere to the general position with exceptions
(in the case of what had been considered Platonic doctrines)*
From the point of view of philosophy, this was a compromise.
Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge. The tendency
of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the doctrines
with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas's great rival) Duns
Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming "two
truths." The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the
Averroists, becomes dominant among the later Nominalists,
William of Occam and his disciples, who withdraw all doctrines
of faith from the sphere of reason. This was a second and a
more audacious compromise. It is not exactly an attempt to
base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is a consistent
policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A
statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or
vice versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church
of Rome (at least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more
and more returned. The councils of Trent and of the Vatican
mark the Two Truths hypothesis as heretical, when they affirm
that there is a natural knowledge of God and natural certainty
of immortality. Along with this affirmation, the Church of
Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of the
Thomist theory by the condemnation of " Ontologism ";
certain mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious
compromise sanctioned by the Church docs not represent the
extremest reaction against nominalism. Even in the noininahstic
epoch we have Raymond of Sabunde's Natural Theology (accord-
ing to the article in Herxog-Hauck, not the title of the oldest
Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and almost all the printed
editions) or Liber Creaturarum (c. 143 5) . The book is not what
moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation develop*
ments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural
theology. It la an attempt once more to demonstrate eft*
scholastic dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles
of natural reason. At many points, it follows Ansdm closely,
and, of course, very often" makes light work" of its task.
The Thomist compromise — or even the more sceptical view
of "two truths" — has the merit of giving filling of a fttW-to
the formula "supernatural revelation" — mysteries inaccessible
to reason, beyond discovery and beyond comprehension.
According to earlier views— repeatedly revived in Protestantism
•—revelation is just philosophy over again. Can the choice be
APOLOGBTICS
191
Curly stated? If revelation is thought of as God's personal
word, and redemption as his personal deed, is it reasonable to
view them either as open to a sort of scientific prediction or as
capricious and unintelligible? Even in the middle ages there
were not wanting those— the St Victors, Bona ventura— who
sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as the
central thought of Christianity.
V. Earlier Modern Period.— It will be seen that apologetics by
no means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority.
The compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the
field and that even with Protestants. G. W. Leibnitz devotes
an introductory chapter in his Th&odicte, 1710 (as against Pierre
Bayle), to faith and reason. He is a good enough Lutheran to
quote as a "mystery" the Eucharist no less than the Trinity,
while he insists that truths above are not against reason. Stated
thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more cele-
brated and central thesis of the book— this finite universe, the
best of all such that are possible— also restates positions of
Augustine and Aquinas.
Before modem philosophy began its career, there was a great
revival of-ancicnt philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes
anti-Christian, sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes
apologies by Marsilio Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J. L. Vives.
Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging
to a school of Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom
the Church put down as heretics, he stands pretty much apart
from the general currents. His Pensies, published posthumously,
seems to have been meant for a systematic treatise, but it
has come to us in fragments. Once again, a lay apologist I A
layman's work may have the advantage of originality or the
drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal's work exhibits both
characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows
its material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few
sources— the Pugio Fidei, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas
u well as learning are largely Montaigne's. The tatter's cheerful
man-of-the-world scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep
distrust of human reason, in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant
motives. But this, attitude, while not without parallels both
earlier (Gbazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later (H. L. Mansel), has
peculiarities in Pascal It is fallen man whom he pursues with
his fierce scorn; his view of man's nature — intellect as well as
character — is to be read in the light of his unflinching Augus-
timanHm. Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the
small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is
full of humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour.
Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P. D. Huet (1630-
1 721)— within the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning
(in apologetics see his Demonstrate Evangelic*)— -is not un-
influenced by Pascal (Traiti de la faiblesse del } esprit humaine).
As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied
with apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon force presents greater
difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict
Spinoza, the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom
miracle is impossible, revelation a phrase, and who renews
pioneer work in Old Testament criticism, finds at least a fair
measure of liberty and comfort in Holland (his birth-land).
Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and published his learned
Dictionnaire (1606) at Rotterdam. From Holland, earlier, had
proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame.
Hugo Grotius's De VeritaU Christiauae Religionis (1627) is partly
the medieval tradition: — Oppose Mahommedans and Jews!
It is partly practical: — Arm Christian sailors against religious
danger! But in its cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose
master is John Locke. His Reasonableness of Christianity (1695)
is the thesis of " a whole century " of theologians. And his Essay
em the Hitman Understanding (1600) is almost a Bible to men of
education during the same period; its lightest word treasured.
Locke does not break with the compromise of Aquinas. But he
transfers attention from contents to proof. Reason proves that a
revelation has been made— and then submits. Leibnits has to
toppfement rather than correct Locke on this point.
In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest
against mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist
natural theology (more clearly distinguished from dogmatic
theology than in the middle ages, alike by Protestants and by
the post-Tridentjne Church of Rome) now dissolving partnership
with dogmatic and starting in business for itself. Or it. is the
doctrine of unfallen man's " natural state "—a doctrine inten-
sified in Protestantism— separating itself from the theologians'
grave doctrine of sin: If Sodnianism had challenged natural
theology— Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first
revealed the way to eternal life — it had glorified the natural
powers of man; and the learning of the Arminian divines
(friends of Grotius and Locke) had helped to modernize Christian
apologetics upon rational lines. Deism now taught that reason,
or " the light of nature," was all-sufficient.
Not to dwell Upon earlier continental " Deists " (mentioned by
Viret as quoted first in Bayle's Dictionary and again in the
introduction to Leland's View of the Deistical Writers), Lord
Herbert of Cherbury (De VeritaU, 1624; De Religion* Gentilium,
1645?— according to J. G. Welch's Bibliotheca Theologica (1757)
not published complete until 1663) was universally understood
as hinting conclusions hostile to Christianity (cf . also T. Hobbes,
Letiaihan, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico-
PolMcus, 1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly, Herbert's contention
merely is that non-Christians feeling after the " supreme God "
and the law of righteousness must have a chance of salvation.
Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole x8th century in
teaching that priests had corrupted this primitive faith. During
the x8tb century deism spread widely, though its leaders were
" irrepressible men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and
ability like Anthony Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated
and disagreeable men like Matthew Tindal, who conformed that
he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship and wrote anonymously
that he might relieve his conscience " (A. M. Fairbairn). More
distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has the
deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical
sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (Dialogues
Concerning Natural Religion), and who uses Pascal's appeal to
" faith " in a spirit of mockery (Essay on Miracles). In France
the new school found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially
Voltaire, the idol of his age — a great denier and scoffer, but
always sincerely a believer in the God of reason— and the deeper
but wilder spirit of J. J. Rousseau. Others in France developed
still more startling conclusions from- Locke's principles, £. B.
Condillac's sensationalism — Locke's philosophy purged of its
more ideal if less logical elements— leading on to materialism in
J. 0. de la Met trie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists
(P. H. von Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism.
In Germany the parallel movement of " illumination " (H. S.
Reimarus; J. S. Sender, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a
layman, the great Leasing) took the form of "rationalism"
within the church— interpreting Bible texts by main force in a
way which the age thought " enlightened " (H. E. G. Paulus,
1761-1851, &c).
Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see
W. Law, The Case of Reason; R- Bentley, or " Phileleuthcrus
Lipstensis "; &c, &c), three are of chief importance. Nathaniel
Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768) stands in the front rank of the
scholarship of his time, and uses bis vast knowledge to maintain
the genuineness of all book* of the New Testament and the
perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very original,
careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from
details to principles in his Analogy of Religion both Natural and
Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736). This
title introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox
in those days agreed in recognising not merely natural theology
but natural religion— " essential religion," Butler more than
once styles it; the expression shows how near he stood in-
tellectually to those he criticized. But morally he stood aloof.
In part i. — on Natural Religion— he defends a moral or punishing
Deity against the sentimental softness of the age. The God of
Nature, whom deists confess* does punish in time, if they will
192
APOLOGETICS
but look at the (acta; why not in eternity? "Morality/' as
others have confessed, is " the nature of things "1 Not the Being
of God is discussed — Butler will not waste words on triflers (as
he thinks them) who deny that—but God's character. Un-
fortunately (perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on admitted
principles; holds much of his own moral belief in reserve;
tries to reduce everything to a question of probable fact. If
this hampers him in part i., the situation appears still worse in
part ii., which is directly occupied with the defence of Chris-
tianity. Butler says nothing about incomprehensible mysteries,
and protests that reason is the only ground we have to proceed
upon. But by treating the atonement simply as revealed (and
unexplained) matter of fact— in spite of some partial analogies
in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous—Butler
repeats, and applies to the moral contents of Christianity, what
Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the
unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and in-
explicable fact makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-
1805) borrows from many writers; he borrows Lardner's learning
and Butler's " particular evidence for Christianity," viz. miracles,
prophecy and " history "; and he states his points with perfect
clearness. No man ever filled a typical position more' exactly
than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics— Hedonism, with a
theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology—the
argument from Design. Christian Evidences — the strong
probability of the resurrection of Christ and the consequent
authority of his teaching. Horae Paulinae— mutual confirma-
tions of Acts and Epistles; better, though one-sided. When
such exclusively " external " arguments are urged, the contents
of Christianity go for next to nothing.
VI. Later Modern Period.— Towards the end of the 18th century
a new epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of
civilization. The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel
Kant, though he includes many agnostic elements, and draws
the inference (which some things in the letter of Butler might
seem to warrant) that the essence of Christianity is an ethical
theism. While he thus created a new and more ethical " rational-
ism," Kant's many-sided influence, alike in philosophy and in
theology, worked to further issues. He (and other Germans,
but not G. W. F. Hegel) was represented in England in a frag-
mentary way by S. T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most
typical figure of his period— another layman. His general
thought was that " rationalism " represents an uprising of the
lower reason or " understanding " against the higher or true
" reason." The mysteries of theology are its best part— not
alien to reason but of its substance, the " logos." This is to
upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a Christian
ptatonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a philo-
sophy, why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold,, criti-
cizing Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as
deeper neglected truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskinc and
Thomas Chalmers — the latter in contradiction to his earlier
nosition— hold that the doctrine of salvation, when translated
into experience, furnishes "internal evidence"— a somewhat
broader use of the phrase than when it applies merely to evidence
of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a book. This
gives a new and moral filling to the conception of " supernatural
revelation." The attempt to work out either of the reactions
against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much
confined to Germany. Hegel's theological followers, of every
shade and party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher's the
second. Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the
positive religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann
reject natural theology outright in favour of revelation— a
striking external parallel to early Socinianism. British and
American divines, on the other hand, are slow to suspect that a
new apologetic principle- may mean a new system of apologetics,
to say nothing of a new dogmatic Among the evangelicals, for
(he most part, natural theology, far from being rejected, is not
even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be described as
incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can agree
with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an
obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries It dictate*.
To Protestantism, faith is personal trust But the principle is
hardly ever<carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are
ascribed by Protestants to scripture; so half of revelation is
regarded as matter for blind assent, if another half is luminous
in experience. The movement of German philosophy which led
from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful British champions
(T. H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &c), but less churchly than
Coleridge (or F. D. Maurice or B. F. Westcott), though churchly
again in J. R. IUingworth and other contributors to Lux Mundi
(1890). Before this wave of thought, H. L. Mansel tried (1858)
to play Pascal's game on Kantian principles, developing the
sceptical side of Kant's many-faceted mind. But as he protested
against relying on the human conscience — the one element of
positive conviction spared by Kant— his ingenuity found few
admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying anti-
Christian agnosticism. Butler's tradition was more directly
continued by J. H. Newman — with modifications on becoming n
Roman Catholic in the light of the church's decision in favour of
Thomism. A. M. Fairbairn {Catholicism, Roman and Anglican,
ch. v., and elsewhere) and E. A. Abbott (PhUomythus, and
elsewhere) suspect Newman of a sceptical leaven and extend the
criticism to Butler's doctrine of " probability." Yet it seems
plain that any theology, maintaining redemption as historical
fact (and not merely ideal), must attach religious importance to
conclusions which are technically probable rather than proven.
If we transfer Christian evidence from the " historical " to the
" philosophical " with H. Rashdall— we surely cut down Chris*
tianity to the limits of theism. And the inner mind of Butler
has moral anchorage in the Analogy, quite as much as in the
Sermons, It Is in part ii. more than in part t. of his masterpiece
that the light seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford con*
verts to Rome, W. G. Ward, made vigorous contributions to
natural theology.
VII. Contents of Modem Apologetics— Superficially regar d ed,
philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may
reveal to speculative insight Old positions re-emerge from
forgetfulness, an<J there is always a philosophy to back every
" case." More Visible dangers arise for the apologist in the region
of science, historical or physical. There the progress of truth,
within whatever limits, is manifest Essays and Renews (i860)
was a vehement announcement of scientific results— startling
English conservatism awake for the first time. And in the
scientific region the great apologetic classics, like Butler, are
hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do ephemeral
work— unless it should chance that he proves to be the skir-
misher, pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching
brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to
plead that new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or
that it is not genuinely established knowledge at all; or else,
that faith has mistaken its own grounds, and will gain strength
by concentrating on its true field. The work is not always weU
done; but the Christian church needs it.
1. Apologetics and Philosophy. — The main part of this subject
is discussed under Theism. Some notes may be added on special
points, (a) Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side
(R.C. Church; Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau;
W. G. Ward. Not in a libertarian* sense; Leibnitz* New and
obscure issues raised by Kant). .But there is no continuous
tradition or steady trend of discussion. (6) Personal immortality
is affirmed as philosophically certain by the Church of Rome
and many Protestant writers. Others teach " conditional im-
mortality." Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection
of Christ (c) Theodicy— the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved
(on libertarian lines) by Martineau (A Study of Religion, 1885).
See also F. R. Tennant's Origin and Propagation of Sin (tees) —
sin a " bye-product " of a generally good evolution. Others find
in the gospel of redemption the true theodicy, (d) The problem
of Christian apologetic has been simplified in the past by the
prevalence of the Christian ethics and temper even among many
non-Christians (&j . J. S. Mill). But hereafter it may not prove
possible for the apologist to assume as unchallenged the Christian
APQLOGETICS
193
moral outlook. Germans have suspected an anti-Christian
strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in £. von Hartmann
or F. Nietzsche.
2. Apologetics and Physical Science. — (a) Copernicanism has
won its battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error
forgotten. The admission is now general that the Bible cannot
be expected to use the language of scientific astronomy. Still,
it is not certain that the shock of Copernicanism on supernatural
Christianity is exhausted, (b) Geology has also won its battles,
and few now try to harmonize it with Genesis, (c) Evolution
came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A. R. Wallace
succeeded in displacing the naif conception of special creation
by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a
process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and
vaguer theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer's
grandiose cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the
apologist has more to say. The special Darwinian hypothesis —
natural *' selection " — may or may not be true; it was at least
a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not be exhaustive. Again,
evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are offered a
philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when £. Caird
(Evolution of Religion, 1804) tries to vindicate Christianity as-
the highest working of nature— true just because evolved from
lower religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself
seek, following John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a re-
statement of natural theology—" one God, one law, one clement
and one far-off divine event " — and as at least pointing towards
personal immortality. But if evolution is to be the whole truth
regarding Christianity, we should have to surrender both super-
natural revelation and divine redemption. And these, it may
be strongly urged, contain the magic of Christianity. Losing
them it might sink into a lifeless theory.
As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in
favour of materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility,
and Protestant apologists would probably be prepared to accept
in advance all verified discoveries as belonging to a different
region from that of faith. Roman Catholic apologetic prefers to
negotiate in detail.
3. Apologetics and History.— History brings us nearer the
heart of the Christian position, (a) Old Testament criticism
won startling victories towards the end of the 19th century. It
blots out much supposed knowledge, but throws a vivid and
interesting light on the reconstrucd process of history. Most
Protestants accept the general scheme of criticism; those who
hang back make not a few concessions (e.g. J. On, Problem of
the O.T^ 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an
attitude of reserve. (A) New Testament criticism raises even
more delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the
reco v ered figure of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in
the possession of modern Christian theology and apologetics.
The "Lives" of Christ, Roman Catholic and Protestant,
"critical" (D. F, Strauss, A. Renan, &c,&c.) and "believing,"
imply this at least. Negatively, "unchallenged historical
certainties " are becoming few in number, or are disappearing
altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the
Tubingen criticism of F. C. Baur and his school— important as
the first scientific attempt to conceive New Testament conditions
and literature as a whole — has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl's
Emtslehung der alt-katholiscken Kirche, and edition, 1857, was an
especially telling reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated
with considerable respect It is no longer suggested in responsible
quarters that they are party documents sacrificing truth to
" tendency." But not all quarters are responsible; and in the
effort to grasp scientifically, i.e. accurately, the amazing facts of
Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable hypothesis
Is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the
Abbe Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties
against historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth
gospel has been the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles
is in many cases a matter of subordinate importance; at least
for Protestants or for those surrendering Bible infallibility,
whkh Rome can hardly do. (c) New Testament history.
The apologist must maintain (i) that Jesus of Nazareth is a
real historical figure — a point well-nigh overlooked by Strauss,
and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory;
(2) that Jesus is knowable (not one " of whom we really know
very little"— B. Jowett) in his teaching, example, character,
historical personality; and that he is full of moral splendour.
On the other hand, faith has no special interest in claiming that
we can compose a biographical study of the development of
Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing material
for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our
material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the
fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it
succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along
which that great personality will tell on men's minds and
hearts. If it fails — there are other channels; character can be
known and trusted even when we are baffled by a thing neces-
sarily so full of mystery as the development of a personality.
Notably, the manifest non-consciousness of personal guilt in
Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3) Apologists maintain
that Jesus "claimed" Messiahship. There are speculative
constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim;
and no doubt apologetics could— with more or less difficulty —
restate its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day
became accepted as historical fact to-morrow. The central
apologetic thesis is the uniqueness of the "only-begotten"; it
is here that " the supernatural " passes into the substance of
Christian faith. But most probably the description of Jesus as
thus unique will continue to be associated with the allegation-
He told us so; he claimed Messiahship and "died for the
claim." (Sec preface to 5th ed. of Ecce Homo.) Nor did so
superhuman a claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance.
He imparted to the title a grander significance out of the riches
of his personality. (4) In the light of this the " argument from
prophecy " is reconstructed. It ceases to lay much stress upon
coincidences between Old Testament predictions or " types "
and events m Christ's career. It becomes the assertion; historic-
ally, providentially, the expectation of a unique religious figure
arose—" the " Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be thought
of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that Jesus
had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown
towards the other or "nature" miracles. These latter, it may
be remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if
Jesus really cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we
have miracle plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For
Jesus' own resurrection several lines of evidence are alleged,
(i.) All who believe that in any sense Christ rose again Insist upon
the impression which his personality made during life. It was he
whose resurrection seemed credible I Some practically stop here;
the apologist proceeds, (ii.) There is the report of the empty
grave; historically, not easily waved aside, (iii.) We have New
Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective?
the mere clothing of the impression made by his personality
during life? or objective? "telegrams" from heaven (Th.
Keim)— "Veridical Hallucinations"? or something even more,
throwing a ray of light perhaps on the state and powers of the
happy dead? (iv.) There Is the immense influence of Jesus Christ
in history, associated with belief in him as the risen Son of God.
In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise,
(i.) The evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he
made. This may be called the rationalistic solution; with
sympathy in Christ's ethical teaching, there is relief at minimizing
his great claim. So, brilliantly, Wellhausen's Gospel com-
mentaries and Introduction. (Mark fairly historical; other
gospels' fuller account of Christ's teaching and claims un-
reliable.) (ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan.
ed. r; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of
despair, (iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the
world's end. This the apologist will recognize as the most
plausible hostile alternative. He may feel bound to admit an
element of illusion In Christ's vision of the future; but he will
contend that the apocalyptic form did not destroy the spiritual
content of Christ's revelations— nay, that it was itself the
194
APOLOGUE— APOPHTHEGM
vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of the
matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ's place in history,
and won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he
claimed to be, and that his many-sidedness comes to focus and
harmony when we recognize him as the Christ of God and the
Saviour of the world.
To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in
regard to the church: — Catholicism a compromise between
Jewish Christianity and Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F. C.
Baur, &c); Catholicism the Hellenizing of Christianity (A.
Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic church for good and evil
the creation of St Paul (P. Wcrnle, H. Weinel); the church
supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree
High Church apologetic); essential— not necessarily exclusive —
truth of Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism
(Protestant apologetic).
Literature.— Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the
B resent day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal's Penstes and
utler's Analog*, to which we might add I. R. Seeley's Ecu Homo
(1665). The philosophical, Platonist, or idealist line of Christian
defence is represented among recent writers by J. R. Illingworth
[Anglican], in Personality, Human and Divine (1894), Divine Im-
in], ii
r (I8<
manence (1898), Reason and Revelation (1902), who at times seems
J).
zz\
Uy
lot
the
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the
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us
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of
First Primer of Apologetics. For modification in light of recent
scholarship of argument from prophecy, to Riehm's Messianic
Prophecy. StantoiTs Jewish and Christian Messiah, and Woods's
Hope of Israel. Roman Catholic apologetics— of necessity, Thomist
— is well represented by Professor Schanz of Tubingen. The whole
Ritschl movement is apologetic in spirit; best English account in
A. E. Garvie's RUschlian Theolop (1899). See also the chief church
►ries or histories of doctrine (Harnack; Loofs;
Hagenbach
Shedd); A. S. Farrar's Critical History of Free (U. anti-Christian)
Thought (Bampton Lectures. 1862); R. C. Trench's Introduction to
Notes on the Miracles, and F. W. Macran's English Apologetic
Theology (1905). For the 18th century, G. V. Lechler's Geschu.hU
des englischen Deismsu (1841) ; Mark Pattison in Essays and Reviews
(i860) ; Leslie Stephen's English Thought in 18th Century (agnostic) ;
John Hunt, Religious Thought in England (3 vols., 1870-1874).
APOLOGUE (from the Gr. MXoyot, a statement or account),
a short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant
vehicle for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson.
One of the best known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges
(ix. 7-1 5); others are " The City Rat and Field Rat," by Horace,
" The Belly and its Members," by the patrician Menenius Agrippa
in the second book of Livy, and perhaps most famous of all, those
of Aesop. The term is applied more particularly to a story in
which the actors or speakers are taken from the brute creation
or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished from a fable
in that there is always some moral sense present, which there
need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been
defined as " a satire in action." It differs from a parable in
several respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended
to correct manners, but it can be true, while an apologue, with
its introduction of animals and plants, to which it lends our
ideas and language and emotions, is necessarily devoid of real
truth, and even of all probability. The parable reaches heights
to which the apologue cannot aspire, for the points in which
brutes and inanimate nature present analogies to man are
principally those of his lower nature, and the lessons taught
by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential
morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations
between man and God. It finds its framework in the world of
nature as it actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it,
and it exhibits real and not fanciful analogies. The apologue
seizes on that which man has in common with creatures below
him, and the parable on that which he has in common with God.
Still, in spite of the difference of moral level, Martin Luther
thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue that he
edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to
the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient
and comes from the East, which is the natural fatherland of
everything connected with allegory, metaphor and imagination.
Veiled truth was often necessary in the East, particularly with
the slaves, who dared not reveal their minds too openly. It is
noteworthy that the two fathers of apologue in the West were
slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine in France;
Gay and Dodslcy in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn
in Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia,
are leading modern writers of apologues. Length is not an
essential matter in the definition of an apologue. Those of La
Fontaine are often very short, as, for example, " Le Coque et
la Perlc." On the other hand, in the romances of Reynard the
Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in cycles, and attain-
ing epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is said to
have developed an apologue of " The Talking Animals " to the
bulk of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when
this species of literature was universally admired, attributes
its popularity to the fact that it menage el fiatte V amour-propre
by inculcating virtue in an amusing manner without seeming
to dictate or insist. This was the ordinary 18th-century view
of the matter, but Rousseau contested the educational value of
instruction given in this indirect form.
A work by P. Soulll. La Fontaine et ses devancitts (1866). is a
history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final triumph
in France.
APOLOGY (from Gr. awoXoyla, defence), in its usual sense, an
expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully
said or done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or
imputation which is false. In an action for libel, the fact that
an apology has been promptly and -fully made is a plea in mitiga-
tion of damages. The apology should have the same form of
publicity as the original charge. If made publicly, the proper
form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made within the
hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read
to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient By
the English Libel Act 1843, a. a, it was enacted that in an action
for libel contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant
to plead that the libel was inserted without actual malice sad
without gross negligence, and that before the commencement of
the action and at the earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted
in the newspaper a full apology for the libel, or, where the news*
paper in which the libel appeared was published at intervals
exceeding one week, he offered to publish the apology in any
newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The apology must be full
and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and manner as-the
libel was.
The word " apology "or" apologia " is also used in the sense
of defence or vindication, the only meaning of the Greek
Am\oyta % especially of the defence of a doctrine or system, or
of religious or other beliefs, &c, e.g. Justin Martyr's Apology
or J. H. Newman's Apologia pro vita sua. (See Apologetics.)
APONEUROSIS (Gr. Aro, away, and rtvpow, a sinew), in
anatom y, a membrane separating muscles from each other.
APOPHTHEGM (from the Gr. dr600cy/*a), a short and pointed
utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson's day was apothegm,
which Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pro-
nunciation — i.e. " apothem " — better than the other, which,
however, is more usual in England and follows the derivation.
Such sententious remarks as " Knowledge is Power " are
apophthegms. They become " proverbs " by age and accept-
ance. Plutarch made a famous collection in his Apophthcgmata
Laconica.
ARQPHYGE— APOPLEXY
»95
APOPHYvB (Gr. aawfryj, a flying off), in architecture, the
lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the
highest member of its base if the column be considered as a
whole. The apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep,
on the upper edge of which the diminahtng shaft rests.
APOPHYLLITE, a mineral often classed with the zeolites,
since it behaves like these when heated before the blowpipe
and has the same mode of occurrence} it differs, however, from
the zeolites proper in containing no aluminium. It is a hydrous
potassium and calcium silicate, HjKCMSiQiM-aiHaO. A
small amount of fluorine is often present, and it is one of the few
minerals in which ammonium has been detected. The tempera-
ture at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually the
ease with zeolites; none is given off below 200°, and only about
half at 250°; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air,
and is therefore regarded as water of crystallisation, the remainder
being water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe,
the mineral exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account
was named apophyllite by R. J. Hatty in x8o6, from the Greek
aw*, from, and 06XAor, a leaf.
Apophyhlte always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong
to the tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism
terminated by the basal
planes (fig. a), or an. acute
pyramid (fig* 1). A promi-
nent feature of the mineral
is its perfect basal cleavage,
on which the lustre is
markedly pearly,- present-
ing, in white crystals, some-
what the appearance of
the eye of a fish after
boiling, hence the old
Fig. 1.
Fio. a.
fish-eye-stone or ichtbyophthalmite for the mineral. On
other surfaces the lustre is vitreous. The crystals are usually
transparent and colourless, sometimes with a greenish or
rote-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit have
been called albine; xyiochiore is an olive-green variety.
The hardness is 4$, nod the specific gravity 3-35.
The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest,
and have been much studied. The sign of the double refraction
may be either positive or negative, and some crystals are divided
into optically biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyctite
shows, when examined in convergent polarized light, a peculiar
interference figure, the rings being alternately white and violet-
black and not coloured as in a normal figure seen in white light.
Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly
occurring, in association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal
cavities in basalt and melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish
and colourless tabular crystals, the crystals several inches
across, were found, with flesh-red stilbite, in the Deccan traps
of the Western Ghats, near Bombay, during the construction of
the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of crystals of a
beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins of
Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals
of recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains
at the hot springs of Plombieres in France. (L. J . S.)
APOPHYSIS (Gr. a*o4tvif, offshoot), a bony protuberance,
m human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of
the spore -case in certain mosses,
APOPLEXY (Gr. awoirXi|&a, from iwoT\ftco*w, to strike down,
to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the " sudden
lost of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the excep-
tion of respiration," to which, after the time of Harvey, was
added " and with the exception of the circulation." Although
the term is occasionally employed in medicine with other significa-
tions, yet in its general acceptation apoplexy may be denned as a
sudden loss of consciousness, of sensibility, and of movement with-
out any essential modification of the respiratory and circuit tory
functions occasioned by some brain disease. It was discovered
that the majority of the cases of apoplexy were due to cerebral
haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral haemorrhage, red
softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that apoplexy
and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous
terms, and that an individual who, in popular parlance, " had
an apoplectic stroke," had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage
into his brain. A small haemorrhage may not, however, cause
an apoplectic fit, nor is an apoplectic fit always caused by
haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden blocking of a large
vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or .by a sudden
dotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis). Owing
to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage
and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was
applied to haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus
the terms pulmonary apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic
apoplexy were used.
< The term " apoplexy " is now used in clinical medicine to
denote that form of coma or deep state of unconsciousness
which is due to sudden disturbance of the cerebral circulation
occasioned by a local cause within the cranial cavity, as distinct
from the loss of consciousness due to sudden failure of the
heart's action (syncope) or the coma* of narcotic or alcoholic
poisoning, of status epiUpticus, of uraemia or of head injury
The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be
included, although owing to the suddenness with which a
person may be struck down, the term heat apoplexy is frequently
used, and, from an etymological point of view, quite justifiably.
The older writers use the term simple apoplexy for a sudden
attack which could not be explained by any visible disease.
Again, congestive apoplexy was applied to those cases of coma
where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the
coma and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain
and its membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis
the brain is shrunken and the convolutions atrophied the
increased space in the ventricles and between the convolutions
being filled up with the cerebrospinal fluid. In these diseases
apoplectic states may arise, terminating fatally; the excess of
fluid found in such cases was formerly thought to be the cause
of the symptoms, consequently the condition was called serous
apoplexy. Such terms are no longer used, owing to the better
knowledge of the pathology of brain disease.
Having thus narrowed down the' application of the term
" apoplexy," we are in a position to consider its chief features,
and the mechanism by which it is produced. Apoplexy may be
rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom instantly fatal. The onset is
usually sudden, and sometimes >the individual may be struck
down m an instant,, senseless and motionless, " warranting those
epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of this
disease, of attoniti and siderali, as if they were thunder-stricken
or planet-struck " (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack, however,
may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a con-
vulsion; while occasionally, in the condition termed ingravescent
apoplexy, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its
development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms,
sometimes slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority
of cases Such are, fulness in the head, headache, giddiness,
noises in the ears, mental confusion, slight lapses of consciousness,
numbness or tingling in the limbs. A characteristic apoplectic
attack presents the following phenomena: the Individual falls
down suddenly and lies without sense or motion, except that
his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues.' He
appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused;
the breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied
with puffing out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more
strongly than natural, and the lace is often flushed and turgid.
The reflexes are abolished. Although apoplexy may occur with-
out paralysis, and paralysis without apoplexy, the two, owning
the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or happen in immediate
sequence and connexion; consequently there is in most cases
definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of the
body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal;
there may be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more
rigid or flaccid on one side than on the other. These signs of
localised disease enable a distinction to be made from the coma
196
APOROSE— APOSTLE
of narcotic poisoning and alcoholic intoxication. It must be
borne in mind that a person smelling strongly- of liquor and
found lying in the street in a comatose state may be suffering
from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a police
cell may be avoided by this knowledge.
If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and
the patient may in a few hours show indications of returning
consciousness by making some movements or opening bis eyes
when spoken to, although later it may be found that he is
unable to speak, or may be paralysed or mentally afflicted (see
Paralysis). In severe cases the coma deepens and the patient
dies,, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less
commonly, from arrest of the heart's action.
The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a
matter of much dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed
to the pressure exerted by the clot on the rest of the brain, but
there is no increase of intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit
occurring as a result of the sudden closure of a large vessel by
embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness of the lesion appears to
be, then, the essential element common to all cases of apoplexy
from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to the delicate
mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing that
the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral
haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and
thai an ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and
deepens as the amount of haemorrhage increases, we may presume
that increase of intracranial pressure does play an important
part in the degree and intensity of the coma caused by the
rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under forty years
of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral vessels
may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in
the article Neuropathology, no period of life is exempt;
consequently cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in
very young children. Recognizing that there are two causes of
apoplexy in advanced life, via. (1) sudden rupture of a diseased
vessel usually associated with high arterial pressure, enlarged,
powerfully acting heart and chronic renal disease, and (2) the
sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel favoured by a
low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is obvious
that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the diagnosis
of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and
the treatment of such should it occur.
Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase
arterial pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring
on an attack of cerebral haemorrhage; and although the
identification of an apoplectic habit of body with a stout build,
a short neck and florid complexion is now generally discredited,
it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as frequently in thin
and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of conforma-
tion, yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate
eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a
general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All condi-
tions which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general
bodily increase of the arterial pressure, i.e. severe exertion of
body and mind, violent emotions, much stooping, overheated
rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden shocks to the body, constipa-
tion and straining at stool, may, by suddenly increasing the
strain 00 the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to its rupture.
The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases
where the coma is profound; death may take place at different
intervals after the onset. If the patient, after recovering from
the initial coma, suffers with continual headache and lapses
into a drowsy state, the result is likely to be serious; for such a
condition probably indicates that an inflammatory change has
taken place about the clot or in the area of softening.
Treatment.— The patient should be placed in the recumbent
position with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should
be moved as Utile as possible from the place where the attack
occurred. The medical man who is summoned will probably
give the following directions: an ice-bag to be applied to the
bead; a few grains of calomel or a drop of croton oil in butter
to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor oil to be
administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water
with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common
in this disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases,
where there is very high arterial tension and a general state of
plethora, it might be beneficial. Depletives are not employed
where there is evidence of failure of the heart's action; indeed
the cautious administration of stimulants may be necessary,
either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if there exist a power of
swallowing), together with warm applications to the surface of
the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful nursing is
essential to prevent complications, especially the formation of
bedsores. (F. W. Ma)
APOROSB (from Gr. d, without, and repot, passage), a
biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a
group of corals called Aporosa.
• APOSIOPHSIS (the Greek for M becoming silent "), a rhetorical
device by which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves
something unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by
the imagination. The classical example is the threat, " (tax
H°—— "J_ " °f Neptune (in Virgil, Aen. i. 135).
APOSTASY (areVroms, in classical Greek a defection or
revolt from a military commander), a term generally employed
to describe a complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or
even an exchange of one form of it for another, especially if the
motive be unworthy. In the first centuries of the Christian era,
apostasy was most commonly induced by persecution, and was
indicated by some outward act, such as offering incense to a
heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.' In the
Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renun-
ciation of monastic vows (apostasis a monatkatu), and to the
abandonment of the clerical profession for the life of the world
(apostasis a cUricatu). Such defection was formerly often
punished severely.
APOSTII* or Apostille (possibly connected with Lat.
opposiium, placed near), a marginal note made by a commentator.
APOSTLE (ar&rroXot, one sent forth 00 a mission, an envoy,
as in Is. xviii. s; Symmachus, amwrtXXcti'dawroXM*; Aquila,
rptafkvT&t), a technical term used in the New Testament and in
Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ.
How far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ's day is
uncertain; but in the 4th century A.D., at any rate, it denoted
responsible envoys from the central Jewish authority, especially
for the collection of religious funds. In its first and simplest
Christian form, the idea is present already in Mark iii. 14 f .,
where from the general circle of his disa'pies Jesus •' made
twelve ('whom be also named apostles/ Luke vi. 13, but
doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he
might from time to time send them forth (Zra atroariWn) to
preach and to have authority to cast out demons." Later on
(vi. 6 ff.), in connexion with systematic preaching among the
villages of Galilee, Jesus begins actually to " send forth " the
twelve, two by two; and on their return from this mission
(vi. 30) they are for the first time described as " apostles " or
missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends the calling of the
twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke (vi 13)
makes Jesus himself call them " apostles " (for Luke's usage
cf. xi. 49, " prophets and apostles, " where Matthew, xxiii. 34,
has " prophets and wise men and scribes "). But it is doubtful
whether Jesus ever used the term for the Twelve, in relation to
their temporary missions, any more than for the "seventy
others " whom he " sent forth " later (Luke x. 1). Even the
Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has " a
servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy)
greater than be that sent him" (xiii. 16); and applies the idea
of " mission " alike to Jesus (cf. Hcb. iii. 1. " Jesus, the apostle
. . . of our profession ") and to his disciples, generally, an
represented by the Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while
ideally all Christ's disciples were " sent " with the Father's
Name in charge, there were different degrees in which this
1 The readmisnOn of such apostate* to the church was a matter
that occasioned serious controversy- The emperor Julian's
" Apostasy " is dbcusscd under Julian.
APOSTLE
197
sppKed in practice; and so we find " spofde " used in several
senses, once it emerges as a technical term.
1. In the Apostolic age itself, "apostle" often denotes
simply an "envoy," commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a
primary witness and preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This
wide sense was shown by Lightfoot (in his commentary on
GalaSians, 1865) to exist in the New Testament, t.g. in 1 Cor.
an. 28 f., Ephr iv. 11, Rom. xvi 7; and his view has since been
emphasised 1 by the discovery of the Teaching of the- Twelve
Apostles (see Didache), with its itinerant order of " apostles,"
who, together with "prophets" (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and
" teachers," constituted a charismatic and seemingly unordained
ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?)
during the early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness,
as just cited; also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the
language of Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ " appeared
to Cephas; then to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to
the apostl e s one and all (rolt a*o? roXots s-«W) ; and last of all
. . . to me also." The appearance to " all the Apostles " must
refer to the final commission given by the risen Christ to certain
assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff., cf . Luke xxiv. 33), including not
only the Twelve and the Lord's brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some
at least of the Seventy. Of this wider circle of witnesses, taken
from among personal disciples during Jesus's earthly ministry,
we get a further glimpse in the election of one from their number
to fill Judas's place among the Twelve (i 21 ff.), as the primary
official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection. Many of the
ISO then present (Acts i 15), and not only the two set forward
for final choke, must have been, personal disciples, who by the
recent commission had been made M apostles." Among such we
•may perhaps name Judas Barsahbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf.
i aj), if not also Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and
Junia (Rom. xvi 7).
So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of
apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen
Christ (cf. 1 Cor. ix. i), following on (0) some preliminary inter-
course with Jesus in his earthly ministry. It Was pre-eminence
in the latter qualification that gave the Twelve their special
status among apostles (Acts i. 36, ii. 14. vi a; in Acts generally
they are simply " the apostles "). Conversely, it was Paul's
lack in this respect which lay at the root of his difficulties as an
It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaiziag
Corinth " -.-««*. ..
missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles " false-apostles
ironically, "the superlative apostles'* (2 Cor. xi. 5. 13; xii. ■■/,
rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (6), possibly
even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor, xi. 1 8, 21).
There is no sign in 3 Cor. that they bid claim to (a). If this be
so, they were Christ's apostles " only indirectly. " through men "
(as some had alleged touching Paul, ci. Gal. i. 1), i.e. as sent forth
00 mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of intro-
duction (a Cor. iii 1 ; E. von Dobschuta, Problem* der opost. ZeilaUers,
p. 106).
a. The rwefce.— When Jesus selected an inner circle of
disciples for continuous training by personal intercourse, his
choke of " twelve " had direct reference to the tribes of Israel
(Matt, xix.* 98; Luke xxii 30). This gave them a symbolic or
representative character as a closed body (cf. Rev. xxi. 14),
marking them off as the primary religious authority (cf. Acts
H. 42, "the apostles* teaching") among the "disciples" or
" brethren," when these began to assume the form of a com-
munity or church. The relationship which other " apostles "
had enjoyed with the Master had been uncertain; tkey had been
Us recognised intimates, and that as a body. Naturally, then,
they took the lead, collectively— in form at least, though really
the initiative lay with one or two of their own number, Peter in
particular. The process of practical differentiation from their
fellow-apostles was furthered by the concentration of the Twelve,
or at least of its most marked representatives, in Jerusalem,
for a considerable period (Acta viii. 1, d. xii 1 ff.; an early
tradition specifies twelve years). Other apostles soon went forth
1 By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of "apostle" in the
Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of the
term (see below, a fin.).
on their mission to " the dties of Israel " (cf. Acts ix. 31). «*
so exercised but little influence on the central policy of the
Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New Testament,
though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light of
the Didachi, may help us to conceive their work in its main
features.
3. " Pillar " A pestles.— But in fact differentiation between
apostles existed among the Twelve also. There were " pillars,"
like Peter and John (and his brother James until his death),
who really determined matters of grave moment, as in the
conference with Paul in GaL ii. 0— a conference which laid the
basis of the latter's status as an apostle even in the eyes of
Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the sequel of
personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of
disdplcship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts
touching apostles in the official light of later times.
Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks
on the lists of the Twelve in the New Testament Thus (1)
Peter, James, John, Andrew, always appear as the first four,
though the order varies, Mark representing relative prominence
during Christ's ministry, and Acts actual influence in the Apos-
tolic Church (cf. Luke viii. 5 1, ix. 28). (2) The others also stand
in groups of four, the first name in each being constant, while the
order of the rest varies.
The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic
" pillar " stood outside the Twelve altogether, vis. James, the
Lord's brother (Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that "the
Lord's brethren" seem to have ranked above "apostles"
generally, being named between them and Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5.
That is, they too were apostles with the addition of a certain
personal distinction.
4. Paid, the " Apostle of the fetftfej."— So far apostles are
only of the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers
of the Messiah and with a mission primarily to Jews— apostles
" of the circumcision " (Gal. ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a
new apostleship, that to the Gentiles; and with the change of
mission goes also some change in the type of missionary or
apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained its
primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he
could claim, on occasion, 10 satisfy the old test of having seen
the risen Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not
on this, but on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as
God's Son, and of the Gospel latent therein (Gal. i 16). This
was his divine call as " apostle of the Gentiles " (Rom. xi 13);
here lay both his qualification and his credentials, once the fruits
of the divine inworking were manifest in the success of his
missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f . ; 1 Cor. xi. x f . ; 2 Cor. iii. 2 i, xii. 1 2).
But this new criterion of apostleship was capable of wider
application, one dispensing altogether with vision of the risen
Lord— which could not even in Paul's case be proved so -fully
as in the case of the original apostles— but appealing to the
" signs of an apostle " (1 Cor. ix. a; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of
spiritual gift visible in work done, and particularly in the planting
of the Gospel in fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this
wide charismatic sense that Paul uses the term in t Cor. xii. 28 f .,
Eph. ii so, in. 5, iv. zx, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, " men of
mark among the apostles" (cf. 2 Cor. xi 13, "pseudo-apostles"
masquerading as " apostles of Christ," and perhaps t Thess. ii. 6,
of himself and Silas). That he used it in senses differing with
the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he styles himself
" the feast of apostles," although in other connexions he claims
the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a
body (GaL ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel
This point of view was not widely shared even in circles
appreciative of Ins actual work. To most he seemed but a
fruitful worker within lines determined by " the twelve apostles
of the Lamb " as a body (Rev. xxi 14). So we read of " the
plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the Beloved shall
plant " {Ascension of Isaiah, iv. 3); " those who preached the
Gospel to us (especially Gentiles) . . . unto whom He gave
authority over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the
tribes " (Bam. viii... 3, cf. v. 9)1 *nd the going forth of the
198
APOSTLE
Twelve, after twelve years, beyond Palestine M into the world,"
to give it a chance to hear {Preaching of Peter, in Clem. Alex.
Strom, vi. 5. 43; 6. 48). Later on, however, his own claim told
on the Church's mind, when his epistles were read in church as a
collection styled simply " the Apostle."
As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf.
i. 8, ii. 2) Paul had no peers as an " apostle of the Gentiles "
(Rom. xi. 13, cf. xv. 15-20, and see x Cor. xv. 8, " last of all to
me "), unless it were Barnabas who shares with him the title
" apostle " in Acts xiv. 4, 14— possibly with reference to the
special " work " on which they had recently been " sent forth
by the Spirit " (xtii. 2, 4). Yet such as shared the spiritual gift
(charisma) of missionary power in sufficient degree, were in fact
apostles of Christ in the Spirit (x Cor. xii. 28, xi). Such a
secondary type of apostolate— answering to M apostolic mission-
aries " of later times (cf. the use of UpawSaroXot in this sense by
the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day) — would help to account
for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2,
as also for the " apostles " of the second generation implied in
the Didochi.
In the sub-apostolic age, however, the class of " missionaries "
enjoying a charisma such as was conceived to convey apostolic
commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from
" apostles " (cf . Hernias, Sim. ix. 15. 4, " the apostles and teachers
of the message of the Son of God," so 25. 2; in 17. 1 the apostles
are reckoned as twelve), as the title became more and more
confined by usage to the original apostles, particularly the
Twelve as a body (e.g. Ascension of Isaiah and the Preaching of
Peter), or to them and Paul (e.g. in Clement and Ignatius), and
as reverence for these latter grew in connexion with their story
in the Gospels and in Acts. 1 Thus Euscbius describes as " evan-
gelists " (cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8, also Eph. iv. 1 1,
2 Tim. iv. 5) those who " occupied the first rank in the succession
to the Apostles " in missionary work (Hist. Eccl. iii. 37, cf. v. 10).
Yet the wider sense of " apostle " did not at once die out even
In the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied
to the Seventy 1 — by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen —
and even to Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a " fellow-
worker " of Paul, Phil. iv. 3); while the adjective " apostolic "
was applied to men like Potycarp (in his contemporary Acts of
Martyrdom) and the Phrygian, Alexander, martyred at Lyons in
a.d. 177 (Eus. v. x), who was " not without share of apostolic
charisma.**
The authority attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in
character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like
autocracy among his followers was alien to Jesus's own teaching
(Matt, xxiii. 6-1 1). All Christians were " brethren," and the
basis of pre-eminence among them was relative ability for service.
But the personal relation of the original Palestinian apostles to
Jesus himself as Master gave them a unique fitness as authorised
witnesses, from which flowed naturally, by sheer spiritual in-
fluence, such special forms of authority as they came gradually
to exercise in the early Church. u There is no trace in Scripture
of a formal commission of authority for government from Christ
Himself " (Hort, Chr. Eccl. p. 84) given to apostles, save as
representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the
" resolutions " (My par a) of the Jerusalem conference were not
set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor
as ipso facto binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church.
They expressed " a claim to deference rather than a right to be
obeyed " (Hort, op. cit. 81-85) . Such was the kind of authority
attaching to apostles, whether collectively or Individually. It
was not a fixed notion, but varied in quantity and quality with
1 The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An
analogous process is seen in the use of " disciple," applicable in
the apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the sub-
apostolic age restricted to personal 7 * disciples of the Lord " or to
martyrs (PanUs in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, Ad Eph. i. 2).
* In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. I 12, we read that
" Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle — one of the
Seventy," where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems in-
tended. For tracts of the wider sense of •' apostle " in Gnostic,
Mareionifie and Montaalst circles, see Monnier (as below).
the growing maturity of converts. This is how Paul, from whom
we gather most on the point, conceives the matter. The exerdse
of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he " lord it over
their faith "; consent of conscience or of " faith " is ever requisite
(a Cor. i. 44; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was elastic in
application, and would take more patriarchal forms in Palestine
than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as
on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the
" missionary " is at first one of great spiritual initiative and
authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things,
in the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitu-
tional authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses,
is an anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however,
was for their authority to be conceived more and more on formal
lines, and, particularly after their deaths, as absolute.
The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led
gradually to the formation of a New Testament Canon—" the
Apostles " side by side with " the Books " of the Old Testament
(so a Clement xiv., c. aj>. 120-140) — is a subject by itself (see
Bible).
This change of conception helped to further the notion of a
certain devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted
by act of ordination. The earliest idea of an apostolical succession
meant simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of
missionary enthusiasm. " The first rank in the succession of the
apostles " consisted of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so
fitted to continue their labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under
Commodus (a.d. 180-193) lnerc wcrc " evangelists of the word "
possessed of " inspired zeal to emulate apostles " (v. 10). Such
were perhaps the " apostles " of the Didacht. Of the notion of
apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by ordination,
there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous passage
in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of
one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution.
The grace that makes Polycarp " an apostolic and prophetic
teacher " (Mart. Polyc 16) is peculiar to him personally. But
Irenaeus holds, apparently on a priori grounds, that " elders "
who stand in orderly succession to the apostolic founders of the
true tradition in the churches, have, " along with the succession
of oversight," also an " assured gift of (insight into) truth "
by the Father's good pleasure ("cum episcopatus succes-
sione charisma vcritatis cerium secundum pladtum Patris
acceperunt "), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand outside
this approved line of transmission (adv. Haer. iv. 26. 2). So far,
indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate
as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf .
" presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio " in the same context,
and see iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as
capable of being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially
appealed to as witnesses (d . iv. 33. 8, v. 19. a)— as earlier by
Hegesippus (Euseb. iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal
grace attaching to the succession in apostolic truth.* But once
the idea of supernatural grace going along with office as such
(of which we have already a trace in the Ignatian bishop, though
without the notion of actual apostolic succession) arose in con-
nexion with successio ab apostolis, the full development of the
doctrine was but a matter of time. 1
Literature.— In England the modern treatment of the subject
dates from J. B. Lightfoot's dissertation in his Commentary on
Galatians, to which Dr F. J. A. Hort's The Christian Ecdesia added
elements of value; see also T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the
Ministry, and articles in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible and the
Ency. Biblical A. Hamack. Die Lehre der Apostd, pp. 93 ft*., and
' The above is substantially the view taken by J. B. Lightfoot
in his essay on " The Christian Ministry " (Qmm. on PhUtppians,
6th cd., pp. 239, 353 f.) t and by T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the
Ministry (1902), pp. 224-M8, 278 ft*. Even C. Gore, The Church and
the Ministry (1889), pp. 119 ft\, while inferring a sacerdotal clement
in Irenaeus'* conception of the episcopate, says: " But it is mainly
as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards the
apostolic succession " (p. iao).
4 See Lightioot's essay for Cyprian's contribution, as also for that
of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James at
Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolk succession
in the episcopate.
APOSTLE SPOONS—APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ig 9
Detrntngtsthichl* {trd ed.), 1. 153 fr\; E* tiavpt, Ztun V«nftbiAiir
• * • • ,-„ AT. (HaUe, 1896}: and especially H. Monnicr,
A 4
La Notion de Vapoitolat, Acs origines a IrhnU (Paris, 1903). The later
legends and their sources are examined by T. Sehermann, Prophetcn-
mmd ApostHlegenden (Leipzig, 1907). (J- V: B.)
APOSTLE SPOONS, a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver
gilt, with the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each
bearing their distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal
gifts during the 15th and 16th centuries, but were dying out by
1666. Often single spoons were given, bearing the figure of the
patron or name saint of the child. Sets of the twelve apostles are
not common, and complete sets of thirteen, with the figure of our
Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The Goldsmiths' Company
in London has one such set, all by the same maker and bearing
the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at Christie's
in 1904 for £4000.
See William Hone, The Everyday Book and Table Book (1831);
and W. J. Cripps, Old English Plat* (9th ed.. 1906).
APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS (tuarayal or Aiar&gctt riav
aylur b\roffr6\(OP bid. KX^/ievro* rod Ta^aW kmcKbrov re koX
to\Ltov. KdhXuHi 3i$ac*aXla), a collection of ecclesiastical
regulations in eight books, the last of which concludes with the
eighty-five Canons of Ike Holy Apostles. By their title the Con-
stitutions profess to have been drawn up by the apostles, and
to have been transmitted to the Church by Cement of Rome;
sometimes the alleged authors are represented as speaking
jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been very
variously estimated; the Canons, as a rule, more highly than the
rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constanti-
nople (quini-sextum), a.d. 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by
its second canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground
that spurious matter had been introduced into them by heretics;
and whilst the former were henceforward used freely in the East,
only a few portions of the latter found their way into the Greek
and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius Exiguus (c. a.d. 500)
translated fifty of the Canons into Latin, 1 although under the
title Canones qui dicuniur Aposlolorum, and thus they passed
into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as a
whole remained unknown in the West until they were*published
in 1563 by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with en-
thusiasm, their authenticity soon came to be impugned; and
their true significance was largely lost sight of as it began to be
realized that they were not what they claimed to be. Vain
attempts were still made to rehabilitate them, and they were,
in general, more highly estimated in England than elsewhere.
The most extravagant estinfate of all was that of Whiston, who
calls them " the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in
authority to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority
to the epistles of single apostles, some parts of them being our
Saviour's own original laws delivered to the apostles, and the
other parts the public acts of the apostles " (Historical preface
to Primitive Christianity Revived, pp. 85-86). Others, however,
realized their composite character from the first, and by degrees
some of the component documents became known. Bishop
Pearson was aMe to say that " the eight books of the Apostolic
Constitutions have been after Epiphanlus's time compiled and
patched together out of the didascoHae or doctrines which went
under the names of the holy apostles and their disciples or suc-
cessors" (Vind. Tin. I cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still,
Archbishop Usher, had already gone much further, and con-
cluded, forestalling the results of modern critical methods, that
their compiler was none other than the compiler of the spurious
Ignatian epistles {Epp. Polyt. et Ign. p. bdii. f., Oxon. 1644).
The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are spurious, and they are
one of a long series of documents of like character. But we
have not really gauged their significance by saying that they
are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual
process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of un-
written church custom; and a short account of this process will
show their real importance and value.
1 Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five a not
dear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the
first fifty.
Orsjte
These documents axe the outcome of .a tendency which is
found in every society, religious or secular, at some point in its
history. The society begins by living in accordance
with its fundamental principles. By degrees these
translate themselves into appropriate action. Diffi-
culties are faced and solved as they arise; and when
similar circumstances recur they will tend to he met in the
same way. Thus there grows up by degrees a body of what
may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no particular
point of time at which this customary law can be said to have
begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution
and gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually
modified as time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when
the attempt is made, either by private individuals or by the
society itself, to put this " customary law " into writing. Now
when this is done, two tendencies will at once show themselves.
(«) This " customary law " will at once become more definite:
the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an effort
after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part
of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they
obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and
to add to that which is the custom that which, in his opinion,
ought to be. (b) There will be a strong tendency to fortify that
which has been written with great names, especially in days
when there is no very clear notion of literary properly. This is
done, not always with any deliberate consciousness of fraud
(although it must be clearly recognized that truth is not one of
the " natural virtues," and that the sense of the obligations of
truthfulness was far. from strong), but rather to emphasize the
importance of what was written, and the fact that it was no
new invention of the writer's. In a non-literary age fame
gathers about great names; and that which, ex hypothesi, has
gone on since the beginning of things is naturally attributed to
the founders of the society. Then come interpolations to make
this ascription more probable, and the prefixing of a title, then
or subsequently, which states it as a fact. This is precisely the
way in which the Apostolical Constitutions and other kindred
documents have come into being. They are attempts, made in
various places and at different times, to put into writing, the
order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for
private instruction and edification, but in part also with a view
to actual use; frequently even with an actual reference to
particular circumstances. In this lies their importance, to a
degree which is only just being adequately realized- They
contain evidence of the utmost value as to the order of the
Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be
sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of
the writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs
are continually mixed up with things which have a wider preval-
ence. It is only by careful investigation, by the method of
comparisons, that these elements can be disentangled; but as
the number of documents of this class known to us is continually
increasing, their value increases even more than proportionately.
And whilst their local and fugitive character must be fully
recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set them aside
or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore negligible.
It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections
of this kind which came into existence during the first four
centuries ; generally as the work of private individuals, ^ ^
and having, at any rate, no mote than a local authority i^tt^n
of some kind. (a) The earliest known to us is the
Didoche or Teaching of Ike Twelve Apostles, itself compiled from
earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see DioacHfi).
(0) The Apostolic Church Order (apostolische Kirchenordnung of
German writers); Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles of
one MS.; Sentcntiae Apostolorum of Pitra: of about 300, and
emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14,
depends upon the Didachg and the rest of it is a book of discipline
in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older frag-
ments of church law (Teste u. Unters. ii. 5). (c) The so-called
Canones Hippolyti, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the
first half of the 3rd century. It will be observed that these
(
200
APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS
make no cUim to apostolic authorship; but otherwise their
origin is like that of the rest, unless indeed, as has been suggested,
they represent the work of an actual Roman synod, (d) The
so-called Egyptian Church Order, in Coptic from a Greek pre-
Nicene original (c. 3x0). It is part of the Egyptian Heptateuch
and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (e) The
Eihiopic Church Order, perhaps twenty years later than (d), and
forming part of the EMopic Statutes. (/) The Verona Latin
Fragments, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of
a form akin to (e), which may be dated c. 340, though possibly
earlier. It has a preface which refers to a treatise Concerning
Spiritual Gifts as having immediately preceded it. (*) The
recently discovered Testament of the Lord, which is somewhat
later in date (c. 350), and likewise depends upon the Canones
Hippolyti. (h) The so-called Canons of Basil. This is an Arabic
work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately on a Greek
original, embodying with modifications large portions of the
Canons of Htppolytus. (On the relations between the six last-
named, see HipFOLYTUS, Canons of.)
Here alto may be noticed the Didascalia Apostolorum, originally
written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a frag-
mentary Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the
3rd century — in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give
us the date a.d. 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is
independent of the documents already mentioned ; and upon it the
Constitutions themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of
moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The Sacramentary of Serapion
(*• 350). The Pilgrimage of Etheria (Silvia) (c. 385), and The Cate-
chetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem (348) are also of value in this
connexion. In the (so-called) Constitutions through Htppolytus we
have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th book of the
Apostolical Constitutions. 1
The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions,
(i.) The first of these consists of books i-vi, and throughout runs
Cootoau. I"™ 11 * 1 to lb* Didascalia. Bkkcll, indeed, held that
this latter was an abbreviated form of books i. vi;
but it is now agreed on all hands that the Constitutions arc based
on the Didascalia and not vice versa, (ii.) Then follows book vii.,
the first thirty-one chapters of which are an adaptation of the
Didachi, whilst the rest contain various liturgical forms of which
the origin is still uncertain, though it has been acutely suggested
by Achelis, and with great probability, that they originated in
the schismatics! congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.) Book
viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two
chapters, vtal x*pt*M*Tar, may be based upon a lost work of
St Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the
preface of the Verona Latin Fragments', and an examination
shows that this is highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27,
wtpl xttporon&r, and cc. 28-46, «pl xaropur, is twofold, and
is evidently that upon which the writer sets most store. The
apostles no longer speak jointly, but one by one in an apostolic
council, and the section closes with a joint decree of them all.
They speak of the ordination of bishops (the so-called Clementine
Liturgy is that which is directed to be used at the consecration
of a bishop, cc 5-15), of presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, sub-
deacons and lectors, and then pass on to confessors, virgins,
widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on
various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this
section, all that can be said is that it includes materials which
are also to be found elsewhere — in the Egyptian Church Order
and other documents already spoken of — and that the precise
relation between them is at present not determined. The third
section consists of the Apostolic Canons already referred to, the
last and most significant of which places the Constitutions and
the two epistles of Clement in the canon of Scripture, and omits
the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the preceding
Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of Antioch,
341, Nicaea, 335, and possibly Laodicaea, 363.
1 At a later date various collections were made of the documents
above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-hooks in different
c hurcnes— <jr. the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch,
and the Ethiopk Sinodos. These, however, stand on an entirely
different footing, since they are simply collections of existing docu-
ments, and no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for
A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon
which they are based will illustrate the compiler's method.
(a) To begin with the Didascalia already mentioned. It is un-
methodical and badly digested, homiletical in style, and abound-
ing in biblical quotations. There is no precise arrangement;
but the subjects, following a general introduction, are the bishop
and his duties, penance, the administration of the offerings,
the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of widows,
deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution,
and so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions .finds here
material after his own heart. He is even more discursive and
more homiletical in style; he adds fresh citations of the Scrip-
tures, and additional explanations and moral reflexions; and
all this with so little judgment that he often leaves confusion
worse confounded (e.g. in ii. 57, where, upon a symbolical
description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed
the further symbolism of a ship). (6) Passing on to books vtL
and viii., we observe that the compiler's method of necessity
changes with his new material. In the former book he still
makes large additions and alterations, but there is less scope for
his prolixity than before; and in the latter, where he is no
longer dealing with generalities, but making actual definitions,
the Constitutions of necessity become more precise and statutory
in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the language of his
sources as far as possible, " only pruning in the most pressing
cases," but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger
alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout
are not made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would
obviously dash with the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly
modifies them. An account of the Passion, with a curiously
perverted chronology, the object of which was to justify the
length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely revised for this reason
(v. 14) ; the direction to observe Easter according to the Jewish
computation is changed into the exact contrary for the same
reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into s p e aki n g of a
lull in persecution he naively informs us that the Romans have
now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. a6),
forgetting Altogether that he is speaking in the character of the
apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian
ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for
example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree
with the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own
ideas of fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at
once most valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care.
To give one striking example of the value of these documents.
The Canones Hippolyti (vi 43) provide that one who has been
a confessor for the faith may be received as a presbyter by
virtue of his confessorship and not by the laying on of the
bishop's hands; but if he be chosen a bishop, he is to be ordained.
This provision passes on into the Egyptian Ecclesiastical Canons
and other kindred documents, and even into the Testamentum
Domini. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical
Constitutions (viii. »s) entirely reverses it: " A confessor is not
ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of
great honour. . . . But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained
either a bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the con-
fessors who is not ordained snatches to himself any such dignity
upon account of his confession, let the same person be deprived
and rejected; for he is not in such an office, since he has denied
the constitution of Christ, and is worse than an infidel."
Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be
inferred with regard to him? (»•) By separating off the sources
which he used from his own additions to them, it at j,hsi
once becomes clear that the latter are the work of one ***>
man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of #*■»_
working is the same throughout The compiler of mfmm
books i.-vi is also the compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to
his theological position, different views have been held. Funk
suggests Apollinarianism, which is the refuge of the destitute;
and Achelis inclines in the same direction. But the affinities of
the author are quite otherwise, the most pronounced of them
being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a human
APOSTOLIC CANONS— APOSTOLIC FATHERS
amil to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism
but an inclination towards Alienism. Above all, his polemic is
directed against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he
writes with an absence of constraint which is not the language
of one who lives amidst violent controversies or who is conscious
of being in a minority. All this points to. the position of a
" conservative " or semi-Arian of the East, one who belongs,
perhaps, to the circle of Ludan of Antioch and writes before the
time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time or circum-
stances in which a man could write like this, (iit.) The indica-
tions of time have been held to point to a different conclusion.
On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple
by Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 34 points to an earlier
date; and the fact that the acenarcu are not mentioned amongst
the church officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they
arc first mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in a.d. 357. On
the other hand, in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several
which are probably of later date— e. j. Christmas and St Stephen,
which were introduced at Antioch c. aj>. 378 and 379 respectively.
Again, Epiphanius {c. ajj. 374) appears to be unacquainted with
it; he still quotes from' the Didascalia, and elaborately explains
it away where it is contrary to the usages of bis own day. But
as regards the former point, it is possible that the Apostolical
Constitutions constantly gave rise to these festivals; or, on
the other hand, that the two passages were subsequently intro-
duced either by the writer himself or by some other hand,
when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a
law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius
does not use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet
been compiled, (iv.) As to the region of composition there is no
real doubt. It was clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many
indications are against the latter, and Syria is strongly suggested
by the use of the Syro- Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the
writer represents the Roman Clement as the channel of com-
munication between the apostles and the Church. This fact
both supplies him with the name by which he is commonly
known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his
Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the
name of Clement, the Homilies and Recognitions, arc likewise of
Syrian origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which
arc also Syrian, depend throughout upon the Constitutions,
(v.) But this is not all. It was long ago noticed that Pscudo-
Clcmcnt bears a very close resemblance to Pseudo-Ignatius, the
interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recen-
sion. Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and modern
criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde, Marnaek,
Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (A p.
Fathers* n. L a66 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasion-
ally misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give
the Roman succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement
shows no knowledge of the Christological controversies of Nicaea.
But as regards the first of these, it is rather a case of condensed
citation than of misinterpretation; the second is explained by
the writer's carelessness as shown in other passages, and all arc
solved if a considerable interval of time elapsed between the com-
pilation of the Constitutions and the spurious Ignatian epistles.
It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that
he abo wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise
probably a scmi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His
date is given by Harnack as a.d, 340-360, with a leaning to
340-343; by Lightfoot as the latter half of the 4th century;
by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375; and by Funk as the
beginning of the 5th century.
Authorities,-— W. Ueltscn, Constitutiones Apostolitos (Schwcrin,
•853); P. A. de Lagarde, Didascalia Apostoiorum Syriace (Lcipz.,
1854); Constitutiones Apostoiorum (Lcipz. and Lond., 1862); M. D.
Gibson, Didascalia A post. Syriace, with Eng. trans. (Horae Semiticae,
I and it, Cambridge, 1003) ; J. B. Pitra, Juris EcclesiasticiGraecorum
Historia at Monumtnta, i. (Rome, 1864); Hauler, Didascalia*
Apostoiorum Fragmenta UeroUensia Latino (Leipzig, 1000) ; Bickell,
Cachukk das Ktrcktnreckts, I (Gicssen, 1843J; F. A. Funk. Die
apostdischen Konstitutioncn (Rottcnb.. 1891) ; A. Harnack. Geschichte
4. altcktisU. LitUratur, I 515 IT. (Lcipz.. 1893); F. E. Brightman,
20I
Liturgus Easter* and Western, I. xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H.
Vhen*. i ■ *' ■■ » ■ ■■ *-»•- * - * - " •
J. Wordsworth, The Ministry oj Grace, op. 18 ff ; J. P. ArencUen,
The Apostolic Church Order" (Syriac Text, Eng. trans, and notes)
in Journ. of Theol. Studies, ill $9. Trans, of A post. Constitutions,
book viu., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library. (W. E. Co.)
APOSTOLIC CANONS, a collection of eighty-five rules for the
regulation of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the
Apostolical Constitutions (q.v.). They are couched in brief
legislative form though on no definite plan, and deal with the
vexed questions of ecclesiastical discipline as they were raised
towards the end of the 4th century. At least half 0/ the canons
are derived from earlier constitutions, and probably not many
of them are the actual productions of the compiler, whose aim
was to gloss over the real nature of the Constitutions, and secure
their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New
Testament of his day. The Codex Alcxandrinus does indeed
append the Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament.
The Canons may be a little later in date than the preceding
Constitutions, but they arc evidently from the same Syrian
theological circle.
APOSTOLIC FATHERS, a term used to distinguish those early
Christian writers who were believed to have been the personal
associates of the original Apostles. While the title " Fathers "
was given from at least the beginning of the 4U1 century to
church writers of former days, as being the parents of Christian
belief and thought for later times, the expression " Apostolic
Fathers" dates only from the latter part of the 17th century.
The idea of recognizing these " Fathers " as a special group
exists already in the title " Patrcs acvi apostolid, sive SS.
Patrum qui teraporibus apostoUtis florucrunt . . . opera," under
which in 1672 J. B. Cotclicr published at Paris the writings
current under the names of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hennas,
Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name itself is due to their next
editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his Bibliotheco Patrum
Apostolicorum (1699), who, however, included under this title
only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears
the doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt
which has continued ever since, and makes the contents of the
"Apostolic Fathers" differ so much from editor to editor.
Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi (1700-1779), in re-issuing
Cotclicr's collection in his Bibliotheco Vetcrum Patrum (1765-
1781), included the fragments of Papias and the Epistle to
Diognctus, to which recent editors have added the citations
from the "Elders" of Papias's day found in Irenacus and,
since 1883, the Didachi.
The degree of historic claim which these various writings
have to rank as the works 1 of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly
on any definition of " apostolic." Originajly the epithet was
meant to be taken strictly, viz. as denoting those whom history
could show to .have been personally connected, or at least coeval,
with one or more apostles; and an effort was made, as by
Cotclicr, to distinguish the writings rightly and wrongly assigned
to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the historical views
of editors. But the convenience of the category " Apostolic
Fathers " to express not only those who might possibly have
had some sort of direct contact with apostles— such as " Bar-
nabas," Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp— -but also those
who seemed specially to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic
doctrine during the sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use
in a wide and vague sense.
Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings
which, whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as
belonging to the main stream of the Church's teaching during
the period between the Apostles and the Apologists (i.e. to
c. a.d. 140). Or to put it more exactly, the u Apostolic Fathers "
represent, chronologically in the main and still more from the
religious and theological standpoint, the momentous process of
1 Cotclicr Included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius
and Polycarp: and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often
printed by editors.
202
APOSTOLIC FATHERS
transition from the type of teaching In the New Testament to
that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the last
quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt
show us certain fresh factors entering into this development;
but on the whole the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long
way to explain the transition in question, so far as knowledge of
this sacculum obscurum is within our reach at all. It is true that
they do not include the whole even of the ecclesiastical literature
of the sub-apostolic age, not to mention what remains of Gnostic
and other minority types. The Preaching and Apocalypse of
Peter, for instance, arc quite typical of the same period, and help
us to read between the lines of the Apostolic Fathers. Yet
they do not really add much to what is there already, and they
have the drawbacks of pscudonymily; they lack concrete and
personal qualities; they arc general expressions of tendencies
which we cannot well locate or measure, save by means of
the Apostolic Fathers themselves or of their earliest Catholic
successors.
(A) In external features the group is far from homogeneous,
a fact which has led to their being disintegrated -as a group in
certain histories of early Christian literature (e.g. those of
Ilarnack and KrUger), and classed each under its own literary
type — so sacrificing to outer form, which is quite secondary in
primitive Christian writings, the more significant fact of religious
affinity. Its original members, those still best entitled to their
name in any strict sense, are epistles, and in this respect also
most akin to Apostolic writings. Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure
in saluting his readers " after the apostolic stamp " (ad Trail.
inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire to emulate the apostolic
manner in other respects, being fully conscious of the gulf between
himself and apostles like Fctcr and Paul in claim to authority
(ib. iii. 3, ad Rom. iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp, who, in
explaining that be writes to exhort the Philippians only at their
own request, adds, "for neither am I, nor is any other like me,
able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul "
(iii. 2). Clement's epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate
and treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which
it draws so largely; and the same is true of " Barnabas." But
one and all arc influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and
witness to the impression which these produced on the men of
the next generation. Unconsciously, too, they correspond to
the apostolic type of writing in another respect, viz. their occa-
sional and practical character. They are evoked by pressing
needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and
not by any literary motive. 1 This is a universal trait of primitive
Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian
" literature " at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial
handling of their contents. These sub-apostolic epistles arc
veritable " human documents," with the personal note running
through them. They arc after all personal expressions of
Christianity, in which arc discernible also specific types of local
tradition.* To such spontaneous actuality a large part of their
interest and value is due.
Nor is this pre-litcrary and vital quality really absent even
from the writing which is least entitled to a place among
" Apostolic Fathers," the Epistle to Diognctus. This beautiful
picture of the Christian life as a realized ideal, and of Christians
as " the soul " of the world, owes its inclusion to a double error:
first, to the accidental attachment at the end of another fragment
(5 ti), which opens with the writer's claim to stand forth as a
teacher as being " a disciple of apostles "; and next, to mistaken
exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with
apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral.
Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus
Aurclius, as a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to
some other eminent person of the same name in the locality
of its origin, or, as seems more likely, to cultured Greeks gener-
ally, personified under the significant name "Diognetus"
("Heaven-born," cf. Acts xvii. 28 along with \ iii. 4)— the
1 Sec G. A. Dcissmann, Bible Studies, pp. l-6o. for this distinction
between the genuine " letter " and the literary " epistle," as applied
New Testament in particular.
epistle is in any case an " open letter " of an essentially literary
type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the
preface to Luke's Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe
something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the
lover of truth. But while literary in form and conception, its
appeal is in spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel
has done for the writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin
to the piety of the Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true
that it has marked affinities, e.g. in its natural theology, with the
earliest Apologists, Aristidcs and Justin, even as it is itself in
substance an apology addressed not to the State, but to thoughtful
public opinion. But this only means that we cannot draw a hard
and fast line between groups of early Christian writings at a lime
when practical religious interests overshadowed all others.
If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd
century, the Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact
with one of the most practical and least literary writings found
among our Apostolic Fathers, viz. the homily originally known
as the Second Epistle of Clement (for this ascription, as for other
details, see Clementine Literature). The recovery of its
concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the Didachi
to light, proves beyond question that we have here the earliest
extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about
a.d. 1 jo- 140 (so J. B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling
to its hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the revela-
tion in Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to
passages in the Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are
the affinities between the homily and the Shepherd of Hennas,
" the first Christian allegory," which as a literary whole dates
from about a.d. 140, but probably represents a more or less
prolonged prophetic activity on the part of its author, the brother
of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (c. 130-154). In both the
primary theme is repentance, as called for by serious sins, after
baptism has placed the Christian on his new and higher level of
responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the one
argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner
of later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions
and similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, whichchar-
actcrizes Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there arc
traces of it also in the Didachi and in Ignatius, ad Epk. xx),
is a genuinely primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue
which the Shepherd enjoyed in the generations immediately sue*
ceeding, as also the influence of its disciplinary policy, which
is its prophetic " burden " (sec Hermas, Shepherd op).
We come finally to the anonymous Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles and Papias's Exposition of Oracles of the Lord, so far as
this is known to us. The former, besides embodying catechetical
instruction in Christian conduct (the " Two Ways "), which goes
back in substance to the early apostolic age and is embodied
also in " Barnabas," depicts in outline the fundamental usages of
church life as practised in some conservative region (probably
within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century and
perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the
apostolic teaching (Didachi) on the subjects in question. This
is probably a bona fide claim. It expresses the feeling common
to the Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic
age, at any rate in regions where apostles had once laboured,
that local tradition, as held by the recognized church leaders, did
but continue apostolic doctrine and practice. Into later develop-
ments of this feeling an increasing clement of illusion entered,
and all other written embodiments of it known to us take the
form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is in contrast to
these that the Didachi is justly felt to be genuinely primitive
and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form
would by analogy tend per se to awaken suspicion, its contents
remove this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving
early formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of
somewhat similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic
age, but failed to survive save as embodied in later local teaching,
oral or written, very much as if the Didachi had perished and its
literary offspring alone remained (sec DidachR).
As regards Papias's Exposition, which Lightfoot describes
APOSTOLIC FATHERS
203
as "among the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly
explanatory, partly illustrative, on portions of the New Testa-
ment," we need here only remark: that, whatever its exact form
may have been— as to which the extant fragments still leave
room for doubt — it was in conception expository of the historic
meaning of Christ's more ambiguous Sayings, viewed in the light
of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions bearing on the
subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the Elders
preserved in Ircnacus (so far as these do not really come from
Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional
principle at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preser-
vation in relative purity, over against merely subjective inter-
pretations — those of the Gnostics in particular— of the historic
or original sense of Christ's teaching, just as Ignatius stood for
the historicity of the facts of His earthly career in their plain,
natural sense.
(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over
into that of the internal character and spirit. Indeed much has
already been said or suggested bearing on these. The relation
of these writers to the apostolic teaching generally has become
pretty evident. It is one of absolute' loyalty and deference,
as to the teaching of inspiration. They are conscious, as are we
in reading them, that they are not moving on the same level of
insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in that sense
also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the
Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality
of each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject,
and its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the
New Testament, see The Neva Testament in the Apostolic Fathers,
Oxford, 1905). As Lightfoot points out (Apostolic Fathers,
pt. i. vol. i. p. 7), however, personality, with its variety of
temperament and emphasis, largely colours the Apostolic
Fathers, especially the primary group. Clement has all the
Roman feeling for duly constituted order and discipline;
Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of devotion,
showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his
over-strained yearning to become His very " disciple " by drink-
ing the like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things,
steady in his allegiance to what had first won his Conscience
and heart, and his " passive and receptive character " comes
out in the contents of his epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities
arc less known to us, Papias Shares Polycarp's qualities and
their limitations, the anonymous homilist and Hennas are
marked by intense moral earnestness, while the writer to Diog-
nelus joins to this a profound religious insight. These personal
traits determine by selective affinity, working under conditions
given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the elements
in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and
express— though we must allow also for variety in the occasions
of writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and
another in another; or it may be several in turn. The latter
is the case in Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in
" Barnabas." In Hennas there is special affinity to the language
and thought of the epistle of James, and in the homilist to those
of PauL Yet their very use of the same terms or ideas makes
us the more aware of " a marked contrast to the depth and clear-
ness of conception with which the several Apostolic writers place
before us different aspects of the Gospel " (Lightfoot). While
Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them Is often
different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic
meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious
experience which gave to the words, often words with long and
varied history both In the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek
usage, their specific meaning to each apostle and especially to
Paul. This phenomenon was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in
his Histoire d* la thtdogie chr Maine au sibcU apostolique (3rd
ed. , 1 864). Take for instance Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells
on the all-round "comprehensiveness" with which Clement,
as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters in succes-
sion phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul
and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however,
that such mere co-ordination of the language of Paul and James,
for instance, as appears in his twice bracketing " faith and
hospitality " as grounds of acceptance with God (the cases are
those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs. x. and xii.), is " from a
strictly dogmatic point of view " his weakness. But the weakness
is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious experience, as
the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that " there is no
dogmatic system in Clement " or in any other of the Apostolic
Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There
is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of
realizing relative spiritual values in the light of the master prin-
ciple involved in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such
as could raise Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than
comprehensiveness, in the use of Apostolic language. As R. W.
Dale remarks, in a note on Rcuss's too severe words (Eng. trans.
ii. 295): " The vital force of the Apostolic convictions gave to
Apostolic thought a certain organic and consistent form." It is
lack of this organic quality in the thought, not only of Clement
but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally — with the possible
exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic experi-
ence more fully than any other, to which Rcuss rightly directs
attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to
enter into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ,
he can rightly speak of " an immense retrogression " in theology
visible " at the end of the century, and in circles where it might
have been least expected" (ii. p. 294, cf. 541).
In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed
and its most distinctive features obscured. This was specially
the case with the experimental doctrines of grace. Here the
central glory of the Cross as " the power of God unto salvation "
suffered some eclipse, although the passion of Christ was felt to
be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in one way or another.
But even more serious was the loss of an adequate sense of
the contrast between "grace" and "works" as conditions of
salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the
legal principle, as related to human egoism and the instinct to
seek salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which
these things are laid bare by Paul's remorseless analysis of his
own experience " under Law " seem to have made practically
no impression on the Apostolic Fathers as a whole. Gentile
Christians had not felt the fang of the Law as the ex-Pharisee
had occasion to fed it. Even if first trained in the Hellenistic
synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they appre-
hended the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side,
and had not been brought u by the Law to die unto the Law,"
that they might " live unto God." The result was too great a
continuity between their religious conceptions before and after
embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter seemed to them simply
to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ's sake, and then an
enhanced moral responsibility to the- New Law revealed in
Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as
Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers,
though Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and
" Barnabas " are less under its influence than are the Didachi,
Clement, the Homifist and Hennas. It conceives salvation as
a " wages " (juaAfe) to be earned or forfeited; and regards
certain good works, such as prayer, fasting, alms— especially
the last—as efficacious to cancel sins. The reality of this
tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in Hermas, who
teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the self-
denial of fasting (Sim. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion's reaction/ too,
against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, th the
interests of an extravagant- Paulintertf, while it suggests that
Paul's doctrines of grace generally were inadequately realized in
the sub-apostolic age, points also to the prevalence of such
moralism in particular.
(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic
Fathers for the historian to-day, we -may sum up under these
heads: ecclesiastical, theological, religious, (a) As a mine of
materials for reconstructing the history of Church institutions,
they are invaluable, and that largely in virtue of their spon-
taneous and " esoteric " character, with no view to the public
generally or to posterity, (fr) Theologically, as a stage in the
204
APOSTOLICI
history of Christian doctrine, their valuers as great negatively
as positively. Impressive as is their witness to the persistence
of the Apostolic teaching in its essential features, amidst all
personal and local variations, perhaps the rat *. striking thing
about these writings is the degree in which they tail to appreciate
certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the
New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively
Christian elements. 1 This negative aspect has a twofold bearing.
Firstly, it suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic
consciousness was raised at a bound by the direct influence of
the Founder of Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the
Apostolic writings as a Canon, or body of Christian classics of
unique religious authority. To this principle Mardon's Pauline
Canon is a witness, though in too one-sided a spirit. Secondly,
it means that the actual development of ecclesiastical doctrine
began, not from the Apostolic consciousness itself, but from a
far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness of the sub-
apostolic Church, even when face to face with their written words.
This theological " retrogression " is of much significance for the
history of dogma, (c) On the other hand, there is great religious
and moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in
the life working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper
ideas involved (E. von Dobschutz, Christian Life in the Primitive
Church, 1005). There is continuity in character; the Apostolic
Fathers strike us as truly good men, with a goodness raised to a
new type and power. This is what the Gospel of Christ aims
chiefly at producing as its proper fruit; and the Apostolic
Fathers would have desired no better record than that they
were themselves genuine " epistles of Christ." -
Literature.— Thi» is too large to indicate even in outline, but
is given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gcbhardt. Harnack
and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J. B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and
F. X. Funk (1901); also in O, Bardenhcwer, Gcsck. der altkircklichen
Litteratur (1902), Band i., and in Neutsstamentliche Apohryphen,
with Handbuch thereto, edited by £. Hcnneckc (Tubingen, 1904).
The fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas,
Clement. Ignatius and Potycarp is by J. Donaldson, The Apostolical
Fathers (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of
the texts when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready refer*
ence, containing critical texts (up to date) and good translations,
is Lightfoot 's one-volume edition. The Apostolic Fathers (London,
1891). (J- V. B.)
APOSTOLICI, Apostolic Bbxtkien, or Apostles, the
names given to various Christian heretics, whose common
doctrinal feature was an ascetic rigidity of morals, which made
them reject property and marriage. The earliest Apostolici
appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia towards
the end of the and century or the beginning of the 3rd. Accord-
ing to the information given by Epiphanius (Haer. 61) about
the doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were
connected with the Encratites and the Tatianians. They con-
demned individual property, hence the name sometimes given to
them of A potactites or Renuntiatores. They preserved an absolute
chastity and abstained from wine and meat. They refused to
admit into their sect those Christians whom the fear of martyr-
dom had once restored to paganism. As late as the 4th century
St Basil (Can. z and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that
period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct,
or being confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, Haer.
40; John of Damascus, Haer. 61).
Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has
been given to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 1 ath century.
It is the second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being com-
posed very probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter
addressed in 1x46 by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to SLBernard
(Mabillon, Vet. Anal. iii. 45s). They condemned marriage (save,
perhaps, first marriages), the eating of meat, baptism of children,
veneration of saints, fasting, prayers for the dead and belief in
purgatory, denied transubstantiation, declared the Catholic
priesthood worthless, and considered the whole church of their
lime corrupted by the " negotia saecularia " which absorbed all
'One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism
and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great
moment for them and for their successors.
its zeal (cf. St Bernard, Serm. 65 and 66 in C antic). They do
not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St
Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: " Quo nomine istos titulovc
censcbis?" (Scrtn. 66 in Cantic). Under this designation, too.
are included the heretics of Perigucux in France, alluded to in
the letter of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, Vet. Anal. in.
467). Heribert says merely: " Sc dicunt apostolicam vitam
duccrc." It is possible that they were Henricians (see Henry
op Lausanne). During his mission in the south-east of France
in 1 146-1 147 St Bernard still met disciples of Henry of Lausanne
in the environs of Perigueux. The heretics of whom Heribert
speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments
and of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected
the veneration of images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered
round him nobles, priests, monks and nuns.
In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the
Order of the Apostles or Apostle Brethren (sec especially the Chron.
of Fra Salimbcne). This was a product of the mystic fermenta-
tion which proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from
Joachimism (see Fkaticelli and Joachim). It presents great
analogies with groups ~of the same character, e.g. Sachets.
Bizocchi, Flagellants, &c. The order of the Apostles was founded
about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of Parma,
Gerard Segarclli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to
the Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of
Christ, his contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised,
wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he
then, clad in a while robe and bare-fooled, walked through
the streets of Parma crying " Pcnitenz agile!" (" Poenitentiam
agitcl"). He was soon followed by a throng of men and women,
peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty,
chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence.
Opizo, bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused
trouble in his diocese. Their diffusion into several countries
of Christendom disturbed Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286
ordered them to adhere to an already recognized rule. On their
refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment and Opizo
imprisoned Segarclli. The councils of Wurzburg (1287) and
Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany
and England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly in-
creased, and Pope Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of
Honorius IV. From that day the Apostles, regarded as rebels,
were persecuted pitilessly. Four were burned in 1204, and
Segarclli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the slake at Parma in
1300.
They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans,
but the Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the
sect, which in Segarclli's time had had no very precise doctrinal
character, became with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of
Novara was brought up at Vercelli, and had been an Apostle
since 1291. Thrice he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and
thrice recanted. But immediately after Segarclli's death be
wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in which he declared
that the third Joachimite age began with Segarclli and that
Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (Hist. Dntcini
and Addit. ad Hist. Dulciui in Muratori, Scriptorcs, vol. ix.).
He gave himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the
prophecies. Soon he founded an A postolic congregation at whose
head he placed himself. Under him were his four lieutenants,
his " mystic sister," MargheriU di Franck, and 4000 disciples.
He taught almost the same principles of devotion as Segarclli,
but the Messianic character which he attributed to himself,
the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and.
besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino's sect
a clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic
community of the Anabaptists of Munstcr in the 16th century.
On the 5th of June 1305 Pope Clement V., recognizing the
impotence of the ordinary methods of repression, issued butts
for preaching a crusade against the Dolctnists. But four
crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to
reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the
mountains in the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the sjrd
APOSTOLIC MAJESTY— APOTHECARY
of March 1307 were the sectaries definitively overcome. The
Catholic crusaders seized Doltino in his entrenchments on
Mount Rubetto, and the pope at once announced the happy
event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Doltino suffered a
horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot
pincers— the torture lasting an entire day— while Margherita
was burned at a slow fire. Dante mentions Dolcino's name
U*/*m*,cjucviu.),arid his memory is not yet completely effaced
in the province of Novara. The Apostles continued' their
propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and Germany. * In turn'
they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306), Treves
(1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc,
Bernard Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui's PracUca
Jnquiriiumis). From 1316 to 13a a the condemnations of
Apostles increased at Avignon and Toulouse. They disappeared*
however, at a comparatively late date from those regions (council
of Lavaur, X368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In Germany
two Apostles were burned at Lubeck and Wismar at the beginning.
of the xsth century (1403-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard.
Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stock*
maun, have mentioned among the innumerable sects that have
sprung from Anabaptism a group of individuals whose open*air
preaching and rigorous practice of poverty gained them the name
of ApostolicL These, must be carefully distinguished from the
Ap o s i aa ii ans, Mennonites of Frisia, who followed the teachings of
the pastor Samuel Apostool (*63&-rirginnmg of t$th century).
In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid, conservative
party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards the
Anninian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community
afl those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal
tendencies, (P. A.)
APOSTOLIC MAJESTY, a title borne by the kings of Hungary.
About aj>. 1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon
St Stephen (075*1038), the first Christian king of Hungary, in
return for his seal in seeking the conversion of the heathen. It
was renewed by Pope Clement XIIL in 1758 in favour of the
empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The emperor of
Austria bean the title of apostolic king of Hungary.
APOfTOUUS, MICHAEL (d. *. 1480), a Greek theologian and
rhetorician of the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks
conquered Constantinople, his native city, he fled to Italy, and
these obtained- the protection of Cardinal ' Bcssarion. But
engaging in the .great dispute that then raged between the up-
holder* of Aristotle and Plato, his seal for the latter led him to
speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and of
his defender, Theodoras Gaxa, that he fell under the severe
displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete,
where he earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying
snanaiacripta. Many of his copies are still to be found in the
libraries of Europe, One of them, the Icones of Phuostratus at
Bologna, bears the. inscription: " The king of the poor of this
world has written this book for his living. 1 ' Apostolius died
about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobuhis Af>ostolius and
Arsenhis. The Utter became bishop of Malvasia (M6s*mvasja)
in the More*.
Of his
reus works a few have been printed:
> l 9&b AOW aooedingly rare; a collection of p
j of wmch a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, " Curanta
Heinsio," in 1619; " Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III." in
Freher** Scriptores Return Gtrmaniearum, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1634);
Georvfi Geautthl Plethoalset Mich. AportoW Oratmusftmebrrs dmaa
m testes da Inmortatote Animaa axponitar (Lerpsig, IT93): and a
work against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in
Le Moine's Varia Sacra,
APOtTROPHB (Gr. fastfipo+4, turning away; the final e
being sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical
figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and add re ss es
some one directly in the vocative. The same word (representing,
through the French, the Greek arotfrpotfx* rpoatfUa, the
accent of elision) mean also the sign (') ior the omission of a
letter or letters, *.|.m" don't" In physiology, ".apostrophe "
is used more precsiely in connexion with its literal meaning of
" taming away," e.g. for movement away from the light, in the
SOS
case otlhe accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the ccDs of
leaves.
APOTACTITES, or AFOtyicna (from Gr. avoracrer, set
apart), a sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly
possessions. (See Apostouo ad inil.)
APOTHECARY (from the LaL apeUktarius, a keeper of an
apaiheca, Gr. tao0*e», a store), a word used by Galen to denote
the repository where his medicines were, kept, now obsolete in
its original sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold
and prescribed drugs, but the preparing and selling of drugs
prescribed by others has now passed into the bands of duly
qualified and authorized persona termed *' chemists. and drug-
gists," while the apo t heca r y, by modem legislation, has become
a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when used at
all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in
Scotland, to those who in England are called " pharmaceutical
chemists." The Apothecaries 1 Society of London is one of the
corporations of that city, and both by royal charters and acta of
parliament exercises the power of granting licences to practise
medicine. The members of this society do not possess and
never have possessed any exclusive power to deal in or sell
drugs, and until 1868 any person whatever might open what is
called a chemist's shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that
year, however, the Pharmacy. Act was passed, which prohibits
any person from engaging in this business without being
registered.
From early records we learn that the different branches of
the medical profession were not regularly distinguished till the
reign of Henry VIII., when separate duties were assigned to
them, and peculiar privileges were granted to each, In 1518
the physicians of London were incorporated, and the barber-
surgeons in 1 54a But, independently of the physicians and the
surgeons, there were a great number of irregular practitioners,
who were saore or less molested by their legitimate rivals, and it
became necessary to pass an act in 1 J43 for their protection and
toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for the
sale of inedicines, the term " apothecary " was used to designate
their <** U fo ig ,
In April 1606 James L incorporated the apothecaries as on*
of the city companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their
charter being renewed is* 1617 they were formed into a separate
corporation, under the title of the u Apothecaries of the City of
London." These spotheca ri es appear to have prescribed
medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have claimed
an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may
be mentioned that Henry VUL, after the grant of the charter
to the College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the
princess Mary, who was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of
40 marks a year, " pro mdiort ctpv «f canstdaraticna sanitatis
tuaa" During the 17th century, however,, there arose a warm
contest between the physicians and the apothecaries,— the
former accusing the latter of usurping their province, and the
latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until the dispute
was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords m
1703 (Rase v. Ceifege of Physicians, 5 JBro. P. C. 553), when it was
decided that the duty of the apothecary frmristed not only in
compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering
the remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1721
an act was obtained empowering the Apothecaries' Company to
visit the shops of all apothecaries practising in London* and to
destroy such drugs Sa they found unfit for use. In 1748 great
additional powers were given to the company.by an act authoris-
ing them to appoint a board of ten exammers, without whose
licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines in
London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 181 5, however,
an act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries*
Society a new position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve
of their members, to examine and license all apothecaries
throughout England and Wales. It also enacted that, from the
zst of August of that year, no persons except those who were so
licensed should have the right to act as ap otheca ri es, and it
gave the society the power of. prosecuting those who practised
2o6
APOTHEOSIS
without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from
prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it
distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the
calling of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that
the act should in no way interfere with the rights or privileges
of the English universities, or of the English College of Surgeons
or the College of. Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed
severe penalties on any apothecaries who should refuse to com-
pound and dispense medicines on the order of a physician,
legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore dear that the
act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners who,
while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and
co-operate with the physicians and surgeons.
Before this act came into operation the education of the
medical practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional
on their own part, and although many of them possessed degrees
or licences from the universities or colleges, the greater number
possessed no such qualification, and many of them were wholly
illiterate and uneducated. The court of examiners of the
Apothecaries' Society, being empowered to enforce the acquisition
of a sufficient medical education upon its future licentiates,
specified from time to time the courses of lectures or terms of
hospital practice to be attended by medical students before their
examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of
medicine were organized throughout England.
As it was* found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations
as to medical acquirements, the candidates were in many
instances deficient in preliminary education, the court of
examiners instituted, about the year 1850, a preliminary
examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable prerequisite
to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so ex-
panded that, at the present day, all medical students in the
United Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination
in arts, unless they hold a university degree. An act of parlia-
ment, passed in 1858, and known as the Medical Act, made
very little alteration in the powers exercised by the Apothecaries'
Society, and indeed it confirmed and in some degree amplified
them, for whereas by the act of 181 5, the licentiates of the society
were authorized to practise as such only in England and Wales,
the new measure gave them the same right in- Scotland and
Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications
necessary for registration under the medical acts, by making it
necessary to pass a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery
and midwifery. (See Medical Education.)
An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries'
Society, and is termed the Apothecaries' Act Amendment Act.
By this measure some provisions of the act of 181 5, which had
become obsolete or unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were
given to the sodety to unite or co-operate with other medical
licensing bodies in granting licences to practise. The act of
181 5 had made it compulsory on all candidates for a licence to
have served an apprenticeship of five years to an apothecary,
and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners
of the society this term really induded the whole period of
medical study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many
members of the medical profession. It was accordingly repealed,
and no apprenticeship is now necessary. The restriction of the
choice of examiners to the members of the sodety was also
repealed, and the sodety was given the power (which it did not
before possess) to strike off from the list of its licentiates the
names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also spctificd
that the sodety was not deprived of any right or obligation they
may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their
names on the list of licentiates if they acquit themsdves
satisfactorily.
The Apothecaries* Sodety is governed by a master, two
wardens and twenty-two assistants. The members are divided
into three grades, yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court.
Women are not, however, admitted to the freedom. The hall
of the society, situated in Water Lane, London, and covering
about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired in 1633. It was
destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten years later
and enlarged In 1786! • This is the only property possessed by
the society. In 1673, the sodety established a botanic and physic
garden at Chelsea, and in 1711 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become
the ground owner, gave it to the sodety on the condition of
presenting annually to the Royal Society fifty dried spedmena
of plants till the number should reach 2000. This condition was
fulfilled in 1774. Owing to the heavy cost of maintenance and'
other reasons, the " physic garden " was handed over in xooa,
with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a committee
of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical
study and research.
See C. R. B. Barrett, The History of the Society of Apothecaries of
London (1905)-
APOTHEOSIS (Gr. ArofcoOr, to make a god, to deify), literally
deification. The term properly implies a dear polytheistic
conception of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that
some men cross the dividing line. It is characteristic of poly-
theism to blur that line in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek
religion was especially disposed to belief in heroes and demigods
Founders of rities, and even of colonies, received worship; the
former are, generally speaking, mythical personages and, m
strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of historical
persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true
deities, t.g. Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred
sporadically even before Alexander's conquests brought Greek
life into contact with oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too,
that andent monarchies should enlist polytheistic conceptions of
divine or half-divine men in support of the dynasties; " Sen decs
regesve canii deorum Sangumem," Horace {Odes, iv. a, 11. it, 13)
writes of Pindar; though the reference is to myths, ytt the
phrase is significant. In the East all such traits are exaggerated,
a result perhaps rather of the statecraft than of the religions of
Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the flattery of
courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it is
significant that the dynasties of Alexander's various successors
all claim divine honours of some sort (see Ptolemies, Seleuod
Dykasty, &c). Theocritus {Idytt 17) hails Ptolemy Philaddphus
as a demigod, and speaks of his father as seated among the
gods along with Alexander. Ancestor worship, or reverence for
the dead, was a third factor. It may work even in Cicero's
determination that his daughter should enjoy " awofftweu '*—
as he writes to Atticus— or recdve the " honour " of consecrotio
(fragment of his De Consolation*). Lastly, wc need not speak of
mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped
before he was impeached I
The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted
only one official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his
original meaning, having been identified with Romulus. But
the emperor Augustus carried on the tradition of ancient
statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized as a god (dims
Julius), the first of a new dass of ddties proper (din). The
tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some ladies
of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship
of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his
genius, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined
to the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands
of the senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was
officially adopted. The Latin term is consecrotio, which of course
has a variety of senses, induding simple burial (Inscription in
G. Boissier, La Religion rowtoine; Renter, Inscriptions d* Algiers,
2510.) The Greek term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the
Hellenistic epoch, becomes more nearly technical for the deifies?
tion of dead emperors. But it is still used simply for the erection
of tombs (dearly so in some Greek inscriptions, Corpus InscripL
Grace. 9831, 3839, quoted in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Apotheosis).
Possibly there is a trace of ancestor worship even here; but the
two usages have diverged. The squib of the philosopher Seneca
on the memory of Claudius (d. aj>. 54), Apocolocynlosis (" pomp-
kinification "), is evidence that, as early as Seneca's lifetime,
apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a departed emperor
as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be
associated with this pretended worship. The people, says
APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS
307
1 (Jul. Out. c SS), fully believed in the divinity of
Julius Caesar, hinting at the same time that this was by no
means the case with the majority of the apotheoses subsequently
decreed by the senate. Yet we learn from Capitolinus that
Marcos Aurethis was still worshipped as a household divinity in
the tame of Diocletian, and was believed to impart revelations in
dreams ( Vit. M. AnU c. i$). Antinous, the favourite of Hadrian,
was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origcn, Contra
Cdtmm, Hi. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never
and official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial
apotheosis are very fully described by Herodianus (bk, iv. c. 2)
on occasion of the obsequies of Sevens, which he appears to
have witnessed. The most significant was the liberation, at the
moment of kindling the funeral pyre, of an eagle which was
snupo a td to bear the emperor's soul to heaven. Sharp-sighted
persons had actually beheld the ascension of Augustus (Suet
A MgusL c. 100), and of Brasilia, sister of Caligula. Representa-
tions of a p oth eo se s occur on several works of art; the most im-
portant are theapotheosisof Homer on a relief in the Townlcy col-
lection of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus,
and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre.
la China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are
given out as) men deified for service to the state. This again
may be statecraft. In India, the (still unexplained) rise of the
doctrine of transmigration hindered belief. Apotheosis can
mean nothing to those who bold that a man may be reborn as a
god, bat still needs redemption, and that men on earth may
win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism
itself u ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in
Apotheosis may also be need in wider senses, (0) Some {e.g.
Herbert Spencer) bold that most gods are deified men, and most
myths historical traditions which nave been grotesquely distorted.
This theory is known as Eunemerism (see Euvekekus). It is
needless to say that the attitude of those holding the Euhemeiist
theory is at the farthest pole from belief in apotheosis. Accord-
ing to the latter, some men may become gods. According to
the former, all ends are but men; or, some men have been
erroneously supposed to become gpds, The Euhemerist theory
mainly appeals to ancestor worship— a fact of undoubted
importance j» the history of religion, especially in China and
In India, too, a dead person treated with
wcomea a guardian spirit—if neglected, a
. But whether the great gods of polytheism
were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful, (b) Again,
there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the
founders of religions. Thua mare Chan human honour is
paid to Zoroaster and Buddha and even to the fouadeis of
systems not strictly religious, eg. to.Confudus and Auguste
Comte. It is nc4iceabk that this kind c^ worship U not accorded
in rigkOy monotheistic systems, cvg. to Moses and Mahomet.
Nor is it accurate so speak of apotheosis in cases where the
founder is in his lifetime retarded as the mcamajtion of a god
(cf. AH among Shi'ite Mahommedans; the Bab in Babism; the
Druse Hakim). Most Christians on this ground repudiate the
application of the term to the worshipof Jesus Christ. Curiously,
Aprimns b used by the Latin Christian poet, Prudentius
(e. 400)1 as the title of a poem defending orthodox views on the
person of Christ and other points of doctrine— the affectation
of a decadent age. (c) The worship paid to Saints, in those
Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as
dulia (eovXcfa) from true worship or latria forpeia). Even, the
Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of
Heaven, receives only dnlia or at most kyptrdidia.
(R. G.; R. Ma.)
APPALACHIAn* MDUHTAUlS, the general name given to a
vast -system of elevations in North America, aartly in Canada,
but mostly in the United States, extending as a none, from 100
to 300 m. wide, bom Newfoundland, Gaspe Peninsula and New
Brunswick, 1500 m. south* westward to central Alabama. The
whole system may be divided into three great sections: the
JTsvekm, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the Central,
from the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha),
in Virginia and West Virginia; and the Southern, from New
river onwards. The northern section includes the Shickshock
Mountains and Notre Dame Range in Quebec, scattered eleva-
tions in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green Mountains;
the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the Valley
Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the
Great Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands
and a large portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern con-
sists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range,
and the Valley Ridges adjoining the Cumberland Plateau, with
some lesser ranges.
Tke CkUj Summits.— The Appalachian belt includes, with the
ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the
Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south-eastward to the
border of the coastal plain through the central and southern
Atlantic states; and on the north-west, the Allegheny and-
Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the
interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longi-
tudinal chain of broad valleys— the Great Appalachian Valley —
which, in the southerly sections divides the mountain system
into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west
of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and
separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain
system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion
the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in
the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys
have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits
reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long
Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft In the
Shickshocks the higher summits rise to.about 4000 ft elevation.
In Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200
ft), Mount Washington, in the White Mountains (6203 ft.),
Adams (5805), Jefferson (5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390),
Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269); and a number of summits
rise above 4000 ft In the Green Mountains the highest point,
Mansfield, is 4364 ft; Lincoln (4078)* Killington (4241), Camel
Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft.
The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue
Ridge, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as
South Mountain; attains in that state elevations of about 2000
ft.; southward to the Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m.
beyond again reach 2000 ft In the Virginia Blue Ridge the
following are the highest peaks east of New river: Mount
Weather (about 1850 ft), Mary's Rock (3523)1 Peaks of Otter
(4001 and 5875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In
Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to
about 2000 ft, and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are
conspicuous points reaching 3x62 ft and 2882 ft above the sea.
On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac,
are the Pinnacle (3007 ft) and Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft). In the
southern section of the Blue Ridge are Grandfather Mountain
(5064 ft), with three other summits above 5000, and a dozen
more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black
and Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft,
and eight surpassing 6000 ft In the Black Mountains, Mitchell
(the culminating point of the whole system) attains an altitude
of 67 1 1 ft, Balsam Cone, 6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620,
and Hallback.6403. In the Smoky Mountains we have ding-
man's Peak (66x2), Guyot (6636), Alexander (6447), Leconte
(6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000 and many
higher than 5000.
In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the
master streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The
main watershed follows a tortuous course which crosses the
mountainous belt just north of New river in Virginia; south of
this the rivers head in the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas,
receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and travers-
ing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges, escape by
way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and
Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section
the rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through
208
APPANAGE
great gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-
easterly courses across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrat-
ing the coastal plain; in the northern section the water-parting
lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, the main lines of
drainage running from north to south.
Geology.— The rocks of the Appalachian .belt fall naturally
into two divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including
marbles, schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous
rocks, and a great succession of Paleozoic sediments. The
crystallines are confined to the portion of the belt east of the
Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are always highly meta-
morphosed and occur for the most part in limited patches,
excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume
greater areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded
by granites. The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from
Cambrian to Permian, occupy the Great Valley, the Valley
Ridges and the plateaus still farther west. They are rarely
metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though locally
shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated,
limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous,
are changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to
graphite in Rhode Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of
unimportant dikes of trap. The most striking and uniformly
characteristic geologic feature of the mountains is their internal
structure^ consisting of innumerable parallel, long and narrow
folds, always closely appressed in the eastern part of any cross-
section (Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so along a
central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly
open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus).
Asymmetry of the folds is a marked characteristic in the zones
of closer folding, the anticlines having long gently inclined
easterly limbs, and Short, steep and even overturned limbs
upon the west. The effect of such folds is often exaggerated by
thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in the southern
section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by several
miles has been established.
What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was
formed during the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain
of its elements had been previously outlined, and perhaps at
different dates. Folding of the rocks resulted from the operation
of great compressive forces acting tangentially to the figure of
the earth. Extensive and deep-seated crumpling was necessarily
accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the zone affected,
but once at least since their birth the mountains have been worn
down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the combined
product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and dissection
by erosion. Produced by long-continued subacrial decay and
erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from
the Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America;
since then the whole continent has been generally elevated, and
by successive steps the Appalachian belt has been raised to form
a wide but relatively low arch. The crosswise courses of the
greater rivers result from the rivers being older than the moun-
tains, which indeed have been produced by drcumdenudation.
The master streams of the present have inherited their channels
from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though
raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the
great arch was developed so slowly that these channels could be
maintained through pari passu deepening. Former tributaries
have given place to others developed with reference to the
distribution of more or less easily eroded strata, the present
longitudinal valleys being determined by the out-crop of soft
shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges upheld by
hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges
and intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the-
rocks, but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains
is to be kept distinct from the origin of the mountains as features
of topography.
Flora and Fmww.— Much of the region is covered with forest
yielding quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and
northern New England. The most valuable trees for lumber
are spruce, white pine, hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple
and basswood; all excepting pine and hemlock and poplar in
addition are ground into wood pulp for the manufacture of
paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak and
-hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties
of the former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree
produces a good clear lumber known as white wood or poplar,
and is also a source of pulp. In the south both white and yellow
pine abounds. Many flowering and fruit-bearing shrubs of the
heath family add to the beauty of the mountainous districts,
rhododendron and kalmia often forming impenetrable thickets.
Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx) and wolves
haunt* the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; fuses
abound; deer are found in many district* and moose in the
north.
Influence on History. — For a century the Appalachians were a
barrier to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the
continuity of the system, the bewildering multiplicity of its
succeeding ridges, the tortuous courses and roughness of its
transverse passes, a heavy forest and dense undergrowth all
conspired to hold the settlers on the seaward-sloping plateaus
and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson and Mohawk
valleys, and round about the southern termination of the system
were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these
were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or
Spanish colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley
was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of
South Mountain and the Highlands, and here in the Lebanon
Valley settled German Moravians, whose descendants even now
retain the peculiar patois known as " Pennsylvania Dutch."
These were late comers to the New World forced to the frontier
to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both German
and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and
soon occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper readies of
the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 175s the
obstacle to westward expansion had been thus reduced by half;
outposts of the English colonists had penetrated the Allegheny
and Cumberland plateaus, threatening French monopoly in the
transmontane region, and a conflict became inevitable. Making
common cause against the French to determine the control of
the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the colonists was
revealed, and the successful ending of the French and Indian
War extended England's territory to the Mississippi To tins
strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian
mountains had been a prime contributor. The confinement of
the colonies between an ocean and a mountain wall led to the
fullest occupation of the coastal border of the continent, which
was possible under existing conditions of agriculture, conducing
to a community of purpose, a political and commercial solidarity,
which would not otherwise have been developed. As early as
1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern
Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable vilbuje. In
contrast to this complete industrial occupation, the French
territory was held by a small and very scattered population, its
extent and openness adding materially to the difficulties of a
'disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt of this contest as they did,
the colonies were undergoing preparation for the subsequent
struggle with the home government. Unsupported by « M rr*>fc
the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains
at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the
British. The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were
free for self-defence because debarred from general participation
in the conflict by reason of their position.
See the separate articles on the states, and ako the feflowhig
references:— Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United
Sute» Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, "The Northern Appa-
lachians." and C. W. Hayes, " The Southern Appalachians," both in
National Geographic Monographs, vol. i.; and chaps. Hi. fv. and v.
of MissE, C. Sample's American History and Us Geograpku Conditions
(Boston. 1003). (A.CSr.)
APPAJf AGE, or Apanage (a French word from the late Lat
apanagium, formed from oponore, i.e, panom porrigtrtj to give
bread, i.e. sustenance), in its original sense, the means of
subsistence given by parents to their younger children as distinct
APPAREL— APPARTTtONS
from ike rights secured to the eldest born by the custom' el
primogeniture. In fts modern usage it h practically confined to
the money endowment given to the younger children of reigning
or mediatised houses in Germany and Austria, which reverts
to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of the
line of the original grantee. In English history the system of
appanages never played any great part, and tie term is now
properly applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy
of Cornwall, assigned to the king's eldest son at birth, or on his
lather's accession to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster.
In the history oC France, however, tbe appanage was a very
important factor. The word denotes in very early French law
the portion of lands or money given by fathers and mothers to
their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a
renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may
denote the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and
sisters when he was sole inheritor. The word apanage is still
employed in this sense in French official texts of some Customs;
but it was In old public law that it received its definite meaning
and importance. Under the kings of the third dynasty, the
division of the kingdom among the sons of the dead monarch
which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian
dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown ;
but at the same time a custom was established by which the king
made territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other
children or for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their
being left landless. Lands and lordships thus bestowed con-
stituted the appanages, which interfered so greatly- with the
formation of ancient France. While the persevering policy of
the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great fiefs, duchies,
countsMps, baronies, &c, to the domain of the crown, gradually
reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over
France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted
large portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle
against the appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never
abolished this institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) main-
tained it, as one of the exceptions to the inalienability of the
crown-lands; only it was then decided that daughters of France
should be appanaged in money, or that if, in default of coin,
bnds were assigned to them, these lands should be redeemable
by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to minimise
this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the matter,
resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage
to the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared in-
alienable and transmissible only to male descendants in the
male line of the person appanaged; (a) originally the person
appanaged had possessed all the rights of a duke or count-
that is to say, in the middle ages nearly all the attributes of
sovereignty; the more important of these attributes were now
gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority
over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters.
However, it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April
1771, in favour of the count of Provence, how many functions
of public authority an appanaged person stul held. The
Constituent Assembly, by the law dated the 22nd of November
1700, decided that in future there should be no appanages in
Teal estate, and that younger sons of monarch*, married and
over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly
grants {rentes apanagtres) from the public funds. The laws of the
ijth of August and the 21st of December 1700 revoked all the
existing appanages, except those of the Luxembourg Palace and
the Palais Royal. To each person hitherto appanaged an annual
income of one million litres was assigned, and two millions for the
brothers of the king. All this came to an end with the monarchy.
Napoleon, by the sinatus-cansulte of the 30th of January 1S10,
resolved to create appanages for the emperor's princely descend-
ants, such appanages to consist for the most part of lands on
French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this enact-
ment. The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed
by the house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or
recognized as still existing, by the Restoration, it was formally
confirmed, by the law of the 15th of January 182s- On the
209
ofLouisThffipf»itwaittiriledtoth«i«tioiuUpwpmy
by the law of the and of March 183a.
For appanage in ancient law see the Essai sir Us apanages ea
mfmoae* kutorupus de Itstr 4l*His*tmemi t attributed to Du VaucH
about 1780- (j. p. £.)
APPARBL (from O. Fr. aparaU, aparaiiUr, mod. apparcil, from
Low Lat. adpariadare, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit,
things furnished for the proper performance of anything, now
chiefly used of dress. The word is also applied to the " orphreys,"
fo. embroidered strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments.
APPARITIONS. An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely
an appearance (Lat. appatcre, to appear), the result of perception
exercised on any stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary
usage the word apparition denotes a perception (generally
through the sense of sight) which cannot, as a rule, be shown to
be o c cas ioned by an object in external nature. We say " as a
rule " because many so-called apparitions are merely illusions,
i*. misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a
person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a
hone, and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men
carrying bee-hives suspended from a polo. Again, Sir Walter
Scott's vision of Byron, then lately dead, proved to be a mis-
construction of certain plaids and cloaks hanging in the hall at
Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not discovered
the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted, was an
apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have
thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the
word, a ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood
to be a phantasm produced in some wav by. the spirit of a dead
person, the impression being usually visual, though the ghost,
or apparition, may also affect the sense of hearing (by words,
knocks, whistles, groans and so forth), or the sense of touch,
or of weight, as in the case of the " incubus." In .ordinary
speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient
to be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of
the living. The terms ghost and wraith involve the hypothesis
that the false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the
archaic animistic hypothesis (see Animism), an hypothesis as
difficult to prove as to disprove. Apparitions, of- course, are not
confined to anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom
coaches (sometimes seen, but more frequently heard), of phantom
dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer, and even of phantom houses.
Whatever may be the causes of these and other false percep-
tions,— most curious when the impression is shared by several
witnesses,'— they may best be considered Under the bead of
hallucination (9.*.). Hallucinations may be pathological, ia.
the result of morbid conditions of brain or nerve, of disease, of
fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of the abuse of drugs* Again,
they may be the result of dissociation, or may occur in the
borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they partake
of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (9.?.). Again, hallucina-
tions may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the experience
of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be applied,
of the wide-awake, In such instances the apparition (whether
it take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognised voice, of a
touch, or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental.
The phantasm is called coincidental if it represents a known and
distant person who is later found to have been .dying or in some
other crisis at the moment of the percipient's experience. When
the false perception coincides with- nothing of the sort, it is
styled non-coincidentaL Coincidental apparitions have been
explained by the theory of telepathy (?.t.). one mind or brain
i mpr es sin g another in some unknown way so as to beget an
hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far
as it has been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind
which, on the hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually
does so without conscious effort (see Subliminal Self). There
are, however, a few cases in which the experiment of begetting,
in another, an hallucination from a distance, is said to have been
experimentally and consciously made, with success.
If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be
accepted, we have still to account f or the sow
2IO
APPARITOR— APPEAL
non-coincidental apparitions of the living who do not happen
to be in any particular crisis. In these instances it cannot be
demonstrated that telepathy has not been at work, as when a
person is seen at a place which he thought of visiting, but did
not visit F. W. Myers even upheld a theory of psychorhagy,
holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of manifesting
themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This involves,
as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage
doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, Human
Personality). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths
amon* savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found
among Maoris and Fucgians (see Lang, Making of Religions).
The perception of apparitions of distant but actual scenes and
occurrences is usually called clairvoyance (e.«.). The belief is
also familiar under the name of second sight( see Second Sight),
a term of Scots usage, though the belief in it, and the facts
if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion. The apparitions may
either represent actual persons and places, or may be symbolical,
taking the form of phantasmic b'ghts, coffins, skeletons, shrouds
and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent
things, persons and occurrences of the past (see Retrococni-
tion), or of the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see
Premonition). When the apparitions produce themselves in
given rooms, houses or localities, and are exhibited to various
persons at various times, the locality is popularly said to be
haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the animistic hy-
pothesis (see Haunttngs). Like the other alleged facts, these
are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide,
and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted
place is a centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is
believed to be so. A distinct species of haunting* are those in
which unexplained sounds and movements of objects, apparently
untouched, occur. The German term Poltergeist (q.v.) has been
given to the supposed cause of these occurrences where the
cause fe not ascertained to be sportive imposture. In the per-
formances of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as it
were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium.
An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to
places, but to families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family
death omen, such as the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie
drummer, the spectral rider of Clan GiUean, the rappings of the
Woodde family. These apparitions, with fairies and djinns
(the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland between folk-lore
and psychical research.
So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions,
or with the belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be
reckoned the materialized forms of spiritual stances, which have
a material basis of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the corpus
tile of the medium. It is also possible that mere expectancy
and suggestion induce- hallucinatory perceptions among the
members of the circle. That apparitions of a sort can be induced
by hypnotic and posthypnotic suggestion is certain enough (see
Hypnotism). Savages produce apparitions in similar ways by
suggestion, accompanied by dances, fumigations, darkness,
fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the imaginations of the
onlookers (see Maoic). Both in savage and civilized Kfe, some
persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions
usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously
staring Into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a
piece of polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword
blade, or a glass of sherry (see Crystal Gazing). Indeed any
object, a wall, the palm of the band,the shoulder-blade-bone of a
sheep, may be, and has been used to this end (see Divination).
Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves
to one or other of the categories given, whether they be patho-
logical, coincidental or spontaneous, induced, permanently
localized, or sporadic
See gen e rally. Spiritualism and Psychical Rxskarcm. (A. L.)
APPARITOR, or Afpaxato* (Latin for a servant of a public
official, from apparcre, to attend in public), an attendant who
executed the orders of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a
university, a pursuivant or herald; psrticulady, in English
ecclesiastical courts, the official who nerves the processes of Uwf
court and causes defendants to appear by summons.
APPEAL, in law. In the old English common law the term
" appeal " was used to describe a process peculiar to English
criminal procedure. It was a right of prosecution possessed as a
personal privilege by a party individually aggrieved by a felony,
a privilege of which the crown could not directly or indirectly
deprive him, since he could use it alike when the prisoner was
tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and pardoned.
It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the nearest
relation of a murdered person. When in 2729 (after Colonel
Oglethorpe's inquiry and report on the London prisons) Ban-
bridge and other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of
prisoners, but were acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals
for murder were freely brought by relatives of deceased prisoners.
In the case of Slaughtered (1708) the accused was charged with
murdering a woman whom he had seduced; the evidence was
very imperfect, and he was acquitted on indictment But
public indignation being aroused by the atrocities alleged to
have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on conviction
he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to the
prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a
pardon. In 1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of
battle, since if the appellee were an able-bodied man he had the
choice between combat or a jury (sec Wager.). This neutralizing
of one obsolete and barbarous process by another called the
attention of the legislature to the subject, and appeal in criminal
cases, along with trial by battle, was abolished in 1819. The
history of this appeal is fully dealt with in Pollock and Maitland,
History 0/ English Law, 1898.
In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the
proceeding by which the decision of a court of justice is brought
for review before another tribunal of higher authority. In
Roman jurisprudence it was used in this and in other significa-
tions; it was sometimes equivalent to prosecution, or the calling
up of an accused person before a tribunal where the accuser
appealed to the protection of the magistrate against injustice or
oppression. The derivation from appellors ("call") suggests
that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer against
injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally
supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves out-
raged by injustice threw themselves on popular protection by
pravocatio, instead of looking to redress from a higher official
authority. Under the empire different grades of jurisdiction
were established, and the ultimate remedy was an appeal to
the emperor; thus Paul, when brought before Festus, appealed
unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not heard by the
emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him.
In the Corpus Juris the appeal to the emperor is called in-
discriminately appcllatio and provocatio, A considerable portion
of the 40th book of the Pandects is devoted to appeals; but
little of the practical operation of the system is to be deduced
from the propositions there brought together.
During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals
from the lower to the higher authorities in the church. In
mattersecclcsiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary
and other departments, which the church ever tried to bring
within the operation of the canon law, there were various grades
of appeal, ending with the pope. The claims of the church to
engross appeals in matters trenching on the temporal rights of
princes led to continual conflicts between church and state,
terminated in England at the reformation by the suppression in
1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been discouraged
by legislation of Edward IIL and Richard IL
In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became
customary for ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from
the courts of the crown vassals to themselves as represented by
the supreme judges, and Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit
of having set the example of this system of centralization by
establishing missi dominie L It is not improbable that .his claim
was suggested or justified by the practice of the Roman empire,
to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be successor.
APPEAL
2ii
Atgfauf.— When the royal authority in England grew strong
as against that of the tenants in capite, the king's courts in
England were more effectively organised, and their net swept
wider so as to draw within their cognisance matters previously
adjudged in courts baron or courts leet or in the county court,
and they acquired authority to supervise and review the decisions
of the inferior and local courts, to control and limit their claims
to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes from the local to
the royal courts. The machinery by which this process- was
usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now
known as appeal, but by the process of certiorari or writs of
error or prohibition. Recourse was also hadagainst the decisions
of the royal courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or
to parliament as a whole. The supremacy of the king's courts
over all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely
established since the reign of Henry VIII., and they have
effectually asserted the power to regulate and keep within their
proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the realm. Since
that dale the organisation of judicial tribunals has gradually
been changed and improved with the object (z) of creating a
judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (7) of
ensuring that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated
and rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries
of subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible
uniformity in the judicial interpretation and administration of
the law, by creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose
decisions all other tribunals are bound to conform. It would be
undesirable to detail at length the history of appellate jurisdic-
tion in England, involving as it would the discussion in great
detail of the history and procedure of English law, and it may
suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at present organized,
beginning with the lowest courts.
Justices of the Peace. — The decisions of justices of the peace
sitting as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review
on questions of law only by the High Court of Justice. This
review is in a sense consultative, because it is usually effected by
means of a case voluntarily stated by the justices at the request
of the aggrieved party . in which are set forth the facts as deter-
mined by the justices, the questions of law raised and their
decision thereon, as to the correctness whereof the opinion of the
High Court is invited. The procedure is equally open in criminal
and dvil matters brought before the justices. But when the
justices decline to state a case for the opinion of the High Court,
the latter, if review seems desirable, may order the justices to
state a case. And the High Court has also power to control the
action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case
beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction
where they have improperly declined {mandamus), or bringing
up for review and quashing orders or convictions which they have
made in excess of jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested
or biassed justices have adjudicated {certiorari). None of these
regulative processes exactly corresponds to what is popularly
known as an appeal, but in effect if not in form an appeal is
thus given.
There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of
the term, from the decision of justices sitting as a court of
summary jurisdiction to the justices of the same county sitting
in general or quarter sessions, or in the case of a borough to
the recorder as judge of the borough court of quarter sessions.
This form of appeal is in every case the creation of statute:
and even in text-books it is hardly possible to find a really
complete list of the matters in respect of which snch appeal
ties. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately
general rule, given by § 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act
1879, viz. that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the con-
viction or order of a court of summary jurisdiction directing
imprisonment without the option of a fine as a punishment for
an offence, or for failing to do or to abstain from doing any
act required to be done or left undone other than an order for
the payment of money, or to find sureties or give security or to
enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea of
guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint.
As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions,
appeals of this kind are by way of rehearing, ijt. the actor or
prosecutor must before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses
and prove his case just as if no previous hearing had taken
place before the court appealed from (Pritchard, Quarter Sessions
Practice, snd ed. f 461-). The only limit is that the appellant
must confine himself to the grounds of appeal stated in the notice
«*f appeal given by him.
Justices in Quarter Sessions.— This tribunal has under the
commission of the peace and under statute power to refer
questions of difficulty arising before it for decision to the High
Court The old mode of exercising this power was by sending
on to assises indictments raising difficult questions which had
been presented at quarter sessions. Hie High Court has ex
officio power to transfer sueh indictments where the nature of the
case and the demands of justice caff for such transfer. The
quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an
indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved
(Crown Cases Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act
1007, questions of law which had arisen at the trial, and in all
dvil cases the quarter sessions has power of its own volition
and subject to no direct compulsion to consult the High Court
on legal questions of difficulty which have arisen. Until 1894
this jurisdiction was regarded as consultative only. It was and
is exercised by stating the facts, of which the court of quarter
sessions is the sole judge, and indicating the questions of law
arising on the facts, and the view of quarter sessions thereon,
and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the Judi-
cature Act 1894 esses stated in this way are now treated as
"appeals" in the popular sense.
Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction.— All appeal also
lies as a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a
county court or of any inferior tribunal having dvil jurisdiction.
(a) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a
county court who is dissatisfied with the determination or
direction of the judge in law or equity, or upon the admission or
rejection of any evidence, may appeal against the decision in the
following cases: (1) if the amount of daim or counter-claim in
the proceeding exceeds £20; or (2) in all equity matters or cases
in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in actions to
recover possession of land where questions of title are involved
(County Courts Act 1888, § 120). In the case of a daim below
£20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court.
The old practice of appeal by way of spedal case as in appeals
from justices has been abolished, and the present procedure is by
notice of motion (R.S.C. 0. LIX. rr. 10-18).
These appeals are heard in the king's bench division, except
in the case of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting
in the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by
two or more judges sitting in the probate, divorce and admiralty
division. The chancery division has never sat to hear
" appeals " from a county court exercising equity jurisdiction;
but at times, by prohibition or certiorari, has, in effect, reviewed
or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts in equity
matters.
The dedsion of the High Court on county court appeals is
final unless an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by
leave of that court or of the High Court (Judicature Act 1894,
f x, sub. sect, 5; Judicature Act 1873, § 45)-
(b) Other inferior courts of dvil jurisdiction. Appeals from
the local courts of record which still survive in certain cities,
towns and districts are in a somewhat anomalous 'position. The
general rule is that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, ft
may be brought in the king's bench division of the High Court
on notice of motion in any case in which, before the Judicature
Acts, the court of king's bench could have reviewed the dedsion
of the inferior court by writ of error. The history of this question
is dealt with in Darlow v. Skuttlcwrth, 1902, 1 K.B. 72T.
In the case of the mayor's court of London, under the local
and general statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually
to the king's bench division, but where there is what is termed
"error" on the face of the proceedings of the mayor's court,
212
APPEAL
the appeal lies direct to the court of appeal as successor of the
court of exchequer chamber. Appeals from the Liverpool court
of passage and from the chancery courts of the duchies of
Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of
appeal.
High Court of Justice. — Until the Supreme Court of judicature
Acts of 1873 and 187 s c&mo into operation, the superior courts
in England were imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction
and appeals. The effect of these acts was to create a Supreme
Court of Judicature divided into two main branches, the High
Court of Justice, which is an appellate court with respect to the
inferior courts already mentioned, and to certain other special
courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which is mainly
concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice.
The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court
of consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction
or quarter sessions and to county courts and other inferior
courts of civil jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The
three divisions of the court are somewhat differently placed
with reference to appeals.
In. the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single
judge courts) no appeals arc heard except from subordinate
officials (masters) of the court, or an occasional interference
by certiorari or prohibition with a county court
In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides
the supervision which may be exercised by a singlo judge over
the subordinate officers of the court (registrars), divisional
courts (of two judges) hear appeals from decisions of the county
court in admiralty causes, and appeals from justices, in cases
1*twccn husband and wife under the Summary Jurisdiction
(Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the Licensing Act
1002. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law only as
in the cose of other county court appeals; in the second, the
procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts
as minuted in the court appealed from, and of the law there
applied to these facts.
The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted
In the king's bench division— which, as successor of the old
court of king's bench in the duties of custos morum of the
realm, still retains supervisory power over all inferior courts
in all coses in which that supervision has not been transferred
to the other divisions of the High Court or to the court of appeal,
or to the court of criminal appeal.
The king's bench division, exercises appellate jurisdiction
in the following cases.
With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at
quarter sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except
in the case above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for
the most part of a criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil
jurisdiction of justices being comparatively limited. The
appeal in such cases is as to matters of law only, the justices'
decision on facts not being subject to review.
In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought
by writ of certiorari, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions
to give the judgment challenged is denied in Mo, or in some cases
by writ of habeas corpus, where the appellant .is in custody
under an order of the court appealed from (Judicature Act
1894, S *)• The best example of this is the right of a fugitive
criminal committed for extradition to challenge the legality
of the decision of the committing magistrate by writ of habeas
corpus. Save in cases of wont of jurisdiction or refusal to
exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by consent
of the court appealed from, which states the facts as ascertained
by the inferior court, and invites the review of the superior
court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found.
Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary
jurisdiction are subject to review by a special case in which
the justices state the facts found by them and their decision
on the points of law, and invite .the review of. the appellate
court on these grounds. Such cases for appeal are usually
slated by consent of the justices, but in. the event of their
refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be stated.
Decisions of justices in the exercise of 1
may also be challenged by writ of certiorari as having been
wholly outside their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding
the appellate tribunal may review the evidence taken beJov
so far as to ascertain whether the justices have by an erroneous
finding of fact enabled themselves to assume a jurisdiction
which upon the true facts they did not possess.
Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause
or matter the decision of the High Court is' final. Where it
is in a civil matter a further appeal also lies to the court of
appeal by leave of the High Court or of the court of appeal
(Judicature Act 1873, & 45).
Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal
information or coroner's inquisition, stand on a different fooling
from other appeals.
For many years the question of criminal appeal in general
had been a matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a
bill had been unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of
establishing appeal in criminal cases, and from that time up
to 1006 nearly thirty bills were brought forward with the same
object, but none succeeded in passing. In 180s the question
was referred to the council of judges and favourably reported
upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practi-
cally the only civilized country in which then was no appeal
in criminal cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions
of law arising at the trial. But the procedure was intricate
and technical, being cither (1) by writ of error, issued by the
consent of the attorney-general (expressed by bis fiat), to review
errors of law appearing in the record of the trial, or (2) by special
case, stated by the judge presiding at the trial, with, respect
to a question of law raised at the trial. These appeals were
heard by the king's bench division. Meanwhile there had
been a considerable development of public opinion in favour
of the establishment of criminal appeal, a development
undoubtedly hastened by the report of a committee of inquiry
in the case of Adolf Beck (1904)1 showing clearly that the home
office was not a satisfactory tribunal of final appeal. In 1906
the lord chancellor (Lord Lorcburn) introduced another criminal
appeal bill, which passed the House of Lords, but was dropped
in the House of Commons after a first reading. The next year
the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately
carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this
act a court is established consisting of the lord chief justice
and eight judges of the king's bench division, the jurisdiction
of the court for crown cases reserved being transferred to the
new court. The court to be duly constituted must cqbskI
of not less than three judges and of an uneven number of judges,
The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord chief
justice so directs. Its sittings arc held in London unless special
directions arc given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit
at some other place. The opinion of the majority of those
hearing the case determines any question before the court,
and judgment is pronounced by the president (who is the lord
chief justice or senior member present), unless in questions
of law, when, if it is convenient that separate judgments should
be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be so
pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal
is final, except where the decision involves a point of law of
exceptional public importance, and a certificate must be obtained
from the attorney-general to that effect. The court of criminal
appeal is a superior court of record. An appeal may he made
either against conviction or against sentence. A person convicted
on indictment may appeal cither on a question of law alone
or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law and fact On
a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of appeal,
on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right
of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal
appeal or a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the
prisoner that it is a fit case for appeal. The court is given a
wide discretion as to whether a conviction may be sustained
or set aside. The court may allow the appeal if they think
that the verdict of the jury should be set aside because it is
APPEAL
213
e, or because H cannot be supported having regard
lo the evid en ce, or that the judgment should be set aside
on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or
that on any ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is
given to the court to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no
substantial miscarriage of justice has occurred, even though
they art of opinion that the point raised in the appeal
might be decided in favour of the appellant. The sentence
passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and
such other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted
in law by the verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice
of application for leave to appeal must be given within ten
days of the date of conviction; where a conviction involves
sentence of death or corporal punishment the sentence must
not be executed until after the expiration of ten days, and, if
notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination
of the appeal or the final dkmhwsl of the application for leave
to appeal The act gives the court power to order any witnesses
who would have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend
and be examined before the court, and to receive the evidence,
if tendered, of any witness who is a competent but not com-
pellable witness. If any question arises on the appeal involving
prolonged examination of documents or accounts or any scientific
or local investigation, which the court thinks cannot be con-
veniently conducted before it, the matter may be referred to
a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court
may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit.
An appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing
of his appeal, if he desires it, except where the appeal is on
some ground involving a question of law alone, but rules of court
may provide for his presence in such a case, or the court may give
him leave. The act requires shorthand notes to be taken of
the pr oceedings at the trial of any person, who, if convicted,
would have a right to appeal under the act. Nothing in the act
affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home secretary may,
If he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court of criminal
The Court of Appcal.-~Thc court of appeal, constituted under
the Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the
Supreme Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court
consists of ex officio members and five ordinary members, styled
lords justices of appeal. The ex officio members are the lord
chancellor, every person who has held that office, the lord chief
justice, the master of the rolls, and the president of the probate,
ftc, division.
The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords
justices under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in
1881 ceased to be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act
1881, ft a). The court usually sits in two divisions of three
judges, but on occasion a third court can be formed, with the
— ««— ■«*» of the other ex officio judges, in the absence of the
ordinary judges from illness or public engagements, or to deal
with arrears of business. The quorum for final appeals is three,
for interlocutory appeals two judges.
The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority
exercised (1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by
the lord chancellor and the lords justices of appeal in chancery
(Judicature Act 1873, § *8); {») in the case of common law
matters, by the court of exchequer chamber, as a court of error,
and the superior courts of common law sitting to review the
decisions of single judges of these courts sitting with or without
a jury at first instance in dvil actions; (3) in the case of divorce
or probate causes by the full court of divorce (Judicature Act
riStt I 9); U) hi the case of admiralty causes by the king in
council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in
the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the
king's bench division (Judicature Act x8oo, ft 1).
The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any
criminal cause or matter, but was able to review by writ of error
decisions of the king's bench division in such cases, unless the
court for crown cases reserved had dealt with the question
under the Crown Cases Act 1848. This procedure has been
abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907. Instances of
procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth notice
are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of
perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the
indictment against him for publishing the Fruit* of Philosophy.
The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised
entitles the court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every
judgment or decree of every division of the High Court in all
dvil cases in which such judgment is not declared final by
statute; (2) applications for a new trial in dvil cases tried in
the king's bench division by judge and jury which, until 1800,
were dealt with by two or more judges in that division; (3)
appeals in matters of dvil practice and procedure from decisions
of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1804, were dealt with
in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals
from the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham
Act 1889) and Lancaster (act of 1890, c 33) and the Liverpool
court of passage (Anderson v. Dean, 1804, a Q.B. a 2 2), and on
error in a record of the mayor's court of London (Le Blanche v.
Hcaton Telegram Co., 1876, x Ex.D. 408); and from county
courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts and Workmen's
Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from
decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and
Canal Traffic Act 188S).
The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the
lord chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court
is for the most part original and not appellate.
The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is exduded or limited
in the following cases: — (1) judgments of the High Court— (a)
where its jurisdiction is consultative only; (b) where there is an
appeal to the High Court from an inferior court of dvil jurisdic-
tion; (c) where there is an appeal to the High Court from any
court of person, unless in cases (b) and (c) leave be obtained
of the court by which the order is made, or of the court of appeal;
(a) orders of the High Court in registration and election cases
except with the like leave; (3) orders made by consent of parties,
or as to costs only which by law are left to the discretion of the
court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in ft x of
the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1804, except
by leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal
(5) orders of the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal
from which lies to His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision
of any court whose jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court
is declared by statute to be final; (7) matters which from their
nature were not appealable to any court before the Judicature
Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no means of enforcing
or executing its judgment For example, it was held in the
House of Lords, in Cox v. Hakes, 1800, 15 A.C 506, that no
appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under
a writ of habeas corpus. " If," said Lord Herschell, " the conten-
tion of the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a
grave constitutional change "; and later, " if " the High Court
" has inherited the combined powers of the courts whose functions
were transferred to it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or
authority to review a discharge by a competent court under a
writ of habeas corpus, or to enforce the arrest of one thus freed
from custody ... it seems to me to follow, that however wrong
the court of appeal 'might think a discharge to have been, it
would have been powerless to order a- rearrest, or at least to
enforce such an order."
The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules
of the Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals
from a final judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent
to a smaller quorum, must be beard by three judges) and an
appeal from an interlocutory order (which may be determined
by two judges of the court of appeal).
In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory " judg-
ment," or from an order, induding applications for a new trial,
the appeal must be brought within three months from the time
when the judgment or order is signed, entered or otherwise
perfected, or in the case of refusal of an application from the
date of refusal. The appeal U by notice of motion, which
214
APPEAL
except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state
the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days' notice of the
motion must be given by the appellant to the other party, the
respondent.
In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a
final order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an
action, or from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be
brought within fourteen days by motion, of which four dear
days' notice must be given by the appellant to all parties directly
affected by the appeal. Controversies have arisen as to the
meaning of the term " interlocutory," which (in the absence of
any authoritative definition) the court of appeal settles as they
arise. The test most generally accepted is that a judgment or
order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the rights of the
parties in a manner equally conclusive between them.' The
court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be
brought after the time above limited. The respondent may by
proper notice bring a cross appeal against any portion of the
judgment or order made below with which he is dissatisfied.
The court has power to order the appellant to find security for
the costs of an appeal, if special circumstances, such as in-
solvency or poverty or foreign domicile or the like, make the
giving of security desirable. The court of appeal " rehears "
the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a
new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented
below; and it is content with the judges' notes, or a transcript
of the evidence given below, and with a note or transcript of the
judgment appealed from, but has power on special grounds to
receive fresh evidence either viva voce or on affidavit. The court
may call in for its assistance assessors who are experts on the
matters of fact or science involved in the appeal, and usually
does so in cases arising out of collisions at sea.
The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just
as to the costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except
possibly in the case of certain appeals in matters on the crown
aide of the High Court, as to which some doubt still exists. In
practice the costs follow the event, unless the court in a particular
case makes an order to the contrary.
A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from
the High Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal
to the House of Lords (5 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in
divorce appeals, except where the decision either is upon the
grant or refusal of a decree for dissolution or nullity of marriage,
or for a declaration of legitimacy, or is upon any question of law
on which the court gives leave to appeal (Supreme Court of
Judicature Act 1881, § 9); but no further appeal to the House
of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on appeals
from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county
courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right
of appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House
of Lords.
The House of Lords.— The House of Lords lias for centuries
been the court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal
from the chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the
appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly
of that partly feudal and partly popular character already
alluded to, which made the suitor seek from the high court of
parliament the justice denied elsewhere in the baronial courts or
by the king's judges. The lords exercised the mixed function of
jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on impeachment,
might be influenced by private or party considerations, debating
and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution
was silently accomplished, however, by which the function of
reviewing the decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers
raised to the peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended
to give the sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the
House has always had the right to invoke the assistance of the
judges of the superior courts to advise on the questions of law
raised by an appeal. The letters and memoirs, so late as Queen
Anne's reign, show that party or personal influence and per*
suasion were employed to procure votes on appeals, as they have
been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last
Instance probably In which a strong division of opinion w*»
manifested among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated
Douglas cause in 1769, when the House was addressed by the
dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but was led by the authoritative
opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of the evidence— an
opinion which was treated rather as that of a political partisan
than of a judge. The case of Daniel O'Connell and others,
brought up on writ of error from the queen's bench in Ireland
in 1844, may be said to have finally established the precedent
that the judgments of the House of Lords were to be given solely
by the law lords. On that occasion there was a difference of
opinion among the law lords themselves. The judgment of the
majority of the House was strongly against the political feeling
of the government and of the peers as a body, while the law lords
who carried the decision had been appointed by previous govern-
ments opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But all these
temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members wen
resisted.
By § 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the
House of Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but
this section was repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.
Under that act and an amending act of 1887, the appellate
business of the House of Lords is conducted solely by the law
lords, though lay peers may still sit (Bradlougk v. Clarke, 188 a,
8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard or determined
except in the presence of not less than three of the following
persons: — (x) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal, four
of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who
hold, or have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appoint*
ment, have been in practice for not less than fifteen years as
barristers in England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland;
(3) such peers of parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial
office. By " high judicial office " is meant the office of lord
chancellor of Great Britain or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary,
paid judge of the judicial committee or member of that com-
mittee, or judge of one of the superior courts of Great Britain
or Ireland.
An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or
judgment of the court of appeal in England except as above
stated; (a) from a judgment or order of any court in Scotland
or Ireland from which error or an appeal to the House of Lords
lay by common law or statute immediately before the 1st of
November 1876. No appeals are heard from the decision of
courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an indirect
power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or
Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted
(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, & it). The procedure on
appeals is regulated by standing orders of the House. The
proceedings are commenced by petition of appeal, which must
be lodged with the clerk of the parliaments within one year from
the date of the last judgment it appealed from. Security for
costs (£>oo) must be given by bond or lodgment of the money,
unless dispensed with by the House on the ground of poverty
(act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and
certified by counsel, containing a resume' of the matters to be
discussed and of the contentions for or against the allowance of
theappeal. The hearing is before three or more law lords, who may
call in nautical assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894).
It is not public in the full sense of the term, as persons not con-
cerned in the appeal can attend only by consent oi the House.
The House pronounces the judgment which in the opinion of the
majority of the law lords should have been pronounced below,
and has jurisdiction in the case of all appeals to give or refute
costs to the successful party. The costs of the appeal if given
are taxed by the officers of the House. The jurisdiction as to
costs does not directly arise under any statute (see West Ham
Guardians v. Bethnal Green ChurcMwardens, 1806, A.C. 477)*
Appeals to Ike King in Council.— The decisions of ecclesiastical
courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and
the decisions of courts in the king's dominions outside the
United Kingdom, and of courts 1a foreign countries set up under
the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, cannot be dealt with by the
APPEAL
215
Bouse ol Lords or Any of the ordinary tribunals of any part of
the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by the court
of king's bench in England to control the courts of Ireland has
lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited
to the grant of the writ of habeas corpus to a possession in which
no court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like
effect (Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British posses-
sions, the appeal to the king in council is in its origin and nature
hke that of the provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the
royal prerogative to admit appeals. With the growth of the
British empire it has been found necessary to create a com-
paratively constant and stable tribunal to advise the king in
the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose the judicial
committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In 1851,
and again in 1870, it was reorganized! and by acts of 1876,
1887 and 1898 it received its present form. The committee
ronsitts of the president of the council, and of the following
persons, if privy councillors— the lord chancellor and ex-
chancellors of Great Britain and of Ireland, the four lords of
appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of appeal in England or
retired lords justices of appeal in England, and persons who
hold or have held the office (a) of judge of the High Court of
Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the
court of session in Scotland; (6) any person who is or has been
chief justice or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a
superior court of any province of Canada, of any of the Australian
states (except Fiji and Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape
of Good Hope or Natal. The number of persons of this class
who may be members at once is limited to five (1805, c 44);
(<) provision is also made for the payment of two privy councillors
who have been judges in India who attend the privy council.
Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum
is three. One or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually
attend at twzy hearing, but the composition of the committee
is very fluctuating. Appeals from the British dominions abroad
he in criminal as well as dvil matters. The right of appeal is
regulated as to most possessions by order in council, and in some
cases is limited by imperial or colonial statute. Appeals are on
fact as well as on law, but the committee rarely if ever disturbs
the concurrent judgments on facts of two colonial courts. In
the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or consular courts,
naval assessors may be called in. The committee also hears
(with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from ecclesiastical
courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a
report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members
sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members
present are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders
in council dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction
as to the payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to
be taken in the colonial courts.
The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on
appeals to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice
existed however up to the end of 1008, and new rules were
then being proposed on the subject. The appeal is commenced
by a petition of appeal, and by the givmg of security for costs. In
colonial appeals printed cases are lodged containing a summary
of the contentions of the parties, and with tinse printed copy of
the record of the proceedings and documents- used in the courts
appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber
and is not public When an appeal is called on, the counsel and
parties are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments
are concluded they are requested to retire. The appeals to the
king in council from colonial states having a federal constitution,
like Canada and Australia, stand in an exceptional position.
The act creating the Supreme Court of Canada purports to make
the decision of that court final. But it is still the practice to
admit by special leave a prerogative appeal from the court, and
to entertain appeals from courts of the provinces of Canada
direct to the king in council, without requiring them to go to
the Supreme Court. The constitution of the Australian Common-
wealth contemplates (§73) the possibility of restricting appeals
to the king in council from the supreme courts of Australia,
and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by
leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court
on any question however arising as to the limits inter se of the
constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any
state or states, or as to the limits inter se of the constitutional
powers of any two. or more states. The exact effect of these
enactments and of Australian legislation under § 73 is a matter
of controversy.
Scotland. — In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for
decisions of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court
of session, which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions.
Appeals from inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the
judges of the court of session sitting in the High Court of
Justiciary. The court of session was in its original constitution
a committee of parliament for the performance of its judicial
functions, and an appeal to parliament was consequently
anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts
grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made
to have their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was
strictly of the old character of a cry for protection against
flagrant injustice. It was called a " protest for remeid of law,"
and was inserted as one of the national claims in the Petition of
Right at the revolution. The treaty of union is silent as to
appeals, though definitely excluding the right of English courts
to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House of Lords
has since the Union acted without challenge as the final appellate
tribunal for Scotland in dvil causes; but has always declined
jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases.
Ireland.— The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts
have remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on
the same lines as those of England. The High Court of Justice
in Ireland now consists of two divisions only, the chancery
division, which has little or no appellate functions, and the
king's bench division, which has for Ireland substantially the
same power of reviewing and correcting the decisions of inferior
courts as has the corresponding court in England. To this there
is one exception, that appeals from a county court in Ireland
may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assise. In Ireland
there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction
and procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court
of appeal.
Prance.— The court of last resort in France for all cases,
whether civil or criminal (en maiiere criminelle, correctionneUe
et de police) f is the cow do cassation, which sits in Paris. It is a
court of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last
resort (except juges de pais in certain cases), and for the transfer
of causes from one court to another when justice so demands,
and to determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1700).
Ordinarily it is confined to errors of law and procedure, but
where evidence not available below is brought before the court, it
may send the case back for retrial or give the appropriate final
judgment, as in the case of Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals
from courts martial.
Next to the cow de cassation are the courts of appeal, which
have jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in dvil matters from courts
of first instance, jutes de pais, and where the amount in dispute
exceeds £60 from commercial courts, tribunaux de commerce
(Civil Proc Code, arts. 443-475); (2) in criminal matters from
tribunaux correcHonnds (Com. Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The
appeal is both on fact and on law, and applies to interlocutory or
preparatory as well as to final judgments.
Spain.— In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference
to appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards dvil
matters it is regulated by title si of the Civil Procedure Code.
The appeal to the supreme court is for the most part on questions
of law (per infraccien de ley de doctrine); but the court has
also power to review judgments on materials not available at
the first hearing (arts. 1706, 1801).
British India.— In British India complete and systematic
provision is made for appeals both in dvil and in criminal cases
by the Procedure Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amend-
ments, and Criminal of 1898), and also to some extent by the
2l6
APPEAL
charter* of the Ugh courts of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
(see Ubert, Government of India, Oxford, x8o8, p. 137). In
addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised
by a superior tribunal propria motu, or reviewed in a proper case
by the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made
for the consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases
of legal difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals
has been criticized. But with an enormous population which
has no representative institutions it has been deemed wise to
provide ample means of correcting judicial errors at the instance
not only of the aggrieved person but also at the instance of the
supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring regularity
and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by subordinate
judges in out-of-the-way districts.
Cml Appeals.— {i) Except where otherwise expressly pro-
vided by the Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the
time being in force, an appeal lies from the whole or part of any
decree, whether made ex parte or inter porta, of a court exercis-
ing original jurisdiction (Civil Procedure Code, § 540). By
" decree " is meant the final expression of an adjudication upon
a right claimed or defence set up in a civil court, when such
adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing it, decides
the suit {% 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The
procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c 41 of the Civil
Procedure Code, and the directions of the code deal even with
the language of the judgment on appeal and the matters to be
stated therein. (2) Decrees passed on an appeal to any court in
India subordinate to a High Court are as a general rule subject
to appeal to the High Court on the grounds (a) that they are
contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force of law;
(6) that they have failed to determine some material issue of law,
or usage having the force of law; (c) of substantial error or defect
in procedure prescribed by the code or other law, which might
possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case
upon the merits (| 584). The procedure on these appeals is
regulated bye. 43 of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from
orders which do not faH within the definition of decrees are
allowed in the cases specified in § 588 of the code. The procedure
with respect to these appeals is on the same lines as that on
appeals against decrees (J 500). Provision is made (by c. 44)
for allowing appeals in forma pauperis after certain preliminary
inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision of
one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision
has effect as a judgment of the full court Appeals, in civil
cases, from the courts of India to the king in council are
regulated by c. 45 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appealable
amount is for most cases Rs.10,000 or a claim or question as
to property of like amount.
Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts
have power in certain contingencies to review their own decisions
(5 613) . An inferior court may also refer cases of difficulty to the
High Court on a statement of the facts as found in the referring
court and of the opinion thereon of that court <§§ 617-620);
and in cases in which no appeal lies to the High Court, that court
may call for the record of any case in which the court below
appears to have acted without jurisdiction or failed to exercise
its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its jurisdiction illegally or
with material illegality ({623).
Criminal Matters.— Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised
by magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions
courts, and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or
provinces (Criminal Procedure Code of x 808). The higher judges
in a district have the power of revising those decisions which
are not absolutely summary of the judges of the classes below
them in the same district; «.*. the sessions judge can revise the
decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High Court those
of a sessions judge (| 435). Inferior tribunals can also refer
questions of law to the High Court (§| 43*, 433); and where a
sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the
jury (f 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court.
On matters of reference or revision the parties have no right to
be heard.
Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code.
Appeals from second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with
by the district (first-class) magistrate (§407). Persons con-
victed on trial by assistant sessions judges or first-class magis-
trates, except in cases where the punishment is very small, have
an appeal to the sessions judge (|$ 408, 413). A person convicted
on trial by the sessions judge has an appeal to the High Court
(5 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the only point on which
appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence (f 41*)-
Spedal provision is made as to appeals by persons born in
Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (f f 408,
41 S, and c. 33).
In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in
council in certain cases provided for by the charters of the
chartered high courts (see Dbert, Government of India, Oxford,
1898, p. 137).
An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British
officers in feudatory states of India to a high court in India,
and from the courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa
to the High Court of Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts
of native states to British courts in India, though in some cases
there is an appeal of a political rather than judicial nature from
the judicial tribunals of feudatory states; e.g. in the case of
Kathiawar (Hemehand Derchand v. Atom Sakarlal; 1906. L.R.
A.C. 212).
Canada.— In Canada each province has the regulation of its
own courts of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized,
under the Provincial Judicature Acts, in much the same manner
as in England; and the review of decisions of inferior courts <by
appeal or other proceedings based on English practice) is in the
hands of the High Court of Justice, subject to appeal to the
provincial court of appeal In Quebec the highest court (king's
bench) , besides its original" jurisdiction, has appellate jurisdiction
over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code, art.
1114 et $eq.). The jurisdiction is exerdsed by writ of error or
by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from.
The judges of the superior court have also, under art 404, power
to review before three judges decisions of a judge of that court
or of a circuit court (arts. 404-504). Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, Manitoba and British Columbia have supreme courts
with appellate authority over decisions of single judges of the
court and over inferior tribunals in the province. Appeals lie
from the highest courts of each province, in dvil matters, to the
Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases
falling within the orders in council applying to each province,
but in criminal matters to the king in council. From the
Supreme Court of Canada no appeal lies as of right to the kins;
in council (Dominion Act 1875, 38 Vic. c. 1 x, § 47), and the royal
prerogative of granting special leave to appeal is sparingly exer-
cised. The principles on which the judicial committee acts in
advising for or against the grant of special leave in civil esses
are stated in Daily Telegraph Newspaper Co. v. M'Lamt****
1004, L.R. AX. 776. It is, however, as before, quite common
for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from
the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see
Wheeler, Prisy Council Law, p. 955).
Australia.— Each of 'the states of the Australian Common-
wealth has its own supreme court. The Commonwealth parlia-
ment constituted in 1903 a High Court for Australia, which,
besides its original federal jurisdiction, is also s court of appeal
from the supreme courts of the constitutional states, or from any
state court from which an appeal Uy to the king in council at
the establishment of the Commonwealth. The jurisdiction of the
court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1003, by which it is
created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal and
civil matters.
South Africa.— In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts
are the supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases
to the king in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are
empowered to review the proceedings of all inferior courts in
the colony and its dependencies in cases where no appeal lies.
TUre was* fw a time an appeal from the High Court of Osage
APPEARANCE— APPENDICITIS
River Colony to the supreme court of the Transvaal, awl from
that court (whether acting for its own colony or on appeal from
the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council. In other
colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less closely
the lines of English Jaw and procedure as to appeals, and in all
cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council.
United States.— In the American courts the term " appeal "
covers (i) a removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on
all the questions of law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points
of law only by proceedings in error, for revision by a higher court.
Decrees in admiralty, bankruptcy and equity, in the federal
courts, are the subjects of an appeal; judgments in actions at
law, of a writ of error. On an equity appeal the evidence taken
at the original hearing is reported at length to the appellate court,
and it has the right to review the conclusions of fact reached by
the court below and come to different ones. This, however, is
seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on points of
law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original
hearing In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by
the trial court arc specially set forth, and arc final.
" Appeal " in many of the states is the general term for
reviewing any judgment of an inferior court on assignments of
error. It is also often used to signify a mode of reviewing pro-
ceedings of municipal bodies, affecting the interests of particular
persons, e.g. in matters of licences or assessments.
In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points
of law, is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant,
and often to the state. (United States v. Sangcs, 144 United
States Reports, 310; State v. Lee, 05 Connecticut Reports, 265.)
By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court
b vested with " appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact,
with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress
shall make." This provision is held not to.crcate but only to
authorize the creation of the jurisdiction. In the words of
Chancellor Kent, " If congress had not provided any rule to
regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court could not exercise
an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be provided, the court
could not depart from it." In pursuance of this principle, the
Supreme Court decided in Clarke v. Basadone that a writ of error
did not lie to that court from a court of the United States territory
north- west of the Ohio, because the act had not authorized an
appeal or writ of error from such a court (Commentaries t i. 324).
The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by title
13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873),
f | 690-7x0; and by the acts enumerated at p. 001 of the Revised
Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the
Supreme Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a
state of the Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided
against the validity of a treaty or statute of the United States,
or of an authority exercised under the United States; (2) where
a state court has affirmed the validity of a statute, or of an
authority exercised which has been challenged on the ground of
repugnance to the constitution, laws or treaties of the United
States; (3) where the state court has decided against the
existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed or set
up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty,
commission or authority of the United States.
The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, uc. on law
only; and applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The
Supreme Court will not act unless the federal question was
raised in the court below (C/ticago U. S. Mail Co. v. McGuire,
1004, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit court of appeals, established
in 189 1, deals with appeals from the district and circuit courts of
the United States, except where other provision is made, e.g.
where the jurisdiction of the court appealed from is in question;
in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes (U.S. Statutes,
189 1, c. 54, f 5) ; in cases involving the construction or application
of the constitution; in cases arising in district or circuit courts
involving the constitutional questions already stated as subject
of appeal from state courts.
The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by
appeal or by writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain
217
I to the Supreme Court
exceptions but wkh power to certify c
for instructions (1891, c. 51 x, & 6).
The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court
of appeals within the limits above stated, and appeals from
the circuit and district courts in cases in which an appeal
does not lie to the circuit court of appeals, and has power
to issue a certiorari to transfer a case from the circuit court of
Appeals. (W. F- C)
APPEARANCE (from Lat. opparcre, to appear), in law, the
coming into court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal
act by which a defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of
the court. The defendant in an action in the High Court of
England enters his appearance to the writ of summons by
delivering, either at the central office of the Supreme Court, or
a district registry, a written memorandum cither giving bis
solicitor's name or stating that he defends in person. He must
also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance, which ought,
according to the time limited by the writ, to be within eight
days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time
before judgment The Rules of the Supreme Court, orders xii.
and xiiL, regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of
an appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting
aside and the general effect of default of appearance. In
county courts there is no appearance other than the coming
into court of the parries to the suit In criminal cases the
accused appears in person. In civil cases infants appear by
their .guardians ad litem; lunatics by their committee; com-
panies by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee or other
officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof.
APPENDICITIS, the modern medical term for inflammation
of that part of the intestine which is known as the " appendix."
Though not a new disease, there can be no doubt that it is far
commoner than it used to be, though the explanation of this
increased frequency is not yet forthcoming. Amongst the
virulent micro-organisms associated with the disease no one
specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked that
the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may
be connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters.
Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn,
tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set
up inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of
mortification with perforation of the appendix is caused by the
presence of a hard faecal concretion, or " stercolith," which from
its size, shape and appearance has been mistaken by a casual
observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone.
Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of
appendicitis, the disease is now better understood and more
promptly recognized. It was formerly included under the term
" perityphlitis "—that is, inflammation connected with the
caecum or blind portion of the large intestine. But in the vast
majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix, not
in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localised
peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general.
Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old,
and in boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a
strange predisposition towards it It is often started by a chill,
or by over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or
strain, or some other direct injury, after which the virulent
micro-organisms seize on the mucous membrane and involve the
appendix in acute inflammation.
The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill,
with an average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point,
and from its worm-like shape is called vermi/ormis. It is an
appendage of the large intestine, into which it opens, add is
regarded as the degenerate relic, surviving in man and other
mammals, of an earlier form of intestine. Foreign bodies passing
down the intestinal canal may find their way into the appendix
and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found
blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as
nuts, fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated
substances; inflammation may occur, however, without the
presence of any impacted material. The appendix may bo
218
APPENDICITIS
twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated, or its orifice may be
blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus which can find
no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant origin
may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to
spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the
affection and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary
from " indigestion," and slight pain and sickness, which pass off
in a few short days, to an exceedingly violent illness, which may
cause death in a few hours. Pain is usually first felt in the
belly, low down on the right side or across the region of the
nave); sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other times it is
scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature
rising to ioi° or 102° F., with nausea, and very likely with
vomiting. The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness
may be referred to the spot mentioned above. Some swelling
may also be made out in that region. The attack may last for
two, three or four days, and then subside. There arc, however,
other cases less well defined, in which the mischief pursues a
latent course, producing little more than a vague abdominal
uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent stage. In
some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for months
or even for years.
On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three
classes— catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying— but in actual
practice this is neither desirable
nor possible. Such classification
is based upon the symptoms, and
in appendicitis symptoms may be
actually misleading. The three
conditions to which the surgeon
chiefly looks for guidance are
the aspect of the patient, the
' rate of his pulse and the degree
of fever as shown by the ther-
mometer. But in certain cases
of appendicitis, though the sur-
geon knows intuitively, or, at
least, suspects, that the general
condition is extremely serious,
the patient looks fairly well and
Large Intestine showing Ver- say, that he is not in pain, his
Caelum (d?* iv ' a) and pulse-rate being but little quick-
ened and his temperature being
but slightly above normal. Nevertheless, when the surgeon
has opened the belly in the appendix region, he finds the
appendix swollen, perforated and mortified, and lying in a
stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has already spread to
the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately, the surgeon
can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation in
some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any
particular case is going to run.
We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are
likely to be found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and
as they may be observed by one who is not a member of the
medical profession, in a way that may prove helpful to him when
circumstances have awakened his interest in the disease.
The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already
stated, boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy
has had, may be, occasional attacks of " indigestion " which
have duly passed away under the influence of aperient medicines,
and, being heated at play, he has sat down upon the cold ground.
Or he has got wet through or over-tired during a long walk or
ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been suddenly lowered,
and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have seized upon
the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts, and
if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after,
for the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by
the local inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief,
however, and probably he begins to complain of pains in his
head as well as in his abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of
shivering— the result of disturbance of his general nervous
system. By this time he may be attacked with intense pain in
the part of his abdomen a little above the middle of the right
groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness, and a feeling
of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of the
finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he
probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time
he may look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious.
If the clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index
may rise a degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal,
and his pulse may be quickened to oo or ico beats a minute.
Perhaps it is a good deal quicker than this. Later, the skin of
the lower part of the right side of the abdomen may be flushed
or reddened.
This clinical picture leaves no^oom for doubt. The boy has
an attack of acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it
be that the symptoms have come on quickly, and that the
affection is not more than ten or twelve hours old; no one can
tell precisely what course the disease is going to run. It may be
that with rest in bed, constant fomentations, and absolute
starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just as
likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms
will go from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail
to rescue the boy from a general peritonitis which may end
fatally. But at present, so-far as one can tell, the disease is still
limited to the appendix. And what, at this moment, is the best
line of treatment? Some practitioners would answer — "Let
the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week or ten days,
when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for statistics
show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval the
results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute
stage the outlook is not so bright." This is quite right. But
one cannot be sure that the " quiet interval " will ever arrive.
The case in question may be one of those which rapidly go on
from bad to worse, and mortification and perforation of the
appendix having taken place over some hard faecal concretion,
general peritonitis is inevitable, with distension of the bowel and
hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain that the attack of
appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it would be
wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack is,
indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing
appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable.
Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction
the disease will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is
for the greatest good in the greatest number of cases that the
inflamed appendix be removed by operation whilst the disease
is still limited to the appendix. It is highly probable that if
every available hospital surgeon were asked if he had ever had
cause to regret having advised early operation in a case of
appendicitis the answer would be " No "; on the other hand,
every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay had
been followed by disaster — which an early resort to operation
would, in all probability, have prevented.
If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the
symptoms, as a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression
becomes more anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the
paralysed intestine causes an increase in the abdominal disten-
sion, so that the patient lies with his knees drawn up. The
vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 1 20 or 140 a minute,
and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104 F. The swelling and
tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and if the
abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into
the general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed
in profuse sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely
to follow within two days, the result of blood-poisoning and
exhaustion.
Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis.— Some cases of appendi-
citis run a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps,
than those of " indigestion " and nausea, with a feeling of general
discomfort in the abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness.
The attack may be preceded or accompanied by constipation.
The administration of a mild aperient or an enema, rest,
starvation and fomentation will probably put matters right
again— at any rate for a time.
APPENDICITIS
219
This form of the disease may be doe to the pretence of
" bolted/' unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the
large intestine into which the appends opens. And these mild
recurrent attacks may sometimes be got rid of altogether by
having the teeth put in order, and by inducing the individual
to choose his food with discretion, to chew it carefully, to take*
his meals regularly and to eat slowly.
Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of
the acute septic form of the disease described above, though
there is no telling that one of them may not develop into the
acute form. Some of the mild attacks are due to a kink in the
appendix, or to some other condition which temporarily prevents
the secretions of the appendix from finding their way into the
targe intestine. Others of them are caused by a passing catarrhal
inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a distant
resemblance to a recurring " sore throat"
After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient
would be well advised to have his appendix removed when it has
once more got into the " quiet stage." Experience abundantly
shows that the operation can then be performed with but slight
disturbance of the patient, and with the smallest possible amount
of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix has been removed
he is never safe.
In the chronic form of the disease though the patient is never
desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and dis-
comfort in the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea,
with " indigestion," as he may call it And as one can never tell
when the smouldering inflammation may break out into con-
flagration, he is well advised to submit himself to operation
without further delay. To carry about a diseased appendix is to
run the constant risk of being laid up at a time most inconvenient,
as when travelling or when staying in some place where skilled
assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But having
made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed,
the patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having
undergone a week's careful training for the ordeal, can safely
count on being back at work again in a month or six weeks'
time.
As regards treatment, the greatest safety consists in the prompt
removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if- the
operation can be done In the first or second day of even an acute
attack, the result b generally favourable — that is to say, if the
appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up
within its tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation,
or mortification, may have taken place over a hard faecal
concretion within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours,
and, the septic germs having been let loose, peritonitis may
have already set in, and operation may be followed by dis-
appointment Still, if the case had been left unopcrated on,
no other result could have been expected. It was not to the
operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity
must be attributed.
Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting
off the area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring
coils of intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues
to build themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the
abscess cavity. But in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier
being formed for limiting the area of disturbance. In such a
case it is inevitable that disappointment must result from the
surgeon delaying operation in the hope that delimitation might
take place. And when at last he makes his incision he sees that
the disease has had so long a start that his own chance of success
is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the influence of
rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic and of
relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose
his own time for operating. Bu t when the sy mptoms are steadily
increasing in severity he should urge an immediate incision.
When, as often happens, the inflammation begins suddenly and
severely, and, under the influence of treatment, steadily quiets
down, the surgeon does well to delay operation. But in a fort-
night or so, when everything has become once more quiet, he
wul urge the removal of the appendix, for tijis one attack b
more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the
diseased appendix is left
The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the
pulse, and the temperature of the patient fail, to give warning
of a very advanced state of disease. Every surgeon of experience
has met with cases in which, though there is nothing pointing
to the fact that the patient b on, the brink of a disaster, the
operation has shown that the appendix b mortified, and that it
is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is then that he
regrets not having operated a day or two earlier. Consequently
it b a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In cases in
which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed
off under palliative treatment, there b no need for immediate
operation; the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But
in cases in which there b " no history," and in which the surgeon
has nothing to guide him, the greatest safety b in prompt
operation.
If an attack of acute appendicitb b allowed to take its course
unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the
region of the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily
glued the intestines together around that area, the pus is confined
within definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the
demand for its evacuation becomes urgent The pus, under the
influence of a natural law, seeks its escape by the path of least
resistance; sometimes this b into the intestine, and occasionally
into the bladder. The most satisfactory course which it can take
is through the wall of the abdomen and out above the right groin.
As it b making its way in thb direction the skin over that part
becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the tissues between it
and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is fluctuation
to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to the
surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin,
and the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to tbe
relief of the patient But long before thb could happen the
surgeon should have made an incision through tbe inflamed
tissues in order to give nature some greatly needed help. For
in many cases she allows the pus blindly to discover that the
course of least resistance b not towards the surface of the
abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by the
adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity*
This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient,
so that he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has
nearly gone. But though hb temperature may fall, his pulse b
apt to quicken— an ominous coupling of symptoms; the para-
lysed bowels become further distended, so that the brags are
pressed upon and breathing b embarrassed; hiccough comes on;
and whether operation b now resorted to or not, a fatal end is
highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pas finds its way
up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base of the
lungs.
If operation b performed when appendicitb has run on to
the formation of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents
itself, it should of course be removed; but if it does not present
itself the surg.xm should abstain from making a determined
search for it, as in so doing he may break down the barrier which
nature has provided, and thus himself become the means of
spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he attempt to make
dean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do b to provide
for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do
extremely well with incision and drainage, and in tbe subsequent
healing of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either under-
goes disintegration or b rendered harmless for further anxiety.
In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a
smouldering ember, ready at any moment to cause further con-
flagration. This b made manifest by lingering pains, and by
tenderness and warnings after the abscess has healed, and the
patient will be well advised to have what b left of tbe appendix
removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The operation,
however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes
the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature
or by art, refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal
odour continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a
220
APPENDICULATA— APPENZELL
faecal fistula, and a bent probe passed along it would probably
find its way into the bowel. The wound is likely to dose of itself
in due course; but if after many weeks of disappointment it
still continues to discharge, the surgeon may advise an operation
for its obliteration.
It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the
wound in the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from
within, and a bulging of the intestines beneath the skin occurs.
This is called a ventral hernia, and if the patient cannot be made
comfortable by wearing a truss with a large flat pad, an operation
may be deemed advisable.
If , in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation
is to be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The
patient should be put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow,
and a large fomentation under oil silk should be laid over the
lower part of the abdomen. No food should be given beyond
an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives should not be
administered, as this would be to set in movement an inflamed
piece of bowel. If the case is not acute* a large enema of soap
and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of
castor oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set
the bowels in vigorous action until the diseased appendix has
been removed. No opium should be given.
Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflam-
mation of the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone
colic, arc affections which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis.
The first of these resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is
sometimes impossible without resort to operation. And it is a
fortunate thing that, when error of diagnosis has been made,
the operation which was designed for dealing with an inflamed
appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the morbid
condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid
fever the characteristic temperature, the general condition of
the patient, and the presence of delirium are differentiating
signs of importance, in renal and gallstone colic the situation
and the more paroxysmal character of the pain are usually
distinctive. (E. O.*)
APPENDICULATA, a zoological name introduced by E. Ray
Lankestcr (preface to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur's
Comparative Anatomy) , and employed by the same writer in the
9th edition of this encyclopaedia (article "Zoology") to denote the
eighth phylum, or major division, of coelomate animals. The
animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chactopoda and Arthro-
poda, are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow rings,
each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral appendages,
moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces.
APPBNDIM, FRANCESCO MARIA (1768-1837), Italian
historian and philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on
the 4th of November 176S. Educated at Rome, he took orders
and was sent to Ragusa, where he was appointed professor of
rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa, Napoleon placed
Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the
Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at
Zara, where be died in 1837. Appendini's chief work was his
N otitic Istorico-criikke suUe AtUufiitd, Storia, e Letleratura dci
Ragnsci (1802-1803).
APPENZELL, one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland,
entirely surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed
out of the dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the
name Appenzell (abbatis ceUa). It is an alpine region, particu-
larly in its south portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone
range (culminating in the Santis, 82 16 ft), though towards the
north the surface is composed rather of green hills, separating
green hollows in which nestle neat villages and small towns.
It is mainly watered by two streams that descend from the
Santis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the capital,
Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light
railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (uj m.) past Gais or
(ao| m.) past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen
(6 m.) and from Rorschach to Heiden (4$ m.). Since 1597 it has
been divided, for religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which
are quite independent of each other, and differ in many points.
The north and west portion or Ausser Rhoden has a total area
of 93<6 sq. m. (of which 906 are classed as " productive **;
forests covering 22*5 sq. m. and glaciers -058 sq. m.), with a
population (in 1000) of 55,281, mainly German-speaking, and
containing 49,797 Protestants as against 5418 Romanists. Its
political capital is Trogen (?.*.), though the largest town is
Herisau (9.?.), while Tcufen has 4595 inhabitants, and Heiden
(3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most frequented
of the many goats' whey cure resorts for which the entire canton
is famous (Urnasch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This
half-canton is divided into three administrative districts,
comprising twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manu-
facture of cotton goods, muslins, and embroidery being very
flourishing. It sends one member (elected by the Landsgemeinde)
to the federal Standerath and three to the federal Nationalrotk
(elected by a direct popular vote).
The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms
the half-canton of Appenzell, Inner Rhoden, It has a total area
of 66 7 sq. m. (of which 62*8 sq. m. arc classed as " productive,"
forests covering 12*8 sq. m. and glaciers •& sq. m.), and a total
population of 13,499, practically all German-speaking, and all but
833 Romanists. Its political capital is Appenzell (qjo.), which is
also the largest village, while Wcissbad (near it) and Gonten are
the best-known goats' whey cure resorts. Embroidery and
muslins are made in this half-canton, though wholly at home by
the work-people. But it is very largely pastoral, containing 168
mountain pastures or " alps," maintaining each summer 4000
cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,95s francs (the
figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows,
and x ,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative,
and has the reputation of always rejecting any federal Referen-
dum. For similar reasons it has preserved many old customs
and costumes, those of the women being very elaborate and
picturesque, while the herdsmen have retained their festival
attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and canary-coloured
shorts. It sends one member (named by the landsgemeinde) to
the federal Sl&nderaih, and one also to the federal Nationairath,
while it forms but a single administrative district, though divided
into six communes.
To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by
its institution of Landsgemeinden t or primitive democratic
assemblies held in the open air, in which every male citizen
(not being disqualified) over twenty years of age must (under a
money penalty) appear personally: each half-canton has such
an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden always meeting
at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd .years at
Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This
institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either
case are always held on the last Sunday in April. The Lands-
gemeinde is the supreme legislative authority, and elects both the
executive (in Inner Rhoden composed of nine members and called
Sl&ndeskommission, and in Ausser Rhoden of seven members
and called RegUrungsrath) and tho president or Landammann;
in each half-canton there is also a sort of standing committee
(composed of the members of the executive and representatives
from the communes— in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or
fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one
member per 1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for
the Landsgtmeinde and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden
it is named the GrossroJh and in Ausser Rhoden the Kantonsrath.
As various old-fashioned ceremonies are observed at the meetings
and the members each appear with his girded sword, the sight of
a meeting of the Landsgemeinde is most striking and interesting.
The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden dates mainly from
1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876.
By the middle of the nth century the abbots of St Gall had
established their power in the land later called Appenzell, which,
too, became thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants bavins*
probably been romanized Raetians* But as early as 1377, this,
portion of the abbots' domains formed an alliance with the
Swabian free imperial cities and adopted a constitution of its
own. The repeated attempts of the abbots to put down tha
AFPENZELL^-APPIAN
22*
e of their rule were defeated in die battles of Vdfcelin-
segg (i403>» north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss (1405),
the pass leading from Gais over to Altstatten in the Rhine valley.
In 141s Appenzell was placed under the " protection " of the
Swiss Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an " allied
member," and in 15x3 a full member. Religious differences
broke up the land after the Reformation into two portions, each
called Rhoden, a term that in the singular is said to mean a
" clearing," and occurs in 1070, long before the final separation.
From 1708 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other domains of the abbot
of St Gall, was formed into the canton Santis of the Helvetic
Republic, but in 1803, on toe creation of the new canton of St
Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest
codes of the laws and customs of the land date from 1400 and
1585, the original MS. of the latter (called the " Silver Book "
from its silver clasps) being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at
the dose of the annual Landsgemeinde, the newly elected Landam-
mann first takes the oath of office, and the assembled members
then take that of obedience to him, in either case with uplifted
right hands.
See also AppenseUiscke Jakrbucker (3 series from 1854* Trogen);
G. Baumbergcr, " Juku-Juuku"~Appen2dUrlartd und Apptn-
uUtrltuf (EJnsiedeln. 1903) ; J. G. Ebcl, Sehilderung d. Cebirgsvolker
d. Schvxiz, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, Die Alpurirthsekaft
im Kant. A pp. Inner Rhoden (Soleure, 1899); I. B. Richman,
Appenzell (London, 1895) ; H. Ryffel, Die sckweit. Landsgemeinden
(Zurich, 1903); J. J. Tobler and A. Struby, Die Alpmrihsehaft im
Kant. A pp. Ausser Rhoden (Soleure, 1900); J. C. Zellweger,
Ceschickte d. a pp. Volkes (to 1597). 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen,
1830-1638); J.C Zellweger, junior, Der Kant. A pp. (Trogen, 1867);
A. Tobler. Das Volkslied im AppenteUerland (Basel 1906); J. J.
Btamer, Stoats- und RKktsgesckihkte d. sekweis. Demokratien (3 vol*
St Gall. 1850-1859). (W. A. B. C)
APPENZELL, the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half
of the Swiss canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green
hollow on the left bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by
the union of several mountain torrents descending from the
Santis. By light railways it is 1 2} m. from St Gall past Gais or
aoj m. past Herisau. Its chief streets are paved, but it is rather
a large village than a town, though in 1000 it had 4574 inhabit-
ants, practically all German-speaking and Romanists. It has a
stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic choir), a
small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose
summer residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents
(one for men, founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in
1613). Among the archives, kept in the sacristy of the church,
are several banners captured by the Appenzcllers in former
days, among them one taken in 1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck,
with the inscription Hundert Teiifel, though popularly this
number s multiplied a thousandfold. In the principal square
the Landsgemeinde (or cantonal democratic assembly) is held
annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The
inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery,
though also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About
*\ m. by road south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known
goat's whey cure establishment, while 1} hours above it is the
quaint little chapel of Wildkirchli, buQt (1648) in a rock cavern,
on the w ay to t he SSntis. (W. A. B. C.)
APPERCEPTION (Lat. ad and pcrcipere, perceive), in
psychology, a term used to describe the presentation of an
object on which attention is fixed, in relation to the sum of
consciousness previous to the presentation and the mind as a
whole. The word was first used by Leibnitz, practically in the
sense of the modern Attention (?.?.), by which an object is
apprehended as " not-self " and yet in relation to the self. In
Kantian terminology apperception is (1) transcendental — the
perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the
pure self as subject, and (2) empirical ,— the cognition of the self
in its concrete existence. In (1 ) apperception is almost equivalent
to self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more
or less prominent, but it is always involved. According to J. F,
Herbart (q.v.) apperception is that process by which an aggregate
or" mass "of presentations becomes systematized (apperceptions-
system) by the accretion of new elements, either sense-given or
product of the inner workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes
in apperception the connexion with the self as resulting from
the sum of antecedent, experience. Hence in education the
teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental develop*
ment of the pupil, in order .that he may make full use of what
the pupil already knows.
Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes
in which a presentation is brought into connexion with an
already existent and systematized mental conception, and
thereby is classified, explained or, in a word, understood;
e.g. a new scientific phenomenon is explained in the light of
phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole in-
telligent life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process
of apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the
appercipient process.
Sec Karl La nee, Veber Apperception (6th ed. revised, Leipzig.
1899; trans. E. E. Brown, Boston,- 1803); G. F. Stout, Analytic
Psychology (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books
of psychology; also Psychology.
APPERLET, CHARLES JAMES (17 7 7-1843) , English sports-
man and sporting writer, better known as " Nimrod," the
pseudonym under which he published his woiks on the chase
and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near Wrexham, in Denbigh-
shire, in 1777. Between the years" 1805 and 1820 he devoted
himself to fox-hunting. About 182 1 he began to contribute to
the Sporting Magazine, under the pseudonym of " Nimrod," a
series of racy articles, which helped to double the circulation
of the magazine in a year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman,
kept for " Nimrod " a stud of hunters, and defrayed all expenses
of his tours, besides giving him a handsome salary. The death
of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit with the proprietors
of the magazine for money advanced, and Appcrlcy, to avoid
imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830),
where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London
on the 19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are:
Remarks on Ike Condition of Hunters, the Choke of Horses, &c,
(1831); Tke Chase, the Tvrf, and the Road (originally written for
the Quarterly Review), (1837); Memoirs of the Life of the Late
John Mytton (1837); Nimrod 't Nortkern Tour (1838); Nimrod
Abroad (1842); The Horse and the Hound (a reprint from the
seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica) {1842) ; Hunting
Reminiscences (1843).
APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE (1797-1847), French
philanthropist, was born in Paris on the zoth of September 1797.
While a young man he introduced a system of mutual instruction
into the regimental schools of the department of the Nord. The
success which it obtained induced him to publish a Manual
setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching prisoners at
Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at the
escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La
Force. On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life
to bettering the condition of those whose lot he had for a time
shared, and he travelled mnch over Europe for the purpose Of
studying the various systems of prison discipline, and wrote
several books on the subject. After the revolution of 1830 he
became secretary to Queen- Marie Amebic, and organized the
measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was decorated
with the Legion of Honour in 1835.
His brother, Francois Awert (d. 1840), was the inventor of
the method of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically
sea-led tins; he left a work entitled Art de conserver les substances
animates ei ifgHabtes.
APPIAN (Gr. 'Awttanos), of Alexandria, Roman historian,
flourished 'during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus
Pius. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in
his native place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an
advocate. When advanced in years, he obtained, by the good
offices of his friend Frontp, the dignity of imperial procurator-
it is supposed' in Egypt. His work CPu/iaud) in twenty-four
books, written in Greek, is rather a number of monographs than
a connected history. It gives an account of various peoples and
countries from the earliest times down to their incorporation
222
into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are extant
eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spile of
its unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for
the period of the civil wars.
Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighauser, 1785; Bekker, 185a;
Mendelssohn, 1 878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578
(black letter); J. Dlavicsl, 1679; H. White. 1899 (Bonn's Classical
Library); ok. i. ed. by J. L. Strachan-Davidson, 190a.
APPIANI, ANDREA (1754-1817). the best fresco painter of his
age, was born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the
kingdom of Italy by Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the
events of 1814 and fell into poverty. Correggio was his model,
and his best pieces, which are in the church of Santa Maria prcsso
San Celso and the royal palace at Milan, almost rival those of
his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the chief
personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his oil-
paintings are his " Venus and Love," and " Rinaldo in the
Garden of Armida." He is known as " the elder," to distinguish
him from his great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an
historical painter at Rome. Other painters of the same name
were Niccolo Appiani (fL 1510) and Francesco Appiani (1704-
1790.
APPIA, VIA, a high-road leading from Rome to Campania
and lower Italy, constructed in 312 B.C. by the censor Appius
Claudius Caecus. It originally ran only as far as Capua, but was
successively prolonged to Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and
Brundusium, though at what dates is unknown. Probably it
was extended as far as Beneventum not long after the coloniza-
tion of this town in 268 B.C., and it seems to have reached
Venusia before 190 B.C. Horace, in the journey to Brundusium
described in Sat. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as
Beneventum, but not beyond.
The original road was no doubt only gravelled (gfarea strata);
in 298 B.C. a footpath was laid saxo quadrato from the Porta
Capena, by which it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m.
from the gate. Three years later, however, the whole road was
paved with silex from the temple to Bovillae, and in 191 B.C.
the first mile from the gate to the temple was similarly treated.
The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m. For the first few
miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series of tombs
and other buildings (see L. Canina, Via Appia, Rome, 1853).
As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line,
even through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep.
A remarkably fine embankment belonging to it still exists at
Aricia. At Forum Appii it entered the Pomptine Marshes;
that this portion (19 m. long, hence called Dccennovium) belonged
to the original road was proved by the discovery at Ad Medias
(Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 B.C. (Ch. Hulsen, in Rdmische
Mitleilungcn, 2889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older road ran along
the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and Setia;
this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century.
At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice
to travel by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to
Nerva and Trajan were due the paving of the road and the repair
of the bridges along this section. Theodoric in ad. 486 ordered
the execution of similar repairs, the success of which is recorded
in inscriptions, but in the middle ages it was abandoned and
impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The older road
crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which Terracina
stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away
perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass.
Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the
engineering of the road being noteworthy; and thence by
Minturnae and Sinuessa (towns of the Aurunci which had been
conquered in 314 B.C.) 1 to Capua. The remains of the road in
this first portion are particularly striking.
Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the
road passed near the defile of Caudium (see -Cauoixe Forks).
The modern highroad follows the andent line, and remains of the
1 It is important to note how the Romans followed up every
victory with a road.
APPIANI^APPLAUSE
latter, with the exception of three well-preserted bridges, which
still serve for the modern highroad, are conspicuous by their
absence. The portion of the road from Rome to Beneventum m
described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, Classical Tow through Italy,
57 seq. (London, 18x9). He was accompanied on his journey,
made in 1 789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series
of 226 drawings, the greater part of which have not been pub-
lished; they are described by T. Ashby in Melanges de FEcol*
Franchise de Rome ( 1 903) , p. 3 7 5 seq. , and Atti del Congresso Inter-
nationale per le Seiense Sloriche, vol. v. (Rome, 1004), p. 125 seq.
From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through
Venusia and Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more
fitted for mule traffic, though Horace drove along part of it,*
ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae, Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium,
and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made into a main road b)
Trajan , and took the name Via Traiana. The original road, too,
adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by
Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by
Hadrian for the 15 m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum.
Under Diocletian and Maximian a road (the Via HercoJia) was
constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi near Venusia,
where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania, passing
through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia
near Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance
through the construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion
from Tarentum to Brundusium was restored by Constantine
about a.d. 3x5.
The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statiua,
Silvae, ii. a. 1 2, calls it longarum regiM tiarum. It was administered
under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other
important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other
inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See
Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, ReaUtttyclopadie, ii. 338 seq. (Stutt-
gart. 1896). (t.As.)
APPIN, a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W.
by Loch Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Bender-
loch and Lome, and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to
south-west, and measures 14 m. in length by 7 m. in breadth.
The scenery of the coast is extremely beautiful, and inland the
country is rugged and mountainous. The principal hills are
the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.) and Creag
Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Mcall
Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right
flank of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch,
flowing into Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into
Loch Linnhe, and the Iola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran.
The leading industries comprise slate and granite quarries and
lead mining. Ballachulish, Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and
Port Appin arc the principal villages. Ballachulish and Port
Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the Caledonian railway
company's branch line from Conncl Ferry to Ballachulish runs
through the coast land and has stations at Creagan, Appin,
Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country
of a branch of the Stewarts.
APPLAUSE (Lat. applaudcre, to strike upon, clap), primarily
the expression of approval by clapping of hands, &c.; generally
any expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubt-
less as old and as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its
forms is limited only by the capacity for devising means of
making a noise. Among civilised nations, however, it has at
various times been subject to certain conventions. Thus the
Romans had a set. ritual of applause for public performances,
expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and thumb,
clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the toga,
• From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia
to Trevicum ; thence, leaving the main road at AquUonia, he went to
Ausculum (" quod versu dice re non est "}, the mod. Ascoli Satriano,
by a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there,
though they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their
original position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th.
Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lot., ix. 1883, No. 6016)— and on to
Herdoniae (why Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left,
op. cit. p. 592, u not clear), where he joined the line of the Inter Via
APPLE
**3
for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief
(orarium), distributed to all Roman citizens (see Stole). In
the theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out
" Valete et plaudlte! " and the audience, guided by an unofficial
choregus, chaunted their applause antiphonally. This was
often organised and paid for (Bot tiger, uber das Apphudiertn
m Theater bei den Alien, Leipz., 182a). When Christianity
became fashionable the customs of the theatre were transferred
to the churches. Eusebius {Hist. Ecd. vii. 30) says that Paul
of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his preach-
ing by waving linen cloths (6$6vais), and in the 4th and 5th
centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had
become an established custom. Though, however, applause
may provide a healthy stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts
at abolishing or restricting it even in theatres. The institution
of the claque, people hired by performers to applaud them, has
largely discredited the custom, and indiscriminate applause has
been felt as an intolerable interruption to serious performances.
The reverential spirit which abolished applause in church has
tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely
under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the
Wagner performances at Baireuth. In Germany (e.g. the court
theatres at Berlin) applause during the performance and
" calling before the curtain " have been officially forbidden, but
even in Germany this is felt to be in advance of public opinion.
(See also Acclamation and Cheering.)
APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. acpl.'aeppcl, O.H.G. aphul,
cpkal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfd), the fruit of Pyrus Mains, belonging
to the sub-order Pomaceae, of the natural order Rosacea*. It
is one of the most widely cultivated and best-known and appreci-
ated of fruits belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state
it is known as the crab-apple, and is found generally distributed
throughout Europe and western Asia, growing in as high a
latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The crabs of Siberia belong
to different species of Pyrus. The apple-tree as cultivated is a
moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate, acutely
serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit is
too well known to need any description of its external character-
istics. The apple is successfully cultivated in higher latitudes
than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65° N., but notwith-
standing this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from
frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into
flower much later than these trees, and so avoids the night
frost which would be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which
axe grown in northern regions are, however, small, hard, and
crabbed, the best fruit being produced in hot summer climates,
such as Canada and the United States. Besides in Europe and
America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape of Good Hope,
in northern India and China, and in Australia and New
Zealand.
Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since
the period of the Roman occupation, but the names of many
varieties indicate a French or Dutch origin of much later date,
In 1688 Ray enumerated seventy-eight varieties in cultivation
in the neighbourhood of London, and now it is calculated that
about aooo kinds can be distinguished. According to the
purposes for which they are suitable, they can be classed as—
ist, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The
principal dessert apples are the Pippins (pepins, seedlings), of
which there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides
Rennets and other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are culti-
vated. In England, Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous
for the cultivation of apples, and in these counties the manu-
facture of cider (?.».) is an important industry. Cider is also
extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland. Verjuice is
the fermented juice of crab apples.
A large trade in the importation of apples Is carried on in
Britain, imports coming chiefly from "French, Belgian and Dutch
growers, and from the United States and British North America.
Dried and pressed apples are imported from France for stewing,
under the name of Normandy Pippins, and similarly prepared
fruits come also from America.
The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for
grafting, and also for the production of new varieties. The
established sorts are usually increased by grafting, the method
called whip-grafting being preferred. The stocks should be at
least as thick as the finger; and should be headed back to where
the graft is to be fixed in January, unless the weather is frosty,
but in any case before vegetation becomes active. The scions
should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly in a trench,
in contact with the moist soil, until required.
The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best
being a good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in
the subsoil the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not
naturally calcareous very much improves them. The trees are
liable to canker in undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature.
Where the soil is not naturally rich enough, it should be well
manured, but not to the extent of encouraging cver-luxuriance.
It is better to apply manure in the form of a compost than to use
it in a fresh state or unmixed.
To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from
25 to 40 ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil
and other considerations. The trees should be selected with
clean, straight, self-supporting stems, and the head should be
shapely and symmetrical, with the main branches well balanced.
In order to obtain such a stem, all the leaves on the first shoot
from the graft or bud should be encouraged to grow, and in the
second season the terminal bud should be allowed to develop a
further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots should be allowed
to grow, but so that they do not compete with the leader, on
which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that
they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The
side shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of
foliage in this direction may not exceed the increase made by the
new branches and shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids,
which occupy less space than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow
tall, may be planted at from 10 to x 2 ft. apart Dwarf bush trees
may be planted from 10 to 15 ft. apart, according to the variety
and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the Paradise stock are both orna-
mental and useful in small gardens, the trees being always
conveniently under control. These bush trees, which must be
on \he proper stock— the French Paradise— may be planted at
first 6 ft apart, with the same distance between the rows, the
space being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by
removing every alternate row.
" Cordons " are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of
which are kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally,
at about 1} ft. from the ground, and may consist of one stem or
of two, the stems in the latter case being trained in opposite
directions. In cold districts the finer sorts of apples may be
grown against walls as upright or oblique cordons. From these
cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained. The apple may
also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which docs not require
much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and
walls should be planted 20 ft .apart.
The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the
branchlcts of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for
a scries of years. The principal pruning should be performed in
summer, the young shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the
superabundant laterals shortened by breaking them half through.
The general winter pruning of the trees may take place any time
from the beginning of November to the beginning of March, in
open weather. The trees are rather subject to the attacks of the
American blight, the white cottony substance found on the bark
and developed by an insect (Eriosoma molt), somewhat similar
to the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be
removed by scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected
spots with any bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin
and soft soap.
The apple-blossom weevil {Antkonomus pomorum), a small
reddish-brown beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers.
The female bores and lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the
maggot feeds on the stamens and pistil. The weevil hibernates
in the crannies of the bark or in the soil at the base of the trees.
224
APPLEBY^-APPLETON
and bandages of tarred doth placed round the item in spring
will prevent the female from crawling up.
The codlin moth {Carpocapsa pomonaua) lays its eggs in May
in the calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is
white with black head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit,
and pierces the rind. When nearly full grown it attacks the core,
and the fruit soon drops. The insect emerges and spins its
cocoon in a crack of the bark.
To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening
should be promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted
round the stem about a foot from the ground is of use. The
grubs will generally choose the bands in which to make their
cocoon; at the end of the season the bands are collected and
burned.
The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the
apple tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months
in which they arc in use:—
Dessert Apr *es.
White Tuneating .
Early Red Margaret .
Irish Peach .
Devonshire Quarrcnden
Duchess of Oldenburg
Red Astrachan
Kerry Pippin
Peasgoods Nonesuch .
Sara Young
King of the Pippins
Cox s Orange Pippin .
Court of \\ Kk . .
Blenheim Pippin .
Sykthousc Russet
Fcarn's Pippin
Mannington's Pcarmain
M argil
Kibston Pippin
Golden Pippin
Rcincttc de Canada
Ashmcad's Kernel
White Winter Calvillc (grown under glass)
Braddick's Nonpareil .
Court-pcndQ Plat
Northern Spy
Cornish Gilliflowcr
Scarlet Nonpareil
Cockle's Pippin .
Lamb Abbey Pcarmain
Old Nonpareil
Duke of Devonshire .
Sturmcr Pippin .
Kitchen Apples.
Keswick Codlin .
Lord Surheld
Manks Codlin
Ecklinvillc Seedling .
Stirling Castle
New Hawthorndcn
Stone's Seedling .
Emperor Alexander
Waftham Abbey Seedling
Cellini ....
Gravenstein .
Hawthornden
Baumann's Red Winter Rdnette
Mere de Menage .
Beauty of Kent _ .
Yorkshire Greening
Gloria Mundi
Blenheim Pippin.
Tower of Glammis
Warner's King .
Alfriston
Northern Greening
Reinette de Canada
Bess Pool . .
Winter Queening
Lane's Prince Albert
Norfolk Bcaufin .
. July
. Aug.
. Aug.
. Aug., Sept.
. Aug., Sept.
. Sept.
. Sept., Oct.
. Sept.-Nov.
. Oct.-Dcc.
. Oct-Jan.
. Oct.-Fcb.
. Oct.-Mar.
. Nov.-Feb.
. Nov.-Feb.
. Nov.-Mar.
. Nov.-Mar.
. Nov.-Mar.
. Nov.-Mar.
. Nov.-Jan.
. Nov. -Apr.
. Nov.-Apr.
Dec.-Mar.
Dec.-Apr.
Dec.-Apr.
Dec.- May
Dec.-May
an.-Mar.
ian.-Apr.
an.-May
an.-May
•eb.-May
Feb.-June
Oct.-Dec.
Nov.-Mar.
Oct.-Mar.
Oct.-Fcb.
Oct.-Fcb.
Nov.-Jan.
Nov.-Feb.
Nov.-Feb.
Nov.-Mar.
Nov.-Apr.
Nov.-Apr.
Nov.-Apr.
Nov.-lWay
Nov.-May
Oet.-May
Nov.-July
Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich
aromatic flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess
the property of forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled
or baked. In their uncooked state they are not very digestible,
but when cooked they form a very safe and useful food, c
a gentle laxative influence.
According to Hutchison their composition is as follows: —
Fresh .
Dried .
Water.
Pro-
tcid.
Ether
Extract.
Carbo-
hydrate.
Ash.
Cellu-
lose.
Acids.
825
36-2
o-4
1*4
©5
30
ia-5
491
a
»-7
49
I-O
3-6
Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple,
are known by that name, e.g. the Balsam apple, Momordica
Balsamina; the custard apple (q.v.), Anona reticulata; the egg
apple, Solatium enuientum; the rose apple, various species of
Eugenia; the pineapple (q.v.), Ananas sathus; the star apple,
Chrysophyllttm Cainilo; and the apples of Sodom, Solatium
sodomeum. (A. B. R.)
APPLEBY, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Westmorland, England, in the Appleby
parliamentary division, 276 m. N.N.W. from London, on the
Midland and a branch of the North Eastern railways. Pop.
(1001) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of the Eden,
which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spun of
Mil burn Forest and Duftort and other fells, which rise up to
2600 ft On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a
fine Norman keep and surrounded by a double moat, now partly
laid out as gardens. The remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a
mansion in the 1 7th century. It was held for the royalists in the
civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and was the residence of Anne,
countess of Pembroke, the last of the family of Clifford, which
had great estates in this part of England. St Ann's hospital
for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The
grammar school (14 S3) * as refounded by Queen Elizabeth.
The modern incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four
aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1876 acres.
Appleby is not mentioned in -any Saxon records, but after
the Conquest it rose to importance as the head of the barony
of Appleby which extended over the eastern portion of the
present county of Westmorland. This barony formed part of
the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to Ranulf Meschin,
who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place of
residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old
charter of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II.,
was very shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and
commonalty claiming the right to elect a coroner and to have
tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685 the governing body comprised
a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses of the common
council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated charter
from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York,
was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and
5 Edward III. John granted the borough to the burgesses for
a fee-farm rent. The impoverishment caused by the Scottish
raids led to its seizure by Edward II. for arrears of payment,
but Edward III. restored it on the same terms as before. Henry
VIII. .reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to 2 marks, after
an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the Scots
in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however,
never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th
century writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village.
Appleby returned two members to parliament from 129s until
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The market and the
St Lawrence fair are held by prescription. James I. granted an
additional fair on the second Thursday in April. In the early
1 8th century Appleby was celebrated for the best corn-market
in the country.
See Victoria County History, Westmorland; W. Hcwitson. Appteoy
Charters (Cumber!, and Westm. Antiq. and Arcbaeot Soc, Transac-
tions, xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).
APPLETON, NATHAN (1779-1861) American merchant and
politician, was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the
6th of October 1779. He was educated in the New Ipswich
Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life in Boston, in the
employment of his brother, Samuel (1 766- 1853), * successful and
benevolent man of business, with whom he was in partnership
APPLETON— APPOINTMENT
225
faom 1800 to 1809. He cooperated with FraisdsC. Lowe* and
others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of
cotton on a largo Kaltf into the United States, a factory being
established at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another
in 181s at Lowell, Massachusetts, of which city he was one of
the founders. He was a member of the general court of Massa-
chusetts in 1816, 1831, 182*, 1824 and 1827, and in 1831-1833
and 184a of the national House of Representatives, in which he
was prominent as an advocate of protective duties. He died in
Boston on the 14th of July 1861.
His son, Thomas Gold Appleton ( 18 1 2-1884), who graduated
at Harvard in 1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist
and a patron of the fine arts, but was better known for bis
witticisms, one of which, the oft-quoted " Good Americans,
when they die, go to Paris," is sometimes attributed to Oliver
Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in prose,
HiU Journal (1876), Syrian Sunshine (1877), Windfalls (1878),
and Chtqnsr-Worh (1879).
See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C Wiothrop
(Boston, 1861); and Susan Hales Life and UUan of Thomas Cold
Apptdan (New York. 1885).
APPLETON, a dty and the county-seat of Outagamie county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 00 m. N. of
Milwaukee. Fop. (1800) 11,860; (1000) 15,085, of whom 3605
were foreign-born; (1910, census) 16,773* I* i* served by the
Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by means of
which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay.
Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have
an electric street railway line in operation; and electric street
railways now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as
Fond du lac on the south and Green Bay on the north. The
city is attractively laid out on high bluffs above the river.
It has several beautiful parks, two hospitals, a number of fine
churches and school buildings, and a public library. The dty
is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from university in 1908) ,
an interdenominational (originally a Methodist Episcopal)
co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence
Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams
Lawrence (1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and
giver of $10,000 for the founding of the Institute. The college
comprises an academy, a college of liberal arts, a school of
expression, a school of commerce, schools of musk and of art,
and a school of correspondence; and in 1907-1008 had 33
instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400 volumes. The
Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely utilized
for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the
largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite
fibre, machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furni-
ture, dyes and flour. The total value of factory psodocts in
1905 was 86,672,457, an increase of 72-8 % over the product
value of 1900. Appleton was first permanently settled in 1833,
and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton of Massachusetts,
who owned part of the original town plot It was incorporated
as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a dty charter, which
was revised in 1887 and m 1905.
APPOQ0IATURA (from Ital. appaggiare, to lean upon), a
musical term for a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a
principal note and printed in small character. The effect is
to suspend the prindpal note, by taking away the time-value of
the appagpalura prefixed to it. There are two kinds, the long
appogtiatura, now usually printed as played, and the short,
where the suspension of the prindpal note is scarcely perceptible;
this is often called atdatura, a word properly applied to an
ornament now obsolete, in which a prindpal note in a melody is
struck together with the note immediately below, the lower note
bei ngs t o nce releas ed and th e other held on.
APPOINTMENT, POWER OF, in English law, an authority
iuu 's isJ by or limited to n person, to dispose, either wholly or
nmrtssUy, of real or personal property, either for fate own benefit
or for that of others. Thus if A settle property upon trustees
to such uses as B shall by deed or will appoint and In default of
and until such appointment to the use of C and his heirs. B,
though he has no interest in the property, can at any time
appoint the property to any one he pleases, induding himself,
and Cs interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be
divested. In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the
donee, and the persons in whose favour the appointment is
exercised are called the appointees. Such powers are either
general or limited. A general power is one which the appointor
may exercise in favour of any person he pleases. It is obvious
that such a power is very nearly equivalent to ownership, and
consequently property which is the subject of a general power
has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the
Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment
debtor has such a power may be seised by the sheriff under a
writ of digit, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property
will vest in the trustees of a bankrupt, By the Finance Act 1804
property of which the deceased had a general power of appoint-
ment is subject to the payment of estate duty, even though the
power has not been exercised. A limited power is one which
can only be exerrisfd in favour of certain specified persons or
classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settle*,
ments in which after life estates to the husband and wife a power
n given to appoint among the children of the marriage. In such
a case no appointment to any one but children of the marriage is
valid. Formerly it was held that the intention of the donor of
such a power was that each of the dass which are the objects of
the power should take some part of the fund, and from this arose
the equitable doctrine of illusory appointments, by which the
courts of equity set aside an appointment which was good at
law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been
appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding
what was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the
Illusory Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted
that no appoi nt ment should be sat aside merely on the ground
that a share appointed was illusory. It was still necessary,
however, that some share should be appointed to each object,
and c o n s e quently it was possible in the popular phrase to be
" cut off with a shilling," but now by the Powers Amendment Act
1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share to
each object of the power.
It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the
instrument creating the power to accompany the execution of it
must be strictly observed. Thus it might be required that the
appointment should be by an instrument witnessed by four
witnesses, or that the consent in writing of some third party
should be signified. The general rule, however, has been modified
both by statute and by the rales of equity. By the Wills Act 1837
a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall be
a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwith-
standing that some additional form or solemnity shall have been
required by the instrument creating the power, and by the Wills
Act 1861 a will made out of the United Kingdom by a British
subject according to the forms required by the law of the place
where the will was made shall, as regards personal estate, be
held to be well executed and admitted to probate; consequently
it has been held that an appointment made by such a will is a
valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed
the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed
attested by two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attesta-
tion go, be a valid exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The
courts of equity also will interfere in some cases of defective
execution in order to carry out the intentions of the settlor.
The principle upon which the court acts is obscure, but the rule
has been thus stated:—" Whenever a man having power over
an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or
natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power,
the court will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the
persons entitled in default) to make him perfect this intention."
Equity, however, only relieves against ddects not of the essence
of the power, such as the absence of seal or execution by will
instead of deed, but where the defect is of the essence of the
power, as where a consent is not obtained, equity will not assist,
226 APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE— APPORTIONMENT
nor will it relieve where a power to appoint by will is purported
to be exercised by deed. A power of appointment if exercised
must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will be void as fraudu-
lent; thus it has been frequently decided that where a father,
having a limited power of appointment among his children,
appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need
of the appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the
death of the child whereby the fund will come to him as next of
kin, such appointment is void as a fraud upon the power. Where
an execution is partly fraudulent and partly valid the court will,
if possible, separate the two and only revoke that which is
fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not separable the
whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of excessive
execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons
some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power.
The doctrine of Election (q.v.) applies to appointments under
powers, but there must be a gift of free and disposable property
to the persons entitled in default of appointment
The appointment must in law be read Into the instrument
creating the power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor
under a limited power cannot appoint to any person to whom the
donor could not have appointed by reason of the rule against
perpetuities, but this is not so in the case of a general power,
for there the appointor is virtually owner of the property
appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a distinction
arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed
speaks from the date of its execution but a wifl from the death
of the testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made
may have become good when it comes into operation. Since the
Conveyancing Act i88t all powers may be released by the
donees thereof, unless the power is coopled with a trust in
respect of which there is a duty cast on the donee to exercise it;
and this is so even though the donee gets a benefit by such
release as one entitled in default of appointment, for this is not
a fraud upon the power. (E. S. M. B.)
APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, a village of Appomattox
county, Virginia, U.S.A., t$ m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S.
part of the state. It is served by the Norfolk & Western railway.
The village was the scene of the surrender of the Confederate
Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee to
the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U. S. Grant on
Sunday the oth of April 1865. The terms were: " the officers to
give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the
government of the United States until properly exchanged,
and each company or regimental commander to sign a like
parole for the men of their commands," . . . neither " side arms
of the officers nor their private horses or baggage " to be sur-
rendered; and, as many privates in the Confederate Army
owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by men
in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.
APPONYI, ALBERT, Count (1846- ), Hungarian states-
man, the most distinguished member of an ancient noble family,
dating back to the 13 th century, and son of the chancellor
Gydrgy Apponyi (1808-1809) and the accomplished and saintly
Countess Julia Sztaray, was born at Pesth on the 39th of May
1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and at the
universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed
his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of
Montalembert, a kindred spirit, whose influence on the young
Apponyi was permanent. He entered parliament in 1873 as a
liberal Catholic, attaching himself at first to the Dealt party;
but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of his family circle
profoundly modified, though they could never destroy, his
popular ideals. On the break up of the Dealt party he attached
himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pal
Senynyey (1 834-1 888) and eventually became its leader. Until
1005 Count Albert was constantly in opposition, but in May of
that year he consented to take office in the second Wekerle
ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator, his speeches were
published at Budapest in 1806; and he is the author of an
interesting dissertation, Esthetics and Politics, Ike Artist and the
SlaUsman (Huog.) (Budapest, 1895).
APPORTIONMENT (Fr. apportionemenl , Med. Lat oppor-
Honamtentttm; derived from Lat. partis, share), distribution or
allotment in proper shares; a term used in law in a variety of
senses. (1) Sometimes it is employed roughly and with no
technical meaning to indicate the distribution of a benefit (e.g.
salvage or damages under the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, f 3), or
liability {e.g. general average contributions, or tithe rent-charge),
or the incidence of a duty {e.g. obligations as to the maintenance
of highways). (3) In its strict legal interpretation apportion-
ment falls into two classes, "apportionment in respect of
estate " and " apportionment in respect of time."
1. Apportionment in respect of Estate may result either from the
act of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee
is evicted from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of
the property leased to him, he becomes liable at common law
to pay only a rent apportioned to the value of the interest which
he still retains. So where the person entitled to the reversion of
an estate assigns part of it, the right to an apportioned part of the
rent incident to die whole reversion passes to his assignee. The
lessee is not bound, however, by an apportionment of rent
made upon the grant of part of the reversion unless It is made
either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury. The assignee
of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at common
law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition
of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned.
But this has now been altered by statute both in England (Law
of Property Amendment Act 1859, § 3; Conveyancing Act 1881,
§ 1 3) and in many of the British colonies {ej. Ontario, Rev. Stats.,
1897, c. 170, 5 9; Barbados, No. is of 1891, § 9). In the cases
just mentioned there is apportionment in respect of estate by act
of the parties.
Apportionment by operation of law may be brought about where
by act of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-
matter, or by the " act of God " (as, for instance, where part of an
estate is submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same
category belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under
various statutes {e.g. the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845.
% 119. when land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural
Holdings Act 1883, \ 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year
receiving notice to quit part of a holding : and the Irish Land Act
»903. 1 61, apportionment of quit and crown rents).
3. Apportionment in respect of Time.— At common law, there
was no apportionment of rent in respect of lime. Such apportion-
ment was, however, in certain cases allowed in England by the
Distress for Rent Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834,
and is now allowed generally under the Apportionment Act 1870.
Under that statute ($ a) all rents, annuities, dividends and other
periodical payments in the nature of income are to be considered
as accruing from day to day and to be apportionable in respect
of time accordingly. It is provided, however, that the appor-
tioned part of such rents, &c, shall only be payable or recover-
able in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion
of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case
of a payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only
when the next entire portion would have been payable if it had
not so determined ($ 3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts
of rent have the same remedies for recovering them when payable
as they would have had in respect of the entire rent; but a lessee
is not to be liable for any apportioned part specifically. The rent
is recoverable by the heir or other person who would, but for the
apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent, and he holds it
subject to distribution (§ 4)- The Apportionment Act 1870
extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing
(§2), but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance
(§6). Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express
stipulation.
The apportionment created by this statute is " apportionment
in respect of time." The cases to which it applies are mainly
cases of either (A) apportionment of rent due under leases where
at a time between the dates fixed for payment the lessor or lessee
dies, or some other alteration in the position of parties occurs;
or (B) apportionment of income between the representatives of a
limited owner and the remainder-man when the limited interest
APPORTIONMENT BILL—APPREHENSION
227
de^erniinesat a tine between the date when sQxhincome became
doe.
(A) With regard to the fonner of these chaws, it may be noticed
that although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the
whole rent u due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an
tO pay, ma wcii »» iw uw iiKiiv w iixcivc. icu
6a L.J.Q.B. 628, 63a). Accordingly where an assignment
lease m made between two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not
liable to pay the full amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the
company (mi re South Kensington Cs^operasm Stones, 1881, 17
Ch-D. 161) ; and further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability
, as_well as to the right to receive l rent (ta re Wilson, 1803,
^nee
* half-year's rent falling 1
rent-day next after the date of the assignment, but only an appor-
tioned part of that half-year's rent, computed from the last men-
tioned date {Glass v. Patterson, rooa, a Ir.R. 660).
(B.) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points
requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public
companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not,
unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (} 5).
The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland.
It has been followed in many of the British colonies (e.g. Ontario,
JUv. Stats., 1897, c. 170, §5 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886;
Tasmania, No. 8 of 1871 » Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, $5 9-12).
Similar legislation has been adopted in many of the states of the
American Union, where* as in England, rent was not, at common
law, apportionable as to time (Kent, Comm. iii 469-472).
An equitable apportionment, apart from statute law, arises where
property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant
for life and the reversion to others, and the realization of the
property in the form of a fund capable of producing income is
postponed for the benefit of the estate. In such cases there is an
ultimate apportionment between the persons entitled to the
income and those entitled to the capital of the accumulations
for the period of such postponement. The rule followed is this:
the proceeds, when realised, are apportionable between capital
and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumu-
lated at 3 % per annum from the day of the testator's death
(with yearly rents and deducting income tax) would have pro-
duced at the day of receipt the sum actually received. The sum
so ascertained should be treated as capital and the residue as
income. (/» re Earl of Chesterfield's Trusts, 1883, 24 Ch.D.
643; In re Goodenough, 1895, a Ch* $37; Howlls v. Bcbb, 1900,
2 Ch. 107.)
In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, Jnd.
Diet, (and ed., London, 1903), s.v. " Apportion " ; Bouvicr, Law
Diet, (London and Boston, 1897). s.v. "Apportionment " : Ruling
Caste (London, 1895), tit. "Apportionment"; Fawcett, Landlord
and Tenant (London, 1905), pp. 338 et esq.; Fob, Landlord and
Tenant (3rd ed., London, 1901), pp. na et acq. (A. W. R.)
APFORTIOVaUMT BILL* an act passed by the Congress of
the United States alter etch decennial census to determine the
number of members which each state shall send to the House
of Representative*. Hie ratio of, representation fixed by
Under
Census.
Apportionment.
Whole
Number of
Repre-
sentatives.
Year.
Population.
Year.
Ratio.
Constitution . .
Fine Census . .
Second Census . •
Third Census . .
Fourth Census . .
Fifth Census . .
Sixth Census . . .
Seventh Census
Eighth Census . .
Ninth Census . .
Tenth Census . .
Eleventh Census
Twelfth Census
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
i860
1870
1880
1890
1900
3429.214
5.308483
7.239.881
1 a, 800,020
17.069493
03.191.876
31443.321
3*358.371
50,155.783
62,62 2- v a«o
7S.568.686
1789
1793
1803
1813
1823
1833
1843
:!£
:%
1893
1903
30,000
33.000
33.000
35.000
40,000
47 -Z2
70,680
9*423
127,381
131.425
151.911
173.901
194.18a
65
105
181
213
240
s*3 •
234
241
293
the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the free population,
and the number of the members of the first House was 65.
As the House would, at this Tatio, have become unmanage-
ably huge, the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before
apportionment, has been raised after each census, as will be seen
from the accompanying table.
The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state
legislatures for correcting and redistributing the representation
of the counties. Such acts are usually passed at decennial
intervals, more often after the federal census, but the dates may
vary in different states. The state representatives are usually
apportioned among the several counties according to population
and not by geographical position. The electoral districts so
formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number of
inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the pest,
through the making of unequal districts lor partisan purposes.
(See GtwtYMANDEJu)
If a state has received an increase in the number of its repre-
sentatives and its legislature does not pass an apportionment
bill before the next congressional election, the votes of the whole
state elect the additional members on a general ticket and they
are called " congressmen -at -large."
APPRAISER (from Lat. appretiare, to value), one who sets a
value upon property, real or personal. In England the business
of an appraiser is usually combined with that of an auctioneer*
while the word itself has given place, to a great extent, to that of
" valuer." (See the articles Auctions and Auctioneers, and
Valuation and Valuers.)
In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe
a person specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial
authority to put a valuation on property, e.g. on the items of an
inventory of the estate of a deceased person or on land taken
for public purposes by the right of eminent domain. Appraisers
of imported goods and boards of general appraisers have ex-
tensive functions in administering the customs laws of the
United States. Merchant appraisers am sometimes appointed
temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no
resident appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S.
Rev. Stats. § 2609).
APPREHBISION (Lat ed, to; pretender*, to seise), in
psychology, a term applied to a mode of consciousness in
which nothing is affirmed or denied of the object in question, but
the mind is merely aware of (" seises ") it " Judgment " (says
Reid, fed. Hamilton, I p. 4x4) " is en act of the mind specifically
different from simple apprehension or the bare conception
of a thing "; and again, " Simple apprehension or conception
can neither be true nor false. " This distinction provides for the
large class of mental acts in which we are simpry aware of or
" take In " a number of familiar objects, about which we in
general make no judgment unless our attention is suddenly
called by a new feature. Or again two alternatives may be
apprehended without any resultant judgment as to their re
spective merits. Similarly G. F. Stout points out that while
we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work
of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any
belief or to make any judgment as to its
existence or truth. With this mental state
may be compared the purely aesthetic con*
temptation of music, wherein apart from, say,
a false note, the faculty of judgment is for
the time inoperative. To these examples may
be added the fact that one can fully understand
an argument in all its bearings without m any
way judging its validity.
Without going into the question fully, it
may be pointed out that the distinction
between judgment and apprehension is relative.
In every kind of thought there is judgment of
some sort in a greater or less degree of
prominence. Judgment and thought are in
fact psychologically distinguishable merely as
different, though correlative, activities of con-
Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena
of apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that " it is possible
to distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of
its constituent details." On the other hand, if the attention
228
APPRENTICESHIP
focuses itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is
an expectation that such details will as it were emerge into
consciousness. Hence he describes such apprehension as
" implicit/' and in so far as the implicit apprehension determines
the order of such emergence he describes it as " schematic."
A good example of this process is the use of formulae in cal-
culations; ordinarily the formula is used without question; if
attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be
universally applicable emerge and the " schema " is complete
In detail.
With this result may be compared Kant's theory of appre-
hension as a synthetic act (the " synthesis of apprehension ")
by which the sensory elements of a perception are subjected
to the formal conditions of time and space.
See G. P. Stout, Analytic Psychology (London, 1896): F. Brentano,
Psychology (bk. ii. ch. vii.). and Vom Ur sprung sittlicker Erhennt-
mis; B. Titchener, Outlines of Psychology (New York, 1903), and
text-books of psychology. Also Psychology.
APPRBfTICBSHIP (from Fr. apprendrt, to learn), a contract
whereby one person, called the master, binds himself to teach,
and another, called the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some
trade or profession, the apprentice serving his master for a certain
time.
Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does
it seem to have had any connexion with the division of the Roman
citizens into tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in
the middle ages, and formed an integral part of the system of
trade gilds and corporations by which skilled labourers of all
kinds sought protection against the feudal lords, and the main-
tenance of those exclusive privileges with whkh in the interests
of the public they were favoured. In those times it was believed
that neither arts nor sciences would flourish unless such only
were allowed to practise them as had given proofs of reasonable
proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate, with certain
powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of their
respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval
unnersiUu (corporation) — whether of smiths and tailors or of
scholars — included both such as were entitled to practise and
teach and such as were in course of learning. The former were
the masters, the latter the apprentices. Hence the term appren-
tice was applied indifferently to such as were being taught *
trade or a learned profession, and even to undergraduates or
scholars who were qualifying themselves for the degree of doctor
or master in the liberal art*. When barristers were first ap-
pointed by Edward I. of England they were styled apfrenUcii
ad legem — the serjeants-at-law being serrienlet ad legem; and
these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names
of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the
term of apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was
thought no more than sufficient to instruct the learner in his
profession, craft or mystery under a properly qualified master,
teacher or doctor— for these names were synonymous— and
to reimburse the latter by service for the training received.
After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member
of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business
and to teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that
undergraduates had to pass through a curriculum of seven years
before they could attain the degree of doctor or master in the
libera] arts. On the continent of Europe these rules were ob-
served with considerable rigour, both in the learned professions
and in those which we now designate as trades. In England
they made their way more slowly and did not receive much
countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savour*
ing of interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the
formation of gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates
probably from the 1 >th century, and the institution of apprentice-
ships cannot be of much later date. In 1388 and 1405 it is
noticed in acts of parliament. By various subsequent statutes
provisions were made for the regulation of the institution,
and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary
and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a
-»-*-— of 156a this was made the law of the land, and it was
enacted that no person should exercise any " trade or mystery "
without having served a seven years' apprenticeship. In no
place did the apprentices become so formidable by their numbers
and organisation as in London. During the Great Rebellion
they took an active part as a political body, and were conspicuous
after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in tumults.
It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to
economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act ot
Elizabeth never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon
after the Great Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly
reprobated by the judges, who endeavoured, on the theory that
the act of Elizabeth could apply to no trades which were not in
existence at its date, to limit its operation as far as possible.
Such limitation of the act gave rise to many absurd anomalies
and inconsistencies, e.g. that a coachmaker could not make his
own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the
latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-
making was not a trade in England when the act of Elisabeth
was passed. For the like reason the great textile and metal
manufactures which arose at Manchester and Birmingham
were held exempt from the operation of the statute. Concur-
rently with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such
anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that aH
monopolies or restrictions on the freedom of trade were in-
jurious to the public interest, had gradually been making their
way, and notwithstanding much opposition an act was passed in
1 814 by which the statute of Elizabeth, in so far as it enacts
that no person shall engage in any trade without a seven years*
apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this act was
to give every person the fullest right to exercise any occupation
or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he deemed
himself qualified.
Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory,
now became a voluntary contract. In the case of the learned
professions the principles and theories which gave birth to
corporations with monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its
equivalents, have — contrary to what has taken place in trade —
been not only maintained but intensified; that is to say, not
only have such bodies retained and even extended in some cases
their exclusive privileges, but in general no one is allowed to
practise in such professions unless his capabilities have been
tested and approved by public authority. Thus no man b
allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who
has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a
university or by apprenticeship— sometimes by both combined —
and passed certain examinations. Entrance to the church is
guarded by similar checks. In such instances the old principle-*
now generally abandoned in trade— of granting a monopoly to
those possessing a certain standard of qualification is maintained
in greater vigour than ever.
In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been
modified by the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of
machinery, which have reduced the amount of skill which
formerly was requisite, and thus they have passed out of the
category of the higher skilled handicrafts, as only a very slight
or short training is necessary to make an efficient worker; but
a large number of the higher skilled trades remain which require a
long period of training at the bench, and a careful inquiry into
this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades there Is
a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off in the
number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an
opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard
of qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider
that the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by
apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is
due, not to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having
been superseded by any other form of technical education, but to
difficulties, especially in London and some other large towns,
which place it beyond the reach of that class of persons who have
the greatest need of it. Among these difficulties are.— first,
insufficient organisation, and secondly, want of funds to pay
premiums where such are required. These difficulties we
APPROPRIATION— APRAKSIN
229
accentuated in London and some other large towns, but in many
other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with.
Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of
Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Com-
missioners in their report for 1005 recognized the value of this
institution, and stand that they would in future enable the
trustees of charity endowments for apprenticeship to avail
themselves of the practical co-operation of the institution. The
modern trade unions, on the other hand, have done nothing to
assist in restoring apprenticeship to its proper place; on the
contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions which they have
imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be taken.
The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the
standard of skill m the higher trades, but to reduce the productive
capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending
apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live
with the master, and that the term is generally five years instead
of a longer period; but the principle remains precisely the same,
and the fact that it is applied more and more largely in Austria,
Germany and other countries is an evidence of its necessity.
The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by in*
denture, but any writing properly expressed and attested will do.
The full consideration must be set out, and the instrument,
whether a premium is paid or not, must be duly stamped, except
in the case of parish apprentices and apprentices to the sea
service (see Seamen, Laws Relating to). Where a charity or
institution intervenes, it retains control over the indentures
until the end of the term of apprenticeship, when the indenture
should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice. Any one who
is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and the
law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master.
Any person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice,
provided he is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the
common law exempt from all liability ex contractu, it is usual for
the apprentice's relations or friends to become bound for his
service and good conduct during the period of his apprenticeship.
The consent of the apprentice, however, must be expressed by
ms executing the indenture. No child under nine can be bound
as a parish apprentice. The master must teach the apprentice
the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise two
trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would
be good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice.
An apprentice Is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be
required to work on bank holidays. He cannot become a volun-
teer (soldier) without his master's consent. It is usual in the
indenture to state whether the apprentice is to be paid wages or
otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no deduction can be
made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been so provided
for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for breakages
or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a right
to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not
delegate ft. But this right is really obsolete. According to
old custom a master provided proper food for his apprentices,
and medical attendance when required; but the modern practice
is for apprentices to reside with their parents or friends who
i«i««»in them. A master cannot assign indentures without the
approval of the apprentice or such parties as are named in the
contract for this purpose, even if he should transfer his business.
The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved by (1) efflux of
time; (») by death (if the master dies, some part of the premium
is usually returnable, but if the appventice dies no part is return-
able); (3) by consent; (4) m case of grave misconduct; (5) under
the Bankruptcy Act 18S5, providing for discharge of the in*
dentures of apprenticeship and for payment on account of
premium. Disputes between master and apprentice, in cases
where no premium has been paid, or where the premium does not
exceed £35, are dealt with by courts of summary jurisdiction.
Apprentices bound according to the "custom of London," who
are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one
and unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in
indentures executed by them just as if they were of full age.
The term of apprenticeship is usually not less than four years.
Apprentices by the custom of London in agreements made at
the Guildhall are subject to the jurisdiction of the chamberlain
of London.
Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the
poor in England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the
poor were empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out
poor children as apprentices " where they shall be convenient."
Owing to the disinclination to receive such apprentices it became
necessary to make the reception compulsory (1606), but this
compulsion to receive them was abolished in 1844. Many
statutes have been passed from time to time regulating the
apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the control
of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying
fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned
and maintained.
Authorities.— See E. Austin, Law Relating to Apprentices
(1890) ; Addison, On Contract* (1905). For the state of apprentice-
ship in European countries, and, more particularly in France, see
Appretttissaee, enqtiiu tt documents (Pans, 1904, Conscil Supericur
du Travail, Ministere du Commerce, de 1' Industrie, des Postes et des
Telftgraphts, session de 1002). See also the literature issued by the
National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. (J. S. B.)
APPROPRIATION (from Lat appropriate, to set aside), the act
of setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion
of all other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual
annexation of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual
corporation, cither aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in
England the custom grew up of the monasteries reserving to
their own use the greater part of the tithes of their appropriated
benefices, leaving only a small portion to their vicars in the
parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries these " great
tithes " were often granted, with the monastic lands, to laymen,
whose successors, known as " lay impropriators " or " lay rectors,"
still hold them , the system being known as impropriation. Appro-
priation may be severed and the church become disappropriate,
by the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted,
or by the dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.
In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is
the application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying
a particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him
from the same debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to
the appropriation of payments made by the debtor is that the
debtor is entitled to apply the payments to such account as he
thinks fit; solvitur in modum solveniis. In default of appropria-
tion by the debtor the creditor is entitled to determine the
application of the sums paid, and may appropriate them even
to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of Limitations.
In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor, the law
implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier
debts.
In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money
for a special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation
Bill is a bill passed at the end of each session of parliament,
enumerating the money grants made during the session, and
appropriating the various sums, as voted by committee of supply,
to the various purposes for which it is to be applied. The
United States constitution (art. I. § 9) says: " No money shall
be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations
made by law." Bills for appropriating money originate in the
House of Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.
APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertiuentia, from
opperlinere, to appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and
goes with something else, the accessories or things usually
conjoined with the substantive matter in question.
APRAKSIN, THKDOR MATVYBEVICH (1671-1728). Russian
soldier, began life as one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after
whose death he served the little tsar Peter in the same capacity.
The playf fellowship of the two lads resulted in a lifelong friendship.
In his twenty-first year Apraksin was appointed governor of
Archangel, then the most important commercially of all the
Russian provinces, and built ships capable of weathering storms,
to the great delight of the tsar. He won bis colonelcy at the siege
of Aaov (1606), In 1 700 he was appointed chief of the admiralty,
33°
APRICOT— APRIL
in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical ability
wasof great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII.,
Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens
(Taganrog). In 1 707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1 708 he
was appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new
capital against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides
capturing Viborg in Carelia. He held the chief command in the
Black Sea during the campaign of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713
materially assisted the conquest of Finland by his operations
from the side of the sea. In 1719-1720 he personally conducted
the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country mercilessly,
and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she surrendered
the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these great
services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire.
His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from
an anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the
relations of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I.
were strained almost to breaking-point. Though frequently
threatened with terrible penalties by Peter the Great for his
incurable vice of peculation, Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to
save his head, though not his pocket, chiefly through the media-
tion of the good-natured empress, Catharine, who remained his
friend to the last, and whom he assisted to place on the throne on
the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial and kind-
hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an
enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupil* of Peter the Great (London. 1807).
(R. N. BO
APRICOT (from the Lat. praccox, or praecoquus, ripened
early, coquet e, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly
"apricock" and "abrecox," comes through the Fr. abricat,
from the Span, albarkoque, which was an adaptation of the
Arabic al-burquk, itself a rendering of the late Gr. rptxSuaa or
rpouoxioy, adapted from the Latin; the derivation from in
oprico cactus is a mere guess), the fruit of Prunus armeniaca, also
called Armeniaca vulgaris. Under the former name it is regarded
as a species of the genus to which the plums belong, the latter
establishes it as a distinct genus of the natural order Rosaceae.
The apricot is, like the plum, a stone fruit, cultivated generally
throughout temperate regions, and used chiefly in the form of
preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been cultivated in
Armenia (hence the name Armeniaca); it is a native of north
China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in
the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in
Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number
of varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are
distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties
are edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form
a considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur Eau de
noyoux is prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities
of fruit are imported from France into the United Kingdom.
The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common
phim stock. The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil,
rather light than heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the
east and west aspects being preferred to the south, which induces
mealiness in the fruit, though in Scotland the best aspects are
necessary. The most usual and best mode of training is the fan
method. The fruit is produced on shoots of the preceding year,
and on small close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The
trees should be planted about so ft. apart. The summer pruning
should begin early in June, at which period all the irregular fore-
right and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly afterwards,
those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter
pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds
are removed. The young bearing shoots arc moderately pruned
at the points, care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot
or leader to each branch. The most common error in the pruning
of apricots is laying in the bearing shoots too thickly; the
branches naturally diverge in fan training, and when they extend
so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh branch should be laid in,
to be again subdivided as required. The blossoms of the apricot
~«n early in spring, but are more hardy than those of the
peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be
employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned
out in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being
used for tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable,
the hardier sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well
as standard trees in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees
may be planted from ao to 25 ft apart.
The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by
culture under glass, the trees being either planted out like
peaches or grown in pots on the orchard-house system. They
must be very gently excited, since they naturally bloom when the
spring temperature is comparatively low. At first a maximum of
40° only must be permitted; after two or three weeks it may be
raised to 45°, and later on to 50° and 55', and thus continued
till the trees are in flower, air being freely admitted, and the
minimum or night temperature ranging from 40° to 45*. After
the fruit fa set the temperature should be gradually raised, being
kept higher in dear weather than in dull. When the fruit has
stoned, the temperature may be raised to 6o° or 65° by day and
6o° by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70*
or 8o° by sun heat.
TheMoorparkisoneof the best and most useful sorts in cultiva*
tion, and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach
is a very similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk
is also similar, but hardier. The Large Eady, which ripen* in
the end of July and beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a
sweet-kerncllcd variety, which ripens in the middle of August,
are also to be recommended. For standard trees in favourable
localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.
APRIES ('Arplst), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161)
and Diodorus (i. 68) designate Uchabrt, Ok^jt (Pharaoh-
Hophra), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus L) of
the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570
d.c. See Egypt and Amasis.
APRIL, the second month of the ancient Roman, and the
fourth of the modern calendar, containing thirty days. The
derivation of the name is uncertain. The traditional etymology
from Lat aperire f " to open," in allusion to its being the season
when trees and flowers begin to "open," is supported by
comparison with the modern Greek use of ejtoctt (opening) for
spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman
months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was
sacred to Venus, the Festum Veneris et Poriumaa Virilis being
held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilts was
originally her month Aphribs, from her Greek name Aphrodite.
Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero*
A per or Aprus. On the fourth and the five following days,
games (Ludi Megalensis) were celebrated in honour of Cybele;
on the fifth there was the Festum Fortunas Publico*; on the
tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian
combats, in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first— which was
regarded as the birthday of Rome— the Vinalia urban*, when,
the wine of the previous autumn was first tasted; en the twenty*
fifth, the Robigolia, for the averting of mildews and on the
twenty-eighth and four following days, the riotous Floralia*
The Anglo-Saxons called April Oskr-monatk or Eostur- m ou oik *
the period sacred to Eosirt or Chtara, the pagan Saxon goddess
of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.
St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's
Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are
doomed to die within the year will be seen to pees into the church,
falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing
of the earth by the emperor and princes of the Wood takes place
in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our
April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same
month. The " days of April M [jowmies d'amil) is a name
appropriated in French history te a series of insurrections at
Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis
Philippe in 1834, which fed to violent repressive measures, and
to a famous trial known as the prods d'awril.
See Chambers's Book of Days; Grimm's GeschkhU dor t
Spratke. Cap. " Mceate"; also AraiuFooLS' Day.
APRIL-FOOLS* DAY— APSE
23 1
APRIL-POOLS' DAY, or All-Foou' my, the .name given
to the zst of April in allusion to the custom of playing practical
jokes on friends and neighbours on that day, or sending them
on foots 1 errands. The origin of this custom has been much
disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have been suggested,
*.f. that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being sent
from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate
to Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion
having taken place about the ist of April. What seems certain
is that it is in some way or other a relic of those once universal
festivities held at the vernal equinox, which, beginning on old
New Year's day, the 25th of March, ended on the 1st of April.
This view gains support from the fact that the exact counterpart
of April-fooling is found to have been an immemorial custom
in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there termed
the feast of Hull, the last day of which is the 31st of March, upon
which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending
them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that
Europe derived its April-fooling from the French. They were
the first nation to adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX.
in 1564 decreeing that the year should begin with the ist of
January. Thus the New Year's gifts and visits of felicitation
which had been the feature of the ist of April became associated
with the first day of January, and those who disliked the change
were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by sending
mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the
ist of April. Though the ist of April appears to have been
anciently observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was
apparently not until the beginning of the 18th century that
the making of April-fools was a common custom. In Scotland
the custom was known as " hunting the gowk," i.e. the cuckoo,
and April-fools were " April-gowks," the cuckoo being there,
as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the person
befoole d is known as poisson d'arrit. This has been explained
from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April
the sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural
explanation would seem to be that the April fish would be a
young fish and therefore easily caught.
A PRIORI (Lat. a, from, prior, print, that which is before,
precedes), (1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on
genera] considerations in the absence of particular evidence;
{2) a logical term first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony
(14th century), though the theory which it denotes is as old as
Aristotle. In the order of human knowledge the particular
facts of experience come first and are the basis of generalized
laws or causes (the Scholastic notiora nobis); but in the order
of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent, fundamental
truths of existence {notiora naturae). Thus to Aristotle the
m priori argument Is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to
what we call posteriori (posterior, subsequent, derived), from
effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely
adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial
sense, closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge
and judgments generally. A priori is applied to judgments
which are regarded as independent of experience, and belonging
to the essence of thought; a posteriori to those which are derived
from particular observations. The distinction is analogous to
that between analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction
(but there may be a synthesis of a priori judgments, cf. Kant's
"Synthetic Judgment a priori"). Round this distinction
a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost alt modern
philosophers have labelled themselves either " Intuitionalist "
(« priori) or " Empiricist " (a posteriori) according to the view
they take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools
•re generally arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge
based on particulars, and also a knowledge of laws or causes.
But the two work m different spheres, and are complementary.
The observation of isolated particulars gives not necessity, but
merely strong probability; necessity is purely intellectual or
"transcendental." If the empiricist denies the intellectual
dement in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute
validity for his conclusions; but be may hold against the
intuitionalist that absolute laws are impossible to the human
intellect. On the other-hand, pure a priori knowledge can be
nothing more than form without content (e.g. formal logic, the
laws of thought). The simple fact at the bottom of the contro-
versy is that in all empirical knowledge there is an intellectual
element, without which there is no correlation of empirical data,
and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation
of some sort if only that between the predicate and its contra-
dictory.
APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of " a
napron " into " an apron," from the Fr. napcron, nap per on t a
diminutive of nappe, Lat mappa, a napkin), an article of costume
used to protect the front of the clothes. It forms part of the
ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The " apron " worn by church
dignitaries is a shortened cassock (q.v.). The word has many
technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of the sill of
dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.
APSARAS, in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds
and waters. In the Rig- Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of
Gandharva; in the later scriptures there are many Apsaras
who act as the handmaidens of Indra and dance before his throne.
They are able to change their form, and specially rule over the
fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to guide to paradise the
heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then become. They
are distinguished as doivika ("divine") or lavjtiko ("worldly").
APSE (Gr. d^fr, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel;
Lat. absis), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with
a hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termina-
tion to the choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either
semicircular or polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered
with a timber roof; a church is said to be "apsidal" when It
terminates in an apse.
The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of
Mars Ultor at Rome (2 B.C.), and it formed afterwards the
favourite feature terminating the rear of any temple, and one
which gave importance to the statue of the deity to whom the
temple was dedicated. Its use by the Romans was not confined
to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on the Palatine Hifl,
the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the civil
basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted
the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan's) Basilica the apses
at each end were of such great dimensions as to come better
under the definition of hemicycles {q.v.). In these apses the
floor was raised, and had an altar placed in the centre of its
chord, where sacrifices were made prior to the sittings. The
only other two Roman basilicas in which the semicircular apse
can still be traced are that commenced by Maxentius and
completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier
(Treves).
In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter's at Rome, built
330 a.d., the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio
or crypt, was placed at the west end of the church. This orient-
ation was originally followed in the churches of St Paul and
St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura), both outside the walls
of Rome, and is found in most of the churches at Rome. On
the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse was built at the
east end of the church.
During the reign of Justin the Second (a.d. 565-574), owing
to a change in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on
each side of the central apse. These in the Greek Church were
provided not to hold altars but for ceremonial purposes. One of
the earliest examples is found in the church of St Nicholas at
Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica erected in the great
court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple apse. The
earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria
in Cosmedin (772-705), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who
had been exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are
found in the cathedral of Parenzo (54* a.d.), in St Mark's,
Venice, in Sta Fosca and the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous
examples throughout Italy and Germany. In central Syria
there is one example only, at Kalat Seman,. where the side apses
were a later addition.
232
APSE— APTERA
lurches of the Red a
If Mji
There it one important distinction to be drawn between the
Byzantine and the Latin apses; they are both semicircular
internally, but externally the former are nearly always poly-
tonal. It follows, therefore, that in those churches in Italy
where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a sign of direct
Bysantine influence. This is found in St Mark's, Venice;
Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at
Ravenna; and in the Crusaders' churches throughout Syria.
In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics;
in the churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed
to St Helena, an unusual
depth is given to the apse,
in the walls of which
niches are sunk; in the
church of St John at
/' ""v ♦ • ~~M Antinoe* there are no fewer
V.: ^than seven. Similar
T niches are found in the
4/ ^ ^Jf^ a P 8CS °* St Mark's,
...V.^^;'... Jl %# Venice, built in aj>. 828,
Apse of the White Monastery. gt Uu ^ fa MauMM9
to receive the relics of St Mark brought over from there.
In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the
seats round the apse with the bishop's throne in the centre are
still preserved; of these the best examples are at Abu Sargah,
Al 'Adra and Abu-s-Sifain. Unfortunately there are no remains
of the fittings in the tribunes of the ancient Roman basilicas,
but those in St Peter's at Rome, which were probably copied
from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or three
rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is
possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian
basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that
it is not possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo
in Istria (f-D. 532-535). the hemicyde of marble seats for the
clergy with the episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A
similar arrangement is found in the apse of the church of the
6th century attached to the church of St Helena in the island
of Paros, where there are eight steep grades of semicircular
stone seats with the bishop's chair in the centre. The aspect
of the interior of this apse has in consequence very much the
appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known,
exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the
other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of
thirteen steps down in front of it.
In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was
reconstructed probably in the 5th century, apses of similar
dimensions to the eastern apse were built at the north and south
end of the transept. The same disposition is found in the Coptic
churches of the Red and White Monasteries just referred to,
in the church of St Elias at Salonica (c. 1012), the cathedral of
Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos, and some other
Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in the
church of Germigny-des-Pres on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868),
where the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is
found in the church at Oberzcll in the island of Reichcnau,
Lake of Constance, except that the eastern apse there is square.
Small examples also are found at Querqueville and at St Wan-
drille near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but the finest develop-
ment takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol at Cologne,
where the aisles are carried round both the northern and southern
apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in
Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes
(the last destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in
the cathedrals of Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles,
there are examples in the churches of the Apostles and of
St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at Neuss;at Roermond;
St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a later date,
in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the
church of Sta Maria-dcl-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral
of Parma.
In consequence of a change made in the orientation of antes
in the 6th or 7th century, others were subsequently added at
the west end of existing churches, and this is considered to have
been the case at Canterbury; but in the German churches
sometimes apses were built from the first at both ends, such as
are shown on the manuscript plan of St Gall, of the oth century.
Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drubeck; Huyseburg; the
Obermunstcr of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hi ld rsh ri m ;
the cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of
Laach; the Minster at Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near
Pisa.
The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those
in which the side apses form the termination of the side aisles;
mat where there are transepts, the aisles are sometimes not
continued beyond them, and the expansion of the transept
to north and south gives more ample space for apses; of these
there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach in
Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester,
Ely, Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at
St Georges de Boscherville in France; sometimes there being
space for two apses on each side.
In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses
became radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth
known as the chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to
have been suggested in Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals,
but the feature is essentially a French one and in England
is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which it was intro-
duced by Henry III., to whom the cheveta of Amiens, Beauvais
and Reims were probably well known. (R. P. S.)
APSB and APSIDES, in mechanics, either of the two points
of an orbit which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of
motion. They are called the lower or nearer, and the higher
or more distant apsides respectively. The " line of apsides"
is that which joins them, forming the major axis of the orbit.
APSINES of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished
during the 3rd century aj>. After studying at Smyrna, he
taught at Athens, and gained such a reputation that he was
raised to the consulship by the emperor Maiiminus (235-338).
He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of the Lms #/ Is*
Sophists, who speaks of his wonderful memory and accuracy.
Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant; Tkxn Arxapucft
a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable por-
tion being taken from the Rhetoric of Longinus; and a smaller
work, Utpi hrxtiitanvpkra* s-/a>/3Xa|iarejr,on Propositions main-
tained figuratively.
Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengd-Hammer in Rkttorts Cmeei,
ii. (1894); sec also Hammer, De Apsine Rhetor* (1876); VoUrmsnn,
Rhetorik der Criechen und Rdmer (1885).
APT, a town of south-eastern France, in the depa rt ment of
Vauduse, on the left bank of tbe Coulon, 4s m. E. of Avignon
by rail. Pop. ( 1006) 4000. The town was formerly surrounded
by massive ancient walls, but these have now been for the most
part replaced by boulevards; many of its streets are narrow
and irregular. The chief object of interest is the church of
Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which was
begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice,
but not completed until the latter half of the 17th century.
Many Roman remains have been found in and near the town.
A fine bridge, the Pont Julieo, spanning the Coulon below the
town, dates from the and or 3rd century. A tribunal of fust
instance and a communal college are the chief public institutions.
The chief manufactures are silk, confectionery and earthenware;
and there is besides a considerable trade in fruit, grain and cattle.
Apt was at one time the chief town of the ViUgfentea, a Gallic
tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about s>5 bx. and
restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title ApU
Julia; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens,
but its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The
bis hopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.
APTERA (Greek for " wingless "), a term in zoological dassi-
fication applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthro-
pods, including some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes,
the Arachnids (sco r pions, spiders, &c) and the CruaUossw In
AlTi*,
modern zoology the term has become restricted to the lowest I m^
order of the class Hexapoda or true insects. This order includes I u*
the bristle-tails and the springtails. |
Many wingless insects— such as hce, fleas and certain ear-
wigs and cockroaches— are placed in various orders together
with winged insects to which they show evident relationships.
In such cases the absence of wings must be regarded as secondary
—due to a parasitic or other special manner of life. But the
bristle-tails and springtails, which form the modern order
Apterm, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account of
several remarkable archaic
characters which they ex
hibit, there is reason forj
believing that they arc
primitively wingless — that
they represent an early off-
shoot which sprang from
the ancestral stock of the
Hexapoda before organs of
flight had been acquired
by the class.
Characters. — In addition
to the complete absence of
wings and of metamor-
phosis, the Aptera are
characterized by peculiar
elongate mandibles (figs,
i, M*.\ *, 4), with toothed
apex and sub-apical grind-
ing surface, like those of
certain Crustacea; by the
presence between the
mandibles and maxillae of
a pair of appendages
(superlinguae or maxil-
lulae), Eg. z, MxL, which
are absent or vestigial in
all other Insects; and, in
most genera, by tbe
presence in the adult of
abdominalappendagesused
for locomotion, these latter
varying in number from one
to nine pairs. Among
peculiarities of the internal
organs the segmental
arrangement of the ovaries
in most members of the
order is noteworthy. Many
Aptera are covered with
flattened scales like those
of moths.
Classification.— The
Aptera are divided into
two divergent sub-orders,
&' $**?&!*' a ir / u i * he ™jt«n*r« (?.*•.) or
Mn. Mandible, and MxL maxiUuU, bristle-tails, and the Cd-
kmbUa or springtails.
Thysanttra*— The bristle-
tails have an abdomen of eleven segments, the tenth usually
carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (ccrci, fig. i, x.);
sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present
To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be
abdominal appendages— in the form of simple an jointed stylets
(fig. i, it -or.), accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably
respiratory in function— on eight (or fewer) other abdominal
segments. The head of a bristle-tail carries a pair of compound
eyes and a pair of elongate many-jointed feelers.
The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different
bristle-tails, tho number of pairs of spiracles being three (Coas*
fodta), nine (MachiHs), ten (Lepisno), or eleven (Japyx).
Four famines of Thysanura are usuallv recognised. In the
Fiona £mbM|«-
Fic. i. — A typical Thysanuran
(Machiiis marilima). Female, ventral
Mix*, JrV, itt and 2nd maxillae.
«.-«, Appendages on and to 10th ab-
dominal segments. The ever-
sible sacs on the abdominal
segments arc shown, some
protruded and some retracted.
.-,, Ovipositor.
If*. Mandible, and MxL maxiUula,
dissected out of head .
fceao\th«T
*35
- r A«rr.— Complete works: Editio princena, ed. Andreas
ndorp (1786-1823); HUdebrand (1842); Helm (1905 ct
■19 (vol. ill. 1008). Metamorphoses, Eyssenhardt (i860),
-'07). Psyekeet Cupido, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck
* ~ U594); Krttger (1864); (with the
Florida. Kruger (1883). De Deo
1 ( 1 878). De Platone el ejus Dog-
I.
Vliet ..,.
44). Lut;
median 1*4^' '*-
feelers, but £?
earwigs. ^^* '— .
CaUembda.^
into the head, aT*"^*-
carries a pair of l J* "-
segmenu, and there* "
each side of the head yg* -
°o*®*, "
(1900).
Lutiohann ( 1 878). De Platone el ejus Do*
) (including De if undo and De Deo Socratis).
Lucian's "Ok* and the Metamorphoses of
v 6er Lucians Schrift AoAm* (1869), and
1 887). On the style of Apuleius consult
L. Apulei (1865), and Koxiol, Der Stil
Ictc English translation of the works
I Library. The translations and
modern languages' are numerous:
'iter eds. (reissued in the Tudor
Taylor (1822) (Including, the
-he Cupid and Psyche episode
Bridges (1895) (in verse),
■ roduced by Walter Pater
' d the subject
to Shakerley
iy Paradise).
at never in
mes by the
tied round
i. 3. "),
' of the
. had
the
of
V
From Carpenter, fne. F. Dm». Soc vol. id.
Fig. 2. — Structure of Collcmbola.
1. Isotonta hibernica. Side view.
2. „ Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.
3. .. Tip of terminal antennal segment with
antcnnal organ.
4. ., Mandible.
5. Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view
6. ., Hind-foot with daws.
7. Entomobrya anomala. Catch.
like the single elements (ommatidia) of a compound insect eye, in
others like simple ocelli. Tbe abdomen consists of six segments
only. The first of these usually carries a ventral tube, furnished
with paired eversible sacs which assist the insects in walking on
smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs for breathing.
From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the viscid
fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted
by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a super-
ficial groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the
tube on the first abdominal segment The third abdominal
segment usually carries a pair of short appendages whose basal
segments are fused together; this is the "catch" (fig. 2, 7),
whose function is to hold in place the " spring," which is formed
by the fourth pair of abdominal appendages — also with fused
basal segments. In most Collcmbola the spring appears to
belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by study of
the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth. Tbe
fused basal segments of the appendages form the " manubrium "
of the spring, which carries the two " dentes " (usually elongate
*3+
APTERAL— APULEIUS
and flexible), each with a w mucro M at its tip (fig. a, 5). The fifth
abdominal segment is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.
The spring serves the Collcmbola which possess it as an
efficient leaptng-organ (see Springtail). But in some genera it
it greatly reduced and in many quite vestigial.
Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through
the general cuticle of the body. But in one family (Sminlhnridoe)
a spirade, opening on either side between the head and the
prothorax, leads to a branching system of air-tubes. Hie
Sminthuridce are further characterized by the globular abdomen,
which shows but little external trace of segmentation, and by the
wetMeveloped spring.
In the Entomobryidoe the body is elongate and clearly seg-
mented, but the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much
reduced and the head downwardly directed; the spring is well
developed. In the Achorulidae the head is forwardly directed,
the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous, and the spring small or
vestigial.
In many genera of springtails a curious post-antcnnal organ,
consisting of sensory structures (often complex in form) sur-
rounded by a firm ring, is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head
between the eyes and the feelers. It may be of use as an organ of
smell. Other sensory organs occur on the third and fourth anten-
na! segments in the Ackorutidac and Entomobryidae (fig. », j).
Distribution and Hobils.—Tht Aptera are probably the most
widely distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails wc
find the genus Machilis, represented in Europe (including the
Faeroc Islands) and in Chile; while Campodca lives high on the
mountains and in the deepest caves. The springtails have even
a wider distribution. The genus Isotonic, for example, has some
of its numerous species in regions so remote as Alaska, Franz
Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South Orkneys, Graham
Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is unlikely
that these delicate insects could be transported across sea-
channels, their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their
great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts
over which they may have travelled to their present stations.
Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places —
under stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable
or animal matter which serves as food for most of them. Some
species, however, eat fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail
{Machilis maritime) and quite a number of springtails haunt
the sea-coast at or below high-water mark. In such localities
many thousands of individuals may sometimes be found associ-
ated together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in
Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera,
especially Collcmbola.
Geological History. — A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian
of New Brunswick has been described by G. F. Matthew, and
another genus from the French Carboniferous by C. BrongniarU
Not till the Tertiary do we find remains of Aptera in any quantity,
species both of living and extinct genera being represented in the
amber.
Development. — The embryonic development of several genera,
of Aptera, which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably
described in comparison with that of other insects than here (see
Hexapoda).
Bibliography.— The modern study of the Aptera may be said to
date from the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, " Sverigcs Podu-
rider," in Kongl. Svensk Vetensk. A had. Handl. x., 187a, and Sir J.
Lubbock (Lord Avebury), " Monograph of the Collembola and
Thysanura," Ray Society, 1873. In these, full references to the
older literature will be found. Subsequently our knowledge of the
Thysanura has been markedly advanced by J. T. Oudemans. Bijdrage
tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola (Amsterdam, 1888);
B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1880 a series of memoirs
entitled " I progenitori dei Mtriapodi e dcgli Insctti," in the Atti
Accad. di Sctent. Nat. Catania, ana the Memor. R. Accad. dei Lined ;
and V. Willcm, whose M Recherches sur les Collemboles et les Thy-
sanoures," in Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy. Beigique, IviiL, 1900, are
indispensable to the student. la addition to this work of Willem,
valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have been published by
H. J. Hansen (Zool. Ana. xvi., 1893), J. W. Folsom (Bull Mus.
Comb. Anal. Harv. xxxv.. 1899), C. Borner (Zool. Ant. xxiii., tooo),
and X. Absoton (Zool. Ana. xxul. and xxiv., 1900, 1901), the two
latter writers having paid espedat attention to the peculiar post
antennal and antenna! sense-organs of springtails. Absolon has
also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers, with H.
Schott, C. Schaffer and others, have published many systematic
papers on Collembola. as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British
species are mentioned in Lubbock's monograph ; for recent additions
sec G. H. Carpenter and W. Evans (Proc R. Pays. Sot. Edinb. xiv..
1899, and xv., 1903). (G. H. C.)
APTERAL (from the Gr. irrtpot, wingless, a-, privative and
xrepov, a wing), an architectural term applied to ampJn'prostyle
temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic temple
on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective
is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the
^absence of any peristyle on the sides.
APTIAN (Fr. Aptiev, from Apt in Vauduse, France), in
geology, the term introduced in 1843 by A. d'Orbigny (Pal.
France CriL ii.) for the- upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous
rocks. In England it comprises the Lower Greensand end part
of the Speeton beds; in France it is divided into two sub-stages,
the lower, " Bedoulian," of Bedoule in Provence, with Boplites
dtshayesei and Ancyhceras Mather on i', and an upper, " Gar-
gasian," from Gargas near Apt, with HopHtes fur coins (Dufrenoyi)
and PhyUoctras CueUardi. To this stage belong the Toucano
limestone and Orbitolina marls of Spain; the SchratknkaUt (part)
of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the Terebrirostra
limestone of the same area. Parts of. the Flysch of the eastern
Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and argile scagliose of Emilia,
are of Aptian age; so also are the " Trinity Beds " of North
America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hjppurite lime-
stone at Les Baux near Arks, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian
rocks are generally days, marls and green glauconitic sands
with occasional limestones, (See Greensand and Cretaceous.)
APULEIUS, LUCIUS, Platonic philosopher and rhetoridan,
was born at Madaura in Numidia about a.d. 125. As the son
of one of the prindpal officials, he received an excellent education,
first at Carthage and subsequently at Athens. After leaving
Athens he undertook a long course of travel, especially in the
East, principally with the view of obtaining initiation into
rdigious mysteries. Having practised for some time as an
advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to
Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the
acquaintance of a rich widow, Acmilia Pudentilla, whom he
subsequently married. The members of her family disapproved
of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius on a charge of having
pined her affections by magical arts. He easib/ established his
innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but inordinatdy
long ddence (Apologia or De Magia) before the proconsul
Claudius Maximus is our prindpal authority for his biography.
From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of
him by St Augustine, we gather that the remainder of bis
prosperous life was devoted to literature and philosophy. At
Carthage he was dected provindal priest of the imperial cult, in
which capadty he occupied a prominent position in the provindal
council, had the duty of collecting and m awa g»^g the funds for
the temples of the cult, and the superintendence of the games
in the amphitheatre, He lectured on philosophy and rhetoric,
like the Greek sophists, apparently with success, since statues
were erected in his honour at Carthage and elsewhere. The
year of his death is not known.
The work on which the fame of Apuldus prindpally rests has
little datm to originality. The Metamorphoses or Golden Ass
(the latter title seems not to be the author's own, but to have
been bestowed in compliment, just as the Ubri Jtenm QnaU-
dianarum of Gaius were called A uret) was founded on a narrative
in the Metamorphoses of Lucius of Patrae, a work extant in the
time of Photius. From Photius's account (impugned, however,
by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to have consisted
of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an inartistic
fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities of
this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apulehrs's
contemporary, Ludan, who proceeded to work it up in his own
manner, adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to
the original, bat giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius;
APULIA
*35
followed this rifadmento, Making it, however, the groundwork
of an elaborate romance, interspersed with numerous episodes,
of which the beautiful story of Cupid and Psyche is the most
celebrated, and altering the denouement to suit the rehgious
revival of which he was an apostle.
The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass arc
much the same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored
to human shape by the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is
initiated, and finally becomes her priestess. The book is a
remarkable illustration of the contemporary reaction against a
period of scepticism, of the general appetite for miracle and
magic, and of the influx of oriental and Egyptian ideas into the
old theology. It is also composed with a well-marked literary
aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of the Greek
sophists, and the transplantation of their tours deforce into the
Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of
Apuleius than bis versatility, unless it be his ostentation and self-
confidence in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the
voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering
rapidity; fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not
less so affectation, meretricious ornament, and that effort to say
everything finely which prevents anything being said well. The
Latjnity has a strong African colouring, and is crammed with
obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of the time. When these
defects are mitigated or overlooked, the Golden Ass will be pro-
nounced a most successful work, invaluable as an illustration of
ancient manners, and full of entertainment from beginning to
end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is the
episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of
which traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains
the seeming incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old
hag. The allegorical purport be has infused into it is his own,
and entirely in the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don
Quixote's adventure with the wine-skins, and Gil Bias's captivity
among the robbers, are palpably borrowed from Apuleius; and
several of the humorous episodes, probably current as popular
stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.
Of Apuleius's other writings, the Apology has been already
mentioned. The Florida (probably meaning simply "anthology,"
without any reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts
from his declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in
general perfect examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing
with emphasis. Tbey deal with the most varied subjects, and
are intended.to exemplify the author's versatility. The pleasing
little tract On the God of Socrates expounds the Platonic doctrine
of beneficent daemons, an intermediate class between gods and
men. Two books on Plato (De Platone ct Ejus Dogmate) treat of
his life, and ms physical and ethical philosophy; a third; treating
of logic, is generally considered spurious. The Dc Mundo is an
adaptation of the Heal nboi$iov wrongly attributed to Aristotle.
Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous poems
in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural history,
some in Greek. In the preparation of these' he seems to have
attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was
customary with ancient naturalists. Some other works— dealing
with theology, the properties of herbs, medical remedies and
pfaysiognomy, are wrongly attributed to him.
The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attrac-
tive; he appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of
rancour; enterprising, munificent, genial and an enthusiast
for the beautiful and good. His vanity and love of display are
conspicuous, but are extenuated by a genuine thirst for know-
ledge and a surprising versatility of attainments. He prided
himself on his proficiency in both Greek and Latin. His place in
letters is accidentally more important than his genius strictly
entitles him to bold. He is the only extant example in Latin
literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the
term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a
peculiar influence on modern fiction; while his chronological
position in a transitional period renders him at once the evening
star of the Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic
philosophy.
Bibliography.— Complete works: Ettio priooepa, ed. /
(1469); Oudeadorp (1786-1823); Hildcbrand (1842); Helm (1905 ct
seq. ) : P. Thomas (vol. lii. 1 908). Metamorphoses, Eyssenhardt ( 1 869) ,
van dcr VKet (1897). Psyche ct Cnpido, Jahn-Mfchaelis (1883): Beck
(190a). Apologia, I. Casaubon (1594); Krtiger (1864); (with the
Florida), van der Vliet (1900). Florida. Kruger' (1883). De Deo
Socratis, Buckley (1844), Lutiohann (1878). De Platone el ejus Dot-
mate, Goldbacher (1876) (including De Mundo and De Deo Socratis).
For the relation between Lucian't t>*o* and the Metamorphoses of
Apuleius, see Rohde, Ober Lueums Sckrift Aot*« (1609), end
Burger, De Lucio Patreusi (1887). On the style of Apuleius consult
Kretzschmann, De LatinitaU L. Apulei (1865), and Koeiol, Der Stil
des A. (1872). There is a complete English translation of the works
of Apuleius in Bonn's Classical Library. The translations and
imitations of the Golden Ass in modern languages are numerous:
in English, by Adliagton, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor
translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the
philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode
there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) ( |n ▼<**)•
Stuttaford (1003); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater
into his Marius the Epicurean. This episode has afforded the subject
of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley
Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the Earthly Paradise).
APULIA (sometimes Afkjlia in manuscripts but never in
inscriptions), the district inhabited in ancient times by the
Apuli. Strictly a Samnite tribe (see Saxnites) settled round
Mount Garganus on the east coast of Italy (Strabo vi. 3. n),
the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of that part of the
coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the Mcssapii, had
come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to the
border of the ancient Calabria. __ Almost the only monument of
Samnite speech from the district is the famous Tabula Bantina
from Bantia, a small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia,
on the Lucanian border. This inscription is one of the latest
and in some ways the most important monument of Oscan,
though showing what appear to be some southern peculiarities
(see Osca lingua). Its date is almost certainly between 1x8
and 90 B.C., and it shows that Latin had not even then spread
over the district (cf. Lucawia). Far older than this arc some
coins from Ausculum and Teste (later known as Teanum Apulum),
of which the earliest belong to the 4th century b.c. Roman or
Latin colonies were few, Luceria (planted 314 b.c.) in the north
and Brundistum (soon after 268) being the chief. (See R. S.
Conway, Italic Dialects, xxviii.-xxx. pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen's
introduction to the opening sections of C.I.L. ix.) (R. S. C.)
The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. brought a great
part of the pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the
Roman state, and a tax was paid on every head of cattle and
every sheep, at first to the tax farmer and later to the imperial
procurator. It was under the Romans that the system of
migration for the flocks reached its full development, and the
practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks (tratturi), 350 ft.
wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to the plain
of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and
are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once
served as winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives
pasture to about one-half of that number. 1 The shepherds,
who were slaves, often gave considerable trouble; we hear that
some 7000 of them, who had made the whole country unsafe,
were condemned to death in 185 B.C. (Livy xxxix. 29). Sheep-
farming on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the interests
of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time in
the Social War. Even in the 4th century B.C. the then chief town
of Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this
way. Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its
military importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded
by Canusium.
The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important
towns, consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see Appia,
Via), the Via Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less
parallel in an east-south-east direction. The first (the southern-
most), coming east from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the
Pons Aufidi, and ran through Venusiato Tarentum, and thence,
1 The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 144a,
and remained so until 1865. Since that time the tratturi have been
to some extent absorbed by private proprietors.
236
APURE^-AFURIMAC
tuning north-cast, to Brunduahim. The second, coming north-
east from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran through
Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia)
to Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to
Gnathia through Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel
line ran to the north of the Via Traiana, in continuation of the
road along the north-east coast of Picenum and Samnium;
it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran south to
Bovianum Undedmanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain
to the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipon-
tum t where it received a branch road from the Via Traiana at
Aecae, passing through Luceria and Arpi. It then passed
through fiarduli (where it was joined by a road from Canusium
by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the Via Traiana.
From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and thence
south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west
of Tarentum.
Barium was an important harbour, though less so than
Brundusium and Tarentum, which, however, belonged to
Calabria in the Roman sense. Apulia, with Calabria, formed
the second region of Augustus, though wc once find Calabria
treated as a part of the third region, Lucania (C. /. L. ix. 2213).
The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us, destroyed
the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we hear
little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a corrector from
the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards
conquered Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former
name was transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter
being extended to include Calabria also. In the 10th century
the greater part of this territory was recovered by the Byzantine
emperors, whose governor was called KararaWn, a name which,
under the corrupt form Capitanata, belonged to the province
of Foggia till 1861. It was conquered by the Normans under
William Bras-defer, who took the titlc-of comes Afuliae in 1042;
it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by Robert Guiscard in
1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in x 1 2 7. Many of the
important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals, con-
structed under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It
shared the subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the
kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1734* And being united with
Italy in x86i.
Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Ban
and Lecce (the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient
Calabria, which, however, extended somewhat farther
north inland), and is often known as Le Puglic; it
stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east ex-
tremity of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on
the north and east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the
Gulf of Taranto, on the south by Basilicata and on the west
by Campania and the Abruzzi. The three provinces correspond
to the three natural divisions into which it falls. That of Foggia,
though it has mountains on the west and south-west boundary,
and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity, is in the main
a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di Puglia, with
considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of Bari,
east-south-cast of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto
(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is
a hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority
of the towns — the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the
circondario of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province,
there are only eleven communes, with a total population of
335.934- That of Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low
flat limestone terrace.
The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural.
Besides sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine
are bred; while despite the lack of water, which is the great
need of modern Apulia (in 1006 arrangements were made for
a great aqueduct, to supply the three provinces from the head-
waters of the Sele), cultivation is actively carried on, especially
in the province of Bari, where grain, wine, olives, almonds,
lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c, are produced in abundance, and
the export of olive oil is attaining considerable importance. The
salt works of Margherita di Savota produce large quantities
of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.
Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from
Bologna to Bri&disi passing through the whole length of Apulia,
by way of Foggia and Bari, and having branches from Foggia
(the main railway centre of Apulia) to Benevento and Cascrta,
to Manfredonis, to Lucera and to Rocchctta S. Antonio (and
thence to either Avellino, Potenaa or Gioia del Colle), from
Ofantino to Margherita dj Savoia, from Barletta to SpinaxaoU
(between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari
to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from
Brindisi to Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which,
|here is a steam tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.
The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari,
Taranto, Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of onVe
oil to foreign countries from the province of Lecce in 100$
amounted to 1048 tons, as against 3395 in xoox; but that to
home ports increased from 7077 to 0025 tons in the same period
The production of wine was 358*953 tons in 1905 as against
203,995 to™ in x 9°x (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156
tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and
sea, in the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being
used for home consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation
of oriental tobacco is extending in the province (see Conswlm
Report, No. 3672, July 1006).
The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901)
as against 322, 7 58 in x87x,thechief towns being Foggia (53,151),
Ccrignoia (34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angclo (21,870),
S. Marco in Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,5x5); that of Bari,
827,698 (1901) as against 604,540 in 1871, the chief towns*bcing
Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569), Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573)*
Molfetta (40,135)1 Trani (31,800), Biscegtie (30,885), Bitonto
(30,617); Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776), Terliati (23,232),
Altamura(22,729),Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle (21,721);
that of Lecce, 706,520 (xoox) as against 493*594 in 1871, the chief
towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,3x7),
Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana
(20,422), Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14.587), Galatina
(14,071), Gallipoli (i3.55»), Manduria (13*113)- IT. As.)
APUR& a river of westejn Venezuela, formed by the confluence
of the Sarare and Uribante at 6° 45' N. kt and 71* W. long.,
and flowing eastward across the Venezuelan Uanos to a junction
with the Orinoco at about 7 40' N. lat. and 66° 4 5' W. long. Its
drainage area includes the slopes of both the Colombian and
Venezuelan Andes. It has a sluggish course across the Uauot
for about 300 m., and is navigable throughout its length. Its
principal tributaries are the Caparro, Portuguese and Guaricoon
the north, and the Caucagua on the south. Its lateral channels
on the south mingle with those of the Arauca for many miles,
forming an extensive district subject to annual inundations.
APURIMAC, a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de
Villaf ra in the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Cayuoma, a village
in the department of Arequipa, and less than 100 ra. from the
Pacific coast. It flows first north-easterly, then north-westerly
past Cuaco to the mouth of the Perene tributary, thence east and
north to its junction with the Ucayali at xo° 41' S. Int., and
73° 34' W. long. It is known as the Apurimac only down to the
mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 1 x° 45' S. lat. and 1325 ft. above
sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Ferene* (084 ft.) it is known
as the £n£, and from that point to its junction with the Ucayali
(859 ft.) as the Tambo.
APURIMAC, an interior department of southern Peru, bounded
N. by the department of Ayacucho, £. by Cttzco, S. and W. by
Cuaco and Ayacucho. Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1806) 177,387.
The department was created in 1873 and comprises five provinces.
Its physical features and productions are very similar to those of
Ayacucho (e.t-.), with the exception that sugar-cane is cultivated
with noteworthy success in the low valley of the province of
Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 1x0 m. south-west of Cuaco,
which is only a village in sis* but is rich in historical associations
and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department, am
its principal towns.
APYRBXIA— AQUARIUM
237
APTREHA (Gr. iwvpt&a, from 4-, privative, Tvptff<rw,
to be in a fever, xvp, fire, fever), in pathology, the normal interval
or period ol intermission in a fever.
'AtfBA BEN JOSEPH (c. 50-132). Jewish Palestinian rabbi,
of the circle known as tana (q.v.). It is almost impossible to
separate the true from the false in the numerous traditions
respecting his life. He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical
school of Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24.000 scholars. What*
ever their number, it seems certain that among them was the
celebrated Rabbi Meir.and that through him and others 'Aqiba
exerted a great influence on the development of the doctrines
embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochcbas in the
last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah,
and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the
Romans under Julius Severus, be was flayed alive with circum-
stances of great cruelty, and met his fate, according to tradition,
with marvellous steadfastness and composure. He is said by
some to have been a hundred and twenty years old at the time
of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs whose names
occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue service.
'Aqiba was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition,
and be paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah.
From his school emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures
by Aqufla.
AQUAE (Lat. for " waters "), a name given by the Romans
to sites where mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a
hundred can be identified, some declaring by their modern names
their ancient use: Aix-Ics-Bains in Savoy {Aquae Sabaudkae),
Aix-en-Provence (Aquae Sextiae), Aix4a-Chapelle or Aachen
{Aquae Grant), &c. Only two occur in Britain; Aquae Sulis
—less correctly Aquae Solis—e.t Bath in Somerset, which was
famous, and Buxton (called Aquae simply), which seems to
have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by
the Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in
a.o. 43, and flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was
frequented by soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and
by visitors from north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy,
though patients probably seldom travelled so far. Like most
mineral springs known to the ancients, it was under the protec-
tion of a local deity, the Celtic Sul, whom the Romans equated
with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths and temple
have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and 187 ft-
189s* * n d may s till be seen there.
AQUAE CUTIL1AE, a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern
Cittaducale, 9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed
by classical writers to be the central point of Italy, and was
renowned for its floating islands, which, as in other cases, were
formed from the partial petrification of plants by the mineral
substances contained in the water. Considerable remains of
baths may still be seen there; they were apparently resorted to
by both Vespasian and Titus in their last illnesses, for both died
there.
AQUAMARINE (Lat. aqua marina, " water of the sea "), a
transparent variety of beryl (?.».), having a delicate blue or
bluisb-green colour, suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It
occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl, some of
the finest coming from Russia. The gem-gravels of Ceylon
contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as occurs in
Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When
corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is
often termed Oriental aquamarine.
AQUARELLE (from Ital. acquaretla, water-colour), a form of
painting with thin water-colour or ink.
AQUARI1, a name given to the Christians who substituted
water for wine in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we
find the practice widely In vogue at an early time, even among
the orthodox. In Greek they were called Hydroparastalae, or,
those who offer water. Theodosius, In his persecuting edict of
382, classes them as a special sect with the Manicheans, who also
eschewed wine. See Eucharist.
AQUARIUM (plural aquaria), the name given to a receptacle
for a marine flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently,
aquaria were little more than domestic toys, or show-places
of a popular character, but they have now not only assumed
a profound scientific importance for the convenient study of
anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and
zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering
the best opportunities for that study of the habits and environ-
ment of marketable food-fish without which no steps for the
improvement of sea-fisheries can be safely taken. The numerous
" zoological stations " which have sprung up, chiefly in Europe
and the United States, but also in the British colonies and Japan,
often endeavour to unite these two aims, and have in many cases
become centres of experimental work in problems relating to
fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects. Of these
stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples,
which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also en-
courages popular study by means of a public aquarium. The
following account (1002) of this station by Dr W. Gtesbrecht,
a member of the staff, will serve to show the methods and
aims, and the complex and expensive equipment, of a modern
aquarium:—
" The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the
advancement of biological science— that is, of comparative
anatomy, zoology, botany, physiology. It serves this end by
providing the biologist with the various objects of his study
and the necessary appliances; it is not a teaching institution.
The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and opened in the
spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all biological
stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence. Its
two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town
park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one,
33 metres long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground
floor the aquarium, which is open to the public. On the first floor
there is, facing south, the principal library, ornamented with
fresco paintings, and, facing north, a large hall containing twelve
working tables,, several smaller rooms and the secretarial offices.
On the second floor is the physiological laboratory, and on the
third floor the small library, a hall with several working tables,
and the dark rooms used in developing photographs. The ground
floor of the smaller building, which was finished in 1887, contains
the rooms in which the animals are delivered, sorted and pre*
served, and the fishing tackle kept, together with the workshop
of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms,
amongst others the botanical, laboratory; on the third floor are
store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings which is con-
tinued underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and
fillers, engines and store-rooms. The materials for study which
the station offers to the biologist are specimens of marine animals
and plants which abound in the western part of the Mediter-
ranean, and especially in the Gulf of Naples. To obtain these,
two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are required, which
are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated dose by. The
larger steamer, 'Johannes M Oiler ' (15 m. long, a§ m. wide,
1 m. draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per
hour, is provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of
eighty fathoms. From the small steamer, 'Frank Balfour,'
and the rowing boats, the fishing is done by means of tow-nets.
Besides these there are fishermen and others who daily supply
living material for study. The plankton (small floating animals)
is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The
animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed
amongst the biologists, whereas the material brought up by the
dredges is placed in flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give
the smaller animals time to come out of their hiding-places.
The students who work in the station have the first claim on
specimens of plants and animals; but specimens are also sup-
plied to museums, laboratories and schools, and to individuals
engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present time
about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infre-
quently live specimens of animals are sent to distant places.
This side of the work has been of very great value to science.
The principal appliances for study with which the station pro-
vides the biologist are workrooms furnished with the apparatus
238
AQUARIUM
and chemicals necessary for anatomical research and physic*
logical experiments and tanks. Every student receives a tank
for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal
aquarium are also at his disposal, for purposes of observation
and experiment if necessary.
" The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation,
and is thus charged with the oxygen necessary tp the life of the
organisms. It is not pumped into the tanks directly from the
sea, but from three large cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres),
to which it again returns from the tanks. The water wasted or
evaporated during this process is replaced by new water pumped
into the cisterns directly from the sea. The water flows from
the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from which it is dis-
tributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite or
lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the
tanks on the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large
wooden tanks placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under
almost constant pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated
in this manner contains by far the largest number of such
animals as are capable of living in captivity in good condition.
Some of them even increase at an undesirable rate, and it some-
times happens that young Mytilus or Ckraa stop up the pipes;
in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to the arrange-
ments for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate animals
it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful
bacteria; for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been
placed in the system, through which the water passes after leaving
the cisterns. Each of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in
the workrooms, consist of two water-tanks, placed one above
the other; their frames are of wrought iron and the walls gener-
ally of glass. Vessels containing minute animals can be placed
between these two tanks, receiving their water through a siphon
from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away into the
lower tank.
" The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of
which contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the
front portion alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a
very large number of animals in proportion to the quantity of
water, they require to be well aerated. The pipes through which
the water is conducted are therefore placed above the surface of
the water, and the fresh supply is driven through them under
strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form of fine
bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed
through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which
ft is desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of
their being washed away by the circulating water. To obviate
this, either the water which flows away is passed through a
strainer, or the water is not changed at all, air being driven
through it by means of an apparatus put into motion by the
drinking-water supply.
" The library contains about 0000 volumes, which students use
with the help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors.
The station has published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals
treating of the organisms of the Mediterranean. One is Fauna
und Flora dts Golfcs von Ncopd, the other MitlheUungen aus der
toohgischen Station tu Neapcl. The former consists of mono-
graphs in which special groups of animals and plants are most
exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean species portrayed
according to life in natural colours; up to the present time
twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have ap-
peared, making altogether 1200 *to sheets with about 400 plates.
Of the MiuJuUungcn, which contain smaller articles on organisms
of the Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been- pub-
lished. The station also publishes a Zoologischcr Jakresbcrkhl,
which at first treated of the entire field of zoology, but since 1886
has been confined principally to comparative anatomy and
ontogeny; it appears eight to nine months after the end of the
year reported. The Guide to the Aquarium, with its descriptions
and numerous pictures, is meant to give the lay visitor an idea
of the marine animal world.
"There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists,
one physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen,, one engineer.
The station is a private institution, open to biologists of all
nations under the following conditions: there are agreements
with the governments of Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium,
Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy, Prussia, Russia, Saxony,
Switzerland, Hungary, WUrttemberg, the province of Naples, and
the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg, Columbia
College (New York), and the British Association for the Advance*
ment of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of
women in the United States of North America (formerly also with
Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin,
Williams College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which
the governments and corporate bodies named have the right, on
payment of £100 per annum, to send a worker to the station;
this places at his disposal a ' table' or workplace, furnished
with all the necessary appliances and materials as set down la
the agreement. At present there are agreements for thirty-three
tables, and since the foundation of the station needy isoo
biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid
out of the table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium,
and an annual subvention paid by the German empire."
In England. a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale,
is maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association
of the United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the
government and the Fishmongers' Company.
Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and
rearing fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various
reasons it is only by unremitting attention and foresight that
most marine animals can be kept even alive in aquaria, and very
few indeed can be maintained in a condition healthy enough
to breed. Much experience, however, has been gained of late
years at considerable expense, both in England and abroad. In
starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be obvious
that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest possible
water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and sewage,
but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud.
This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the
station a few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a
position as possible, on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to
a large reservoir above the station, and allowing the water to
circulate gently thence through the tanks by gravity (Banyuls).
At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg), given pure water,
in the first instance, excellent if less complete results may never*
theless be obtained. The next consideration is the method by
which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the aquarium.
Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of air
into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while
supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages,
that it has not been employed regularly in any of the more
modem aquaria. It is, however, still useful in aerating quite
small bodies of water in which hardy and minute organisms
can be isolated and kept under control. In the other method,
now in general use, a fine jet of water under pressure falls on
to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it a more
than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a
higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the
open sea.
The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs
placed above the tanks, but may he also achieved by direct
pumping from low reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks.
Provided that an unlimited supply of pure water can be obtained
cheaply, the overflow from the tanks is best run to waste; but
in aquaria less fortunately placed, it returns to a storage low-
level reservoir, from which it is again pumped, thus circulating
round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage reservoirs
should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk of
water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated
in rock, and lined with the best cement. There is no reason
why they should not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and
cultivated as rock-pools by the introduction of seaweeds and
small animals, but they must then be screened from rain, cold
and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be less likely to
kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather than
AQUARIUS— AQUA VIVA
239
votary, tnd should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-
alloys which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating
pipes many materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only
expensive and brittle, but has other disadvantages; common
iron pipes, coated internally with cement or asphalt or glased
internally, with all unions and joints cemented, have been used
with more or less success. Probably best of all is common lead
piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water should be
circulated through such pipes till they become coated with in-
soluble carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the
tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints
being made with marine glue or other suitable cement.
In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their
special purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular ad-
miration, or for the study of large animals, they must be large
with a plate-glass front; for ordinary scientific work small
tanks with all sides opaque are preferable from every point of
view. According to their character, sue and position, fixed tanks
may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated in each case with
cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular advantages,
and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All materials,
and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality procur-
able. For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or
screwed together have some disadvantages, notably those of
expense, weight and brittleness, but are often used. Better,
cheaper and lighter, if less permanent, are tanks of wood bolted
together, pitched internally. . Glass bell-jars, useful in particular
cues, should generally have their sides darkened, except when
required for observation. Provision should always be made
for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all
rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards
the lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from
above. In all tanks with glass sides, whether large or small,
as much light as possible should be kept from entering through
the glass; otherwise, with a side-light, many animals become
restless, and wear themselves out against the glass, affected by
even so little light as comes through an opposite tank.
In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it
impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to
waste, special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure.
Cbemicafly speaking, the chief character of the water in an
aquarium circulation, when compared with that of the open sea,
Besin the excessive quantity of nitrogen present in various forms,
and the reduced alkalinity; these two being probably connected.
The excess of nitrogen is referable to dead animals, to waste
food and to the excreta of the living organisms. The first two
of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care
and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water
sufficient to prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment
in the tanks. The following experiment shows the rapid rise
of nitrogen if unchecked. A tank with a considerable fauna
was isolated from the general circulation and aerated by four
air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the experiment;
column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as ammonia,
column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:—
1. 11.
Sea-water at source of original
supply ...... O'OOi o 603
Aquarium water in tank at com-
mencement of experiment . . 0012 0400
After 22 J hours ..... 0020
„ 75 , 0025 1-200
„ 93 o0, v
w "I* 0012
„ 141 „ OOI5 2*200
.,165 0-025
m 169 °<»5 .-
„ I89 „ 0-012
During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of
30 mg. CaCO, per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent
to 50-55 mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic
nitrogen becomes oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid,
which lowers the carbonate values. A great deal of reduction
of this, nitrogenous contamination can be effected by filtration,
a method first introduced successfully at Hamburg, where a
most thriving aquarium has been maintained by_ the local
Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle,
new water being added only to compensate for waste and evap-
oration. The filters consist of open double boxes, the inner
having a bottom of perforated slate on which rests rough gravel;
on the latter is fine gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand.
Filtration may be either upwards or downwards through the
inner box to the outer. Such filters, intercalated between tanks
and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to stop a very large
proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful whether
aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous
compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible.
In small tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in
a way that has not been found practicable in large tanks with
a circulation; these, with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea
as scavengers, will be found useful in this connexion. Slight
or occasional circulation should be employed here also, to remove
the film of dust and other matters, which otherwise covers the
surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation.
In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be
practically limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of
research it is often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-
swimming animals (plankton). In this case a further difficulty
is presented, that of helping to suspend the animals in the water,
and thus to avoid the exhaustion and death which soon follow
their unaided efforts to keep off the bottom; this duty is effected
in nature by specific gravity, tide and surface current. In
order to deal with this difficulty a simple but efficient apparatus
has been devised by Mr E. T. Browne; a " plunger," generally
a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a
bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each
stroke; the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-
and-siphon arrangement worked by the overflow from other
tanks. This apparatus (first used at the Plymouth Laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association in 1897, and since introduced
into similar institutions), by causing slight eddies in the water,
keeps the floating fauna in suspension, and has proved very sue*
cessful in rearing larvae and in similar work. (G. H. Fo.)
AQUARIUS (the "Water-bearer" or "Cup-bearer"), in
astronomy, the eleventh sign of the zodiac (?.«.)> situated
between Capricornus and Pisces. Its symbol is «, representing
part of a stream of water, probably in allusion to the fact that
when the sun is in this part of the heavens (January, February)
the weather is rainy. It is also a constellation mentioned by
Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.);
Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe forty-one,
Hevelius forty-seven. C Aquarii is a well-defined binary,
having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably
of long period.
AQUATINT (Lat. aqua, water, and tine la, dyed), a kind of
etching (q.v.) which imitates washes with a brush. There are
many ways of preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being
recommended by P. G. Hamerton. Have three different solu-
tions of rosin in rectified alcohol, making them of various degrees
of strength, but always thin enough to be quite fluid, the weakest
solution being almost colourless. First pour the strongest
solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a granula-
tion; and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your
darker tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon
or you may use a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron
being a very good mordant for the purpose. After cleaning the
plate, you proceed with the weaker solutions in the same way,
the weakest giving the finest granulation for skies, distances, &c.
The process requires a good deal of stopping-out, and some
burnishing, scraping, &c, at last. Aquatint may be effectively
used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoni-
ously with soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of
the lead pencil.
AQUA VIVA, CLAUDIO (1542-1615), fifth general of the
Jesuits, the youngest son of the duke d'AItri, was born at Naples
He joined the Jesuits at Rome in 1 567, and his high administrate
24°
AQUEDUCT
gifts marked him out for the highest posts. He was soon
nominated provincial of Naples and then of Rome; and during
this office he offered to join the Jesuit mission to England that
set out under Robert Parsons (q.t.) in the spring of i s8o. The
following year, being then only thirty-seven years old, he was
elected, by a large majority, general of the society in succession,
to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the
extraordinary political ability be displayed, and the vast increase
that came to the Society during bis long generalate, abundantly
justified the votes of the electors. He, together with Lainex,
may be regarded as the real founder of the Society as it is known
to history. A born ruler, he secured all authority in his own
hands, and insisted that those who prided themselves on their
obedience should act up to the profession. In his first letter
41 On the happy increase of the Society " (25th of July 1581), he
treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and points
out that government should be directed not by the maxims of
human wisdom but by. those of supernatural prudence. He
successfully quelled a revolt -among the Spanish Jesuits, which
was supported by Philip II., and be made use in this matter of
Parsons,* A more difficult task was the management of Sixtus V. ,
who was hostile to the Society. By consummate tact and bold-
ness Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the pope,
and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced
Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep
indignation in France; and he also appears to have discounten-
anced the action of the French Jesuits in favour of the League,
and was thus able to secure solid advantages when Henry IV.
overcame the confederacy. To him is due the Jesuit system of
education in the book Ratio atque inslitutic studiorum (Rome,
1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the Inquisition,
and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account of
some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine
physical premotion in secondary causes and predestination.
The incriminated chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591.
In the fierce disputes that arose between the Jesuit theologians
and the Dominicans on the subject of grace, Aquaviva managed,
under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to save his party from a
condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He died at
Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering
13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The sub-
sequent influence exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age,
was largely due to the far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who
is undoubtedly the greatest general that has governed the
Society. (E. Tn.)
AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr.
vSpaywytiov, vdpaybytov, inr6vouot) t a term properly including
artificial works of every kind by means of which water is con-
veyed from one place to another, but generally used in a more
limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases
where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance,
and where the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most
important purpose for which aqueducts are constructed is that of
conveying pure water, from sources more or less distant, to large
masses of population. Aqueducts arc either below ground, on
the surface, or raised on walls either solid or pierced with arches;
to the last the term is often confined in popular language. The
choice of method naturally depends on the contour of the country.
I. Ancient Aqueducts. — In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria — flat
countries traversed by big rivers and subject to floods — water
_^__ was supplied by means of open canals with large basins.
-i»a— In Persia devices of ail kinds were adopted according
to the nature of the country. In relation to the
achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most
important among pre-dassical engineers. In Cyprus water was
supplied to temples by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried
across intervening valleys in siphons. Such conduits have been
found near Citium, Amatbus,&c. (Cesnola, Cyprus, pp. 187,341).
In Syria the most striking of Phoenician waterworks is the well
of Ras-el* Ain near Tyre, which consisted of four strong octagonal
towers through which rises to a height of 18 to 20 ft the water
from four deep artesian wells. The water thus accumulated was
carried off in conduits to reservoirs near the shore, and tbence
in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct across to the
island is, of course, of Roman work.
It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for
the numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some
probably go back to the times of the kings of Judah. a
The principal reservoir consists of the three Pools of '
Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest is
about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest.
These pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs,
and sent it to the city by two conduits. The higher of these—
probably the older— was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried
on masonry; the siphon-pipe system was adopted across the
lower ground near Rachel's Tomb, where the pipe ( 1 5 in. wide) is
formed of large pierced stones embedded in nibble masonry.
The lower conduit is still complete; it winds so much as to be
altogether some 20 m. long. Near the Birket-es-Sultan it passes
over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches and reaches the
city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters the Harara
enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (Bab es-Silsila), outside which
is a basin 84 ft. by 4s by 24 deep. It is interesting to oote in the
case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the
Virgin's Fountain to the pool of Siloara, that the two boring
parties had no certain means of keeping the line; there is
evidence that they had to make shafts to discover their position,
and that ultimately the parties almost passed one another.
Though the direct distance is 1 100 ft., the length of the con-
duit is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipies incline to attribute
the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman
governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and
Tyropeon valley may be Punic- Jewish (see also Palest. Ex pier.
Fund Mem., " Jerusalem," pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits
excavation has discovered traces of many other cisterns, tunnels
and conduits of various kinds. Many of them point to periods
of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which gave to the
city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at present.
See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A. S.
Murray's Handbook to Syria and Palestine (1903), pp. 63-67 ; Perrot
and Cnipiez. History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea. 6fc. (Eng. trans..
1890), pp. 321 fi\; other authorities quoted under Jerusalem.
The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of
water-supply were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived
their ideas from the Phoenicians. It has generally anon,
been held, partly on the strength of a passage in Strabo
(v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative unimport-
ance of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were
altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns
of Asia Minor, together with a justcr appreciation of the remains
as a whole, must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest
examples of Greek work are the tunnels or emissaria which
drained Lake Copais in Boeotia; these, though not strictly
aqueducts, were undoubtedly the precursors of such works,
consisting as tbey did of subterranean tunnels (hronopoi) with
vertical shafts (eVpeartat), sixteen of which are still recognizable,
the deepest being about 150 ft. They may be compared with
that described by Polybius as conveying water from Taurus to
Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor,
Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to
Cadmus, just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to
Danaiis. They are undoubtedly of great antiquity.
The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and
cisterns hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the
small communities of Greece, had become a pressing public
question by the time of the Tyrants, of whom Polycratcs of
Samos and Peisistratus of Athens were distinguished for their
wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The former obtained the
services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for the skill with
which he bad carried out the works for the water-supply of
Mcgara (see Athen. Mitlkeil. xxv., 1000, 23) under the direction
of the TyTaot Theagenes (c. 62 s B.C.). At Samos the difficulty
lay in a hill which rose between the town and the water source.
Through this hill Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high
AQUEDUCT Plate I
Photo, Alinari.
Aqua Claudia, Rome.
Photo, Acurdein
Pont du Gard, Nimes (Nemausus).
Plate II. AQUEDUCT
Photo, Laureat y Cia.
Roman Aqueduct at Segovia.
Aqueduct of Roquefavour, Marseilles.
Early nineteenth century.
Photo, Brogi. Photo, Dr T. Ashby.
Mirabilis at Baiae. Aqua Marcia, Rome.
AQUEDUCT
241
and 4200 ft long, building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft.
broad and 11 ells deep. The water, flowing by an accurately
reckoned declivity, and all along open to the fresh air, was
received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, and so led
into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths, cloacae,
4c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60). In
Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (c. 560-510 B.C.), a
similarly extensive, if less difficult, scries of works was completed
to bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the
inadequate supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two
conduits passing under the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course
being cut in the rock. Pentdicus, richer in water, supplied
another conduit, which can still be traced from the modern
village of Chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the
ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.; the diameter of
these shafts is 4-5 ft, and the number of them still preserved is
about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main stream
the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside
Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which
the water was distributed by a ramification of underground
channels throughout the dty. These latter channels vary in
form, being partly round, partly square, and generally walled
with stone; the chief one is sufficiently large for two men to
pass in it The precise location of the reservoir depends on the
value of Dr Wflhclm Ddrpfcld's theory as to the site of the
Enneacrunus of Thucydidcs and Pausanias (see Athens:
Topography and Antiquity). Ddrpfcld places it south-west of
the Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct
which passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the
Ilissus (see map under Athens). Others have placed it south of
the Oiyxnpietim in the Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was
brought from Pentdicus in an underground conduit begun by the
emperor Hadrian and completed by Antoninus Pius. This
aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in i860.
In Sadly, the works by which Empcdocles, it is said, brought
the water into the town of Sdinus, are no longer visible; but
it is probable that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly
of tunnels and pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was sup-
plied by two aqueducts, one of which the Athenians destroyed
(Tone. vi. 100). One was fed by an affluent (the mod. Buttigliara)
of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried the water up to the top
of Epipolae, where the channd was open, and thence down to
the dty and finally into the harbour. The other also ascends to
the top of Epipolae, skirts the dty on the north, and then
proceeds along the coast Its course is marked by rect-
angular shafts (spiragii) at the bottom of which water is still
visible.
An example of what appears to have been the earliest form
of aqueduct in Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside
the fountain Burinna{mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount
Oromedon. It consists of a bcll*sbapcd chamber, built under-
ground in the hill-side, to receive the water of the spring and
keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the chamber supplied fresh
air. From this reservoir the water was led by a subterranean
channel, 114 ft long and 6| ft. high. (J. M. M.)
In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers
have enlarged on the greatness of the latter as an example of
|ft)IBaB Roman contempt for natural obstacles, or even of
Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the
first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law
that water finds its own level (see Pliny, Hist. Sat. xxxi. 57,
'* sobit altftudinem exortus sui "), and took full advantage of
it in the construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of
the upper floors of houses. That they built aqueducts across
valleys in preference to carrying pipes underground was due
simply to economy. Pipes bad to be made of lead which was
weak, or of bronse which was expensive; and the Romans
were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which
would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole
course of a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so ex-
tremely hard that it was important that the channels should be
readily accessible for repair as well as for the detection of leak-
H 5
age. 1 Moreover, as we shall see, the Roman aqueducts did not,
in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of the configuration
of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of Nemausus
(Ntmes), the springs of which are some xo m. from the town,
though the actual distance traversed is about.; 35. Other
devices, such as changing the level and then modifying the slope,
and -siphon arrangements of various kinds, were adopted (as
in the aqueduct at Aspendus).
Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed curat or'aquarum in a.d". 97,
mentions in his treatise dc aquacductibhs wbis Romae (on the
aqueducts of the dty of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use
in his time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow
his measurements). These are: (x) Aqua Appia, which took its
rise between the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Colla-
tina, and measured from its source to the Porta. Trigemina ix
Roman miles, of which all but about 300 ft. were below ground.
It appears to have been the first important enterprise of the
kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius Claudius
Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its con-
struction was 31 a b.c. (2) Anio Vetus, constructed in 272-
260 b.c. by the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source
near Tivoli, on the left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,*
of which only 1100 ft. was above ground. At the distance of
a m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21), it parted into two courses,
one of which led to the horti Asiniani, and was thence dis-
tributed; while the other (rectus ductus) led by the temple of
Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) Aqua Marcia, reconstructed
in 1860-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marda-Pia after
Pius IX. (though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct
takes an entirely different course), rising on the left side of the
Via Valeria near the 36th milestone. It traversed 61} m.,
of which 54t were underground, and for the remaining distance
was carried partly on substructions and partly on arches. It
was the work of the praetor Quintus Mardus Rex (144-140 B.C.),
not of Ancus Mardus, the fourth king of Rome, as Pliny (iV.ff.
xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor. Its
waters were cdebrated for their coolness and excellent quality.
Its volume was largely increased by Augustus, who added to it
the Aqua Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus,
Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Diodetian. (4) Aqua Tepula,
from its source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district
of Tusculum, to Rome, was some xx m. in length. The first
portion of its course must have been almost entirely subter-
ranean and is not now traceable. For the last 6} m. it ran on
the same series of arches that carried the Aqua Marcia, but at
a higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn. Servilius
Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year
125 b.c. Its water is warm (about 63 Fahr.) and not of the
best quality. (5) The Aqua Julia, from a source 2 m. from that
of the Tepula, joined its course at the xoth milestone of the Via
Latins. The combined stream, after a distance of 4 m., was
received in a reservoir, and, then once more divided into two
channels. The entire length of the Julia was 15} ra. It was
constructed in the year 33 B.C. by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who
also built the (6) Aqua Virgo which, from its origin at a copious
spring in a marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in length;
it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above
ground.- It was begun in the year 33 B.C. and was cdebrated
for the excellence of its waters. It was restored to use by
Pius V. in 1570. (7) Aqua Alsxetina or Augusta, the source
of which is the Lacus Alsietinus (mod. Lago di Martignano), to
the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in length, of which 358 paces
were on arches. It was the work of Augustus, probably with
the object of furnishing water for his naumockia .(a basin for
sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. Its course is
1 There have been found at Cacrwent, in Monmouthshire, clear
traces of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must
have carried drinking-water, and almost certainly, a pressure supply
from the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been
found obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had
burst (see Archacolotia, 1908).
■ This distance win not agree with the length given on some of the
cippi (Landani, Bull. Com., 1899, 38).
2+2
AQUEDUCT
unknown, as no remains of It exist, but an inscription relating
to it is given in Noliiu d. Scan (1887), p. 183. (8, 9) The Aqua
Claudia and Anxo Novus were two aqueducts begun by Caligula
in a.d. 38 and completed by Claudius in a.o. 52. The springs
of the former belonged to the same group as those of the Marcia,
and were situated near the 38th milestone of the Via Sublacensis,
not far from its divergence from the Via Valeria, while the original
intake of the latter from the river Anio was 4 m. farther along
the same road. As the water was thick it was collected in a
purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the Rivus
Herculaneus, was added to it. According to Frontinus, over
xo m. of the course of the Claudia and nearly oj of that of the
Anio Novus were above ground. Seven miles out of Rome they
united and ran from that point into Rome, following a natural
isthmus formed by a lava stream from the Alban volcano, upon
a line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous
features of the Campagna. The original inscription of Claudius
(a.d. 52) on. the Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia and
Anio Novus crossed the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana,
gives the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the
Anio Novus as 62 m. Frontinus, on the other hand, gives
46-406 m. (*.«. about 43 English miles) and 58*700 m. (i.e. about
54 English miles) . Albertini (Melanges de PEcoU Pranc.ai$e t 1906,
305) explains the difference as due to the fact that Frontinus
was calculating the length of the Claudia from the farthest
spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus from
the new intake constructed by Trajan in one of the three lakes
constructed by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco.
Two other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore record restorations
by Vespasian in a.d. 70, and by Titus in a.d. 80. That the
aqueducts should be spoken of as vctustaU dilapsi so soon after
their construction is not a little surprising, and may be attri-
buted either to hasty construction in order to complete them
by a fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who
under Claudius were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line
of arches intended originally in all probability for the Aqua
Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as welL
The size of the channels (specus) of the principal aqueducts
varies considerably at different points of their course. The
Anio Novus has the largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft wide
and 9 ft. high to the top of the roof, which is pointed. They
are lined with hard cement (opus signinum) containing fragments
of broken brick. Those aqueducts of which the most con-
spicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome are the
four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took
their supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia
and the Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs,
in the floor of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the
Anio Vetus, which travelled at a considerably lower level than
the other three, are the least conspicuous, while the Claudia and
Anio Novus as a rule, kept close together, the latter at the highest
level of all. The ruins of bridges and substructions in the Anio
valley down to Tivoli, though comparatively little known, are
of great importance. In all the aqueducts the original con-
struction of the bridges was in opus quadraium (masonry), while
the substructions are in brick-faced concrete; but the bridges
are as a rule strengthened (and often several times) with rein-
forcing walls of concrete faced with opus rctkulalum or brick-
work. Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley,
the aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass
through some very difficult country between Tivoli and Galli-
cano, alternately crossing ravines, some of which are at much
as 300 ft. deep, and tunnelling through hills. 1
The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders
what instruments were employed— probably the 'so-called
chorobaUs, an improvement upon the ordinary water-level
(Vitruvius via. 6), though this would be slow and complicated.
The optical properties of glass lenses were, however, unknown to
1 The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by
the cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the
time of Domitian (T. Ash by, in Papers of the British School at Rome,
iii, 133).
the ancients, and the dioptro, or angle measure, was considered
by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the chorobaUsiot the planning
of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, s.v. in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-
cncyclop&die). The aqueducts as a rule were carried on separate
bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a huge
structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the
inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found
necessary in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in
length, and 46 in thickness at the bottom, without including
the buttresses. From Gallicano onwards the course of these
four aqueducts follows the lower slopes of the Alban Hills.
Previous writers on the subject have been unable to determine
their course, which is largely subterranean; but it can be
followed step by step with the indications given by the presence
of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the pulci or
shafts (which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as
were the cippi) when the specus was cleaned; and remains of
bridges, though less important,, owing to the less difficult char-
acter of the country, are. not entirely absent (cf. the works by
T. Ashby cited in bibliography).' Near the 7th milestone of
the Via Latina at Le Capancllc, the Aqua Claudia and Anio
Novus emerge from their underground course, and run into
Rome upon the long scries of arches already mentioned, passing
over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an important
branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caelian to the Palatine,
but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile
farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of
the ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches,
which were also used to carry the Aqua Tcpula and the Aqua
Julia (of the two latter, before their junction with the Marcia, no
remains exist above ground, but inscribed cippi of the last named
and its underground channel have been found at Le Capanelle,
and cippi also dose to its springs, which are a little way above
Grottafcrrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio Vetus followed
the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at the early
period at which it. was constructed) until the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Rome, near the locality known as "ad Spem
veterem " (from a temple of Spes, of which no remains arc known)
close to the Porta Maggiore. .At this point, besides the aqueducts
named, the Aqua Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the
city, and received an important branch,' the Appia Augusta.
No remains of either have. been discovered outside the dty.
The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the dty here,
though its channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has
not been discovered. Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts
exist in the district between the Via Praenestina and the Via
Labicana.
Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the
Alsictina, as we have said, has no remains at all, while those
of the Traiana are not of great importance. The line of the
aqueducts was marked by cippi, inscribed (in the case of the
Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and Virgo— those of the
Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of the
Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct,
the distance from the next cippus (generally 240 ft.) and the
number, counting from Rome (not from the springs). These
boundary stones were erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of
land 30 ft. in width reserved for the aqueduct, and for the road
or path which generally followed it. The shafts (putet) often
stood, but not necessarily, at the same points as the cippi.
To these nine must be added the two following, constructed
after Frontlnus's time: (10) Aqua Tbaxana, from springs to the
north-west of the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracdano), con-
structed by Trajan in a.d. 109, about 36} English miles in length.
It was restored by Paul V. in 161 1, who made use of and largely
transformed the remains of the ancient aqueduct; he allowed
some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into the channel, and
it is thus no longer used for drinking, (ix) Aqua Alexandria,
* About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large quan-
tities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channel*
seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which 00 actual
a bos
AQUEDUCT
*43
rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via Prae-
nestina and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Scverus
(aj>. 2*6). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice,
constructed by Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter
is mainly subterranean and not identical with that of the
former.
It is agreed that these eleven arc all that were constructed.
Procopius speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues
mention others), but this number includes branch conduits. All
the aqueducts ended in the city in huge casttlla or reservoirs for
the purpose of distribution. Vitruvius recommends the division
of these into three parts — one for the supply of fountains, &c,
one for the public baths and one for private consumers. In the
Piazza Vittorio Emmanucle at Rome there are still to be seen
the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for the
Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Htllsen,
Topographic, i. 33 50) . Besides these main castella there were also
many minor castella in various parts of the city for sub-distribu-
tion. To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed
in the city, filtering and settling tanks (piscinae Htnariae) were
built outside the walls. These piscinae were covered in with a
vaulted roof, and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the
example still preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories,
each having three oblong basins communicating with each other;
or the Piscina Mirabilis at Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted
roof, supported on forty-eight pillars and perforated to permit
the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead by forty steps to the
bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the basin is a sinking
to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and pillars are
coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool.
The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the
republic, under the aedilcs, who were not, however, the con-
structors of them; of the four aqueducts built during this
period, three are the work of censors, one (the Marcia) of a
praetor. Under the empire this task devolved on special
officials styled Curator ts Aquarum, instituted by Augustus,
who, as he himself says, " rivos aquarum omnium refecit " (in-
scription on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via
Tiburtina)- (T. As.)
.Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman
times and existing still, the most remarkable are: (0 the aque-
duct at Nlmcs (Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius
Agrippa in the time of Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont
du Card, as this aqueduct is now called, consists of three tiers of
arches across the valley of the river Gardon. In the lowest
tier are six arches, of which one has a span of 75 ft, the others
each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches, each with a span
of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller arches which
carried the specus. Asa bridge, the Pont du Gard has no rival
for lightness* and boldness of design among the existing remains
of works of this class carried- out in Roman times. (2) The
aqueduct bridges at Segovia (Mcrckel, Ingenieurtcchnik, pp.
566-568), Tarragona (ibid. 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the
former being 2400 ft. long, with 109 arches of fine masonry, in
two tiers, and reaching the height of 102 ft The bridge at
Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3) At Mainz are the
ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of which is
carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (Archaeological Journal,
xlvii., 1800, pp. 21 1-2 1 4). This aqueduct was built by the XIV th
legion and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople.
For the similar aqueduct at Luynesscc Arch. Journ. xlv. (r888),
pp. 235-237. Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be
seen in Dacia, Africa (see especially under Carthace), Greece
and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct at Jouy-aux-Archcs, near
MeU. which originally extended across the Moselle, here very
broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent water
from Gone. From a large reservoir at the source of the aque-
duct the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn
stone, and sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them up-
right. Similar channels received the water after it had crossed
the Moselle by this bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from
Mctx, and conveyed it to the city. The bridge consisted of only
one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high. The middle arches have
given way under the force of the water, but the others are still
perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be attributed to
the latter half of the 4th century aj>. It is for the use of the
town; hence its size, (5) One of the principal bridges of the
aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest
point 200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of
solid wall, and the upper part of a series of arches with very
massive pillars. The masonry And design are rude. The water
supply was drawn from several springs at a place called Beit el-
Ma (anc Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from Antioch. From these
separate springs the water was conducted by channels of hewn
stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which traversed
the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and valleys
by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris, abou t
an hour's distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the
bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large
hewn blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three
rows of arches, of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge
extended about 500 ft in length, and at the deepest point was
from 70 to 80 ft high. Judged by the masonry and the graceful
design, it has been thought to be a work of the age of Augustus.
Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisaon Lamarousia,
an hour's distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours
and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika.
The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of
Asia Minor has been considered in great detail by G. Weber
(" Wasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Stidtcn," in
the Jahrbuch des kaiscrL deutsch. archdelog. Instil. Miaor.
xix., 1004; see also earlier articles in Jahrbuch, 1892,
1890). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum,
Laodicea and Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at
Metropolis (Ionia), Tra lies (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphro-
disias, Trapezopolis, Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch
in Pisidia. In most of these cases it is difficult or even im-
possible to decide whether the work is Hellenistic or Roman;
to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, e.g. those at Metro-
polis, Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, e.g. those
at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, there-
fore, a detailed description of these remains does not provide
material for any satisfactory generalizations as to the dis-
tinctive features of Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be
sufficient here to mention a few of the more interesting
discoveries.
In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the
Astraeus consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer
to the town in the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with
brick walls. It is clear that the water could not have served
more than the lower parts of the town, the acropolis of which
is nearly 200 ft above the level of the conduit. In the case of
Tralles the water was supplied by a high pressure conduit and
distributed from the acropolis, where there are the remains of a
basin (13 ft by xo) arched over with brick. The ancient aque-
duct is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine,
canal conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions,
crossed by the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aque-
duct only a few day-pipes remain, and the same is true of the
aqueduct which was built by Carminius in the 2nd century a.d.
to supply the community when reinforced by the amalgamation
of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its basins are still distinguish-
able, but the two water-towers which are still standing belong
to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was supplied
from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes
have been found built into a low wall which varies from si to
about 5 ft. wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe
to Antioch in Pisidia, nineteen are still standing Each arch
consists of eleven keystones; no cement was used. The con-
duit, which was high-pressure, ends in a distributing tower and
reservoir. (J. M. M.)
II. iiedieoal.— -The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves
also as a bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the
use of the pointed Arch, belonging a&il does to the 7th or 8th
244
AQUEDUCT
century. It has ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their
design and the airy lightness of their proportions, each over
66 ft. in span, and about 300 ft. in height.
The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable
example of works of this class carried out in the later times of
the Roman empire, and consisted of two branches.
25* From this circumstance it was called Egri Kemer
(" the Crooked Aqueduct "), to distinguish it from
the Long Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters.
One of the branches extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft in
height at the deepest part. It is composed of three tiers of
arches, those in each row increasing in width from the bottom
to the top— an arrangement very properly introduced with the
view of saving materials without diminishing the strength of the
work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of semicircles,
the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to the
belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century.
The breadth of tbe building at the base was 21 ft., and it dimin-
ished with a regular batter on each-side to the top, where it was
only xi ft. The base also was protected by strong buttresses
or counterforts, erected against each of the pillars. The other
branch of the aqueduct was 300 ft. long, and consisted of twelve
semicircular arches. This aqueduct serves to convey to Con-
stantinople the waters of the valley of Belgrad, one of the
principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are
situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the
Balkan Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water
rises about 15 m. from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west
of the village of Belgrad, in three sources, which run in three
deep and very confined valleys. These unite a little below the
village, and then are collected into a large reservoir. After
flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters are aug-
mented by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of
stone to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed
to another which is the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various
accessions, into a third, termed the Aqueduct of Justinian.
From this they enter a vaulted conduit, which skirts the hills on
the left side of the valley, and crosses a broad valley 2 m. below
the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of an aqueduct, with two
tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction. The conduit
then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches the
reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls
of the city. From this the water is conducted to the various
quarters of the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which
supplies the seraglio of the grand signior. ' The Long Aqueduct
(Usun Kemer) is more imposing by its extent than the Crooked
one, but is far inferior in the regularity of design and disposition
of the materials. It is evidently a work of the Turks. It con-
sists of two tiers of arches, the lower being forty-eight in number,
and the upper fifty. The whole length was about 2200 ft., and
the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer
or " Hanging Aqueduct ") is without doubt one of the finest
monuments which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists
of two tiers of large pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those
of the lower story have 55 ft of span, the upper ones 40 ft
The piers are supported by strong buttresses, and at different
heights they have little arches passing through them laterally,
which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar. The length of this
aqueduct is 720 ft and the height 108 ft This aqueduct has
been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian, the latter
being perhaps the more probable.
Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied
from several other principal sources, one of which took its rise
on the heights of the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad.
This was conveyed in a similar manner by an arched channel
elevated, when it was necessary, on aqueduct bridges, till it
reached the northern parts of the city. It was in the course of
this aqueduct that the contrivance of the souterasi or hydraulic
obelisks, described by Andreossy (on his voyage to the Black Sea,
the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which
excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method
of conducting water by aqueduct bridges. " The tottUfiaV.'
says Andreossy, " are masses of masonry, having generally the
form of a truncated pyramid or an Egyptian obelisk. To form
a conduit with souterasi, we choose sources of water, the level
of which is several feet higher than the reservoir by which it is
to be distributed over the city. We bring the water from its
sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until we come
to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on
each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes
of determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite
sides of the building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper
part of the obelisk, which forms a sort of basin, with which the
pipes are connected. The one permits the water to rise to the
level from whence it had descended; by the other, the water
descends from this level to the foot of the souterasi, where it
enters another canal underground, which conducts it to a second
and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends, as at
the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it
in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known."
Again he says, " it requires but little attention to perceive that
this system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons
open at their upper part, and communicating with each other.
The .expense of a conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-
fifth of that of an aqueduct with arcades." There seems to be
really no advantage in these pyramids, further than as they serve
the purpose of discharging the air which collects in the pipes.
They are In themselves an evident obstruction, and the water
would flow more freely without any interruption of the kind. la
regard to the leaden pipes, again, they would have required,
with so little head pressure as is stated, to be used of very extra-
ordinary dimensions to pass, the same quantity of water as was
discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted
under Constantinople). The other principal source from
which Constantinople is supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or ft
m. west of the town, from which it is conducted by conduits
and arches, in the same manner as the others. The supply
drawn from all these sources, as detailed by Andreossy, amounted
to 400,000 cubic ft per day. (A. S.M.; J. M. M.)
III. Modem Construction.— -Where townsare favourably situated
the aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively
small proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of
water supply, but where distant sources have to be ^7w
relied upon the cost of the aqueduct becomes one of the j^po*.
most impor tan t features in the scheme, and the quantity
of water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay.
Hence it is that only very large towns can undertake the responsi-
bility for this expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large
schemes become a condition that, when a town is permitted to>
go outside its own watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of
a certain number of gallons per day per head of its own in-
habitants, allow local authorities, any part of whose district is
within a certain number of miles of the aqueduct, to take a
supply on reasonable terms. The first case in which this principle
was adopted on a large scale was the Thirlmere scheme sanctioned
by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the supply of Manchester.
The previous supply was derived from a source only about 15m.
distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron pipes,
was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding
reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service
reservoir near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was
more than 90 % of the total cost As a supply of about
50,000,000 gallons a day is available the outlay was justifiable,
and the water is in fact very cheaply obtained. Liverpool
derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day from tbe river
Vyrowy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has
constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and con-
veying it a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,ooo, < boa
gallons a day. In the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed
authorizing the towns of Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Notting-
ham, jointly to obtain a supply of water from the head waters of
the river Derwent in Derbyshire. Leicester is 60 m. distant from
this source, and its share of the supply is about 10,000,000 gallons
a day. For more than half the distance, however, the aqueduct
AQUEDUCT
245
is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together are entitled
to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to Leicester
is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases
of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879.
It is obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction
of the aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must
be exercised in order that the supply upon which such large
populations depend may not be interrupted, and that the country
through which such large volumes of water are conveyed may not
be flooded in consequence of the failure of any of the works.
Practically only two types of aqueduct arc used in England.
The one is built of concrete, brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron
(or, in special circumstances, steel) pipes. Tn the
former type the water surface coincides with the
hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are those of an
artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully graded
throughout, so that the fall available between source and
termination may be economically distributed. This condition
requires that the ground in which the work is built shall be at
the proper elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the
aqueduct must be carried on a substructure built up to the
required level. Such large structures arc, however, extremely
expensive, and require elaborate devices for maintaining water-
tightness against the expansion and contraction of the masonry
due to changes of temperature. They are now only used where
their length is very short, as in cases where mountain streams
have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by
some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass,
wherever practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys
interrupt the course of the built aqueduct, or where the absence
of high ground prevents the adoption of that type at any part
of the route, the cast-iron pipes hereafter referred to are used.
The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover,
the latter term denoting the process of cutting the trench,
building the floor, side-walls, and roof, and covering
^y^- with earth, the surface of the ground being restored
as before. For works conveying water for domestic
supply, the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always
covered. Where, as is usually the case, the water is derived
from a tract of mountainous country, the tunnel work is some-
times very heavy. In the case of the Thirlmcre aqueduct, out
or the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled portions is 8 m., the
longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of time, and the
character of the rock, usually require the use of machinery for
driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels. For the
comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two percus-
sion drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the
motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the
tunnel in pipes. The holes when driven are charged with ex-
plosives and fired. In the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through
very hard Lower Silurian strata, the progress was about 13 yds.
a week at each face, -work being carried on continuously day and
sight for six days a week. Where the character of the country
through which the aqueduct passes is much the same as that
from which the supply is derived, the tunnels need not be lined
with concrete, &c, more than is absolutely necessary for retaining
the water and supporting weak places in the rock; the floor,
however, is nearly always so treated. The lining, whether in
tunnel or cut-and-cover, may be either of concrete, or brickwork,
or of concrete faced with brickwork. To ensure the imperme-
ability of work constructed with these materials is in practice
somewhat difficult, and no matter how much care is taken by
those supervising the workmen, and even by the workmen them-
selves, it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from trouble
in this respect. With a wall only about 1 5 in. thick, any neglect is
certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers
do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the con-
crete uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the
quality of materials, Arc., a leak is sure to occur at such places
(unless, indeed, 'the pressure of the outside water is superior
and an inflow occurs). A further cause of trouble lies in the
water which flows from the strata on to the concrete, and
washes away some of the cement upon which the work depends
for its watcrtightness, before it has time to set. For this reason
it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, the side-
walls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the
water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has
to be laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely
constructed before the next is begun, the water then having
an easy exit at the leading end. Manholes, by which the aque-
duct can be entered, are usually placed. in the roof at convenient
intervals; thus, in the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, they
occur at every quarter of a mile.
In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed
of wood, being then termed. flumes. These are probably more
extensively used in California than in any other part
of the world, for conveying large quantities of water
which is required for hydraulic mining, for irrigation,
for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The flumes
are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and
across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, Cali-
fornia, there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber
from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a
rectangular V-shapcd section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 2 1 in.
deep vertically. The boards which form the sides are 1} in.
thick, and some of the trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest
grade occurs where there is a fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft.
About 0,000,000 ft. of timber were used in the construction.
At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long for irrigation and
domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per second; it has 315
trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across Los Coches
Creek, 1704 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8 tunnels,
and the cost was $000,000. The great bench flume of the
Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and
7 ft. deep; the gradient is 5 28 ft. per mile, and the discharge
1x84 ft. per second.
As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete,
&c, can only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated
to carry it, and where the quantity of water to be con-
vcyed makes it more economical than piping. Where tak^M
the falling contour is interrupted by valleys too wide pipi*
for a masonry structure above the surface of the
ground, the detached portions of the built aqueduct must be
connected by rows of pipes laid beneath, and following the main
undulations of, the surface. In such cases the built aqueduct
terminates in a chamber of sufficient sire to enclose the mouths
of the several pipes, which, thus charged, carry the water under
the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the farther hillside
from which the built aqueduct again carries on the supply.
These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although
they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon,
the water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the
other under the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the
atmosphere being no element in the case. The pipes are almost
always made of cast-iron, except in such cases as the lower part
of some siphons, where the pressure is very great, or where they
are for use abroad, when considerations of weight are of import-
ance, and when they are made of rolled steel with riveted or
welded seams. It is frequently necessary to lay them in deep
cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better adapted for
sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel, though
the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr
D. Clarke (7><ror. Am. Soc. C.E. vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some
particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter,
varying in thickness from 0*22 in. to 0-375 in. After a length of
9 m. had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the
crown of the pipe bad been flattened by an amount varying
from I in. to 4 in. Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion
than those made of cast-iron, and as the metal attacked is
much thinner the strength is more seriously reduced. These
considerations have prevented any general change from cast-iron
to steel.
Mr. Clemens Henchel has made tome interesting remarks {Ptk.
JumL CJL vol. cav. p. 16a) as to the circumstance* in which steel
246
AQUEDUCT
pipes have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had
been demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with
wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and
iron ore in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron
pipes compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength.
The works of the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of
Newark, N.J., include a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and
21 m. long. This conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due
to the hydraulic gradient, in contradistinction to that which would
be due to the hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the
weight and cost of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y.,
there is a riveted steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long;
and for Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in
diameter and nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water
from La Vigne and Vcrneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in
diameter between St Cloud and Paris.
Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this
diameter is onfy practicable where the pressure of the water is low.
In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 lb on
the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter
and 1 2 in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in
lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for
receiving the spigot end Of the next pipe, the annular space being
run with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior ol
the pipe by a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the
lead is then caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-
iron ring is sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, pre-
viously turned to receive it. In order to strengthen it against the
wedging action of the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast
as plain tubes and joined with double collars, which are run with
lead as in the last case. The reason for adopting the latter type is
that the stresses set up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal
cooling are thereby avoided, a very usual place forpipes to crack
under pressure being at the back of the socket. The method of
turning and boring a portion, slightly tapered, of spigot and socket
so as to ensure a watertight junction by close annular metallic con-
tact, is not suitable for large pipes, though very convenient for
smaller diameters in even ground. Spherical joints are sometimes
used where a line of main has to be laid under a large river or estuary,
and where, therefore, the pipes must be jointed before being lowered
into the previously dredged trench. This was the case at the Willam-
ette river, Portland, Oregon, where a length of 2000 ft. was required.
The pipes are of cast-iron 28 in. in diameter, i\ in. thick, and 17 ft.
long. The spigots were turned to a spherical surface of 20 in.
radius outside, the inside of the sockets being of a radius | in. greater.
After the insertion of the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep,
turned inside to correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter,
the annular space then being rud with lead. These pipes were laid
on an inclined cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river
and the other on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes
were jointed the barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the
pipes into the trench (Trans. Am. Soc. C. B. vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As
may be conjectured from the pressure which they have to stand,
very great care has to be. taken in the manufacture and handling of
cast-iron pipes of large diameter, a care which must be unfailing
from the time of casting until they are jointed in their final position
in the ground. They arc cast vertically, socket downwards, so that
the densest metal may be at the weakest part, and it is advisable to
allow an extra head of metal of about 12 in., which is subsequently
cut off in a lathe. An inspector representing: the purchaser watches
every detail of the manufacture, and if, after being measured in
every part and weighed, they are found satisfactory they arc proved
with internal fluid pressure, oil being preferable to water for this
purpose. While under pressure, they are rapped from end to end
with a hand hammer of about 5 lb in weight, in order to discover
defects. The wrought-iron. ri ngs arc then, if required, shrunk on
to the sockets, and the pipes, after being made hot in a stove, are
dipped vertically in a composition of pitch and oil, in order to
preserve them from corrosion. All these operations are performed
under cover. A record should be kept of the history of the pipe
from the time it is cast to the time it is laid and jointed in the ground,
giving the date, number, diameter, length! thickness, and proof
pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose work closes the
record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause (which is often
very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained, the position of
every pipe being recorded.
Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to,
suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially
soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as
good a condition as when made, while the next may be covered with
nodules of rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the
area of the pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered
by the rough surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two
results, especially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability
of discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the
diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good
results, but it is better to be independent of them as long as possible.
In one case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found
after a period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate
of about 1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft
and where the pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was
diminished by 7% in ten years. An account of the state of two
cast-iron mains supplying Boston with water is given in the Trans.
Am. Soc. C.E. vol. xxxv. p. 241. These pipes, which were laid in
1877, arc 48 in. in diameter and 1800 ft. long. When they were
examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated that the tubercles of rust
covered nearly one-third of the interior surfaces, the bottom of the
pipe being more encrusted than the sides and top. They had central
points of attachment to the iron, at which no doubt the coating was
defective, and from them the tubercles spread over the surface of
the surrounding coating. In this case they were removed by hand,
and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the process. Cast-
iron pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from a blast
furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these corrode
the metal. Mr Russell Aitken {Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxv. p, 93)
found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly corroded,
owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria which
attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water
from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of
the ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been
in existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A
main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in existence
fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever. In 1867
Mr J. B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken
place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year
1828, a period of thirty-nine years (Tram. Soc. Am. C.E. vol. t
p. 26). These two instances are probably not exceptional.
Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in.
of cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe
winter. Where they are laid in deep cutting they „_^_^
should be partly surrounded with concrete, so that they 52JE,
may not be fractured by the weight of earth above
them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the
curves being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the
case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about
12 in. long (exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets
being inclined to each other at the required angle. They were
made to various angles, and for any particular curve several
would be used connected by straight pipes 3 ft. long. As special
castings are nearly double the price of the regular pipes, the
cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible,
while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practi-
cally no more impediment to the flow of water in consequerfce
of its polygonal form, than would be the case had special bend
pipes been used. In all cases of curves on a line of pipes under
internal fluid pressure, there exists a resultant force tending
to displace the pipes. When the curve is in a horizontal plane
and the pipes are buried in the ground, the side of the pipe
trench offers sufficient resistance to this force. Where, however,
the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a vertical
plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case of
the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius
near Basscin Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about
250 ft., and the engineer, Mr Clcrke, mentions that a tendency
to an outward movement of the line of pipes was observed. At
the siphon under Kurla Creek the curves on the approaches as
originally laid down were sharp, the hydrostatic head being there
about 210 ft.; here the outward movement was so marked that
it was considered advisable to realign the approaches with
easier curves (Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of
the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 f L,
occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are
40 in. in diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse
angles of 31} . The displacing force at each of these angles
amounts to 54 tons, and as the design includes five lines of
pipes, it is obvious that the anchoring arrangements must be
very efficient The steel straps used for anchoring these and all
other bends were curved to fit as closely as possible the castings
to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in perfect contact,
but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of all the
slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their
intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or
more valves must be placed in order to allow the escape of
air, and they must also be provided on long level stretches,
and at changes of gradient where the depth of the point ol
change below the hydraulic gradient is less than that at both
AQUEDUCT
247
sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit. It is better
to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may
cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered.
In all depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying
the pipes when desired, and for letting off the sediment which
accumulates at such points. Automatic valves are frequently
placed at suitable distances for cutting off the supply in case of
a burst. At the inlet mouth of the pipe they may depend for
their action on the sudden lowering of the water (due to a burst
in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw their supply,
causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in motion.
Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity in
the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level.
The water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung
in the pipe at the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the
normal velocity; this lever releases a catch, and a door is then
gradually revolved by weights until it entirely doses the pipe.
Reflux valves on the ascending leg of a siphon prevent water
from flowing back in case of a burst below them; they have
doors hung on hinges, opening only in the normal direction of
flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of head
allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by sueh
mechanical arrangements as those, described where they offer
opposition to the flow of the water. .These large mains require
most careful and gradual filling with water, and constant atten-
tion must be given to the air-valves to see that the gutta-percha
balls do not wedge themselves in the openings. A large mass of
water, having a considerable velocity, may cause a great many
bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the water
at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber
plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large
diameter and in the most important cases, are sometimes made
of wooden staves hooped with iron. A description of two of
these will be found below.
The Tkirimer§ Aqueduct is capable of conveying 50,000,000
gallons a day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Man-
Tmbhrnen. Chester. The total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m.
of tunnels, 37 m. of cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-
iron pipes, five rows of the latter being required. The tunnels
where hoed, and the cut-and-cover, are formed of concrete, and are
7 ft. in height and width, the usual thickness of the concrete being
15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per mile. The floor is flat from side
to side, and the side-walls are 5 It. high to the springing of the arch,
which has a rise of 2 ft. The water from the lake is received in a
circular well 65 ft. deep and 40 ft. in diameter, at the bottom of
which there is a ring of wire-eauzc strainers. Wherever the con-
crete aqueduct is intersected by valleys, cast-iron pipes are laid;
in the first instance only two of the five rows 40 in. in diameter were
laid, the city not requiring its supply to be augmented by more than
20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it was decided to lay a third
line. All the elaborate arrangements described above for stopping
the water in case of a burst have been employed, and have perfectly
fulfilled their duties in the few cases in which they have been called
into action. The water is received in a service reservoir at Prestwich,
near Manchester, from which it is supplied to the city. The supply
from this source was begun in 1894. The total cost of the complete
scheme may be taken at about £5,000,000, of which rather under
t^jauojooo had been spent up to the date of the opening, at which
tune only one line of pipes had been laid.
The Vvrnwv Aqueduct was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for
the supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water
Yrrawr. obtainable being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A
tower built in the artificial lake from which the supply is
derived, contains the inlet and arrangements for straining the water.
The aqueduct is 68 m. in length, and for nearly the whole distance
will consist of three lines of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in
diameter from 42 in. to 39 in., are now in use. As the total Tall
between Vyrnwy and the termination at Prescot reservoirs is about
$50 ft., arrangements had to be made to ensure that no part of the
aqueduct be subjected to a greater pressure than is required for the
actual discharge. Balancing reservoirs have therefore been con-
structed at five points on the line, advantage being taken of high
ground where available, so that the total pressure is broken up into
sections. At one of these points, where the ground level is no ft.
below the hydraulic gradient, a circular tower is built, making a
moat imposing architectural feature in the landscape. At the cross-
ing erf the river Weaver, too ft. wide and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes,
here made of steel, were connected together laterally, floated into
position, and sunk into a dredged trench prepared to receive them.
Under the river Mersey the pipes arc carried In a tunnel, from which,
during construction, the water was excluded by compressed air.
Denver Aqueduct.— The supply to Denver City, initiated by the
Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river,
rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct Dearer
constructed is rather over 20 m. in length, of which a
length of 16) m. is made of wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter.
The maximum pressure is that due to 185 It. of water; the average
cost of the wooden pipe was $l>36| per toot, and the capability of
discharge 8400,000 gallons a day. Within a year of the completion
of the first conduit, it became evident that another of still greater
capacity was required. This was completed in April 1893; it is
34 in. in diameter and will deliver 16,000,000 gallons a day. By
increasing the head upon the first pipe, the combined discharge is
30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in obtaining a temporary
supply, without waiting for the completion of the second pipe, was
the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in diameter, crossing a
ati : " L - span of 104 ft., and having no support other than that
dc their arched form. One end of the arch is 24! ft.
at er end, and, when filled with water, the deflection with
ei] it was only | of an inch. A somewhat similar arch,
60 occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it crosses a canal.
Sc ts out (Trans. Am. Soc. C.B. vol. xxxi. p. 148) that the
fa entire water supply of a city of 150,000 inhabitants
is n wooden mains, is so radical a departure from all
pr lat it is deserving of more than a passing notice. He
sa is manifestly and unreservedly successful, and has
ac normous saving in cost. The sum saved by the use of
w< eference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated at $1, 100,000.
It - ,_ ,._ accessary to state that the pipe is buried in the ground
in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the staves are dressed
to the radius with a minute tongue ft in. high on one edge of each
stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next stave; its
object is to ensure a close joint when the bands are tightened up.
Leaks seldom or never occur along the longitudinal seams, but the
end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The shrinkage in
California redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days before muling,
was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that formed the
34-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a special
dosing stave. Metallic tongues, J in. deep, are inserted at the ends
of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which are of
mild steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the
other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe,
against which the nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower
half of the pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an
inside, mould. While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is
rounded out to bring the staves out full, andthe staves are carefully
driven home on to the abutting staves. The spacing of the bands
depends on circumstances, but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With
low heads the limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface
of the pipe, when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the
entire surface. This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for
perfect preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible
to ensure its occurrence. Samples taken from pipes in use from
three to nine years are quite sound, and it is concluded that the wood
will last as long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged.
The bands are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at
from fifteen to twenty years. Other portions of the second conduit
for a length of nearly 3 m. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in.
diameter, formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 2}
to 3 in. So successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a
large scale is sure to lead to a large development of this type of
aqueduct in districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent.
Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah. — The construction of the Pioneer Aque-
duct, Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power
Company, near the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt
Lake City. The storage reservoir, from which it draws
its water, will cover an area of 2000 acres, and contain
about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct is a pipe 6 ft.
in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m. ; for a distance ot rather
more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the remainder, where
the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid in a trench and
covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on the steel pipe
is 200 lb per sq. in., and the thickness vanes from \ to | J in. vt ~
pipe was constructed according to the usual practice of marine
boiler-work for high pressures, and each section, about 9 ft. long,
was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections mere supported
on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and consisting of
three to six pieces of 6 x 6 in. timbers laid one on the top of the other;
they were then riveted together in the ordinary way. The wooden
stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western States for
many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled for any
but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle, 2 in.
in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel rods | in.
in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is supported
at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 x 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The flow through
it is 250 cubic ft. per second.
The Santa Ana Canal was constructed for irrigation purposes in
California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second
(Trans. Am. Soc. C.E. vol. xxxui. p. 99). The cross seat* Ams.
section of the flumes shows an elliptical bottom and
straight sides consisting of wooden staves held together by
248
AQUILA
iron and steel ribs. The width and depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the
intended depth of water being s ft. The staves are held by T-iron
supports resting on wooden sills spaced 8 ft. apart, and are com-
pressed together by a. framework. They were caulked with oakum,
on the top of which, to a third of the total depth, hot asphalt was
run. The use of nails was altogether avoided except in parts of the
framework, it being noticed that decay usually starts at nail-holes.
It was found possible to make the flume absolutely watertight, and
in case of repair being necessary at any part the framework is easily
taken to pieces so that new staves can be inserted. The water in the
flume has a velocity of 9-6 ft. per second. The Warm Springs, Deep,
and Morton cartons on the line are crossed by wooden stave pipes
53 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods, and laid above the
surface of the ground. The work is planned for two rows of pipes,
each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of these one so
far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of the three
cations are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the maximum
head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it has
been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in
case of a bush Are, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are also
liable.
Aqueducts of New York. — There are three aqueducts in New York
—the Old *—--..— /—- -<,.-v ...-» «* — ^-^
fhwroem. discharging respectively ,„. .
gallons a day; their combined delivery is therefore 42$ million
gallons a. day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about 41 m. in length,
and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at the Harlem
and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were used.
The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per
mile. The area of the cross-section is 53*34 aq. ft., the height
is 8} ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is semicircular,
the floor segmental, and the sides have a batter on the face of \ in.
Ecr foot. The sides and invert are of concrete, faced with 4 in. of
rickwork, the roof being entirely of brickwork. There is a bridge
over the Harlem river 1450 ft. in length, consisting of fifteen semi-
circular arches; its soffit is 1 00 ft. above high water, and its cost was
$963,427. The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct was begun
in 1885, and the works were sufficiently advanced by the 15th of
July 1800 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the various
parts of the aqueduct are as follows: —
Miles.
Tunnel 2975
Cut-and-cover 1*12
Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows 2*38
Croton Inlet to Central Park .
33- » S
The, length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7-17 m., and
that not under pressure (hoisc-shoe form) 23*70 m. The maximum
pressure in the former is 55 lb per sq. in. The width and height of
the horsc-shoc form arc each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the
circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft. 3 in.
The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a
distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the
old aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the
purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be
emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0*7 foot per mile; the tunnel is
then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth
being at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The
depth of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the
ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in
lour cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic
gradient these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the
tunnel is lined with brickwork from l to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids
behind the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to
the old and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate
and massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the
end of the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct,
where it passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice.
As it approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually
ends in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has
a fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft.
below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter
is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length is
1300 ft. ; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft also
12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from
the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading
away from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the
ground, though closed by double watertight covers a little above
the level of the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft
of equal diameter, Dy means of which the water can be pumped out,
and there is also a communication with the river above high-water
level, so that the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The
cost of the Old Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new
aqueduct is not far short of 520,000,000.
The Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge, in India, opened at the end of 1889,
is the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was built to
carry the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi. In
connexion with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces.
In the year 1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main Hoe, with
2050 m. of minor distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops.
The new bridge replaces one of much smaller size (five
spans of 35 ft.)" which was completely destroyed by a high
flood in July 1885. It gives the river a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft.,
and the canal a waterway of 1040 sq. ft., the latter representing a
discharge of 4100 cub. ft. per second. Its length is 1310 ft., and it it
carried on fifteen arches having a span of 60 ft. The width between
the faces of the arches is 149 ft. The foundations below the river-bed
have a depth of 52 ft., and the total height of the structure is 88 ft.
It cost 44) lakhs of rupees, and occupied four years in building.
The foundations consist of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the'
fifteen spans arc arranged in three groups, divided by abutment
piers; the latter are founded on a double row of 12-ft. cylinders,
and the intermediate piers on a single row of 20-ft. cylinders, all
the cylinders being hearted with hydraulic lime concrete filled in
with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has a very fine appearance, owing
to its massive proportions and design. (E. P. H.*)
Authorities. — For ancient aqueducts in general : Curt Mcrekcl,
Die Ingenieurtecknik im AUertkum (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a
very -full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards,
with illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography.
For Greek aqueducts see E. Curtius, " Obcr stadtische YVasserbautcn
der Hellencn," in Arckaeolopscke Zeilung (1847); G. Weber (as
above); papers in Aiken. Mtitkeil. (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus)
.0— .«_ .«^ I005t am j article, on Athens, Percamum, &c.
1 |ueducts: R. Lanciani, *' I Commcntari di Frontino
i ue e gli acquedotti," in Memorie dei Lincei, serie iii.
1 s, 1880), 215 sqq., and separately; C. Herschel, Tke
Ike Water Supply of tke City of Rome of Sextus Julius
Hon, 1890); T. Ashby in Classical Review (1902), 336.
1 Tke Builder ; cf. also the maps to T. Ashby 's ,r Classical
the Roman Campagna," in Papers of tke British School
< , iv. (in progress).
i aqueducts, see Rkkman's Life of Telford (1838);
! ew York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of
i \ of Public Works of tke City of New York in 18721
. iqueduct Commissioners (1887-1895). and Tke Water
7i/y of New York (1896), by Wcgmann; Mhneires rmr
les'eaux'de Paris, prcsentea par le Preiet dc la Seine au Consril
Municipal (1854 and 1858) ; Reckerches statistiqnes sur les sources dm
bassin de la Seine, par M. Bclgrand, Ingcnicur en" chef des ponts et
chaussees (1854) : " Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the
Manchester Waterworks, by John Frederic Batcman, F.R.S.,
Enginecr-in-chief , from the Minutes of Proceedings of tke Institution
of Mechanical Engineers (1866); The Glasgow Waterworks, by James
M. Gale, Member Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); The Report of tke
Royal Commission on Water Supply, and tke Minutes of Evidence
(1867 and 1868). For accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transac-
tions of the Societies of Engineers in the different countries, and the
Engineering Journals.
AQUILA ('Aki/Aos), (i) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife
Prisca or Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed
with them (Acts xviii. 2, 3). They became Christians and fellow-
workers with Paul, to whom they seem to have shown their
devotion in some special way (Rom. xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of
Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and accurate translation of
the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (Dc Pond, et Mens,
c. 1 5) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of the emperor
Hadriun, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia
Capitolina, q.t.) t and that he was converted to Christianity, but,
on being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized
to Judaism. He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi
'Aqlba (d. aj>. 132), and seems to be referred to in Jewish writ-
ings as oVpy. Aquila's version is said to have been used
in place of the Septuagint in the synagogues. The Christians
generally disliked it, alleging without due grounds that it rendered
the Messianic passages incorrectly, but Jerome and Origen speak
in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his Hcxapla.
It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897
fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University
Library. These have been published — the fragments containing
I Kings xx. 7-17:2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F. C. Burkitt in 1897, those
containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. Sec F. C.
Burkitt's article in the Jewisk Encyclopaedia,
AQUILA, CASPAR [Kaspar Aoler] (1488-1560), German
reformer, was born at Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488,
educated there and at Ulm (1502), in Italy (he met Erasmus in
Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and Wittenberg (1513).
According to his son, he entered the ministry in August 1514.
at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516
he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaim-
ing his adhesion to Luther's doctrine, he was imprisoned (or
AQUILA— AQUILEIA
*49
uons ana some controversial tracts,
iwerau, in A. Hauck's RtaUncyUopMie (1896): AUge-
ke Bio*. (187$); Lives by J* Avenarius (1718); J. C.
31); Chr. Schlcgel (1737); Fr. Genslcr (1816).
half a year (1590 or 1523) at Diltingen, by order of the bishop
of Augsburg; a death sentence was commuted to banishment
through the influence of Isabella, wife of Christian II. of Den-
mark and sister of Charles V. Returning to Wittenberg he
met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von Sickingen
at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther
in his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars
of his career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at
Saalfeld, and in 1528, superintendent, His vehement opposition
to the Augsburg Interim (1548) led him to take temporary
shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine, countess of Schwarzburg.
In 1550 he was appointed dean of the Collegiatstift in Schroal-
kalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas Osiander.
Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, ■ in 1552, he
remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on
the 1 2th of November 1560. He was twice married, and left
four sons. He published numerous sermons, a few Old Testa-
ment expositions and some controversial tracts.
See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's
mane deutxke ""
HHIingcr (1731
AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL' (1466-1,500), Italian poet and
improvisatore, was born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from
which he took his name, and died in the year 1500. He spent
several years at the courts of Cardinal Sforza and Ferdinand,
duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were the Borgias
at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems
to have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his
poems, which were extravagantly praised during the author's
lifetime, are occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation
was in great measure due to his remarkable skill as an impro-
visatore and musician. His works were printed at Venice in
1502, and there have been several subsequent editions.
AQUILA, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the
province of Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above
sea-level, 50 m. directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail.
Pop. (1001) town, 18,404; commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill
in the wide valley of the Aterno, surrounded by mountains on
all sides, the Gran Sasso d'ltalia being conspicuous on the north-
east. It is a favourite summer resort of the Italians, but is
cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the town is
the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro
de Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472)
has a fine Renaissance facade by Nicold Filotcsio (commonly
called Cola dell' Ama trice), and contains the monumental tomb
of the saint, decorated with beautiful sculptures, and executed
by SUvestro Ariscola in 1480. The church of S. Maria di Colle-
maggio, just outside the town, has a very fine Romanesque
facade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white marble,
with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above
each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains
the mausoleum of Pope Celcstine V. (d. 1206) erected in 151 7.
Many smaller churches in the town have similar facades (S.
Giusta, S. SUvestro, &c). The town also contains some fine
palaces: the municipality has a museum, with a collection of
Roman inscriptions and some illuminated service books. The
Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private collections
of pictures. Outside the town is the Fontana dclle novanlanovc
canndle, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed along three
walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace and
saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a uni-
versity town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now
been suppressed.
Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor
Frederick II., about 1250, as a bulwark against the power of
the papacy. It was destroyed by Manfred in 1259, but soon
rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were completed in 13 16;
and it maintained itself as an almost independent republic until
it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become
masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked
by the French in 1790.
See V. Bindi, Monumtnli storici ed qrtisHci ietfi Abrutri (Naples,
l809) t |ip.77*aeq,
AQUILA, in astronomy, the " Eagle," sometimes named the
" Vulture," a constellation of the northern hemisphere, men-
tioned by Eudoxus (4th cent. B.C.) and Aratus (3rd cent. B.C.).
Ptolemy catalogued nineteen stars jointly in this constellation
and in the constellation Antinous, which was named in the reign
of the emperor Hadrian (a.d. 1 17-138), but sometimes, and
wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve
stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hcvelius determined
twenty-three stars in the first, and nineteen in the second.
The most brilliant star of this constellation, a-Aquilae or Altair,
has a parallax of 0-23', and consequently is about eight times as
bright as the sun; rj-Aquilae is a short-period variable, while
Nova Aquilae is a " temporary " or " new " star, discovered
by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899.
AQUILA ROMAKUS, a Latin grammarian who flourished
in the second half of the 3rd century a.d. He was the author
of an extant treatise De Figuris Scnkntiarum ct Elocutionis,
written as an instalment of a complete rhetorical handbook for
the use of a young and eager correspondent. While recom-
mending Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own
examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really
adapted from that by Alexander, son of Numcnius, as is expressly
stated by Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary
treatise, augmented by material from other sources. Aquila 's
style is harsh and careless, and the Latin is inferior.
Halm, Rhetores Latini minora (1863) ; Wensch, De Aquila Romano
(1861).
AQUILEIA, an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the
Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on
the river Natiso (mod. Natisone), the course of which has changed
somewhat since Roman times. It was founded by the Romans
in 181 B.C. as a frontier fortress on the north-cast, not far from
the site where, two years before, Gaulish invaders had attempted
to settle. The colony was led by two men of consular and one
of praetorian rank, and 3000 fed ties formed the bulk of the
settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in
175 B.C.; and subsequently with Genua in 148 b.c! by the Via
Postumia, which ran through Cremona, Bcdriacum and Altinum,
joining the first-mentioned road at Concordia, while the con-
struction of the Via Popilia from Ariminum to Ad Portum near
Altinum in 132 B.C. improved the communications still further.
In 169 B.C., 1500 more families were settled there as a rein-
forcement to the garrison. The discovery of the goldfields near
the modern Klagcnfurt in 150 B.C. (Strabo iv. 208) brought
it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not
only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade,
especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times
at least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin
colony, but became a municipium probably in 90 B.C. The
customs boundary of Italy was close by in Cicero's day. It was
plundered by the Iapydes under Augustus, but, in the period
of peace which followed, was able to develop its resources.
Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in 12-10 B.C.
and it was the birthplace of Tiberius's son by Julia, in the latter
year. It was the starting-point of several important roads lead-
ing to the north-eastern portion of the empire — the road (Via
Iulia Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Vcldidena (mod. Wilten,
near Innsbruck), from which branched off the road into Noricum,
leading by Virunum (Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the
Danube, the road into Pannonia, leading to Emona (Laibach) 1
and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to Tarsatica (near Fiume)
and Sisria (Sissek), and that to Tergeste (Trieste) and the
Istrian coast.
In the war against the Marcomanni in a.d. 167, the town
was hard pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair
during the long peace. In a.d. 238, when the town took the
side of the senate against the emperor Maximinus, they were
hastily restored, and proved of sufficient strength to resist for
several months, until Maximinus himself was assassinated.
The 4th century marks, however, the greatest importance of
1 This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in JakrtskeJU fas
OsUtt. Arch. JnsL v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 •*»•
250
AQUILLIUS— AQUINAS
Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the seat of
the corrector Venctiarum ct Histriae^ a mint was established here,
the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained
the rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here,
in which the emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently
resided; and the city often played a part in the struggles
between the rulers of the 4th century. At the end of the century,
Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth among the great cities of
the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua before it, and
called it " moenibus et portu cclcbcrrima." In a.d. 45a, how-
ever, it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist
until the Lombard invasion of a.d. 568. After this the patri-
archate was transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was
divided into two parts, and the patriarchate of Aquileia, pro-
tected by the Lombards, was revived, that of Grado being
protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the doges of
Venice. In 1037 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered
and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patri-
arch of the latter In his dignities, the town never recovered,
though it continued to be the seat of the patriarchate until its
formal transference to Venice in 1450, The seat of the patri-
archate of Aquileia had been transferred to Udinc in 1*38, but
returned in 1430 when Venice annexed the territory of Udine.
It was fin Ally suppressed in 1751, and the sees of Udine and
Gori/.la (Gore) established in its stead. Its buildings served as
ktonc quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman period
remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street
and the north-west angle of the town walls, while the local
museum contains over 2000 inscriptions, besides statues and
other antiquities. The cathedral, a flat-roofed basilica, was
erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the site of an earner
church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by Patriarch
Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier
prrfod. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated
columns remain standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is
rendered unhealthy by rice-fields.
See T. \V. Jackton. Dal mat (a, Ittrte and tho Quarnero (Oxford,
1**7), Hi. 377 « ,( 1<: H. Maionliii, Aouileia %ur Romeruit (Gttrz,
1H81), FunUurle von Aqtiihia {Dhn, l«gj), " Intrhriftcn in Grado "
(Roman inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in Jakreshtfte
da OiUrr. Arch, In it Huts, I. (1B9H), lielblatt, 83, 123. (T. As.)
AQUILLIUI, MANIUI, Roman general, consul in 101 B.C.
He successfully put down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion
in Sicily. After his return, being accused of extortion, he was
acquitted on account of his military services, although there
was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted as legate against
Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and taken
prisoner, Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is
said to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his
throat.
Diodorut Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, Mithrid. H. 17. ai; Veil.
Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero. Verrts, tii. 54. D$ Officii*, u. 14. Tusc.
v. 5.
AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas or Aquxn or Aquino], (c 1227-
1274), scholastic philosopher, known as Doctor Angelic us, Doctor
Universalis, was of noble descent, and nearly allied to several of
the royal houses of Europe. lie was born in 1225 or 1227, at
Roccasccca, the castle of his father Landulf, count of Aquino,
in the territories of Naples. Having received his elementary
education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he studied for six
years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his sixteenth year.
While there he probably came under the influence of the Domini*
cans, who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks
the ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition
of his family, which was overcome only by the intervention of
Pope Innocent IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his
seventeenth year.
His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study,
sent him to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus
Magnus was lecturing on philosophy and theology. In 1245
Albertus was called to Paris, and there Aquinas followed him,
and remained with him for three years, at the end of which he
graduated as bachelor of theology. In 2248 he returned to
Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and
magUtcr studcuiium. This year may be taken as the beginning
of bis literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he
had thrown himself with ardour into the controversy raging
between the university and the Friar-Preachers respecting the
liberty of teaching, resisting both by speeches and pamphlets the
authorities of the university; and when the dispute was referred
to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was chosen to defend his
order, which he did with such success as to overcome the argu-
ments of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the university,
and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257, along
with his friend Bonavenlura, he was created doctor of theology,
and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris,
and also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time
onwards his life was one of incessant toil; he was continually
engaged in the active service of his order, was frequently travel-
ling upon long and tedious journeys, and was constantly consulted
on affairs of state by the reigning pontiff.
In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order
held in London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and
now in Bologna, all the while engaged in the public business of
the church. In 1271 he was again in Paris, lecturing to the
students, managing the affairs of the church and consulted by
the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of state. In 1272
the commands of the chief of his order and the request of King
Charles brought him back to the professor's chair at Naples.
All this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies,
disputations, lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great
work the Summa Thcologiae. Such rewards as the church could
bestow had been offered to him. He refused the archbishopric of
Naples and the abbacy of Monte Cassino. In January 1274 he
was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend the council con-
vened at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the differences
between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from
illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength
failing on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of
Fossa Nuova, in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering
illness of seven weeks, he died on the 7 th of March 1274, Dante
{Purg. xx. 69) asserts that he was poisoned by order of Charles
of Anjou. Villani (ix.218) quotes the belief, and the Anonimo
Fiorcntino describes the crime and its motive. But Muratori,
reproducing the account given by one of Thomas's friends;
gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in 1323 by
Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St
Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose,
Augustine, Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine
has had an equal influence on the theological thought and
language of the Western Church, a fact which was strongly
emphasized by Leo XIII. (q.v.) in his Encyclical of August 4,
1879, which directed the clergy to take the teachings of Aquinas
as the basis of their theological position. In 1880 he was declared
patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments. In a
monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still
shown a cell in which he is said to have lived.
The writings of Thomas arc of great importance for philosophy
as well as for theology, for by nature and education be is the spirit
of scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system
rested were these. He held that there were two sources of
knowledge — the mysteries of Christian faith and the truths of
human reason. The distinction between these two was made
emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains, especially in his treatise
Contra Gentiles, to make it plain that each is a distinct fountain
of knowledge, but that revelation is the more important of the
two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than the
manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief character-
istic is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be
believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is
not Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself docs not corre-
spond exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition
alone, for church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revela-
tion is a divine source of knowledge, of which Scripture and
church tradition are the channels; and he who would rightly
AQUINAS
251
understand theology must familiarize himself with Scripture,
the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions of councils, in such
a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it were, those
fharrneh along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas's
conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception
of revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason,
but the fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the
various systems of heathen philosophy, and more especially the
thoughts of Plato and the methods of Aristotle. Reason and
revelation are separate sources of knowledge; and man can put
himself in possession of each, because he can bring himself into
relation to the church on the one hand, and the system of philo-
sophy, or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The conception
wul be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas, taught
by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius,
who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes
spoke of a natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths
in themselves mysterious, and was always accustomed to say
that reason as well as revelation contained two kinds of know-
ledge. The first kind lay quite beyond the power of man to
receive it, the second was within man's reach. In reason, as in
revelation, man can only attain to the lower kind of knowledge;
there is a higher kind which we may not hope to reach.
Bat while reason and revelation are two distinct sources
of truths, the truths are not contradictory; for in the last
resort they rest on one absolute truth — they come from the one
source of knowledge, God. the Absolute One. Hence arises the
compatibility of philosophy and theology which was the funda-
mental axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of a Summa
Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophic as well. All the
many writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the
Summa Theologiae, a.nd show us the progress of his mind training
for this his life work. In the Summa CathoHcae Pidei contra
Gentiles he shows how a Christian theology is the sum and crown
of all science. This work is in its design apologetic, and is meant
to bring within the range of Christian thought all that is of value
in Mahommedan science. He carefully establishes the necessity
of revelation as a source of knowledge, not merely because it
aids us in comprehending in a somewhat better way the truths
already furnished by reason, as some of the Arabian philosophers
and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is the absolute
source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian faith;
and then he lays down the relations to be observed between
reason and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This
work, Contra Gentiles, may be taken as an elaborate exposition
of the method of Aquinas. That method, however, implied a
careful study and comprehension of the results which accrued
to man from reason and revelation, and a thorough grasp of
all that had been done by man in relation to those two sources
of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings,
Thomas proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of
revelation he found in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings
of the fathers and the great theologians of the church; and
his method was to proceed backwards. He began with
Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in
his famous book on the Sentences, the various authoritative
statements of the church upon doctrine) in his In Quatuor
Sententiamm P. Lombardi libros. Then came his deliverances
upon undecided points in theology, in his XII. Quodlibeto
Disputota, and his Quaestiones Disputatae. His Catena Aurea
next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary on the
Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological
t^rhing of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his
preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the
results of which are contained in his commentaries, In omnes
Epislctas Dm Apostoli Expositio, his Super Isaiam et Jeremiam,
and his In Psalmcs. Turning now to the other side, we have
evidence, not only from tradition but from his writings, that
he was acquainted with Plato and the mystical Platonists;
but he had the sagadty to perceive that Aristotle was the great
representative of philosophy, and that his writings contained
the best results and method which the natural reason had as yet
attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this side
by commentaries on Aristotle's De Interpretation, on his Posterior
Analytics, on the Metaphysics, the Physics, the De Anima, and
on Aristotle's other psychological and physical writings, each
commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and
grasp the method contained and employed in each treatise.
Fortified by this exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his
Summa Theologiae, which he intended to be the sum of all known
learning, arranged according to the best method, and subor-
dinate to the dictates of the church. Practically it came to be
the theological dicta of the church, explained according to the
philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The
Summa is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be
said to treat of God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the
second parts are wholly the work of Aquinas, but of the third
part only the first ninety quaestiones are his; the rest of it was
finished in accordance with his designs. The first book, after
a short introduction upon the nature of theology as understood
by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature,
attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a
modern work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics
of Aristotle find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture,
while all subjects in any way related to the central theme are
brought into the discourse. The second part is divided into
two, which are quoted as Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae.
This second part has often been described as ethic, but this is
scarcely true. The subject is man, treated as Aristotle docs,
according to his rkXot, and so Aquinas discusses all the ethical,
psychological and theological questions which arise; but any
theological discussion upon man must be mainly ethical, and so
a great proportion of the first part, and almost the whole of the
second, has to do with ethical questions. In his ethical discus-
sions (a full account of which is given under Ethics) Aquinas
distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the
theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural,
justice, prudence and the like. The theological virtues are
founded on faith, in opposition to the natural, which are founded
on reason; and as faith with Aquinas is always belief in a pro-
position, not trust in a personal Saviour, conformably with his
idea that revelation is a new knowledge rather than a new life,
the relation of unbelief to virtue is very strictly and narrowly
laid down and enforced. The third part of the Summa is also
divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by design.
Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has
been added to complete the scheme is appended as a Supple-
mentum Tertiae Partis, In this third part Aquinas discusses
the person, office and work of Christ, and had begun to discuss
the sacraments, when death put an end to his labours.
The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained
in the article Scholasticism- In connexion with the problem
of universals, he held that the diversity of individuals depends
on the quantitative division of matter (materia, signata), and
in this way he attracted the criticism of the Scotists, who pointed
out that this very matter is individual and determinate, and,
therefore, itself requires explanation. In general, Aquinas
maintained in different senses the real existence of universal*
ante rem, in-re and post rem.
inas is that prepared
at ). The Abbe Migne
pu \ieohgiae, in four ovo
vol ( Computus; English
edi iloy (London. 1888).
Sc< eSt Thomas d'Aquin,
avt (Pari», 1737) ; Karl
W ;andR.B.Vaughan,
Si on, 1872) : other lives
by aux de Giure (Paris,
l& UoaoplW of Aquinas,
sec des MiUelaUers, ii.;
B. [.; J. Frohschammer,
Di Prantl, CeschichU i.
Lo ft, Goti (Regensburg,
i8i >. A. (4 vols. Regens-
bu belemchUt durch Tk>
p. . . ,... - Dogma (trans. Win.
252
AQUINO— AQUITAINE
Gilchrist, London. 1899) ; Ueberweg's History of Philosophy, vol. i.
See also H. C. O'Neill, New Things and Old in St Thomas Aquinas
(1909)* with biography.
(T. M.L.;J. M.M.)
AQUINO, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town
of Caserta, and 7} m. N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (toox) 2672. The
modern town, dose to the ancient, is unimportant, though the
canons of the cathedral have the privilege of wearing the mitre
and cap pa magna at great festivals. It is close to the site of the
ancient Aquinum, a municipium in the time of Cicero, and made
a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal and of the
emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one
of the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo,
is still well preserved, and there are remains within the walls
(portions of which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain)
of two (so called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see
R. Dclbrlick in R&tn. MilUilungcn, 1003, p. 143). Outside, on the
south is a well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals,
and close to it the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a
handsome building in the Romanesque style, but now roofless.
Several Roman inscriptions are built into it, and many others
that have been found indicate the ancient importance of the place,
which, though it does not appear in early history, is vouched for
by Cicero and Strabo. 1 A colony was planted here by the Triumviri.
St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of Roccasecca, 5 m. N.
See E. Grossi, Aquinum (Rome, 1907). (T. As.)
AQUITAINE, the name of an ancient province in France, the
extent of which has varied considerably from time to time.
About the time of Julius Caesar the name Aquitania was given
to that part of Gaul lying between the Pyrenees and the Garonne,
and its inhabitants were a race, or races, distinct from the Celts.
The name Aquitania is probably a form of Auscetani, which in
its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and b thus cognate with
the words Basque and Wasconia, i.e. Gascony. Although many
of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not
until about 28 B.C. that the district was brought under the
Roman yoke. In keeping with the Roman policy of denational-
ization, the term Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus
it included the whole of Gaul south and west of the Loire and
the Allier, and thus ceased to possess ethnographical importance.
In the 3rd century a.d. this larger Aquitania was divided into
three parts: Aquitania Prima, the eastern part of the district
between the Loire and the Garonne; Aquitania Secunda, the
western part of the same district; and Aquitania Tertia, or
Novcmpopulana, the region between the Garonne and the
Pyrenees, or the original Aquitania. The seats of government
were respectively Bourges, Bordeaux and Eauze; the province
contained twenty-six cities, and was in the diocese of Vienne.
Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large measure of
Roman dvilization, and this continued to distinguish the dis-
trict down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths
established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parte
of Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but. after the defeat
of their king Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they
were supplanted by their conquerors. Clovis and his successors
extended their authority nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as
Guizot has remarked, " the conquest of Aquitania by Clovis left
it almost as alien to the people and king of Franks as it had
formerly been." Subsequently during the Merovingian period
it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish
kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but
the Aquitanians had little difficulty in effectually resisting this
authority, although they did not establish themselves as a separate
kingdom. About 628, indeed, they gathered around Charibert,
or Haribert, a brother of the Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the
hope of national independence; but after his death in 630 they
returned to their former condition. But this effort, although
a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord between
the two prindpal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared
1 According to H. Nissen, ttal. Landeskunde (Berlin, 1902), ii. 665,
a* road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be
seen*
the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the)
Aquitanians were able to offer to the Franks.
The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who,
like his successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the
Frankish kings, and whose seat of government was Toulouse.
About the end of the 7 th century an adventurer named Odo,
or Eudes, made himself master of this region. Attacked by the
Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but when they
reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles Martd,
who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the homage
of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Kunald, who after
carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short,
retired to a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict
to Waifcr, or Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously
carried on an unequal struggle with the Franks, but he was
assassinated in 768, and with him perished the national inde-
pendence, although not the national individuality, of the
Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine upon his
young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a
king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period
as a kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded
Charlemagne as emperor in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his
son Pippin, on whose death in 838 the Aquitanians chose his
son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The emperor Louis I.,
however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom to
his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the
Bald. Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which
resulted eventually in the success of Charles, although from
845 to 852 Pippin was in possession of the kingdom. In 85a
Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the Bald, who soon afterwards
gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as thdr king.
On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother Louis
the Stammerer succeeded, to the kingdom, and when, in 877,
Louis became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the
Frankish crown.
A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a
treaty made in 845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin IL
the kingdom had been diminished by the loss of Poitou, Sain-
tonge and Angoumois, which had been given to Rainulf I., count
of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this date the title of duke
of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was now borne
by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of
Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three dis-
tricts already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf's
successors, in spite of some trouble with their Frankish over-
lords, until 893 when Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order
of King Charles III. the Simple. Charles then bestowed the
duchy upon William the Pious, count of Auvergne, the founder
of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 9x8 by his nephew.
Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes
followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet,
king of France, and another of whom, William V., called the
Great, was able considerably to strengthen and extend his
authority, although he failed in his attempt to secure the Lom-
bard crown. William's duchy almost reached the limits of
the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not stittch
south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession
of the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names oT
William VI. (d. 1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039) ,who joincdGascony
to his duchy, William VII. and William VIII. bring us down to
William IX. (d. 1x27), who succeeded in 1087, and made himself
famous as a crusader and a troubadour. William X. (d. 1137)
married his daughter Eleanor to Louis VII., king of France,
and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was divorci-d
from Louis and was married in n 52 to Henry II. of England
the duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed
a revolt there, gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died
in xiqo, it reverted to Eleanor, and on her death five years later,
was united to the English crown and henceforward followed
the fortunes of the English possessions in France. Aquitaine
as it came to the English kings stretched as of old from the
Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the
ARABESQUE— ARABGIR
*53
south-cast by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The nam©
Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into
use about the ioth century, and the subsequent history of
Aquitaine is merged in that of Gascony (q.v.) and Guienne (?.*.)•
See E. Desjardins, Geographic historique et administrative de la
Gaule romaitu (Paris, 1 876, 93); A. Luchalre, Les Origin** lin-
gvisttques de V Aquitaine (Paris, 1877) ; A. Longnon, Geographic de la
Gaul* au VI' siede (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, Les Ongines du
premier duckid Aquitaine (Paris, 1881) ; and E. Mabtlle, Le Royaume
£ Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlavingiens (Paris, 1870).
ARABESQUE, a word meaning simply "Arabian," but
technically used for a certain form of decorative design in
flowing lines intertwined; hence comes the more metaphorical
use of this word, whether in nature or in morals, indicating a
fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines against a back-
ground. In decorative design the term is historically a
misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from
Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style
derived from Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque
are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of orna-
ment, developed by the Byzantine Greeks for their new masters,
after the conquests of the followers of Mahomet; and the former
is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of cinquecento de-
coration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian
examples in their details, but are a development derived from
Greek and Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in
the remains of ancient palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses
at Pompeii. These were reproduced by Raphael and his pupils
in the decoration of some of the corridors of the Loggie of the
Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for these-
decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, there-
lore, is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decora-
tion, and has really nothing in common with it except the mere
symmetrical principles of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius
give us no name for the extravagant decorative wall-painting
in vogue in their time, to which the early Italian revivers of it
seem to have given the designation of grotesque, because it was
first discovered in the arched or underground chambers (grotlc)
of Roman ruins— as in the golden house of Nero, or the baths of
Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in some
measure a supplanting of the^ Arabesque for the classical
grotesque, still retaining the original Arabian designation, while
the genuine Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as
Moresque or Moorish. So it is now the original Arabesque that
is called by its specific names of Saracenic, Moorish and Alham-
bresque, while the term Arabesque is applied exclusively to the
style developed from the debased classical grotesque of the
Roman empire.
There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Re-
naissance Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders
and for silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the
conventional Saracenic foliations. Bu t the Arabesque developed
in the Italian cinquecento work repudiated all the original
Arabian dements and devices, and limited itself to the mani-
pulating of the classical elements, of which the most prominent
feature is ever the floriated or foliated scroll; and it is in this
cinquecento decoration, whether in sculpture or in painting,
that Arabesque has been perfected.
In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which
was ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their
Arabian masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest,
every natural object was proscribed; the artists were, therefore,
reduced to making symmetrical designs from forms which should
have no positive meaning; yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were
Christians, managed to work even their own ecclesiastical
symbols, in a disguised manner, into their tracery and diapers;
as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so introduced; this,
of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the crescent ever
introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or Cairo.
The crescent was itseli not a Mahommedan device till after the
conquest of Constantinople in 1453 ad. The crescent, as the
new moon, was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after
that capital of the Eastern empire fell Into the hands of the Turks
that this symbol was adopted by them. The crescent and the
cross became antagonist standards, therefore, first in the 15 tb
century. And the crescent is not an element of original Moorish
decoration.
The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware
afford admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish
decoration. A conventional floriage is common in these diapers;
tracery also is a great feature in this work, in geometrical com-
binations, whether rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs
are rich m colour; idolatry was in the reproduction of natural
forms, not in the fanciful combination of natural colours. These
curves and angles, therefore, or interlacing*, chiefly in stucco,
constitute the prominent elements of an Arabian ornamental
design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed of a mass
of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the ex-
clusion of all natural images was the fundamental principle of
the style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless
specimens of this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured,
and profusely enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in
Cairo, aj>. $76, the known work of a Greek, affords the
completest example of this art in its early time; and Sicily
contains many remaiiis of this same exquisite Saracenic
decoration.
Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very
different style of design is implied by the Arabesque of the
cinquecento, a purely classical ornamentation. This owes its
origin to the excavation and recovery of ancient monuments,
and was developed chiefly by the sculptors of the north, and the
painters of central Italy; by the Lombardi of Venice, by
Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino, by Raphael,
by Giulk* Romano, and others of nearly equal merit Very
beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque
are found in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in
painting, the most complete specimens arc those of the Vatican
Loggie, and the Villa Madama at Rome and the ducal palaces
at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly executed for
Raphael by- Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and Gio-
vanni da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, ace often
very extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes
aesthetically offensive;- as are also many of the decorations of
Pompeii. The main features of these designs are balanced
scrolls in panels; or standards variously composed, but sym-
metrically scrolled on either side, and on the tendrils of these
scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals, human figures
and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects that may
take the fancy of the artist The most perfect specimens of
cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As
specimens of exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo
tomb, in the church of the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the
facade of the church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli there, by
the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of the Chateau de
Gaillon, France— all of which fairly illustrate the beauties and
capabilities of the style.
See also Worntim, Analysis of Ornament (1874). (R. N. W.)
ARABGIR, or Axabkjr (Byz. Arabraces), a town of Turkey
in Asia in the Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated
near the confluence of the eastern and western Eupbiates, but
some miles from the right bank of the combined streams. Pop.
about 20,000, of which the larger half is Mussulman'. It is con-
nected with Sivas by a cheusste, prolonged to the Euphrates.'
The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them
leaving their native dty to push their fortunes elsewhere, while
of those that remain the greater part is employed in the manu-
facture of silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit.
The present town was built at a comparatively recent date;
but about 2 m. north-east is the old town, now called Eski-Shchr,
given (c. 102 1) to Senekherim of Armenia by the emperor Basil II.
It contains the ruins of a castle and of several Seljuk mosques.
The Armenian population suffered severely during the massacres
of 180S. (D- G. H.)
254
ARABIA
[GEOGRAPHY
ARABIA, a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between
34° 30' and 12 45' N., and 32 30' and 6o° E., is bounded W.
by the Red Sea, S. by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean,
and E. by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Its northern
or land boundary is more difficult to define; most authorities,
however, agree in taking it from El Arish on the Mediterranean,
along the southern border of Palestine, between the Dead Sea
and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards along the Syrian
border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge of the
Euphrates valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the
mouth of the Shat el Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf, —
the boundary so defined includes the northern desert, which
belongs geographically to Arabia rather than to Syria; while
on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia and Irak, although
occupied by an Arab population, are excluded.
In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its
greatest length from north-west to south-east. The length of its
western side from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from
the Straits of Bab-el-Mandcb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had
is 1300 m., its northern side from Port Said to the Euphrates
600 m.; its total area approximately 1,200,000 sq. m.
Geocraphy
General Features.— In general terms Arabia may be described
as a plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and
attaining its greatest elevation in the extreme south-west.
The western escarpment of the plateau rises steeply from the
Red Sea littoral to a height of from 4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a
narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30 m. in width between
the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-cast and cast the
plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf;
only in the extreme cast is this general easterly slope arrested by
the lofty range of Jebcl Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to
Ras el Had borders the coast of Oman.
Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its sur-
face; one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only
a small proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty
water-supply and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are in-
sufficient in elevation and extent to attract their full share of
the monsoon rains, which fall so abundantly on the Abyssinian
highlands on the other side ofthe Red Sea; for this reason Arabia
has neither lakes nor forests to control the water-supply and
prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are mere torrent
beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but otherwise
dry.
The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a
northern, a central and a southern; the first includes the area
between the Midian coast on the west and the head of the Persian
Gulf on the east, a desert tract throughout, stony in the north,
sandy in the south, but furnishing at certain seasons excellent
pasturage; its population is almost entirely nomad and pastoral.
The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz), Ncjd and El Hasa;
much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few wells or
watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the
great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of
alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a
considerable settled population, with several large towns and
numerous villages.
The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus
of Asir and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east,
which with a temperate climate, due to their great elevation and
their proximity to the sea, deserve, if any part of Arabia does,
the name of Arabia Felix — the population is settled and agri-
cultural, and the soil, wherever the rainfall is sufficient, is pro-
ductive. The Batina coast of Oman, irrigated by the mountain
streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most fertile district in the
peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large and prosperous
villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands fertilize
several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the
western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil
and climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance
into the interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by
the great southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba d Khali, empty
as its name implies, and uninhabitable.
Exploration.— Before entering on a detailed description of the
several provinces of Arabia, our sources .of information will be
briefly indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no
regular surveys exist, and professional work is limited to the
marine surveys of the Indian government and the admiralty,
which, while hying down the coast line with fair accuracy, give
little or no topographical information inland. For the mapping of
the whole vast interior, except in rare cases, no data exist beyond
the itineraries of explorers, travelling as a rule under conditions
which precluded the use of even the simplest surveying instru-
ments. These journeys, naturally following the most frequented
routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts, owing
to their difficulty of access, remain unvisitcd by any European.
The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south*
wes't corner of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession
of travellers from Nicbuhr in 1761 toE. Glaserand R. Manzoni in
1887 have led to a fairly complete knowledge of all that part of
the province west of the capital Sana; while in 1002-1004 the
operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary commission permitted
the execution of a systematic topographical survey of the British
protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bans, 30 m. east of
Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only
authority is that of E. F. Jomard's map, published in 1830,
based on the information given by the French officers employed
with Ibrahim Pasha's army in Asir from 1824 to 1837, and of
J. Hal6vy in Ncjran. On the south coast expeditions have
penetrated but a short distance, the most notable exceptions
being those of L. Hirsch and J. T. Bent in 1887 to the Hadramut
valley. S. B. Miles, J. R. We lis ted, and S. M. Zwemcr have
explored Oman in the extreme cast; but the interior south of a
line drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still
virgin ground. In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the
great Nafud (Ncfud) have been crossed by several travellers,
though a large area remains unexplored in the north-east between
Kasim and the gulf. In the centre, the journeys of W. Palgravc,
C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Hubcr have done much to elucidate
the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in the north-
west the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the
list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed
the main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one,
though, owing to the difficulties peculiar to that region, the
hydrography of southern Hejaz is still incompletely known.
The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch
of C. Nicbuhr*s mission by the Danish government in 1761.
After a year spent in Egypt and the Sinai peninsula MaAm
the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762, and Bxpiorw
after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of **■• *»
Yemen, the exploration of which formed the principal **"*•*
object of the expedition; thence, travelling through the Tehama
or lowlands, Nicbuhr and his companions visited the towns of
Bet el Fakih, Zubcd and Mokha, then the great port for the
coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they crossed the
mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at
Udcn, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its
coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where
coffee plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they
reached the town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains
exceeding 10,000 ft. above sea-level; and turning southwards
to Taiz descended again to the Tehama via Hes and Zubed to
Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by the death of its
archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June 1763, where
after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the
capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign
or imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty
Jcbel Sorak, where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist
of the party, was able to make a last excursion; a few days later
he died at Yarim. The mission continued its march, passing
Dhamar, the seat of a university of the Zcdi sect, then frequented
by 500 students. Thence four marches, generally over a stony
plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains, brought them to
GEOGRAPHY]
ARABIA
255
Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the imam,
el Mahdi Abbas.
The aspect of the dty must have been nearly the same as
at present; Niebuhr describes the tnuinte flanked by towers,
the citadel at the foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the
valley, the fortress and palace of the imams, now replaced by the
Turkish military hospital, the suburb of Bir el Asab with its
scattered houses and gardens, the Jews' quarter and the village
of Raoda, a few miles to the north in a fertile, irrigated plain
which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay
of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travel-
ling by what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda,
through the rich coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence
southward to Mokha, where they embarked for India. During the
next year three other members of the party died, leaving Niebuhr
the sole survivor. Returning to Arabia a year later, he visited
Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf, and travelling from
Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark in 1764
after four years' absence.
The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific
mission of the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed
Arabia twenty years later had not then reached Yemen, and
Europeans, as such, were not exposed to any special danger.
The travellers were thus able to move freely and to pursue their
scientific enquiries without hindrance from either people or ruler.
The results published in 1772 gave for the first time a compre-
hensive description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia; while
the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a
fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for
his successors to discover.
C. G. Ehrenberg and W. F. Hemprich in 18*5 visited the
Tehama and the islands off the coast, and in 1836 P. E. Botta
Aak made an important journey in southern Yemen with
a view to botanical research, but the next advance
is geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the
French officers, M, O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging
to the Egyptian army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud,
formerly in the Egyptian service, was the first to visit the
southern Jauf and to report on the rock-cut inscriptions and
ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869 that a competent
_^ archaeologist, J. Halevy, was able to carry out any
^ff£y complete exploration there. Starting from Sana,
Haltvy went north-eastward to El Madid, a town
of 5000 inhabitants and the capital of the small district
of Nthm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw the
ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of
Mljzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast
sandy plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where
Halevy made his most important discoveries of Sabaean in-
scriptions: here he explored Main, the ancient capital of the
Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W. Rharid, the ancient
Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny, where
the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aclius
Gall us in 24 B.C. From El Jail Halevy travelled northward,
passing the oasis of Rhab, and skirting the great desert, reached
the fertile district of Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews,
with whom he spent several weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An
hour's march to the east he discovered at the village of Medina t
d Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of Ptolemy. In
June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib;
here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from
its numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two
hoars to the east he found the famous dam constructed by the
Himyarites across the W. Shibwan, on which the water-supply
of their capital depended.
One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian
archaeologist, E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for
science in Yemen than any traveller since Niebuhr. Under
Turkish protection, he visited the territory of the Hashid and
Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though their hostile attitude
compelled him to return after reaching their first important
town, Khatnr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau lying
between the two great wadis Rharid and Hirran, formerly
covered with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the
course of these wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu
Husen country, and thence onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he
succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in reaching Marib, where
he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a targe number of new
Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to proceed
farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf
drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the
Hadramut valley still remains unsolved.
The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the
south coast was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttendcn and
J. R. Wellsted of the ** Palinurus," employed on the
marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited the ruins £5*21""
of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic Hmdramut
inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near
Mukalla, were the first records discovered of ancient Arabian
civilisation in Hadramut Neither of these officers was able to
follow up their discoveries, but in 1843 Adolph von Wrede
landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a pilgrim to
the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across
the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern
tributaries of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the
edge of the great southern desert; on his return to the VV
Duwan his disguise was detected and he was obliged to return
to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the main Hadra-
mut valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey estab-
lished the existence of this populous and fertile district which
had been reported to the officers of the " Palinurus " as lying
between the coast range and the great desert to the north. This
was at last visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection
of the sultan of Mukalla, the head of the Raiti family, and
practically ruler of all Hadramut, with the exception of the towns
of Saiyun and Tarim, which belong to the Kathiri tribe. Start-
ing like von Wrede from Mukalla, Hirsch first visited the W.
Duwan and found ancient ruins and inscriptions near the village
of Hajren; thence he proceeded north-eastward to ftauta in
the main valley, where he was hospitably received by the Raitl
sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here he procured
a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the
former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was com-
pelled by the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam,
from which he travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back
to Mukalla. J. Theodore Bent and his wife followed in the same
track a few months later with a well-equipped party including
a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the Indian government, who
made a very valuable survey of the country passed through. Both
parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and inscrip-
tions were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more
particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut,
prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological
interest undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover.
In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers
have penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr
did not go inland from Muscat; the operations by a m ^ mma ,
British Indian force on the Pirate coast in 18 10 gave Jjjj^**
no opportunities for visiting the interior, and it was Omaa,
not till 1835 that J. R. Wellsted, who had already
tried to penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at
Muscat with the idea of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing
thence to Sur near Ras el Had, he travelled southward through
the country of the Bani bu Ali to the borders of the desert, then
turning north-west up the Wadi Betha through a fertile, well-
watered country, running up to the southern slopes of J. Akhdar,
inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have welcomed him
everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the southern
foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the
country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd,
Wellsted was unable to carry out his original intention of ex-
ploring the country to the west, and after an excursion along
the Batina coast to Sonar he returned to India.
In 187$ Colonel §. B. Miles, who had already done much to
256
ARABIA
[GEOGRAPHY
advance geographical interests in south Arabia, continued
Wellsted's work in Oman; starting from Sonar on the Batina
coast he crossed the dividing range into the Dhahira, and reached
Birema, one of its principal oases. His investigations show that
the Dhahira contains many settlements, with an industrious
agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract extending
2 so m. west to the peninsula of £1 Katr is a desolate gravelly
steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border
the shores of the gulf.
Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and
north. The first explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a
definite scientific object was the Spaniard, Badia y
J^JJ 1 " Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and claiming
hZJim. to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs,
arrived at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage
to Mecca. Besides giving to the world the first accurate descrip-
tion of the holy city and the Haj ceremonies, he was the first to
fix the position of Mecca by astronomical observations, and to
describe the physical character of its surroundings. But the
true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J. L. Burckhardt, who
had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra, and
whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab
life qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters
of Islam. Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814* when
Mehcmet Ali had already driven the Wahhabi invaders out ot
Hejaz, and was preparing for his farther advance against their
stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif at the invitation of the
pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he spent three
months studying every detail of the topography of the holy
places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a
Moslem pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by
the western or coast route, and arrived there safely but broken
in health by the hardships of the journey. His illness did not,
however, prevent his seeing and recording everything of interest
in Medina with the same care as at Mecca, though it compelled
him to cut short the further journey he had proposed to himself,
and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where be died
only two years later.
His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly
the same ground thirty -eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling
as a Moslem pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage
with the same keen observation as Burckhardt, and while
amplifying somewhat the latter's description of Medina, confirms
the accuracy of his work there and at Mecca in almost every
detail. Burton's topographical descriptions are fuller, and his
march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him over
ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route
leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the
lava beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high
plateau which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd.
His original intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his
way across the peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal
(as an Indian officer on leave) was insufficient for so extended a
journey, and his further contributions to Arabian geography
were not made until twenty-five years later, when he was deputed
by the Egyptian government to examine the reported gold
deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found in
several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying
quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made,
and a valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering
the whole Midian coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to
the mouth of the Wadi Hamd, and including both the Tehama
range and the Hisma valley behind it; while the importance
of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained by its
tributaries was for the first time brought to light
Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the
Egyptian expedition would have given him the opportunity
to see something of Nejd, but he had already left
2jJ*JJ^ Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power
j^tyu by Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from
Hejaz, and though several European officers accom-
panied the expedition, none of them left any record of his
experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest that the
first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian
government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha,
as dc facto ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down,
piracy in the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian
trade, sent a small mission under Captain G. F. Sadlier to
congratulate the pasha on the success of the Egyptian arms,
and no doubt with the ulterior object of obtaining a first-hand
report on the real situation. On his arrival at Hofuf, Sadlier
found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still hoping
to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the retreat-
ing Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim,
where he caught up the main body of Ibrahim's army, though
the pasha himself had gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated
about going farther, but he was unable to obtain a safe conduct
to Basra, or to return by the way he bad come, and was com-
pelled reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina. Here he.
at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the
interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu,
whence he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt
to treat with Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results
of the mission were nil, the value to geographical science waf
immense; for though no geographer himself, Sadlier's route
across Arabia made it possible for the first time to locate the.
principal places in something like their proper relative positions;
incidentally, too, it showed the practicability of a considerable
body of regular troops crossing the deserts of Nejd even in the
months of July and August.
Sadlier's route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his
successor, G. A. Wallin, was to make that the objective of his
journey. Commissioned by Mehemet Ali to inform him about the
situation in Nejd brought about by the rising power of Abdallah
Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April 1845, and crossing the
pilgrim road at Ma'an, pushed on across the Syrian desert to
the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted during the
hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik be crossed the
waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in
the nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town,
and the capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all
northern Arabia from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay
in Hail, where he had every opportunity of observing the char-
acter of the country and its inhabitants, and the hospitality and
patriarchal, if sometimes stern, justice of its chief, be travelled
on to Medina and Mecca, and returned thence to Cairo to report
to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned to Arabia,
avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence
striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering
Shammar territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail;
and after spending a month there travelled northwards |o
Kerbela and Bagdad.
The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and
central Arabia had settled down again under its native rulers
when W. G. Palgrave made his adventurous journey
through Nejd, and published the remarkable narrative ^SH***
which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian f^S
exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the
Indian army, but for some time before his journey he had been
connected with the Jesuit mission in Syria. By training and
temperament he was better qualified to appreciate and describe
the social life of the people than their physical surroundings,*
and if the results of his great journey are disappointing to the
geographer, his account of the society of the oasis towns, and of
the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad,
must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab
life in its freest development.
Following Wallin's route across the desert by Ma'an and Jauf,
Palgrave and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail
in July 1862; here they were hospitably entertained by the
amir Talal, nephew of the founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
and after some stay passed on with his countenance through
Kasim to southern Nejd, Palgrave says little of the desert part
of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much of the
GEOGRAPHY] ARABIA
fertility of the oases and of the dvility of the townsmen; and
like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with, enthusiasm of its
bright, exhilarating climate. At Riad, Ffcsal, who had been in
power since the Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and
the religious tyranny of WahbAbism prevailed, in marked con-
trast to the liberal regime of Talal In Jebel Shammar. Still,
Palgrave and his companions, though known as Christians,
spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation,
making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most im-
portant of which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly
district of Nejd. Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama,
and across a strip of sandy desert to El Hasa where Palgrave
found himself in more congenial surroundings. Finally, a' voyage
to the Oman coast and a brief stay there brought his adventures
in Arabia to a successful ending.
Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern
Arabia, though he covered little new ground, saw more of the
desert life, and has described it more minutely and
■■*■■*** faithfully than any other explorer. Travelling down
from Damascus in 1875 *ilh thc Haj caravan, he stopped at El
Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting
the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the
rock-cut tombs of MedainSalih and El Ala. Having successfully
completed his investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and
drawings of the tombs to Renan in Paris, he determined to push
on farther into the desert. Under the protection of a sheikh of
the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over the whole of the border-
land between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where among
other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone,
afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he
went on to Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro
governor and townsmen, less tolerant than his former Bedouin
hosts, ill-treated him and even threatened his life. Returning
to Hail in the absence of the amir,. he was expelled by the
governor; he succeeded, however, in finding protection at
Aoexa, where he spent several months, and eventually after
many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.
Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their
expedition to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria
they had gained the confidence and friendship of a young sheikh
whose family, though long settled at Tadmur, came originally
from Nejd, and who was anxious to renew the connexion with his
kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In his company the
Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the Syrian
desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf.. Here the sheikh found some
of his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged;
but though the object of the journey had been attained, the
Blunts were anxious-to visit Hail and make the acquaintance of
the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose might and generosity they daily
heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long stretch of waterless
desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed without
difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and hospit-
ably entertained for a month, aftetf which they travelled north-
wards in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to
Kerbela and Bagdad.
In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the
archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus
__ to Hail. The narrative of the last named forms a
**** valuable supplement to that published by the Blunts,
and together with Doughty's, furnishes as complete a picture
as could be wished for of the social and political life of J. Shammar,
and of the general nature of the country. Ruber's journal,
published after his death from his original notes, contains a mass
of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest scien-
tific value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first
and only scientific data for the construction of the map of
northern Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal
importance, for, besides copying numerous inscriptions in the dis-
trict between Hail and Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession
of the since famous Tema stone, which ranks with the Moabite
stone among the most valuable of Semitic inscriptions. From
Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty's track to Aneza and
257
thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he
despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later,
in July 1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches
north of Jidda, on his way back to Hail.
One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the
amir Mahommed— Baron E. Nolde— -who arrived there in 1893,
not long after the amir had by his victory over the combined
forces of Riad and Kasim brought the whole of Nejd under his
dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to Haiyania by a more
direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir was away
from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired territory;
Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to Ibn
Rashid's camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra.
Here he was on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or
no description of his route thither, or of his journey northwards
by the Persian pilgrim road, already traversed by Huber in 1881.
His narrative thus, while containing much of general interest on
the climate and on the animal life of northern Arabia, its horses
and camels in particular, adds little to those of his predecessors
as regards topographical detail.
If. the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they
will be found to cover the northern half of the peninsula above
the line Mecca-Hofuf, with a network of routes,
■which, though sometimes separated by wide intervals,
are still close enough to ensure that no important •f*^* i
geographical feature can have been overlooked, ~"~
especially in a country whose general character varies so little*
over wide areas. In the southern half, on the other hand, except
in Nejran and Jauf, no European traveller has penetrated 100 m.
in a direct line from the coast. The vast extent of the Dahna, or
great southern desert, covering perhaps 250,000 sq. m., accounts
for about a third of this area, but some of the most favoured
districts in Arabia— Asir and northern Yemen— remain un-
explored, and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some
interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeo-
logist in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the
Hadramut valley.
Topotrafkieal Details. — Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai
peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia.
It is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rata, a — .
few mile* E. of El Artsh on the Mediterranean, to the head «m*L
of the Gulf of Akaba ; and on the W. by the Suez Canal ; llTr
its length from El Arish to its most southern point is ■*
240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly 160 m. The
greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the land rises
gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep depression of
Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of Sinai (?.*.),
in which J. (Catherine attains a height of 8500 ft.; except in W.
Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part consisting of
bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered with tamarisk
and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the peninsula
from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a reservoir
and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent leads down
from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.
The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian
desert, extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the
Euphrates valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a
gravelly plain unbroken !>y any considerable range of hills,
or any continuous watercourse except the Wadi Hauran,
which in rainy seasons forms a succession of pools from J. Hauran
to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the north-east from the
volcanic plateau of the Harra south of T. Hauran to the edge of the
Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad depression some 500 ft.
below the average level of the Hamad, crosses it from north-east to
south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a nearly uniform
height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be the bed of an
inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is found in it a
few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is carried on at
the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced in the neigh-
bouring salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is continuous with the
depression known as the Jauf, situated on the northern edge of the
Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between Damascus and
Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues eastward
towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the thirtieth
parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist, jauf is a
small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts' visit in 1879,
of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens, surrounded
by a mud wall, covers a space of a m. in length by half a mile in
width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and except
for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead flat of
Srriaa
2 5 8
ARABIA
[GEOGRAPHY
white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which lies the
open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a similar
basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000 inhabitants
and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.
A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes
abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the
-a- Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows
f.~T rf very nearly the line of the thirtieth parallel, along which
,, "™ , " , it extends east and west for a length of some 400 ra. ;
its breadth from north to south is 200 m. Though almost waterless,
it is in fact better wooded and richer in pasture than any part of
the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with ghada, a species of
tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses and succulent plants
—among them the adar, on which sheep are said to feed for a. month
without requiring water — are found in abundance in good seasons.
In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the Bedouins
care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with their
flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up everywhere
after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the Nafud in the
district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border, and along
its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are
numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted to
by the nomad tribes.
Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of
sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places
longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day's journey in length,
the valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but
the most striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped
sand-hills, known locally as falk or falj, described by Blunt and
Huber, who devoted some time to their investigation. The falks
enclose a deep hollow (known as ka'r), the floor of which is often hard
soil bare of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as
steeply as the sand will lie (about 50*). On the summit of the falk
, there is generally a mound known as Aw or barkkus composed of
white sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of
the surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively
gentle. The falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly
in sue; the largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at i|mu
across and 330 ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east
to west; corresponding in this with their individual direction, the
convex face of the falk being towards the west, i.e. the direction of
the prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the
Nafud, where Huber found the prevailingwind to be from the south,
the falks are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to
slight changes in the course of years, there is no doubt that these
dunes are practically permanent features; the more prominent ones
serve as landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The
character of the vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that
even superficial changes must be slight. The general level of the
Nafud was found by Ruber's observations to be about 3000 ft. above
sea-level ; the highest point on the Jauf- Hail route is at Falk Alam,
the rocky peaks of which rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the
sand. Other peaks cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near
the wells of Shakik, and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the
middle of the desert.
The high plateau which from J. Hauran southward forms the main
watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava,
which from their hardness have preserved the underlying
sandstones from degradation* and now stand up consider-
ably above the general level These tracts are known as
harra; the most remarkable is the Harrat El Awerid, west of the
Ha] route from Tebuk to EI Ala, a mountain mass 100 m. in length
with an average height of over 5000 ft., and the highest summit of
which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The harra east of Khaibar u also
of considerable extent, and the same formation is found all along
the Hejax border from Medina to the Jebel el Kura, east of Mecca.
The surface of the harra is extremely broken, forming a labyrinth of
lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole region is sterile and
almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it produces little
vegetation ; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in the spring and
summer months when the air is always fresh and cooL In winter it
is cold and snow often lies for some time.
Hejaz, if we, except the Taif district in the south, which Is properly
a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division,
•totm.. ly'ift* on tnc western slope of the peninsula, where that
?"*"• slope is at its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea.
A high range of granite hill*, known as the Tehama range, the highest
point of which, J. Shar, in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it
longitudinally into a narrow littoral and a broader upland zone
2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea. Both are generally bare and un-
productive, the .uplands, however, contain the fertile valleys of
khaibar and Medina, draining to the Wadi Hamd, the principal
river system of western Arabia ; and the Wadi Jadid or Es Salra,
rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Sanaa, which contain
several settlements, of which the principal produce is dates. The
quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the Tehama
contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings were
investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently
been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify
further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small
islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The
only ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respec-
tively Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim
traffic to the holy cities, without which they could not exist.
The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia
between the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part
forms the basin of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the ~ .,
Khaibar harra, runs north-eastward across the whole ^
width of Nejd. till it is lost in the sands of the eastern Nafud, north
of Aneza. The greater portion of this region is an open steppe,
sandy in places and in others dotted with low volcanic hills, but with
occasional ground water and in favourable seasons furnishing support
for a considerable pastoral population. Its elevation varies from
about 5000 ft. in the west to 2500 ft. in the east. I n Jcbcl Shammar,
Kasim and Wushm, where the water in the wadi beds rises nearly
to the ground level, numerous fertile oases are found with thriving
villages and towns.
Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes
its name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising
sharply out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western
and higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from
north-cast to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau
expending from and continuous with the Khaibar harm. The highest
point, J. Fara, near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft.
above sea-level, or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most
of the larger villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja.
The town, wAich has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid
family to be the capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley
between the twin ranges, About a m. from the foot of J. Aja,
and contained at the time of Nolde's visit in 1893 about 12.000
inhabitants.
. The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower
Kasim. and at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank
to bank. Forty years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred,
which passed down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at
Thuwcrat, 50 m. lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly
100 m. long, crowded, by waterfowl not known before in that desert
country. Below this its course has not been followed by any Euro-
pean traveller, but it may be inferred from the line of watering-places
on the road to Kuwet, that it runs out to the Persian Gulfin that
neighbourhood.
East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminat •
ing in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction
c 1 ♦»— -' hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise
1 bat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which
I s gave raigrave the impression that the range is of greater
c :e neight than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case
1 n important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting
I ansverse barrier 200 ra. in length the general north-easterly
1 f the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma
i lat of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi
1 ir. The districts of Suderand Wushm lie on its northern side,
/viu in the centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the
basin of the W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern
Nejd is, perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly moun-
tainous, in which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys,
supporting numerous villages with a large agricultural population.
The W. Hanifa is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by
an almost continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among
which Deraiya the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn
SaOd kingdom arc the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain,
but it probably continues in a south-east direction to the districts
of El Harik and Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj
and the W. Dawasir, it runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of
sandy desert 100 ra. in width that forms the eastern boundary of
Nejd, to reappear in the copious .springs that fertilize El Hasa and
the Bahrein littoral.
As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave's informants
in Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him. stated that a
day's march south of that place the Yemen road enters t» — -_
the W. Dawasir, up which it runs for ten days, perhaps ■*■**•
200 m., to El Kura, a thinly peopled district on the borders
of Asir; this accords with the information of the French « m^*
officers of the Egyptian army in that district, and with that *"^"
of Halevy, who makes all the drainage from Ncjran northward run
to the same great wadi. Whether there be any second line of drainage
in southern Nejd skirtine the edge of the great desert and following/
the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain a matter of conjecture.
Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries, that the low salt swamp,
extending inland for some distance from Khor ed Duwan, in the bay
east of £l Katr, was the outlet of an extensive drainage system
which may well be continuous with the W, Yabrin and extend far
into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.
East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost
continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this agai*
a succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast ■»«■■■
has to be crossed before FJ Hasa is reached. This m
province, which skirts the Persian Gulf from the mouth of th*
Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman, is low and hot; its shores are
flat, and with the exception of Kuwet at the north-west corner of
GEOGRAPHY]
ARABIA
259
the gulf, it possesses no deep water port. North of Katif it is desert
and only inhabited by nomads; at Katif, however, and throughout
the district to the south bordering on the Gulf of Bahrein there are
ample supplies of underground water, welling up in abundant springs
often at a high temperature* and bringing fertility to an extensive
district of which El Hofuf, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants,
is the most important centre.
South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the
Gulf of Aden, including the Taif district of Heiaz, Asir and Yemen,
- m tt forms one province geographically. Throughout its length
tiamm '* consists of three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely
tfl^ exceeding 20 m. in width, a central mountainous tract,
embracing the great chain which runs parallel to the coast
from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an inner plateau falling
gradually to the north-east till it merges in the Nejd steppes or the
sands of the great desert.
The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain,
the Kkabt, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and
trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels;
and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the Raima, which extends
on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the
hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain
torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable
tracts of alluvial Soil of the highest degree of fertility producing in
that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year.
The flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels
constructed so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation
n limited more by the supply of water available than by the amount
of suitable soil. These districts support a large settled population
and several considerable towns, of which Bet elFakih and Zubed in
the western and Lahej in the southern. Tehama, with 4000 to 6000
inhabitants, are the most important. There are signs that this
coastal strip was until a geologically recent period below sea-level ;
and that the coast-line is still receding is evidenced by the history
of the town of Muza, once a flourishing port, now 20 ra. inland;
while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once important centres of the coffee
trade, have lost their position through the silting up of the ports
which formerly served them.
The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the
Arabia Fdix of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the
barren foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the
track ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character;
the trees which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with
cr eepe rs , and the running stream is dammed at frequent intervals,
and led off in artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side;
the steeper parts of the road are paved with large stones, substanti-
ally built villages, with their masonry towers or dan :ry
height, replace the collection of mud walls and br of
the low country; while tier above tier, terraced fie! lill
slopes and attest the industry of the inhabitants ity
of their mountains. On the main route from Hoc he
first coffee plantations are reached at Usil, at an alt t.,
and throughout the western slopes of the range up of
7000 ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel ch
Manakha, a small town of 3000 inhabitants is tr is
described by Glaser as one vast coffee garden, ri ler
ascending from the coast sees the first example of t ;h-
land towns, with their high three-storeyed houses, icd
stone, their narrow facades pierced with small win< te-
» ashed borders and ornamented with varied arabesque patterns;
each dar has the appearance of a small castle complete in itself, and
the general effect is rather that of a cluster of separate forts than of a
town occupied by a united community.
The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied descrip-
tion; bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky water-
courses give place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes,
terraced literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing
them says: " One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and
perseverance that these represent; the terrace walls are usually
5 to 8 ft. in height, but towards the top of the mountains they arc
sometimes as much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough
stone without mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall
retains not more than twice Its own height in breadth, and I do not
think I saw a single break in them unrepaired."
The highest summits as determined by actual survey arc between
10.000 and 1 1 .000 ft. above sca-lcvel. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass
in the extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of
5000 ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb
ar.d Yarim attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the
Sanallodeda road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range
there is a short drop. of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys
which form the principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of
Yarim lies near its southern extremity at an altitude of about
8000 ft. ; within a short distance arc the sources of the W. Yakla,
W. Bana and W. Zubed, running respectively east and south and
west. The first named is a dry watercourse ultimately joining the
basin of the W. Hadramut; the two others run for a long distance
through fertile valleys and, like many of the wadis on the seaward
side of the range, have perennial streams down to within a few miles
of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen, lies in a broad valley 7300 ft.
above sea-level, sloping northwards to the W. Kharid which, with
the Ghail Hirran, toe. sources of which are on the .eastern slopes of
J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf depression. The Arhab
district, through which these two great wadis run, was formerly the
centre of the Himyar kingdom ; cultivation is now only to be found
in the lower parts on the borders of the watercourses, all above
being naked rock from which every particle of soil has been denuded.
In the higher parts there are fine plains where Glaser found numerous
Himyaritic remains, and which be considers were undoubtedly
cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of cultivation
owing to denudation and desiccation — the impoverishment of the
country from these causes is increasing. . Eastward the plateau
becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more
rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on the
borders of the desert* The water-parting between central and
southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran,
which, according to Hale vy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir,
while the Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part
of the Hadramut basin.
Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and
contains many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis
Mishet and the Wadi Shahran rising among the high ^^
summits of the maritime chain, and the principal affluents
of the Wadi Besha ; the latter is a broad well-watered valley, with
numerous scattered hamlets, four days' journey (perhaps 80 m.)
from the crest of the range. Still farther north is the Wadi Taraba
and its branches running down from the highland district of Zahran.
The lower valleys produce dates in abundance* and at higher eleva-
tions wheat, barley, millets and excellent fruit are grown, while
juniper forests are said to cover the mountain slopes. In Yemen this
treewas probably more common formerly; the place-name Arar,
signifying juniper, is still often found where the tree no longer exists.
The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with
shoals and islands, of which Pcrim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb,
Kamaran, the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of coast ot
Hodeda, and the Farsan jgroup, off the Abu Arish coast, V**m«.
are the principal. Hodeda is the only port of any import-
ance since the days of steamships began; the other ports, Mokha,
Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade. The south
coast is free from the shoafs that imperil the navigation of the Red
Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on the
route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop
out on the shore line between Aden and the straits ; the most remark-
able are J. Kharax, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the base
of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form is
very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama
of the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more;
farther east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in
the Hadramut, north of Mukalla, docs not much exceed u a ^ mmm t m
4000 ft. The mountain chain, too, is less distinctly
marked, and becomes little more than the seaward escarpment of
the plateau which intervenes between the coast and the Hadramut
valley. This valley runs nearly east and west for a distance of
500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen highlands to its mouth
on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part of it is desert, but
a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th meridians is well
watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a little to the east of
Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in the advancing sand,
and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of villages and towns
surrounded by fields and date groves extends along the main valley
and into the tributaries which join it from the south. Shibam,
Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and Hairen
ana Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages. Him-
yaritic remains have been found here and in the W. Mcfat which
enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages
or ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr
none is of any importance.
The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from
Dhafar, one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest
of the plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately
fertile, and the hills which in places come down to the seashore are
covered with trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-
bearing trees are found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of
4000 ft., there is good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently
to a broad valley beyond which the view was bounded by the level
horizon of the desert.
Oman (o.».) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula.
Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above
sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs tr nrm
parallel to the coast ; it differs, however, from the western
range in that its fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly
as great as on its seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras
Musandan, rises precipitously from the straits of Horrouz; farther
south the range curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile
strip, known as the Batina coast, between it and the sea. and con-
taining several populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka
and Sib are the chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the
principal port on the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare,
rocky hills, and has the reputation of being the hottest place in
260
Arabia. Zwemer say? the fertility .of the highland region of J.
Akhdar is wonderful ami it in striking contrast to the barrennessof
00 much of the coast; water issues in perennial springs from many
rocky clefts, and is carefully husbanded by the ingenuity of the
people; underground channels, known here as/a/iy, precisely similar
to the kanai or kares of Persia and Afghanistan, are also largely used.
The principal villages on. the eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and
Semail in the well-watered valley of the same name; on the western
slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying immediately below the highest
summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and Bidiya in the W. Betha
are all well-built villages with palm-groves and irrigated fields. In
the north-west the Dhahira district sloping towards the Jewasimi
coast is more steppe-like in character; but there two oases of great
fertility are found, of which Bircma, visited by both Miles and
Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu Dhabi a low
flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the Katr
peninsula, merging or the north into the saline marshes which border
the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert.
The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub'a el Khali (" the
empty quarter ") is believed to cover all the interior of southern
T ^ - Arabia from the borders of Yemen in the west to those
of Oman in the east. Halevy in Nejran, Von Wrede in
Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached its edge,
though none of them actually entered it, and the guides
accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable
and uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt fre-
quented by the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains,
when its sands, like those of the northern desert, produce herbage;
but towards the east, according to Burckhardt's information it is
quite without vegetation even in the winter and spring. The
farthest habitable spot to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin,
which L. Pelly heard of from the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a
fertile district, and which still produces dates, though, owing to
malaria, it is now deserted ; thence southward to the Hadramut
valley no communication is known to exist.
[Geology. — The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to
that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist,
penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the
Bat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the
Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the
crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula
of Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca.
Towards the north the crystalline . floor is overlaid by the great
sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north
of Hail, Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of lime*
stone, probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near
Jauf and east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great
sheets of lava have been poured, and these, protecting the softer
beds beneath from further denudation, now stand up as the high
plateaus and hills called harra. Volcanic cones still exist in large
numbers, and the sheets of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows
of Etna or Vesuvius. Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on
the harra near Medina in a.d. 1256. In the south of Arabia the
crystalline floor appears at intervals along the southern coast and
on the shores of the Gulf of Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid
by sandstone, presumably the Nubian sandstone: this is followed
by marls containing Cenomanian fossils; and these are overlaid
by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon which rest isolated patches
of Abeoiina limestone. Generally, however, the Cretaceous beds
do not appear, and the greater part of southern Arabia seems to be
formed of Abeoiina and nummulite limestones of Tertiary age.
An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and volcanic rocks are found at
other places near the Straits of Bab-el- Mandeb. Throughout the
whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the sedimentary beds show no
signs of any but the most gentle folding. Faulting, however, is by
no means absent, and some of the faults are of considerable magni-
tude. The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country which has been let
down between two parallel faults, and several similar faulted troughs
occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea itself is a great trough
bounded by faults along each side.]
Climate. — Owing to its tow latitude and generally arid surface,
Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this
is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the
southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heal throughout the
year is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern
and central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country
exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by
cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while
in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman
in the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are,
comparatively speaking, cold.
In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme
variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the
desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78* a little before
sunset to 1 8° a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures
recorded by Hubcr at Hail during January and the first half of
February average about 65° F., and water froze on several nights;
at Medina the winters arc cold and night frosts of frequent occur-
rence, and these conditions prevail over all the western part of the
Nejd plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate is
ARABIA [GEOLOGY: CLIMATE: FAUNA
warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from
Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the
monsoon winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature Is tear
marked. From observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and
Glaser, the mean temperature for the year of that city at an altitude
of 7300 ft. and -in 15* 22' N. appears to be 6o* F. ; for July the
mean maximum was 77*, mean, minimum 54°; for January the
figures were 62* and 40* respectively, the lowest recorded temperature
in 1878 was a6-6* on the 36th of January. At Aden at the sea-level
the mean temperature for the year is 83°; the highest observed
temperature in 1904 was oj^, the lowest 67V.
The rainfall throughout northern -and central Arabia is chiefly in
the winter months between October and April, and is scanty and
irregular. Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had
not fallen for three years at Medaia Salih ; in that year showers fell
on the 20th of December and on two days in January and again in
March. After a very hot summer the bright weather thanged to
clouded sides on the and of October, rain fell tempestuously the
same evening, and there were showery days and nights till the 14th.
The autumn rains fell that year abundantly in- the Naf ud towards
Jauf, but very little in the basin of the W. Hamd (on the western
slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd highlands between Kasim and
Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable rains, which at Taif are
expected about the end of August and last commonly from four to
six weeks. This appears to be about the northern limit reached by
the south-west monsoon, which from June to September brings a
fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the Tehama
remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall u heaviest along the
western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in decreasing
quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in width. In
good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the summer crop
of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and springs,
on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and barley
depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of
the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 190a as follows: —
June, 4-0 in.; July, 5-5; August, *8; September. 19. Only
slight showers were recorded in the other months of the year. At
higher elevations the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions
that at Sana there was constant rain throughout August and Sep-
tember 1878, and that the thermometer during August did not reach
65*. In the Tehama occasional showers fall during the winter
months; at Aden the average rainfall for the year is 2-07 in., but
during 1904 only 0*5 in. was recorded. Snow falls on the Harra and
on the Tehama range in northern Arabia, and Nolde records a fall of
snow which lay on the Nafnd on the 1st of February 1893. It also
falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very rarely known on the Yemen
mountains, probably because the precipitation during the winter
months is so slight.
The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are
from the west; along the southern coast they are from the east;
at Sana there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west
from 9 to 1 1 a.m., from noon till 4 p.m. a steady and often strong
wind Slows from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The
climate is extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy
mists which sweep up from the plains curing the rainless months
and exercise a most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts.
This phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the
morning the Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears
buried in a sea of white cloud; towards noon the clouds drill up
the mountain slopes and cover the summits with wreaths of light
mist charged with moisture which condenses on the trees and
vegetation; in the afternoon they disappear, and the evenings are
generally clear and still.
Fauna. — The wild animals of Arabia are alt of the desert-loving
type : antelopes and gazelles arc found in small numbers throughout
the peninsula ; the latter are similar to the ckikara or ravine deer of
India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the
Gulf of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the Oryx btalrix
(called by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud
between Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white,
and with long straight horns. Hares are numerous both in-thc desert
and in cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the wo/, a wild
goat with massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found;
monkeys also abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other
descriptions of rat, and the wabar or cony arc common; lizards
and snakes are numerous, most of the latter being venomous.
Hyenas, wolves and panthers arc found in most parts of the country,
and in the mountains the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich
is found in the Nafud and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds
the bustard, guinea fowl, sand grouse (kaia), blue rock, green pigeon,
partridge, including a large chflcor {akb) and a small species similar
to the Punjab sisi ; quail and several kinds of duck and snipe are
met with. In the cultivated parts of Yemen and Tehama small
birds are very numerous, so also are birds of prey, vultures, kites and
hawks.
Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an
ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as habiub arc very
common in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous,
and anthills are prominent features in many places. Locusts appear
in great swarms and do much damage; fires are lighted at night
FLORA: POPULATION)
ARABIA
j6i
to attract them, and large quantities are caught and eaten by the
poorer people. Bees are kept, and In Yemea and Hadramut the
honey is exceptionally good.
Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the
Arab. Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys
~ . which separate the populous centres are made practicable.
«-■■■«■ and in the spring nibnths, when green forage is plentiful
in the desert, the Bedouins pitch their camps Tor long periods far from
any water, and not only men but horses subsist on camel's milk.
The Arabian camel belongs to the one-humped species, though there
are many varieties differing in appearance assnuch as the thorough-
bred race-horse from the English cart-horse. The ordinary load Tor
a pack camel is about 400 lb, and in hot weather good camels will
march 20 to 25 m. daily and only require water every third or fourth
day : in cool weather, with ample green fodder they can go twenty-
five days or more without drinking. A good dalul or riding camel
will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a week on end. Nolde gives an
instance from his own experience of a camel rider covering 63 m. in
seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel is only found in perfection
in inner Arabia; for some unexplained reason when taken out
of their own country or north of the 30th degree they rapidly
degenerate.
The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin
economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses
„ is, comparatively speaking, very small, the want of
,M/ *** water in the Nafud where alone forage is obtainable,
and the absence of forage in the neighbourhood of the towns makes
horse-breeding on a large scale impracticable there. Horses are in
fact only kept by the principal sheiks, and by far the larger propor-
tion of those now in Nejd are the property of the amir and his family.
These are kept most of the year in the Nafud. five or ten days'
march from Hail, where they find their own food on the desert
herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they are brought in and
given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in this way they are
capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a raid twenty
hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule, they are only
mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water and forage
have- to be carried for them on camels.
The great majority of the horses that come into the market as
Arabs, are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the
various sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated
from Nejd generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd
stock. In size and appearance, and in everything but endurance,
these northern horses arc admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A
few of the latter are collected by dealers in the nomad camps and
exported chiefly from Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Iba Rashid
used to send down about one hundred young horses yearly.
Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they
are much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the
settled districts horned cattle are not numerous; they arc similar
to the Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking
qualities. The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep
and goats; they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the
hotter months drink every second day. In the spring when the
succulent askub and odor grow plentifully in the desert, they go for
weeks without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset
by the women (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of
the milk is made into samn, clarified butter, or marist, dried curd.
The wool is not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven
into rugs, and made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin
tents.
Flora. — The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal,
the botanist of Niebuhr's mission, P. E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and
A. Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred.
Its general type approaches mort* closely to the African than to
that of southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are
various species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of
cactiform Euphorbia, of which one, the Euphorbia arbor ea, grows to
a height of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher
slopes of J. Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an
extensive forest and growing to a large site; it is also found in the
overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable
forests are said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine speci-
mens which he regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the
Tehama range in Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the
Aionium Obesum is worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like
stems and brilliant red flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also
found. In the cultivated upland valleys all over Arabia the Zizyphus
fujuba, called by some travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its
thorny branches are clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields
among which it grows. In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk
(athl) is everywhere found; its wood is used for making domestic
implements of all sorts. Among fruit trees the vine, apncot, peach,
apple, quince, fig and banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in
the lower country the date palm flourishes, particularly throughout
the central zone of Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is
the prime article of food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow
at Medina, of which the birni is considered the most wholesome;
the kahca and thejaUtri are the most delicately flavoured and set! at
very high rates; the khula* of EI Hasa is also much esteemed.
Of cereals the common millets, dhura and dukhn, are grown in all
parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated
Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year, in the highlands
maize, wheat and barley arc grown to a limited extent as the winter
crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables
the common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers,
melons, potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places
for the manufacture of atr, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine,
thyme, lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen,
when the Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress.
Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first ; it is nowhere
found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia
in the 6th century a. d. It thrives on the seaward slopes
of the western range in the zone of the tropical rains, at *«nw.
altitudes between 4000 and 7000 ft. The principal centres of pro-
duction are the upper valleys of the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban
and Manakha, and particularly on J. Haraz; in the Wadi Zubcd
west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J. Sabur, and in the Yafa
district north-east of Aden. It is planted in terraces on the mountain
slopes; shady trees { such as tamarind and fig, are planted in the
border as a protection from the sun, and the terraces are irrigated
by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or spring. The plants
arc raised from seedlings, and when six or sewn weeks old they are
transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require watering twice
a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are dried in the
sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are subjected
to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the result is
about 50% of cleaned berries, bun safi, which is exported, and a
residue of husk or ktshr, from which the Yemenis make their favourite
beverage.
Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia
is khat (Catlia eduiis). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the moun-
tainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from
cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then
stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young
shoots, these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of khat
mubarak; next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow;
these are sold as khat malkani, or second-year kat, which commands
the highest price. The bush is then left for three years, when the
process is repeated. The leaves and young shoots are chewed;
they have stimulating properties, comparable with those of the coca
of Peru.
The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times
are still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree
from which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the
industry is chiefly carried on at Suda. 60 m. north-north-cast of Sana.
Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in
cups fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same
way, chiefly in the mountains near the \V. Safra between Yambu
and Medina.
The stony plains which covet so large a part of the country are
often covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind
of wild palm, the dom, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets
and mats arc woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort
is found almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the
larger settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought
in from long distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many
places with bushes or small trees, and after the winter rains they
produce excellent pasture.
Population. — The people, according to their own traditions,
are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from
Kahtan or Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the
Mustarab or naturalized Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are
represented at the present day by the inhabitants of Yemen,
Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled agricultural popula-
tion; the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa, the Syrian
desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral
tribes (see Arabs and Bedouins). This distinction between the
characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense,
for a considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled
down to agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in
southern Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great
desert have to a certain extent adopted the nomad life.
Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization
is essentially tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by
the sheiks, or heads of dans and families; the position of sheik
in itself gives no real governing power, his word and counsel
carry weight, but his influence depends on his own personal
qualities. All matters affecting the community are discussed in
the ntajlis or assembly, to which any tribesman has access;
here, too, are brought the tribesmen's causes; both sides plead
and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined so many
head of amaU cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into
262
ARABIA
(TRADE
exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of diya or blood-
money, if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they
may, however, claim the life of the murderer, and long and
troublesome blood feuds often ensue, involving the relatives of
both sides for generations.
Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia
a privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim
descent from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the
Egyptian invasion in 18x4 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recog-
nized rulers of Hejaz, and though the Turks have attempted to
suppress their importance, the Sharif still executes justice accord-
ing to the Mahommcdan law in the holy cities, though, nominally,
as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut many villages
are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who are
known as Ashraf , Sada or Kudha (s.e.Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis) ;
the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do
not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in
fighting.
Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly
and the military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts,
a large population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves
and their descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar
consists almost entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates
the pure Arab inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the
desert, too, there is a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which
from its name {Salib, cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian
origin; they are great hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles;
the Arabs despise them as an inferior race, but do not harm
them; they pay a small tax to the tribe under whose protection
they live, and render service as labourers, for which they receive
in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest they get
wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase,
they manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or
flocks.
In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town
population. According to one authority their presence in Yemen
dates from the time of Solomon, others say from the
tm'nSS capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. Manzoni
estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out
of a total population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous
and wealthy community, with agents in most of the towns of
Yemen. Even in remote Nejran , Hal6vy, himself a Jew, found a
considerable colony of his co-religionists. They wear a distinctive
garb and arc not allowed to carry arms or live in the same quarter
as Moslems. Another foreign element of considerable strength
in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and Jidda, is the British
Indian trading class; many families of Indian origin also have
settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims.
Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and
the figures given in the following table can only be regarded as a
very rough approximation: —
Hejaz joo.ooo
Yemen and Asir. !, 800,000
Ncjd i.ooo.ooo
Hadramut 150,000
Oman 1,000,000
El Hasa 300,000
Syrian desert* and border .... 275,000
4,825,000
Communications. — The principal land routes in Arabia are
those leading to the holy dties. In the present day the Syrian
pilgrim route, or Darb el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and
Mecca is the most used. The annual pilgrim caravan or haj,
numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack animals, is
escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as oget; small
fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places
some 30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and
for the further protection of the haj, payments are made to the
Bedouin tribes through whose territories the route passes. The
road is a mere camel track across the desert, the chief places
passed are Ma'an on the Syrian border, a station on the old
Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medals Salih, the site of the
rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to notice by
Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends
the W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast
passing Rabigh and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance,
1300 m., is covered in forty days.
The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai
peninsula and down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the
Syrian route at Badr Hunen. It also was formerly provided
with stations and reservoirs, but owing to the greater facilities
of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now little used
Another important route is that taken by the Persian or Shia
pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the
wells of Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of
western Nejd till it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca,
50 m. north-east of the city. It lies almost entirely in the
territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of J. Shammar, who derives a
considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The old reservoirs
on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al Rashid,
were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 10th
century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route,
known as the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif
and Mecca, but it is no longer used.
The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to
Jauf and across the Nafud to HaiL Other important routes
leading to Nejd are those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa
to Riad respectively. In the west and south the principal routes,
other than those already mentioned, are from Yambu to Medina,
from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to Sana, and from
Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has
begun in Arabia, and in 1008 the Hejaz line, intended to connect
Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of
Ma'an. This line is of great strategical importance, as strengthen-
ing the Turkish hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal
means of commercial communication for a country like Arabia
must always be by sea. Bahrein, Kuwet and Muscat are in steam
communication with India, and the Persian Gulf ports; all the
great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way between Suez
and the East, and regular services are maintained between Suez,
Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African
coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on
the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
Comtturct.—Tht total value of the trade of Aden for 1904
amounted to over £6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same
year were £1 ,40^,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food
stuffs from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late
years, amounted in 1904 to only £25,000. To balance the exports
and imports specie was exported in the three years 1903-1904
amounting to £2.319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps
provided by cash brought into the country by pilgrims, ;
The pilgrim traffic increased largely in ioai as compared with
previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom
were from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settle-
ment!, and the' remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other
countries: 215 cat of a total 01-334 steamships engaged in this
traffic were British.
The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share
to that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period
from 1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country.
In the Latter year the imports amounted to £467,000, and the exports
to £451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious
decline from £302,000 in 1902 to £229,000 in 1904; this is attribut-
able partly to the great increase 01 production in other countries, but
mainly to the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant
transit dues levied by the Turkish administration.
Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about
£550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to
exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice,
coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good
year accounts for nearly half the total: much of the trade is in the
hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British.
The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf
is Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904
to £1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports;
rice, piece goods, &c, form the bulk of the former, while pearls are
the most valuable part of the latter. (R. A, W.)
AKTIQUtTIZS
Arabia cannot be said to be " destitute of antiquities," but
the material for the study of these is still very incomplete.
ANTIQUITIES]
ARABIA
263
The difficulties in the way of travelling in Arabia with a view
to scientific investigation are such that little or nothing is being
done, and the systematic work which has given such good results
in Egypt, Palestine and Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia.
Yet the passing notes of travellers from the time of Carsten
Niebuhr show that antiquities are to be found.
Prehistoric Remains —Since prehistoric remains must be
studied where they are found, the difficulty in the way of ex-
ploration makes itself severely felt. That such remains exist
seems clear from the casual remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave
(Central and Eastern Arabia, vol. i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle
of roughly shaped stones taken from the adjacent limestone
mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these stones still
exist, some of them 15 ft high. Two of them, xo to x a ft. apart,,
still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without ornament.
Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and
Karnak. Doughty (Arabia Dcscrta, vol. ii.), travelling in north-
west Arabia, saw stones of granite in a* row and " flagstones set
edgewise " (though he does not regard these as religious), also
"round heaps, perhaps barrows," and "dry-built round
chambers," which may be ancient tombs. J. T. Bent (Southern
Arabia, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several mounds in Bahrein.
It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are said to be
Phoenician.
Castles and Walls. — In the south of Arabia, where an advanced
civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the
ruins of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been
mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers.
In Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in
some cases inscriptions seem to be still in situ. Great castles
ire often mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the
neighbourhood of San'a was described as one of the wonders of
the world by Qazwlnl (Athdr ul-Bildd, p. 33, ed. Wttstenfeld,
G6ttingcn, 1847, cf. Journal of the German Oriental Society,
vol. 7, pp. 473, 476. and for other castles* vol. xo, pp. 20 ff.).
The ruins of the city of Ma'rib, the old Sabacan capital, have
been visited by Arnaud, HaleVy and Glaser, but call for further
description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the
dike (see below), while Halevy and GlaseT were interested chiefly
in the inscriptions.
Wells and Dikes.— From the earliest times the conservation
of water has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over
the country wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of
them is undoubtedly ancient. Inscriptions are still found in
some of these in the south. The famous well Zemzem at Mecca
is said to belong to the early times, when the eastern traffic
passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia through the
Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time of
Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma'rib arc those
of a great dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to
visitors at Aden. These remains were first described by Arnaud
(Journal asiatiqm, January x 8 74, with plan) . Their importance
was afterwards emphasised by Glaser's publication of two long
inscriptions concerning their restoration in the 5th and 6th
centuries a.d. (" Zwei Inschriften liber den Dammbruch von
Marib," in the Mitleilungen der V order asiatiscken Cesellschaft,
Berlin, 1897V. Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen by
W. B. Harris at Hirran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three
tanks (A Journey through the Yemen, p. 279, London, 1893).
Stones and Bronzes. — The 19th century has brought to the
museums of Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and
Vienna) a number of inscriptions in the languages of Minea and
Saba, and a few in those of Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-
bania). These inscriptions are generally on limestone or marble
or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few inches to some
feet in length and height. In some cases the originals have been
brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the inscrip-
tions. The characters employed are apparently derived from
the Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski's Ephemeris, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.).
The languages employed have been the subject of much study
(cf. F. Hommd's SUd-orabische Chrestomathie, Munich, 1893),
but the archaeological value of these remains has not been so
fully treated. Very many of them are votive inscriptions and
contain little more than the names of gods and princes or private
men. A few are historical, but being (with few and late excep-
tions) undated, have given rise to much controversy among
scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 B.C. (or 1500
B.c. according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century a.d. Few are
still in situ, the majority having been taken from their original
positions and built into houses, mosques or wells of more recent
date. Among these remains are altars, and bases for statues
of gods or for golden images of animals dedicated to gods. The
earlier stones are devoid of ornamentation, but the later stones
and bronzes are sometimes ornamented with designs of leaves,
flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear figures of the
conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to
Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae
with human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs
as well as bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &c.
(cf. D. H. Mailer's Siidarabische AlterthUmer im Kunsthistorischen
Museum, Vienna, 1899, with plates).
Seals, Weights and Coins. — The Vienna Museum possesses a
small number of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with
Sabaean writing and are of bronze, copper, silver and stone.
The gems of onyx, carnelian and agate are later and bear various
figures, and in some cases Arabic inscriptions. One or two
weights are also in existence. A number of coins have been
brought to the British Museum from Aden, San'a and Ma'rib.
Others were purchased by G. Schlumbcrger in Constantinople;
others have, been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in
the Vienna Museum. These are imitations of Greek models,
while the inscriptions are in Sabaean characters (cf. B. V. Head,
in the Numismatic Chronicle, 1878, pp. 373-284; G. Senium-
berger, Le Trisor de Sana, Paris, xS8o; D. H. Mtillcr, op. cit.
pp. 65 ff. and plates).
For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia sec Rhodesia
and Zimbabwe. (G. W. T.)
History
Introduction. — Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by
some scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic
peoples. Although this cannot be said to be proved, the studies,
linguistic and archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown
it to be probable. The dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine.
The migration into Babylonia was simple, as there are no natural
boundaries to separate it from north-east Arabia, and similar
migrations have taken place in historic times. That of the
Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from any natural
hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been close ;
and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the beginning
of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history knows
nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature
has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely
legendary and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of
Arabian historians to begin with the creation of the world and
tell the history from then to the time of which they are writing.
Consequently even the more sober histories contain a mass of
fables about early days. Many of these, taken in part from
Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the Koran. Of all
these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only ones of
any value are the accounts of the " days of the Arabs," i.e.
accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia.
Authorities. — Until recently the Arab traditions were practi-
cally the only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The
Old Testament references to Arabs were obscure. The classical
accounts of the invasion of Aelius Callus in 26 B.C. threw little
light on the state of Arabia at the time, still less on its past
history. The Greek writers from Theophrastus in the 4th
century B.C. to Ptolemy in the and century a.d. mention many
names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of their
dties, but contribute little to their history, and that little could
not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny
in his Natural History, In the 19th century the discovery
and decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight
glance into the relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the
264
ARABIA
(HISTORY
8th century B.C. But the great contribution of the century to
the early history of Arabia was the collecting and translating
of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf. section Antiquities
above), which have done service both by their own indication of
a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a thousand
years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which
they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the
Assyrian inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and
Roman writers. At the same time the facts that the inscriptions
are undated until a late period, that few are historical in their
contents, and for the most part yield only names of gods and
rulers and domestic and religious details, and that our collection
is still very incomplete, have led to much serious disagreement
among scholars as to the reconstruction of the history of Arabia
in the pre-Christian centuries.
All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as
far back as the 9th century B.C. (some say to the x6th) and prove
the existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these
centuries. These are the kingdoms of Ma'In (Minaean), of
Saba (Sabaean), of Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania
(Katabano). Of the two latter little is known. That of Hadramut
had kings from the time of the Minaeans to about a.d. 300, when
it was conquered by Ethiopia. The limits of the kingdom of
Katabania are not known, but it has it* own inscriptions.
As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among
scholars. The inscriptions go back to 800 B.C. or earlier, and
the same applies to the kingdom. A queen of this people (the
" Queen of Sheba ") is said (1 Kings z.) to have visited Solomon
about 950 B.C. There is, however, no mention of such a queen
in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions Ith'amara
the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 B.C. At this time
the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the in-
scription refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans.
The former opinion is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the
9th and 8th centuries they moved down along the west coast to
the south, where they conquered the Minaeans (see below).
The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods indicated by
the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these ruled the
Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first capital
was at §irwah. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the inscriptions.
Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The second
period begins about 550 B.C. The rulers are known as " kings of
Saba." Their capital was Ma'rib. The names of seventeen of
these kings are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted
until about 1x5 B.C., when they were succeeded by the Him-
yarites. During this period they were engaged in constant strife
with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut and Katabania.
The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time was due
in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with Egypt
came there by sea and then went by land up the .west coast
This trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies
established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The
connexion of Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (?.«.)
had existed from about 300 B.C., was now broken. The decay
that followed caused a number of Sabaeans to migrate to other
parts of Arabia.
The Minaean kingdom 'extended over the south Arabian
Jauf, its chief cities being Karnau, Main and YathiL Some
twenty-five kings are known from the inscriptions; of these
twenty are known to be related to one another. Their history
must thus cover several centuries. As inscriptions in the Minaean
language are found in al-'Ula in north Arabia, it is probable that
they had colonies in that district. With regard to their date
opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser and
F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to
that of Saba, probably from about 1500 B.C. or earlier until the
Sabaeans came from their home in the north and conquered
them in the 9th century. Other scholars think, with D. tf.
Muller, partly on palaeographical grounds (cf. M. tidzbarski's
Ephemeris, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen, xooa), that none of the
inscriptions are earlier than about 800 B.C. and that the Minaean
kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is curious that
the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the Minaeans,
though this may be due to the fact that very few of the inscrip-
tions are historical in content
About 115 B.C. the power over south Arabia passed from the
Sabaeans to the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-
west of Arabia; and about this time the kingdom of Katshama
came to an end. The title taken by the new rulers was " king of
Saba and Raidan." Twenty-six kings of this period are known
from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In this period
the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in the
affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an
absolute failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides
and lost in the sands of the desert During the latter part of
this time the Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia
to the opposite coast of Africa, began to flow back to the south
of Arabia, where they seem to have settled gradually and
increased in importance until about a.d. 300, when they became
strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and establish a
dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was " king of
Saba, Raidan, Hadramut and Yemen." The Himyarites were,
however, still active, and'after a struggle succeeded in establish*
ing a Jewish Sabaean kingdom, having previously accepted
Judaism as their religion. Their best-known king was Dhu
Nuwas. The struggle between them and the Abyssinians now
became one of Judaism against Christianity. The persecution
of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser's Die Abyssinier
in Arabien und Afrika, Munich, 1895, and F. M. E. Pereira's
Histwia dos Mar lyres de Nagran, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for
this reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium
in its attempts to regain power. These attempts were crowned
with success in 525. Of the Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia
tradition tells of four, one only of whom is mentioned in inscrip-
tions. The famous expedition of Abraha, the Abyssinian viceroy,
against Mecca, took place in 57a Five years later the Persians,
who had been called in by the opponents of Christianity, suc-
ceeded in taking over the rule and in appointing governors over
Yemen. (See further Ethiopia: The Axumite Kingdom.)
Hira, GhassAn and Kinda. — Before passing to the time of
Mahomet it is necessary to take account of three other Arabian
powers, those of Hira, Ghass&n and Kinda.
The kingdom of Hira (tflra) was established in the boundary
land between the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district
renowned for its good air and extraordinary fertility.
The chief town was Hira, a few miles south of the site. *
of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this land are said
in lahari's history to have been of three classes:— (1) The
Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs
from the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form
a new tribe, and who migrated from there to Hira, probably at
the beginning or middle of the 3rd century aj>., when the
Ar&add power was growing weak. The Arabian historians relate
their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The 'Ibid or Tbaditea> who
dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled life.
These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac,
though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian
bishop of Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In
the 5th century they became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various
tribes, who came into the land but did not belong to the Tanukh
or the Tbad. There is no trustworthy information as to the
earlier chiefs of this people. The dynasty of the Lakhmids,
famed in Arabian history and literature, arose towards the end
of the 3rd century and lasted until about 60s. The names of
twenty kings are given by Hisham al-Kalbl in Tabari's history.
Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids
remained heathen until Nu'man, the last of the dynasty. The
kingdom of Hira was never really independent, but always stood
in a relation of dependence on Persia, probably receiving pay
from it and employing Persian soldiers. At the height of its
power it was able to render valuable aid to its suzerain. Much
of its time was spent in wars with Rome and Ghassan. Its
revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding
lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 60s the
HISTORY]
ARABIA
265
Lakhmid dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II.
appointed as governor an Arab of the tribe of Tai. Shortly after
it came into relation with Islam.
See G. Rothrtein's Die Dynastic der Lakk m iden in al-Hira (Berlin,
1899) ; Th. Noldeke's GesMckie der Perser und Arab* ntr Zeit der
Sassaniden (Leiden, 1879).
In the beginning of the 6th century aj>. a dynasty known as
the Jafnids, enter into the history alike of the Roman and
«*— *- Persian empires. They ruled over the tribe of Ghassftn
in the extreme north-west of Arabia, east of the
Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of
Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except
that they came from the south. A part of the same tribe in-
habited Yathrib (Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first
certain prince of the Jafnid house was Hirith ibn Jabala, who,
according to the chronicle of John Malalas, conquered Mondhir
(Mundhir) of Hlra in 528. In the following year,, according to
Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the Ghassanids as an
outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the Persian
dependants of Hlra, and recognized Harith as king of the Arabs
and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly
engaged in battles against Hlra. In 541 he fought under Bcli-
sarius in Mesopotamia. After his death about 569 or 570 the
friendly relations with the West continued, but about 583 there
was a. breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split into sections each
with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of Persia,
others preserved their freedom at the expense of their neighbours.
At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the Western
chronicles. There are references to the Ghassanid Nu'mfin in the
poems of N&bigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince
Jabala ibn Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against
it, but finding it too democratic, returned to Christianity and
exile in the Roman empire. As Islam advanced, some of the
Ghassanids retreated to Cappadocia, others accepted the new
See Th. NoWeke, Die ghassaniscken FOrsten aus dtm House
Gafua's (Berlin. 1887).
In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in
central Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of
frfrfr the family of Aqil ul Murar, who came from the south.
They seem to have stood in much the same relation to
the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hlra to the Persians and
the Ghassanids to Rome, Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz
was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda, Details of their history
are not known, but they seem to have gained power at one time
even over the Lakhmids of Hlra; and to have ruled over
Bahrein as well as Yemama until die battle of Shi'b ul Jabala,
when they lost this province to Hlra. The poet Amru'ul Qais
was a member of the princely family of Kinda.
Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia
in the 6th century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein,
ot _^ inhabited chiefly by the Bani'Abd Qais and the Bani
JJJ^if Bakr, was largely subject to Persian influence near
trail* its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided
in Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who
were chiefly engaged in fishing and seafaring, were Azdites
mixed with Persians. The ruling dynasty of Julanda in their
capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid period. No Persian
officials are mentioned in this country; whether Persians exer-
cised authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of Arabia
the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree
according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from
this influence the Hcjaz was simply a collection of cities
with its own government, while outside the cities the various
tribes governed themselves and fought continual battles with
one another.
Time of Mahomet. — Thus at the time of Mahomet's advent
the country was peopled by various tribes, some more or less
settled under the governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hlra and
Ghassin, these in turn depending on Abyssinia, Persia and
Rome (i*. Byzantium); others as in the Hejas were ruled in
smaller communities by members of leading families, while
in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs still
maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming
no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence
and protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these
may be added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families
deriving their origin partly from migrations from Palestine,
partly from converts among the Arabs themselves. Mahomet
appealed at once to religion and patriotism, or rather created a
feeling for both. For Mahomet as a religious teacher and for the
details of his career see Mahomet. It is enough here to outline
his actions in so far as be attempted to create a united, and then
a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of the
Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet
they were the natural outcome of the prophet's ideas. His idea
of Arabia for the Arabians could only be realized by summoning
the great kings of the surrounding nations to recognize Islam;
otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (Byzantium) would
continue their former endeavours to influence and control the
affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years before
his death he did actually send letters to the emperor HeracUus,
to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch
of Alexandria, the " Mukaukis " of Egypt, summoning them to
accept Islam and threatening them with punishment in case of
refusal. But the task of carrying out these threats fell to the lot
of his successors; the work of the prophet was to be the subjugat-
ing and uniting of Arabia. This work, scarcely begun in Mecca,
was really started after the migration to Medina by the forma-
tion of a party of men— the Muk&jirun (Refugees or Emigrants)
and the Ansdr (Helpers or Defenders) — who accepted Mahomet
as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his
enemies became urgent, this party became military. A few
successes in battle attracted to him men who were interested in
fighting and who were willing to accept his religion as a condition
of membership of his party, which soon began to assume a
national form. Mahomet early found an excuse for attacking
the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his schemes. The
Bani Nadir were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By the
time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar,
he had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to
remain in Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them:
this policy he followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630)
was not only an evidence of his growing power, which induced
Arabs throughout the peninsula to join him, but gave him a valu-
able centre of pilgrimage, in which he was able by a politic adoption
of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies into his own rites to
win men over the more easily to his own cause. At his death in
633 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true that rival
prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia,
that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the
warriors of the land were much distressed for want of work
owing to the brotherhood of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet.
The tribes were a seething mass of restlessness, their old feuds
ready to break out again. But they had realized that they had
common interests. The power of the foreigner in Arabia was
broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and
won, paradise for those who fell.
Early Caliphs. 1 1. Conquest.— Out task of the early caliphs
was to find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr
(632-634)1 the first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and
profound faith. He understood the intention of Mahomet as to
foreign nations, and set himself resolutely to carry it out in the
face of much difficulty. Hence as soon as he assumed office he
each ^sent out the army already chosen to advance against the Romans
in the north. The successful reduction of the rebels in Arabia
enabled him in his first year to send his great general Khftlid
with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against
Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits
of his policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the
Persians were defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was
completely subdued and the new cities of Kufa and Basra were
1 For the general history of the succeeding period see Califhatb;
Egypt: Htstory, | " Mahotnmedan."
266
founded (635). In the same year Damascus fell into the hands
of the Arabs under Abu 'Ubaida. In 636 Jerusalem fell and
received a visit from the caliph. Three years later the fateful
step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu'awlyya) governor of
Syria. In 640 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amribn al-'As) invaded Egypt
and the following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat
(which later became Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641
over the Persians, the flight of the last Sassanid king and the
capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in 643 meant the entire
subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of Omar's
caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was
marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to
ruin Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north
the Moslem arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west
they were successful as far as Carthage on the north coast of
Africa. After the murder of Othman, 'Ali (656-661) became
caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria, soon rebelled on the
pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the battle of
Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of the
rival claims. By a trick * Ali was deposed (658) , and the Omayyad
dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus.
During these early years the Arabs had not only made con*
quests by land, but had found an outlet for their energy at sea.
tttatlaa * n 6 *° ^ mar Mnt a fleet °* b ° atS acr0fiS tne Rcd &*
o/Mvy; *" P rotec t the Moslems on the Abyssinian coast.
The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by
this that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use
ships for an attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely
refused. Othman was less careful, and allowed a fleet from
Africa to help in the conquests of the Levant and Asia Minor.
In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of a maritime service,
on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais, appointed
admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In 652
Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the
Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.
2. Internal Affairs.— In the meantime what had become of
Arabia* and its uniflcation? The first task of Abu Bekr had
been to reduce those rebels who threatened to destroy that unity
even before it was fully established. This he did by the aid of
the great general Khilid. First he swept down on the Bani
Hanlfa in Ycmama, who with their rival prophet Mosailama
(Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of
Yemfima (633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain.
The Bani Hanlfa returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by
this battle, and the rebellion there, which was threatening, was
crushed. Oman was reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its
governor. Ikrima settled Mihra. Muhffjir, with the help of
Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty , but thoroughly, in defeating
Amr ibn Ma'diklrib and Qais ibn 'Abd YaghQth in Yemen and
Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were
cleared of the plundering nomads by 'Actab and Tihir. At the
end of the first year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united
under Islam. The new national feeling demanded that all
Arabs should be free men, so the caliph ordained that all Arab
slaves should be freed on easy terms. The solidarity of Arabia
survived the first foreign conquests. It was not intended that
Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as armies of
occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should
buy or possess land in these countries. Kufa was to be only a
military camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty
from conquests were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among
the Moslems. Omar tried to prevent the advance of conquests
lest Arabia should suffer. " I would rather the safety of my
people than thousands of spoil and further conquest." But
men could not be prevented from pouring out from their homes
in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who
went forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in
the new lands. Kufa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia,
Basra those of the north. Both became great cities, each with
a population of 1 50,000 to 200,000 Arabians. Yet so long as the
caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of Arabia was the capital
of the expanding Arabian empire. To It was brought a large
ARABIA [history
share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and there the
rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the
governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer
of Arabian affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil
list, regulated the military organization. He, too, desired that
Mahomet's wish should be carried out and that Arabia should be
purely Moslem. To this end he expelled the Christians from
Nejran and gave them lands in Syria and Irak, where they were
allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute. The Jews, too,
were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary posi-
tion that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire
is dearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate
of Othmin. In his appointments to governorships and other
offices, as well as in his distribution of spoil, Othmin showed a
marked preference for the members of his own tribe the Koreish
(Quraish) and the members of his own family the Bani Omayya
(Umayya). The other Arab tribes became increasingly jealous
of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves the Hishi-
mite family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much
power, although it had been among the last to accept Islam and
never was very strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels
which led to the murder of Othman were fomented not so much
in Arabia as in Kufa and Basra and Fostat In these cities the
rival parties were composed of the most energetic fighting men,
who were brought into the most intimate contact with one
another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land.
In Kufa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance
became insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of
Othmin's own family. After some years of growing dissatisfac-
tion deputies from these places came to Medina, and the result
was the murder of the caliph. Syria alone remained loyal to the
house of Omayya, and Othman had been advised to take refuge
there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for little in the
strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After the
murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new
caliph had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels
managed to gain most influence, and, in accordance with their
desire, 'All was appointed caliph by the citizens of Medina.
But Medina itself was being corrupted by the constant influx of
captives, who, employed at first as servants, soon became
powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle that
ensued upon the election of 'AH, Arabia was involved. Ayesha,
f alba and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in
obtaining possession of Basra, but were defeated in 656 at the
battle of the Camel (see Ali). In the south of Arabia 'All suc-
ceeded in establishing his own governor in Yemen, though the
government treasure was carried off to Mecca. Hut the centre
of strife was not to be Arabia. When 'All left Medina to secure
Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian empire.
With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of
the caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though
always of importance because of its possession, of the two sacred
cities Mecca and Medina* Both these cities were secured by
Moawiya in 660, and at the same time Yemen was punished for
its adherence to 'All. The final blow to any political pretensions
of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he had his son Yazld
declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim on the
part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate.
The Omayyads. — The early years of the Omayyads were years
of constant strife in Arabia. The Khirijitcs who had opposed
'All on the ground that he had no right to allow the appeal to
arbitration, were defeated at Nahrawan or Nahrwin (658), but
^hose who escaped became fierce propagandists against the
Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should be chosen by the
Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there should
be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the
government should be carried on by a council. They broke up
into many sects, and were long a disturbing political force in
Arabia as elsewhere. On the death of 'All his house was repre-
sented by his two sons Hasan and Qosafn (Qusain). Qasan
soon made peace with Moawiya. On the accession of Yaxid,
Hosain refused homage and raised an army, but was slain at
HISTORY) ARABIA
Kerbela (680). 'Abdallah ibn Zobafr (of the house of Hashim)
immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of 'All's
family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities
supported him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops
of Yazld (68s) and Mecca was besieged the following year. The
siege was raised in the third month on the news of the death of
Yazfd, but not before the Ka'ba had been destroyed. 'Abdallah
remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in Arabia, and soon
after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated the troops
of Merwtn I., but could not win the support of the Khfirijites.
In 691 Abdalmalik ('Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his
rival and sent his general Hajj&j against Mecca. The siege was
begun in March 692, and in October the city was taken and
'Abdallah slain. Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and
throughout the Moslem world. During the remaining years
of the Omayyad dynasty {i.e. until 750) little is heard of Arabia
in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on the one side
and India on the other had li t tie or no effect on it It was merely
a province.
The 'Abbtsids — The accession of Abul 'Abbas (of the house
of Hishim) and the transference of the capital of the caliphate
from Damascus to Kflfa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760)
to Bagdad meant still further degradation to Arabia and Arabs.
From the beginning the 'Abbasids depended for help on Persians
and Turks, and the chief offices of state were frequently filled
with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs conquered to the
end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic was taken
up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign
origin) with a seal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian
war spirit was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in
favour of the Omayyad family, they could not affect the succes-
sion of the 'Abb&sids. They returned more and more to their
old inter-tribal disputes. They formed now not only a mere
branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a branch deriving
little life from and giving less to the main stock. In 762 there
was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of "AH, but it was put
down with great severity by the army of the caliph Mansur.
A more local 'Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed
in 78s* In the contest between the two sons of Harun al Rashld
all Arabia sided with Mamun (812). In 845-846 the lawless
raids of Bedouin tribes compelled the caliph Wftthiq to send
his Turkish general Bogha, who was more successful in the north
than in the centre and south of Arabia in restoring peace.
The Carmathians. — Towards the close of the 9th century
Arabia was disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during
the next hundred years dominated the peninsula, and at its
dose left it shattered never to be united again. In the year
880 Yemen was listening to the propaganda of the new sect of
the Carmathians (q.v.) or followers of Hamdan QarmaL Four
years later these had become a public force. In 000 'Abu Sa'id
al-Jannabi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdan, had secured
a large part of this province and had won the city of Katff (Ketif )
which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who
lived more inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations
of Islam irksome, and do not seem to have made a very vigorous
opposition to the Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of
Bahrein in 003. From this they made successful attacks on
Yemima (Yamama), and attempts only partially successful
at first at Oman. In 006 the court at Bagdad learned that
these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening
Mecca and Medina. Abu Sa'Id was assassinated (913) in his
palace at Lahsa (which in 926 was fortified and became the
Carmathian capital of Bahrein). His son Sa'Id succeeded him,
but proved too weak and was deposed and succeeded by his
brother Abu T&bir. His success was constant and the caliphate
was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated Oman,
and swooping down on the west in 929 be horrified the Moslem
world by capturing Mecca and carrying oh! the sacred black
atone to Bahrein. The Fatimite caliph 'Obaidallah (see Fatj-
vrrzs), to whom Abu Tihir professed allegiance, publicly wrote
to him to restore the stone, but there is some reason to believe
that he secretly encouraged him to retain it. In 939, however,
267
the stone was restored and pilgrimages to the holy cities were
allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So long as
AbO T&hir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After
his death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers
of Egypt (969) and began to lose their influence. In 985 they
were completely defeated in Irak, and soon after lost control
of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered its independence. Three
years later Kaflf, at that time their chief city, was besieged
and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their political
power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their
power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now com*
pletdy disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the
caliphate. The attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had
failed. The country was once more split up into small govern-
ments, more or less independent, and groups of wandering tribes
carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these during
the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the
Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to
record their annals (cf. F. Wllstenfcld's Die Chroniken der
Siadt Mehka, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were
governed by Arabian nobles (sherifs), often at feud with one
another, recognizing formally the overlordship of the caliph
at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in 966 the name of the
cafiph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca, and an
'Alyite took possession of the government of the city and recog-
nized the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later
(107 5-1094) the 'Abbasid caliph was again recognized as spiritual
head owing to the success in arms of his protector the Seljuk
Malik-Shah. With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts
at control from that quarter came to an end. After the visit of
the Sultan Bibars (1269) Mecca was governed by an amir de-
pendent on Egypt Outside the two cities anarchy prevailed,
and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to marauding
Bedouins. In i$i7 the Osmlnll Turkish sultan Sellm conquered
Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate
was solemnly presented by the sherlf of Mecca with the keys of
the city, and recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler
of the Hejaz. At the same time Yemen, which since the 9th
century had been in the power of a number of small dynasties
ruling in Zubcd, San'l, Sa'da and Aden, passed into the hands
of the Turk.
For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H. C. Kay,
Omar ah' s History of Yaman (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole,
The Mahommedan Dynasties, pp. 87-103 (.Westminster, 1894).
Little more than a century later (1630), a Yemen noble KhSsim
succeeded in expelling the Turk and establishing a native imamate,
which lasted until 1871. For descriptions of it in the 18th century
cf. C. Niebuhr's accounts- of his travels in Arabia in 1761.
Oma*.~Since the separation from the caliphate (before
1000 a.d.) Oman had remained independent. For more than
a century it was governed by five elected im&ms, who were
chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and generally lived at Nizwa.
After them the Bani Nebhan gained the upper hand and estab-
lished a succession of kings (maJihs) who governed from 1154
to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by
Persians. The " kings of Hormux " claimed authority over the
coast land until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435
the people rose against the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and
restored the imimate of the tribe al-Azd. In 1508 the Portu-
guese under Albuquerque seized most of the east coast of Oman.
In X624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when N&sir ibn
Murshid of the Yariba (Ya'aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen)
was elected imam and established his capital at Rustak. He
was able to subdue the petty princes of the country, and the
Portuguese were compelled to give up several towns and pay
tribute for their residence at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese
were finally expelled from this city, and about 1698 from, the
Omanite settlements on the east coast of Africa.
For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G. P. Badger,
History of the Im&ms and Seyyids of Oman by Saiil-ibn-Raxik (London,
Hakluyt Society. 1871). (G. W. T.)
Wahhdbi Movement.— Modern Arabian history begins with
that of the Wahhibi movement In the middle of the 18th century.
Its originator, Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahhib, was born (1691)
268
ARABIA
(HISTORY
at Ayana in Nejd,. and after studying in Basra and Damascus,
and making the pilgrimage to Mecca returned to his native
country and settled down at Huremala near Deraiya. The abuses
and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of orthodox
Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat
them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the
pure simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed
Ibn Saud, sheik of Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced
them by his sword with such effect that before his death in 1765
the whole of eastern Nejd and El Hasa was converted to the
faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the political supremacy
of Ibn Sand. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a rapid
series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that
of the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks
on the pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated,
startled the Mahommedan world, 1 and compelled the attention
of the sultan, as the nominal protector of the faithful. In 1708
a Turkish force was sent from Bagdad into El Hasa, but was
compelled to retreat without accomplishing anything, and its
discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahhabi power.
In 1 80 1 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to
the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April,
stormed Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the
sacred tomb, scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with
the treasures, accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary
of the Shia faith* Mecca itself was taken; plundering was for-
bidden, but the tombs of the saints and all objects of veneration
were ruthlessly destroyed, and all ceremonies which seemed in
the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to suggest the taint of
idolatry were forbidden.
On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of
eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shia fanatic when at prayers
in the mosque of Deraiya, and Saud, who had for many years
led the Wahhabi armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804
Medina was taken and with its fall all resistance ceased. The
Wahhabi empire had now attained its zenith, a settled govern-
ment was established able to enforce law and order in the desert
and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian nationality had grown
up which bade fair to extend the Wahhabi dominion over all
the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of
decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a
corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the
exhaustion of the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused
discontent among them; the plundering of the holy places,
the attacks on the pilgrim caravans under the escort of Turkish
soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the desecration of the tomb of
Mahomet and the removal of its costly treasures, raised a cry
of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and made it
clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahhabi
power were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an
end.
But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe,
and to Mehcmet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task
of bringing the Wahhabis into subjection. In October 181 x an
expedition consisting of 10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the
pasha's son, a youth of sixteen, landed in Hejaz without opposi-
tion. SaOd with his main forces had started northwards to
attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and defeated
Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina
and subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians,
but in spite of continual reinforcements they could do little
more tnan hold their own in Hcjaz. In 18 13 Mehemet Ali was
compelled to take the field himself with fresh troops, but was
unable to achieve any decisive success, and in 181 4 Tusun was
again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814 Saud died, and his
son.Abdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet Ali refused all
overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd, defeated the
Wahhabi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in Kasim.
Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians
Abdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which
1 For farther detail* of this period, ste Egypt : HisUry, " Mahom-
medan Period," | 8.
included the return of the jewels plundered by Ms father, and
another campaign had to be fought before his submission was
obtained. Ibrahim Pasha replaced Tusun in command, and on
reaching Arabia in September 18 16 his first aim was to gain
over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads between Hejaz
and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of advance
he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he
put to death ail prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing,
with contingents of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in
support of his regular troops, he laid siege to Ras; this place,
however, held out and after a four months' siege he was com-
pelled to give up the attack. Leaving it on one side he pushed
on eastwards, took Aneza after six days' bombardment and
occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforce-
ments, and with his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the
adhesion of the Ateba and Bani Khalid tribes, advanced on
Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January 18x8 after a regular
siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its inhabit-
ants, he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818.
For six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at
last the courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed,
and on the oth of September, after a heroic resistance, Abdallah,
with a remnant of four hundred men, was compelled to surrender.
The Wahhlbi leader was soon after sent to Constantinople,
where, in spite of Mehemet Ali's intercession, he and the com-
panions who had followed him in his captivity were condemned
to death, and after being paraded through the city with ignominy
for three days were finally beheaded.
Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of
Nejd were compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though
the Arabs saw themselves powerless to stand before disciplined
troops, the Egyptians, on the other hand, had to confess that
without useless sacrifices they could not retain their hold on the
interior.
In X824 Turki, son of the unfortunate Abdallah, beaded *
rising which resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahhabi
state with Riad as its new capital; and during the next ten years
he consolidated his power, paying tribute to and under the
nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his murder in 1834. His ton,
Flsal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his refusal to pay tribute
an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he was taken
prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid, was
established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim
Pasha were, however, now committed to their conflict with
Turkey for Syria and Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare
for the thankless task of holding the Arabian deserts; the
garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in x 84 2 Fetal, who
had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was every-
where recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops
were ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian
or Turkish rule disappeared from central Arabia.
For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahhabi
empire was to be renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir
returned to their allegiance, but over Oman and Yemen Fetal
never re-established his dominion, and the Bahrein sheiks
with British support kept their independence.
A rival state had, however, arisen, under Abdallah Ibn Rashid
in Jebel Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between
his family and the Ibn Ali, the leading family of the na
Shammar, Abdallah came to Riad in 1830, and was f^ - ftftf
favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he
was with Fesal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came
of the amir's murder by his cousin Masharah. By Abdallah's
advice the expedition was abandoned; Fesal hastened back
with all his forces to Riad, and invested the citadel where
Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain possession of it,
until Abdallah with two companions found his way into the
palace, killed Masharah, and placed Fesal on the throne of his
father. As a reward for his services Abdallah was appointed
governor of Jcbcl Shammar, and had already established himself
in Hail when the Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed FCsal
temporarily from Nejd. During the exile of the latter he steadily
HISTORY1
ARABIA
269
consolidated his power, extending his influence more especially
over the desert tribes,, till on FesaTs return in 184a be had
created a state subject only in name to that of which Riad was
the capital.
On the death of Abdallah in 1843, bis son Taltl succeeded.
He set himself to work to establish law and order throughout
the state, to arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement
in Hail of artificers and merchants from abroad; the building
of the citadel and palace commenced by Mehcmet Ali, and
con tinued by Abdallah Ibn Rashid, was completed by Tal&l. The
town walls were strengthened, new wells dug, gardens planted,
mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom equally
with Abdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Terna
and Jauf became tributary to Hail.
Though tolerant in religion Tal&I was careful to avoid the
suspicion of lukewarmness towards the WahhAbi formulas.
Luxury in clothing and the use of tobacco were prohibited;
attendance at the mosque was enforced: any doubt as to his
orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity of the
tribute sent by him to. Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude
to the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Tal&I had
also entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure
his position in case of a collision with the Porte. During his
twenty years' reign Jebel Shammar became a model state, where
justice and security ruled in a manner before unheard of. Fisal
may well have watched with jealous anxiety the growing strength
of his neighbour's state as compared with his own, where all
progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of religious
fanaticism.
On the nth of March 1868 Talil, smitten with an incurable
malady, fell by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother
Ma tfib; after a brief reign he was murdered by his
jjjjjjf uephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became amir.
mttt Mahommed, the third son of the amir Abdallah, was at
the time absent; with a view of getting his uncle into
his power, Bandar invited him to return to Hail, and on his arrival
went out to meet him accompanied by Haraud, son of Obed, and
a small following. Warned by a hurried sign by Hamud that his
life was in danger, Mahommed at once attacked Bandar, stabbed
him and took possession of the citadel; a general massacre of
all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and next day
Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place
of Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A
strong and capable ruler, he soon established his authority over
all northern and western Nejd, and in 187s the opportunity
arrived for his intervention in the east In that year Abdallah,
who had succeeded Fesal in Riad in 1867, was deposed, but with
the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two years later,
however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at Hafl,
from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish
authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general,
seised the occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian
Gulf coast, and in 1875, in spite of British protests, occupied
El Hasa and established a new province under the title of Nejd,
with its headquarters at Hofuf, of which Abdallah was appointed
governor. This was an event of some importance, as it con-
situted the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty over Nejd
abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did
not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he
and his rivals were left to fight out their battles among
themselves. Turkey was indeed too much occupied by the war
with Russia to pay much attention to Arab affairs, though
* few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein by a
coup dc main, which was only frustrated by the action of a
British gunboat.
Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad,
the towns of eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former
condition of independence, but menaced in turn by the growing
power of Hail, they formed a coalition under the leadership of
Zamil, sheik of Aneza, and in the spring of 1801, Aneza, Bureda,
Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their, contingents to contest
with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter had besides
20, 000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole strength
of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional
support of xooo mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern
Shammar from the Euphrates, whilo the Muter and Ateba tribes
took part with the allies. The total strength of each side
amounted to about 30,000 men. ZAmil's forces held a strong
position between Aneza and Bureda, and for over a month
desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made against
the defenders' centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men
of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil
and his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn SaQd
family, while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and
Bureda surrendered the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra
and Riad tendered their submission.
This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia
under the supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held
undisputed during the rest of his life.
On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the
murdered amir Ma tab, succeeded; during his reign a new
element has been introduced into Nejd politics by the
rising importance of Kuwct (Koweit) and the attempts
of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour.
In 1001 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mubarak of Kuwct and
the amir of Hail whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force
was equipped at Basra under Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the
intention of occupying Kuwet; Mubarak thereupon appealed to
Great Britain and action was taken which prevented the Turkish
designs from being carried out Kuwet was not formally placed
under British protection, but it was officially announced by the
government on the 5th of May 1903 " that the establishment of a
naval base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other
power would be regarded as a very grave menace to British
interests which would certainly be resisted with all the means at
its disposal/'
In the meantime Sheik Mubarak had found useful allies in
the Muntafik Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahh&bis
of Riad; the latter under the amir Ibn SaQd marched against
Ibn Rashid, who at the instigation of the' Porte had again
threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled him to retire to his own
territory and took possession of the towns of Bureda and Aneza.
Sheik Mubarak and his allies continued their advance, defeated
Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th
of September 1004, and drove him back on his capital, Hail.
The Porte now made another effort to assist its protegt; two
columns were despatched from Medina and Basra respectively,
to relieve Hail, and drive out the Wahh&bis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha,
in command of the Basra column, 4200 strong, crossed the
desert and reached the wells of Lma, 200 m. from Hail, on the
5th of March 1905; here, however, he received orders to halt and
negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish government
realized by this time the strength of the hostile combination,
and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen, hesitated to
undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd. Arrange-
ments were accordingly made with the Wahh&bis, and on the
10th of April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the
object of protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina
column by the end of the month. Bureda and Aneza were
occupied without opposition, the rebellious sheiks amnestied by
the sultan and loaded with gifts, and formal peace was made
between the rival factions.
European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival
of the Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery
of the Cape route. In 1506 Honnua was taken by
Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast of Oman (q.v.) ™^~
were occupied by the Portuguese till 165a In 1516 tumimf
their fleets appeared in the Red Seaandan unsuccessful
attempt was made against Jidda; but the effective occupation
of Yemen by the Turks in the next few years frustrated any
designs the Portuguese may have had in S.W. Arabia. Even in
Oman their hold on the country was limited to Muscat and the
I adjacent porta, while the interior was ruled by the old Yiriba
2JQ
ARABIA
[HISTORY
(Ya-'aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian
occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an
end in the middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said
expelled the invaders and in 1759 established the Ghafari
dynasty which still reigns in Oman. He was succeeded by his
son, who in 1 798 made a treaty with the East India Company with
the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the connexion
with Great Britain was further strengthened during
*** the long reign of his grandson Sultan Slid, 1804-1856.
During the earlier years of his reign he was constantly
at war with the Wahhabi empire, to which Oman
became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the
JawSsimi Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England,
and in 1810 their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian
expedition. The overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored
Sultan Said to independence; he equipped and armed on
Western models a fleet built in Indian ports, and took possession
of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian coast north of
the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his liberal
policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous
commercial ports.
On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Majld, a
younger son, taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested
the succession to Oman. The eldest, Thuweni, with British
support, finally obtained the throne, and in 1862 an engagement
was entered into by the French and English governments re-
specting the independence of the sultans of Oman. He was
assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned
till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession ;
ultimately his son Fesal was recognized by the British govern-
ment, and was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues,
in consideration of which he engaged not to cede any of his
territory without the consent of the British government; similar
engagements have been entered into by the tribes who occupy
the south coast from the borders of Oman westward to the
straits of Bab-cl-Mandeb.
The opening of the overland route to India again brought
the west coast of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied
RHU . by the British in 1839. The Hejaz coast and some
JJJjJaf of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali,
lattuemce. as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from
Arabia in 1845, Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule,
and the conquest of Yemen in 1872 placed the whole Red Sea
littoral (with the exception of the Midian coast, ceded by Egypt
on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under Ottoman administra-
tion. The island of Pcrim at the southern entrance of the Red Sea
has been a British possession since 1857, while the promontory
of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish
occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish
territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political
relations with Great Britain, a joint commission of British and
Turkish officers in 1902-1905 laid down a boundary line from
Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana, 12 m. north-east of the
small town of Kataba, from which it is continued in a north-
easterly direction up to the great desert This delimitation
places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the
British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district
surrounding Aden (q.v.), the Had ram ut and Oman with its
dependencies.
The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by
a Turkish governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana
- w#fcfc respectively; the country is nominally divided up
^ into divisions and districts under minor officials, but
Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the
inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held
by strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The
powerful Bedouin tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their
independence, and are only kept quiet by the large money
payments made them by the sultan on the occasion of the
annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of A sir
and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish
troops, and such revenues as are collected, mainly from
vexatious customs and transit duties, are quite insufficient
to meet the salaries of the officials, while the troops, ill fed
and their pay indefinitely in arrears, live on the country as
best they can.
A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish
detachment collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north
of Hodeda was destroyed by a body of Arabs. This
reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the leadership fJUST
of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation,
lived in retirement at Sada, x 20 m. north of the capita 1, the power-
ful tribes between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied
the principal towns and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts
that still held out. In many cases the garrisons, Arab troops
from Syria, went over to the insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforce-
ments under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha reached Hodeda,
Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of January
1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous
districts was reconquered.
A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in
1904 a general revolt took place with which the normal garrison
of Yemen, the 7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The
military posts were everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital,
was cut off from all communication with the coast. During
February 1905 reinforcements were sent up which raised the
garrison of Sana to a strength of eight battalions, and in March
a further reinforcement of about the same strength arrived,
and fought its way into the capital with the loss of almost all
its guns and train. The position was then desperate, wholesale
desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three
weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was com-
pelled to surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression
at Constantinople, every effort was made to hasten out reinforce-
ments, the veteran Ahmad Feizi Pasha was nominated to the
supreme command, and Anatolian troops in place of the unre-
liable Syrian element were detailed. The scale of the operations
may be judged from the fact that the total number of troops
mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126
battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader
Mahommed Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000.
By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to
advance on Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport,
rallied the scattered remnants of Ali Riza's army, and with the
newly arrived troops had by the middle of July a force of some
40 battalions available for the advance on Sana. He left
Manakha on the 17 th of July, and after almost daily fighting
reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he entered
the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having
retreated northward.
• of Arabia (Loodon,
r Arabia (Amsterdam,
fundert Jahren (Halle,
xmdon, 1829); R. F.
:cak (London, 1855).
Central and Eastern
: Deserta (Cambridge,
y the personal narra-
\bia (London. 1908):
arabes, &c. (Batavia,
Arabie (Paris, 1891);
I96) ; E. Nolde. Rriie
Hirach, Rtise in Sud
hem Arabia (1895);
lers, Voyage en Yemen
(1872); Lady Anne
. Glaser, Petermann's
ourney through Yemen
in Arabia (London,
1877). Consult miao
<gy see H. J. Carter.
it Coast 01 Arabia,
iv. pp. 21-96 (1852);
fhe Rift Valleys and
ancient geography of
biens (Berne, 187 5);
\>hy (London, 1883);
11, 1884): E. Glaser,
90). (R. A. W.)
LITERATURE]
ARABIA
271
LlTBBATUSE
The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, impro-
visations, recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs.
Of Written literature in those days there was, so far as we know,
none. But where books failed memory was strong and the
power of retaining things heard was not confined to a professional
class. At every festive meeting many could contribute a poem
or a story, many could even improvise the one or the other.
When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair
of 'Uka?) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour
of their own people, and a ready improviscr was held in high
esteem. The smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest
satires, spoken or sung on such occasions, were treasured in the
memory of the hearers and carried by them to their homes.
But the experience of all peoples in that memory requires to be
helped by form. Sentences became balanced and were made
dear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of this
in Arabian literature is the saf or rhymed prose, in which the
sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a
rhyme or assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts
of the Koran (e.g. Sura, 81). The next step was the introduction
of metre into the body of the sentence and the restriction of
the passages to a definite length. This in its simplest form gave
rise to the rajaz verses, where each half-line ends in the same
rhyme and consists of three feet of the measure SJ - « - . Other
metres were introduced later until sixteen altogether were re-
cognized. In all forms the rhyme is the same throughout the
poem, and is confined to the second half of the line except in the
first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however, these
measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed
or their rules enunciated until the time of Khalil ion Ahmad
in the 8th century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are
probably connected with the necessity for aiding the memory.
The first of these is the requirement that each line should have
a complete sense in itself; this produces a certain jerkiness,
and often led among the Arabs to displacement in the order
of the lines in a long poem. The other feature, peculiar to the
long poem (qasida, elegy), is that, whatever its real object,
whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the arrangement
of its material. It begins with a description of the old camping-
ground, before which the poet. calls on his companion to stop,
while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places.
Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he
had journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some
of the most famous descriptions and praises of animals) until
his beast became thin and worn-out. Then at last comes the
real subject of the poem, usually the panegyric of some man of
influence or wealth to whom the poet has come in hope of reward
and before whom he recites the poem.
Poetry. — The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days
was very great. As his name, ash-Shamir, " the knowing man/'
indicates, he was supposed to have more than natural knowledge
and power. Panegyric and satire (hijd') were his chief instru-
ments. The praise of the tribe in well-chosen verses ennobled
it throughout the land, a biting satire was enough to destroy
its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher's Abhandlungen lur arabischen
Pkilologie, i. pp. 1- 105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the
Arabs were summed up in muruwoa (custom). Hospitality,
generosity, personal bravery were the subjects of praise; mean-
ness and cowardice those of satire. The existence of poetry
among the northern Arabs was known to the Greeks even in the
4th century (cf. St Nilos in Mignc's Patrologia Graeca, vol. 79,
col. 648, and Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History, bk. 6, ch. 38).
Women as well as men composed and recited poems before the
days of the Prophet (cf . L. Cheikho's Poetesses of the JihiKyya,
in Arabic, Beirut, 1897).
The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very im-
perfect. Many of the reciters were slain in battle, and it was
not till the 8th to the xoth centuries and even later that the
earliest collections of these poems were made. Many have to
be recovered from grammars, dictionaries, &c, where single
lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the proper use
of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not
content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but
interpolated some of his own composition, and the change of
religion introduced by Islam led to the mutilation of many
verses to suit the doctrines of the new creed. 1
The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature,
was that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it
aright was the ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid
period. For the man of the towns its vocabulary was too copious
to be easily understood, and in the age of linguistic studies
many commentaries were written to explain words and idioms.
Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six
whose poems were collected by Asma*i about the beginning of
the 9th century (ed. W. Ahlwardt, The Diivans oj the Six Ancient
Arabic Poets, London, 1870). Single poems of four of these —
Amru-ul-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair and 'Antara— appear in the
Mo'allakat (9.0.). The other two were Nabigha (q.v.) and
'Alqama (q.v.). But besides these there were many others whose
names were famous; such as Ta'abbata Sharran, a popular
hero who recites his own adventures with great gusto; his
companion Shanfarft, whose fame rests on a fine poem which has
been translated into French by de Sacy (in his Chrestomatkie
Arabe) and into Fnglfah by G. Hughes (London, 1896); A us ibn
Ha jar of the Bani Tamln, famous for his descriptions of weapons
and hunting scenes (cd. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892); H&lim Tft'i,
renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his poetry
(ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation);
and 'Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of 'Abs, rival of tfatim in
generosity as well as in poetry (cd. Th. Noldeke, Gottingen,
1863). Among these early poets are found one Jew of repute,
Samau'al (Samuel) ibn Adiyi (cf. Th. N&ldeke's Beitrtge,
pp. 52-86; art. s.v. " Samuel ibn Adiya " in Jewish Encyc. and
authorities there quoted), and some Christians such as "Adi'ibn
Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and of
death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his Les Poiles arabes chritiens,
PP- 439*474, Beirut, 1800; in this work many Arabian poets
are considered to be Christian without sufficient reason). One
poet, a younger contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much
attention because bis poems were religious and he was a mono-
theist. This is Umayya ibn Abi-s-§alt, a Mcccan who did not
accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed by
F. Schulthess in the Orienlalische Siudien dedicated by Th.
Noldeke, Giessen, 1006, and his relation to Mahomet by £. Power
in the Milanges de la facultS orientak de I'univertUi Saint- Joseph,
Beirut, 1906). Mahomet's relation to the poets generally was
one of antagonism because of their influence over the Arabs
and their devotion to the old religion and customs. Ka'b ibn
Zuhair, however, first condemned to death, then pardoned, later
won great favour for himself by writing a panegyric of the
Prophet (ed. G. Frcytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet, A'sha
(q.v.), followed his example. Labld (q.v,) and Hassan ibn Thabit
(q.v.) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time
Khansa (q.v.) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time
two others deserve mention; Abu Mihjan, who made peace
with Islam in 630 but was exiled for his love of wine, which he
celebrated in his verse (ed. L. Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Land-
berg's Primeurs arabes, 1, Leiden, 1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus,
known as al-J^u(at'a, a wandering poet whose keen satires led
to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldriher in the
Journal oj the German Oriental Society, vols. 46 and 47)-
Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four
caliphs continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would
have been hard. Probably little but religious poetry would have
been allowed. But the Omayyads (with one exception) were not
religious men and, while preserving the outward/forms of Islam,
allowed full liberty to the pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and
the beliefs and practices of Christians. At the same time the
1 On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Noldeke's Beitrdge tut
Kenntniss dtt Poesie der alten Araber (Hanover, 1804); and W.
Ahlwardt* Bemerkungen Hbor die Aecktheit der alien anbiseher
GedichU (Grcifswald, 187a).
272
circumstances of the poet's life were altered. Poetry depended
on patronage, and that was to be had now chiefly in the court of
the caliph and the residences of his governors. Hence the centre
of attraction was now the city with its interests, not the desert.
Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The qasida still required
the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied
with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and
more artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt
themselves strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and
adopt others more suitable. The names of three great poets
adorn the Omayyad period: Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jarlr were
contemporaries (see separate articles) . The first was a Christian
of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity enabled him to write
many verses which would have been impossible to a professing
Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons
of satire to support them against the " Helpers " and to exalt
his own tribe against the gaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tamlm,
a good Moslem but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and
Kufa, and was renowned for his command of language. Jarlr of
another branch of the Bani Tamlm lived in Irak and courted the
favour of Hajj&j, its governor. His satires were so effective that
he is said to have crushed forty-three rivals. His great efforts
were against Farazdaq, who was supported by Akhtal (d. The
Nakaid of Jarlr and al-Farazdaq, ed. A. A. Bevan, Leiden, 1006
foil.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous.
Laila ul-Akhyallyya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the
death of her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing
him, and so became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the
writing of verse. Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in
Arabia itself at this time. Qais ur-Ruqayy&t was the poet of
'Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah ibn Zobair) and helped him
until circumstances went against him, when he made his peace
with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and love songs
(ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1002). 'Ulnar ibn Abl Rabl'a
(c. 643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of case in his
native town of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and
writing love songs (ed. P. Schwarz, Leipzig, ioox-1002). His
poems were very popular throughout Arabia. As a dweller in
the town he was independent of the old forms of poetry, which
controlled all others, but his influence among poets was not great
enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived
movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The
rajaz poems (see above) had been a subordinate class generally
used for improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th
and 8th centuries, however, a group of poets employed them
more seriously. The most celebrated of these were 'Ajjaj and
his son Ru'ba of the Bani Tamlm (editions by W. Ahlwardt,
Berlin, 1903; German trans, of Ru'ba's poems by Ahlwardt,
Berlin, 1004).
With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch
in Arabian poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the
qosida had been recognized as antiquated and out of place in
city life even in the Omayyad period (d. Goldziher, Abhond-
lungen, i. 144 ff.). This form had been ridiculed but now it lost
its hold altogether, and was only employed occasionally by way
of direct imitation of the antique. The rise of Persian influence
made itself felt in much the same way as the Norman influence
in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry. Tribal
feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual
experiences of life and matters of human interest become more
usual subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet's
later life, is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and
passions to be found in a dty like Bagdad are the subjects of a
poet's verse. One of the earliest of these poets, Muti ibn Ayis,
shows the new depth of personal feeling and refinement of
expression. Bashsh&r ibn Burd (d. 783), a blind poet of Persian
descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence as he openly
rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the Persian
religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuwas (q.v.) is the greatest
poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his
morals arc those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of
the world. AbQ-l-'Atahiya (q.v.), his contemporary, is fluent,
ARABIA [LITERATURE
simple and often didactic. Muslim ibn ul-WaKd (ed. de Goeje,
Leiden, 1875), also contemporary, is more conservative of old
forms and given to panegyric and satire. In the gth century two
of the best-known poets— AbQ Tammim (q.v.) and Bufctuii (q.v.)
— were renowned for their knowledge of old poetry (see Hamasa)
and. were influenced by it in their own verse. On the other hand
Ibn ul-Mo'tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of brilliant
occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the xoth century the
centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at
Aleppo. Here in Motanabbl (q.v.) the claims of modern poetry
not only to equal but to excel the andent were put forward and
in part at any rate recognized. Aba Firas (932-068) was a
member of the family of Saif ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems
have all the charm that comes from the fact that the writer has
lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R. Dvorak, Leiden,
1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of the
great poets. Yet AbQ-l-'AU ul-Ma*arrT (q.v.) was original alike
in his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems.
Ibn Farid (q.v.) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Buslri
(q.v.) wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet.
In the provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who,
however, seldom produced original work. Spain, however, pro-
duced Ibn 'AbdQn (d. 11 26), famous for the grace and finish of
his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn Badrun by R. P. A. Dozy.
Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamdls (1048-1132) spent the
last fifty years of his life in Spain (Diwdn, ed. Moacada, Palermo,
1883; Canzonicre, ed. SchiapareUi, Rome, 1897). It was also
apparently in this country that the strophe form was first used
in Arabic poems (d. M. Hartmann's Das arabische Slropken-
gedicht, Weimar, X897), and Ibn Quzmin (12th century), a
wandering singer, here first used the language of everyday life
in the form of verse known as Zajal.
Anthologies. — As supplemental to the account of poetry may
be mentioned here some of the chief collections of andent verse,
sometimes made for the sake of the poems themsdves, sometimes
to give a locus dassicus for usages of grammar or lexicography,
sometimes to illustrate andent manners and customs. The
earliest of these is the Mo'ailakot (q.v.). In the 8th century Ibn
Mofaddal compiled the collection named after him the Mo/ad-
daJiydt. From the 9th century we have the Hamasas of AbQ
Tammim and Buljturl, and a collection of poems of the tribe
Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L.Kosegarten, London,
1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in Skizzen und Vorarbciicn, i.
Berlin, 1 884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (q.v.) in
the 'UyUn ul-Akhbdr (ed. C. Brockclmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.)
and the Book of Poetry and Poets (cd. M. J. de Gocje, Leiden,
1004) bring these works into this class. In the 10th century
were compiled the Jamkarat ash'ar al Arab, containing forty-nine
poems (ed. Bulilq, 1800), the work al-Iqd ul- Farid of lbn'Abdi-r-
Rabbihi (ed. Cairo, various years), and the greatest work of all
this class, the Kitdb uI-Aghdki ( " Book of Songs ") (d. Abu-l
Fakaj). The 12th century contributes the Divdn Mukklar&t
ush-Shu % ar<Ti with fifty qasidas. The Khizfinat ul-Adab of
Abdulqldir, written in the 17th century in the form of a com-
mentary on verses dted in a grammar, contains much old verse
(cd. 4 vols., BQllq, 1882).
BeUes-Leltres and Romances.— Mahomet in the Koran had made
extensive use of saf or rhymed prose (see above). This form
then dropped out of use almost entirely for some time. In the
10th century, however, it was revived, occurring almost simul-
taneously in the Sermons of Ibn Nub&ta (946-984) and the
Letters of AbQ Bakr ul-Khwftrizml. Both have been published
several times in the East. The epistolary style was further
cultivated by Hamadhani (q.v.) and carried to perfection by
AbQ-l'Alft ul-Ma'ant Hamadhani was also the first to write
in this rhymed prose a new form of work, the Uaqdma
( " assembly "). The name arose from the fact that scholars
were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of rivalling one
another in orations showing thdr knowledge of Arabic language,
proverb and verse. In the Moq&mas of Hamadhani a narrator
describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who
in these assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence.
LITERATURE]
ARABIA
273
Each oration forms the substanceof a Maqdma.whilcthtMaqdmas
themselves are united to one another by the constant meetings
of narrator and scholar. Hariri (q.v.) quite eclipsed the fame
of his predecessor in this department, and his Maqdmas retain
their influence over Arabian literature to the present day. As
late as the 19th century the sheik Naslf ul Yizlji (1800-187 1)
distinguished himself by writing sixty clever Maqdmas in the
style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While this class of
literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of the language,
another set of works was given to meeting the requirements
of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This,
which is known as " Adab literature," is anecdotic in style with
much quotation of early poetry and proverb. Thus government,
war, friendship, morality, piety, eloquence, are some of the titles
under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his stories and verses in the
% Uyin ul Akhbdr. Jdhiz (q.v.) in the 9th century and Baihaqi
(The KUdb al-Mahdsin val-Masdwi, ed. F. Schwally, Giessen,
1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A little
later a Spaniard, Ibn 'Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his
*Iqd td-Farid (sec section Anthologies). The growth of city
life in the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form
of story, differing from the old tales of desert life. This was met
in the first place by borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa',
a convert from Mazdaism to Islam, translated the Pahlavi
version of Bidpai's fables (itself a version of the Indian Pancha-
tantra) into Arabic with the title Kalila via Ditnna (ed. Beirut,
various years). Owing to the purity of its language and style
it has remained a classic work. The Book of the 1001 Nights
(Arabian Nights) also has its basis in translations from the Indian
through the Persian, made as early as the 9th cen tury. To these
stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt
and a few others, which were at first in independent circulation.
The whole work seems to have taken its present form (with local
variations) about the 13th century. Several other romances of
considerable length are extant, such as the Story of *Antar
(ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &c, translated in part by Terrick
Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the Story of Saif ibn DM
Yesen (ed. Cairo, 1892). (C. W. T.)
Historical Literature.— Arabian historians differ from all
others in the unique form of their compositions. Each event is
related in the words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries trans-
mitted to the final narrator through a chain of intermediate
reporters (rdwis), each of whom passed on the original report
to his successor. Often the same account is given in two or
more slightly divergent forms, which have come down through
different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event or one im-
portant detail is told in several ways on the basis of several con-
temporary statements transmitted to the final narrator through
distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no inde-
pendent criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for
he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the inter-
mediate links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes
he states which of several accounts seems to him the best.
A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an
author combines the different traditions about one occurrence
into one continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to
the lines of authorities used and states which of them he mainly
follows. In this case the writer recurs to the first method,
already described, only when r the different traditions are greatly
at variance with one another.. In yet a third type of history
the old method is entirely forsaken and we have a continuous
narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of the
authority for some particular point. But the principle still is
that what has been well said once need not be told again in other
words. The writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter
of his sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the
very words of the first narrator.
From very early times story-tellers and singers found their
subjects in the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and
sometimes in contests with foreign powers and in the impression
produced by the wealth and might of the sovereigns of Persia
aod Constantinople. The appearance of the Prophet with the
great changes that ensued, the conquests that made the Arabs
lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of new
matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing
and recounting. They wished to know everything about the
apostle of God. Every one who had known or seen him was
questioned and was eager to answer. Moreover, the word of
God in the Koran left many practical points undecided, and
therefore it was of the highest importance to know exactly how
the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances.
Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had
lived so long and where the majority of his companions continued
to live ? So at Medina a school was gradually formed, where the
chief part of the traditions about Mahomet and his first successors
took a form more or less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory
by making notes, and pupils sought to take written jottings
of what they had heard from their teachers. Thus by the close
of the xst century many dictata were already in circulation.
For example, J£asan of Basra (d. 728 a.d.) had a great mass
of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as
oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral
tradition was still the one recognized authority, and it is related
of more than one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself,
that he directed his books to be burned at his death. The books
were mere helps. Long after this date, when all scholars drew
mainly from books, the old forms were still kept up. T*bari,
for example, when he cites a book expresses himself as if he had
heard what he quotes from the master with whom he read the
passage or from whose copy he transcribed it.. He even ex-
presses himself in this wise: '"Omar b. Shabba has related to
me in his book on the history of Basra." No independent book
of the 1 st century from the Flight (i.e 622-719) has come down
to us. It is told, however, that Moawiya summoned an old
man named 'Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to Damascus to
tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he induced
him to write down his information. This very likely formed
the nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and
was much read in the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be
lost now. But in the 2nd century (710-816) real books began to
be composed. The materials were supplied in the first place by
oral tradition, in the second by the dictata of older scholars,
and finally by various kinds of documents, such as treaties,
letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists. Genealogical
studies had become necessary through Omar's system of assigning
state pensions to certain classes of persons according to their
kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime.
This subject received much attention even in the xst century,
but books about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous
being those of Ibn al-Kalbl (d. 763), of his son Hisham (d. 810).
and of Al-Sharql ibn al-Qutaml. Genealogy, which often called
for elucidations, led on to history.- Baladhurl's excellent Ansdb
al- A stir df (Genealogies of the Nobles) is a history of the Arabs
on a genealogical plan.
The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet
by Ibn Isfciq (d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy.
Mahomet's life before he appeared as a prophet and the story
of his ancestors are indeed mixed with many fables illustrated
by spurious verses. But in Ibn Isfcaq's day these fables were
generally accepted as history— for many of them had been first
related by contemporaries of Mahomet — and no one certainly
thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the
Prophet's forefathers, though, according to the Fihrist (p. 9 2 ).
Ibn Ishiq was duped by others with regard to the poems he
quotes. The original work of Ibn Ishaq seems to be lost. That
which we possess is an edition of it by Ibn Hisham (d. 834) with
additions and omissions (text ed. by F. Wustenfeld, G6ttingen,
1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart, 1864).
The Life of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the
statements of two very trustworthy men, 'Urwa ibn az-Zubair
(d. 713) and Az-zubri (d. 742), was still much read in Syria in
the 14th century. Fragments of this have been edited by
E. Sachau, Berlin, 1004. We fortunately possess the Book of
the Campaigns of the Prophet by ai-W&qidl (d. 822) and the
27+
ARABIA
(LITERATURE
important Booh of Class** of his disciple Ibn Sa'd (g.v.). WlqidI
had much more copious materials than Ibn Ishiq, but gives
way much more to a popular and sometimes romancing style
of treatment. Nevertheless he sometimes helps us to recognize
in Ibn Isfctaq's narrative modifications of the genuine tradition
made for a purpose, and the additional details he supplies set
various events before us in a dearer light. Apart from this his
chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the traditional
authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa'd, and in
his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the
traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M. J. de Goeje
in 1864 (Mi moires stir la conquUe de la Syrie, 2nd ed., Leiden,
1000), led to the conclusion that Waqidl's chronology is sound
as regards the main events, and that later historians have gone
astray by forsaking his guidance. This result has been confirmed
by certain contemporary notices found by Th. Noldeke in 1874
in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And that Ibn Isfraq
agrees with WaqidI in certain main dates b important evidence
for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology
before the year 10 of the Flight WaqidI did his best, but here,
the material being defective, many of his conclusions are pre-
carious. WaqidI had already a great library at his disposal.
He is said to have had 600 chests of books, chiefly dictata written
by or for himself, but in part real books by Abu Mikhnaf (d. 748),
Ibn Isbaq (whom he uses but does not name), 'Aw&na (d. 764),
Abu Mashar (d. 791) and other authors. Abu Mikhnaf left a
great number of monographs on the chief events from the death
of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walld II. These were much
used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them,
but none of the works themselves except a sort of romance based
on his account of the death of Hosain (FJusain) of which WUstcn-
feld has given a translation. With regard to the history of Irak
in particular he was deemed to have the best information, and
for this subject he is fabart's chief source, just as MadainI, a
younger contemporary of WaqidI, is followed by preference in
all that relates to Khorasan. Madainl's History of ike Caliphs
is the best, if not the oldest, published before Jabarl; but this
book is known only by the excerpts given by later writers,
particularly Baladhurf and T a barf. From these we judge that
he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning,
and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was
to record the various traditions about an event, choosing them
with critical skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several
traditions into a continuous narrative. A just estimate of the
relative value of the historians can only be reached by careful
comparison in detail. This has been essayed by Brunnow in
his study on the Kharijites (Leiden, 1884), in which the narrative
of Mubarrad in the Kdmil is compared with the excerpts of
MadainI given by Baladhurf and those of Aba Mikhnaf given by
fabarl. The conclusion reached is that Abu Mikhnaf and
MadainI are both well informed and impartial.
Among the contemporaries of WaqidI and MadainI were
Ibn Khidash (d. 838), the historian of the family Muhallab,
whose work was one of Mubarrad's sources for the History of
the Kharijites; Haitham ibn 'AdI (d. 822), whose works, though
now lost, are often cited; and Sail ibn 'Omar at-Tamlml, whose
book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr and on the
Mahommedan conquests was much used by Tabarf. His
narratives are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he
is certainly much inferior to WaqidI in accuracy. Wellhausen
has thoroughly examined the work of Saif in Skiaen und Vor-
arbeiten, vi. Besides these are to be mentioned Abu 'Ubaida
(d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and wrote several
historical monographs that are often cited, and AzraqI, whose
excellent History of Mecca was published after his death by his
grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd
century of Islam. But we have still an important point to notice
in the and century; for in it learned Persians began to take part
in the creation of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa*
translated the great Booh of Persian Kings, and others followed
his example. Tabarl and his contemporaries, senior and junior,
such at Ibn Quiaiba, Ya'qQbi, Dinawarl, preserve to us a good
part of the information about Persian history made known
through such translations. 1 But even more important than the
knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on
literary style and composition. Half a century later began
versions from the Creek either direct or through the Syriac
The pieces translated were mostly philosophical ; but the Arabs
also learned something, however superficially, of ancient history.
The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the
2nd. AbQ 'Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A'rabi (d. 846), who
in like manner was chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote
about ancient poems and battles. Much that he wrote is quoted
in Tabriz!' s commentary on the ffarndsa, which is still richer in
extracts from the historical elucidations of early poems given
by ar-Riyashl (d. 871). Of special fame as a genealogist was
Ibn tfablb (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet on Arabian tribal
names (ed. Wustenfcld, 1850). AzraqI again was followed by
Fakihl, who wrote a History of Mecca in 885,* and 'Omar b.
Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Basra,
known to us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakklr
d . 870), one of Tabari's teachers, a learned historian and genea-
logist much consulted by later writers, there is a fragment in the
Koprulu library at Constantinople, and another in Gbttingen,
part of which has been made known by Wttstenfeld (Die Familic
AUZobair, Gfittingcn, 1878). Ya'qQbi (Ibn WictfW wrote a
short general history of much value (published by Houtsma,
Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his prede-
cessors and more than his successors down to BerOnl. Ibn
Khordadhbch's historical works are lost. Ibn 'Abdalhakam
(d. 871) wrote of the conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts
from this book are given by M'G. de Slane in his Histoire des
Bcrbtres, from which we gather that it was a medley of true
tradition and romance, and must be reckoned, with the book
of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn Hiblb,
in the class of historical romances. A high place must be
assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889),
who wrote a very useful Handbook of History (ed. Wustenfcld,
Gttttingcn, 1850). Much more eminent is Baladhurf (d. 893),
whose book on the Arab conquest (ed. M. J. de Goeje, Leiden,
1865-1866) merits the special praise given to it by Mas'adl,
and who also wrote a large work, the Ansdb al-Askrdf. A
contemporary, Ibn abl Tahir TaifOr (d. 894), wrote on the
Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by Tabarf. The sixth part
of his work is in the British Museum. The universal history
of Dinawarl (d. 806), entitled The Long Narratives, has been
edited by Cirgas (1887).
All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by
the great work of Tabarf (?.*.), whose fame has never faded from
his own day to ours. The Annals (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden,
1879-1901) are a general history from the creation to 302 ah.
(=a.d. 915). As a literary composition they do not rank very
high, which may be due partly to the author's years, partly to
the inequality of his sources, sometimes superabundant, some-
times, defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty condensa-
tion of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book is
very great: the author's selection of traditions is usually happy,
and the episodes of most importance are treated with roost
fulness of detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has
enjoyed from the first. This reputation rose steadily; there
were twenty copies (one of them written by Tabari's own hand)
in the library of the Fatimite caliph 'Aziz flatter half of the 4th
century), whereas, when Saladin became lord of Egypt, the
princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqrfzl, i. 408 seq.).
The A nnals soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They
were published in shorter form with the omission of the names
of authorities and of most of the poems cited; some passages
quoted by later writers are not found even in the Leiden edition.
On the other hand, some interpolations took place, one in the
1 For details see the introduction to Notdcke's translation of
Tabari's CeschuhU i*r Perser und Araber tur Zeii dtr Sasonidtn
(Leiden. 1879).
* Published in excerpt by Wttstenfeld along with Airaqi (Leipzig,
1857-1859).
LITERATURE]
ARABIA
*75
author's lifetime and perhaps by his own hand. Then many
supplements were written, e.g. by FerghinT (not extant) and by
Hamadhan! (partly preserved in Paris). 'Arlb of Cordova made
an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing
the story to about 975. 1 Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from
the creation to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of
the story, following TabarT closely, as far as his book is known,
and seldom recurring to other sources before the reign of
Moqtadir; what follows is his own composition and shows him
to be a writer of talent* In 963 an abridgment of the Annals
was translated into Persian by BaTaml, who, however, interwove
many fables. 1 Ibn al-Athlr (d. 1234) abridged the whole work,
usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he
sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service
in fixing the text of Tabarl. He also furnished a continuation to
the year 1 224. Later writers took Tab&r! as their main authority,
but sometimes consulted other sources, and so add to our know-
ledge — especially Ibn al-jauzl (d. 1201), who adds many
important details. These later historians had valuable help
from the biographies of famous men and special histories of
countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on which much
labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight onwards.
The chief historians after Tabarl may be briefly mentioned
in chronological order. RazI (d. a.d. 932) wrote a History of
Spain; Eutychius (d. 940) wrote Annals (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris,
1906), which are very important because he gives the Christian
tradition; Sail (d. 946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their
viziers and court poets; Mas'udi (q.v.) composed various his-
torical and geographical works (d. 956). Of TabarTs contem-
porary Hamza IspahanI (c. 940) we have the Annals (ed. Gott-
waldt, St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Qutlya wrote a History of
Spain; Ibn Zulaq (d. 997) a History of Egypt; *Otbi wrote the
History of Mahmud of Chnna, at whose court he lived (printed
on the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Athlr); Tha'labI
(d. 1036) wrote a well-known History of the Old Prophets; Abu
Nu'aira al- IspahanI (d. 1039) wrote a History of Ispahan, chiefly
of the scholars of that city; Tha'&libl (d. c. 1038) wrote, inter
alia, a well-known History of the Potts of his Time, published at
Damascus, 1887; Birtnl (q.v.) (d. 1048) takes a high place among
historians; Koda'l (d. 1062) wrote a Description of Egypt and
also various historical pieces, of which some are extant; Ibn
Si'id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a View of the History of the
Various Nations. Bagdad and its learned men found an ex-
cellent historian in al-Kb&tib al-Baghdfldl (d. 1071), and Spain
in Ibn tjayan (d. 1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaqftn
(d. 1 135) and Ibn Bassftm (d. 1x47)- Sam'ani (d. 1x67) wrote
an excellent book on- genealogies; 'Umara (<L 1x75) wrote a
History of Yemen (ed. H. C. Kay, London, 1892); Ibn 'Asaqir
(d. 1176) a History of Damascus and her Scholars, which is of great
value, and exists in whole or in part in several libraries. The
Biographical Dictionary of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d. 1182)
and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited
in Codera's Bibliolheco Arab. Hisp. (1883-1885); Saladin found
his historian in the famous Tmftd uddin (d. 1201) (Arabic text,
ed. C. Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-jauzl, who died in the
same year, has been already mentioned. Abdulwabid's History
of the Almohades, written in ^224, was published by Dozy (2nd
ed., x&8i). Abdullatli or Abdallatlf (d. 1232) is known by his
writings about Egypt (trans, de Sacy, 1810); Ibn al-Athlr
(d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the Chronicle already mentioned,
a Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet.
Qiftf (d. 1248) is especially known by his History of Arabic
Philologists. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn
al-Jauzf already mentioned, wrote a great Chronicle, of which
much the larger part still exists. Coders has edited (Madrid,
1S86) Ibn al-'Abbar's (d. 1260) Biographical Lexicon, already
* Of tbts work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320
a.H.. of •which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in
the Baydn, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897.
* A fragment (198-251 a.h.) is printed in de Gocje. fragm. HisL
Ar. (vol. «.. Leiden, 1871).
"The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux In 1836.
There is an excellent French translation by Zottnberg (1874).
known by Doxy's excerpts from it. Ibn al-'Adlm (d. 1262) is
famed for his History of Aleppo, and Abu Shama (d. 1267) wrote
a well-known History of paladin and Nureddin, taking a great
deal from 'Imad uddin. Ibn abi Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a
History of Physicians, ed. A. Mullcr. The History of Ibn al-* Amid
(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in
1625. Ibn Said al-Maghribl (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his
histories, but still more for his geographical writings. The
noted theologian Nawftwl (q.v.; d. 1278) wrote a Biographical
Dictionary of the Worthies of the First Ages of Islam. Pre*
eminent as a biographer is Ibn Khallikan (?.«.; d. X282), whose
much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and completely
by Wustenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the
former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871).
Abu '1-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote,
besides his Syriac Chronicle, an Arabic History of Dynasties (ed.
E. Pocock, Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn 'Adhari's History
of Africa and Spain has been published by Doxy (2 vols., Leiden,
1848-1851), and the Qartds of Ibn abi Zar' by Tornberg (1843).
One of the best-known of Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (q.v.).
Not less famous is the great Encyclopaedia of his contemporary
Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts from it have been printed.
Ibn Sayyid an-Nfts (d. 1334) wrote a full biography of the
Prophet; MizzI (d. 1342) an extensive work on the men from
whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly
complete, the great Chronicle of Dhahabl (d. 1347), a very
learned biographer and historian. The geographical and his-
torical MasOlik al-Absdr of Ibn Fadlallah (d. 1348) is known at
present by extracts given by Quatremere and Amari. Ibn al-
Wardl (d. c. 1349), best known by his Cosmography, wrote a
Chronicle which has been printed in Egypt. §afadl (d. 1363)
got a great name as a biographer. Yafil (d. 1367) wrote a
Chronicle of Islam and Lives of Saints. Subkl (d. x 369) published
Lives of the Theologians of the ShdfTite School. Of Ibn Kathlr's
History the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain
and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khatlb (d. 1374) are of
acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the
greater part, is the large work of Ibn al-Fur&t (d. 1404). Far
superior to all these, however, is the famous Ibn Khaldun (q.v.)
(d. 1406). Of the historical works of the famous lexicographer
Fairuzabadl (q.v.) (d. 14x4) only a Life of the Prophet remains.
MaqrizI (d. 1442) is the subject of a separate article; Ibn Ha jar
(d. 1448) is best known by his Biographical Dictionary of Contem-
poraries of the Prophet, published in the B'Miothcca Indica.
Ibn 'Arabshah (d. 1450) is known by his History of Timur
(Leeuwarden, 1767). *AinI (d. 1451) wrote a General History,
still extant. Abu'l-Mahisin ibn TaghrlbirdI (d. 1469) wrote at
length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been
published by Juynboll and Matthcs, Leiden, 1855-1861. Fliigel
has published Ibn Kotlubogha's Biographies of the Hani fits
Jurists. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485) wrote a History of Aleppo. Of
Sakhawf we possess a bibliographical work on the historians.
The polymath Suyutl (q.v.) (d. X505) contributed a History of the
Caliphs and many biographical pieces. Samhudi's History of
Medina is known through the excerpts of Wilstenfcld (1861). Ibn
Iyas (d. 1524) wrote a History of Egypt, and Diarbckri (d. 1559)
a Life of Mahomet. To these names must be added Maqqari
(Makkari) (q.v.) and Hajji Khalifa (q.v.) (d. 1658). He made
use of European sources, and with him Arabic historiography
may be said to cease, though he had some unimportant successors.
A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings
of which go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in
all that concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran
to old prophets and races led many professional narrators to
choose these subjects. The increasing veneration paid to the
Prophet and love for the marvellous soon gave rise to fables about
his childhood, his visit to heaven, &c, which have found their
way even into sober histories, just as many Jewish legends told
by the converted Jew Ka'b al-Ahb&r and by Wahb ibn Monabbih,
and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by 'Abld,
are taken as genuine history (sec, however, Mas'udi, iv. 88 seq.)»
A fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the
276
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
victories of IsUm, the exploits of the first heroes of the
faith, the fortunes of 'AH and his house. Then, too, history was
often expressly forged for party ends. The people accepted all
this, and so a romantic tradition sprang up side by side with the
historical, and had a literature of its own, the beginnings of which
must be placed as early as the 2nd century of the Flight. The
oldest specimens still extant are the fables about the conquest of
Spain ascribed to Ibn Hablb (d. 85 2) , and those about the conquest
of Egypt and the West by Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam (d. 871). In
these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the extant
literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more recent;
e.g. the Story of Ike Death of Hosain by the pseudo-Abu Mikhnaf
(translated by Wustenfcld) ; the Conquest of Syria by Abu Ismail
al-Basrl (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed by
de Gocje, 1864); the pseudo-Wflqidl (see Hamaker, De Expugna-
tione Mcmphidis el Alexandrine, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn
Qutaiba (see Dozy, Recherchts) ; the book ascribed to A'sam KQfl,
Jtc. Further inquiry into the origin of these works is called for,
but some of them were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal
against the Christians. In the 6th century of the Flight some
of these books had gained so much authority that they were
used as sources, and thus many untruths crept into accepted
history (M. J. de C; G. W. T.)
Geography. — The writing of geographical books naturally began
with the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical
purposes. Ibn Khord&dhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century,
wrote a Book of Roads and Provinces to give an account of the high-
ways, the posting-stations and the. revenues of the provinces. In
the same century Ya'qflbi wrote his Book of Countries, describing
specially the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing
the provinces in some detail was that of QudAma or Kodama (d.
822). Hamd&ni (g.».) was led to write his great geography of Arabia
y his love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi (Mokad-
dasi) at the end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers
whose works were founded on their own observation. The study of
Ptolemy's geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of
works on geography (q.v.) in general. A third class of Arabian
geographical works were those written to explain the names of places
which occur in the older poets. Such books were written by Bakri
(q.v.) and YaqQt {q.v.) 1
Grammar and Lexicography.— Arab tradition ascribes the first
grammatical treatment of the language to Abfl-1-Aswad ud-Du'alt
(latter half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic
grammar are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early
times have always been proud of their language, but its systematic
study seems to nave arisen from contact with Persian and from the
respect for the language of the Koran. In Irak the two towns of
Basra and Kflfa produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad
soon bad one of its own (cf. G. Fltlgcl's Die grammatischen Schulen
der Araber, Leipzig, 1862). Khaftl ibn Abroad (718-791). an Arab
from Oman, of the school of Basra, was the first to enunciate the
laws of Arabic metre and the first to write a dictionary. His pupil
Stbawaihi («.».), a Persian, wrote the grammar known simply as
The Booh, which is generally regarded in the East as authoritative
and almost above criticism. Other members of the school of Basra
were Abfl 'Ubaida (q.v.), Asma'i (q.v.), Mubarrad (q.v.) and Ibn
Duraid (q.v.). The school of KQfa claimed to pay more attention
to the living language (spoken among the Bedouins) than to written
laws of grammar. Among its teachers were KisA'J, the tutor of
Harfln al-Rashid's sons, Ibn A'r&bi, Ibn as-Sikkit (d. 857) and Ibn
nl-Anbari (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam the two schools
of KQfa and Basra declined in importance before the increasing
power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinni (941-1002) and
others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the
older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century pro-
duced some outstanding students of Arabic Hamadhant (d. 052)
wrote a book of synonyms (ed. L. Chcikho, Beirut, 1885). Jaunari
(q.v.) wrote his great dictionary the Sahah. Tha'SUbi (q.v.) and
Jurjani (q.v.) were almost contemporary, and a little later came
Zamakhshari (q*.), whose philological works are almost as famous
as his commentary on the Koran. The most important dictionaries
of Arabic are late in origin. The immense work, Lisan ul Arab
fed. 20 vols., BOIaq, 1883-1889), was compiled by Ibn Manzur
(1232-1311). the <*5mdj by FairuiSbadi, the Taj id' Arils (cd. 10 vols,
BOIaq, 1890), founded on the Qdmus, by Murtada uz-Zabidi (1732-
Stirntific Literature. — The literature of the various sciences is
dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such
existed, and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid
period that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic,
1 The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by
M. J. de Gocje in his Btbliotheca Geographorum arabicorum (Leiden,
1874 ■.).
often through the Syriac, and at. the same time the influence of
Sanskrit works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to
have come chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned
from Greece and India was developed by Arabian writers, who in
turn became the teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical
literature was indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the
medical school of Gondcsapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers
were also physicians and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was
not understood, but Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it
later. So also the literature of the animal world (cf. Damln) is not
zoological but legendary, and the works on minerals are practical
and not scientific. Sec Arabian Philosophy and historical sections
of such scientific articles as A^tionomy, &c (G. W. T.)
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. What is known as " Arabian "
philosophy owed to Arabia little mo:t than its name and its
language. It was a system of Greek thought, expressed in a
Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental influences, called into
existence amongst the Moslem people by the patronage of their
more liberal princes, and kept alive by the intrepidity and zeal
of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected and disliked
in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the notice of
the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception
of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original
soil, and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant
to be its home (9th to 12th century).
In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan
influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of
Saracenic thinkers was a truer exponent of the one
philosophy which they all professed to teach than ***■♦
the first. The whole movement is little else than a chapter in
the history of Aristotelianism. That system of thought, after
passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy
light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious
but narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of
heretical Syria, was then brought into contact with the ideas
and mental habits of Islam. But those in whom the two currents
converged did not belong to the pure Arab race. Of the so-
called Arabian philosophers of the East, al-Farabl, Ibn-Slnft
and al-Ghaziu* were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the
outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindl,
the earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf,
on the debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan.
In Spain, again, where Ibn-Bajja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd
rivalled or exceeded the fame of the Eastern schools, the Arabians
of pure blood were few, and the Moorish ruling class was deeply
intersected by Jewish colonies, and even by the natives of
Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova, Arabian
philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas
and of subject races over the theological onc-sidedness of Islam,
and the illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens.
Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its thee*
logians (see Mahommedan Religion). It was with them that
the Moslem theology— the science of the word (Kaldm)— first
came into existence. Its professors, the MuidkaUimSn (known
in Hebrew as hfedabberim, and as Loquentes in the Latin versions) ,
may be compared with the scholastic doctors of the Catholic
Church. Driven in the first instance to speculation in theology
by the needs of their natural reason, they came, in after days,
when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the Caliphate,
to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their views.
They employtd a quasi-philosophical method, by which, accord-
ing to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be
in order to support, or at least not contradict, their opinions,
and then, when their minds were made up with regard to this
imaginary system, declared that the world was no otherwise
constituted. The dogmas of creation and providence, of divine
omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they sought to assert
for God an immediate action in the making and 'the keeping
of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms
possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided
into innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution
of the atoms is a direct act of the Almighty. When the fire
burns, or the water moistens, these terms merely express the
habitual connexion which our senses perceive between one thing
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
277
and another. It b not the man that throws a stone who is its
real mover: the supreme agent has For the moment created
motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created
the attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because
that attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand,
the object called the cause is denied to have any efficient power
to produce the so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the
regularities or laws of nature are explained to be direct inter-
ference* by the Deity. The supposed uniformity and necessity
of causation is only an effect of custom, and may be at any
moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory whkh, according
to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the Moslem
theologians believed that they had-, exalted God beyond the
limits of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law,
form and matter; whilst they at the same time stood aloof
from the vulgar doctrines, attributing a causality to things.
Thus they deemed they had left a dear ground for the possibility
ftf miracles.
But at least one point was common to the theological and the
philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles
of the Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity
securely guarded, and interposed between him and his creatures
a .spiritual order of potent principles, from the Intelligence,
which is the first-born image of the great unity, to the Soul and
Nature, which come later in the spiritual rank. Of God the
philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but only what
He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly philosophical
inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect, — a sort of
soul of the world in Aristotelian garb — the principle which
inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in
which lies the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theo-
logical language the active intellect is described as an angel.
The inspirations which the prophet receives by angelic messengers
are compared with the irradiation of intellectual light, which
the philosopher wins by contemplation of truth and increasing
purity of life. But while the theologian incessantly postulated
the agency of that God whose nature he deemed beyond the pale
of science, the philosopher, following a purely human and natural
aim». directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his part of
reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the
controlling intellect which- moves and draws to itself the spirits
of those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philo-
sophers in their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites)
in another, tended towards a theory of the communion of man
with the spiritual world, which may be considered a protest
against the practical and almost prosaic definiteness of the creed
of Mahomet.
Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the oth
century, was able without difficulty to take possession of those
resources for speculative thought which the Latins had barely
achieved at the close of the iath century by the slow process of
rediscovering the Aristotelian logic from the commentaries and
verses of Boftius. What the Latins painfully accomplished,
owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent acquaintance with
ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians by the
scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era,
both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic
tone and method were paramount throughout the East. Their
influence was felt in the creeds which formulated the orthodox
dogmas in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. But in
its later days the Neo-Platonist school came more and more to
find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of the philo-
sopher whom they thought divine. It was In this spirit that
Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Phfloponus composed their
commentaries on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which,
modified often unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its
expositors, became in the 6th and 7th centuries the philosophy
of the Eastern Church. But the instrument which, in the hands
of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was made subservient to
theological interests, became in the bands of others a dissolvent
of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the pre-
valence of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became
the source of heresies; and , conversely, the heretical sects
prosecuted the study of Aristotle with peculiar seaL The church
of the Nestorian*, and that of the Monophysites, in their several
schools and monasteries, carried on from the 5th to the 8th
century the study of the earlier part of the Orgonon, with almost
the same means, purposes and results as were found among the
Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when
the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian
school at Edessa, this " Athens of Syria " was active in trans-
lating and popularising the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment
from Edessa in 480 drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where
the Sassanid rulers gave them a welcome; and there they con-
tinued their labours on the Organon. A new seminary of logic
and theology sprang up at NisTbis, not far from the old locality;
and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of Persia, there
arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its
company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the
lands of Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in
the steps of the Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the
logical and medical science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina
is known from the name of Sergius, one of the first of these trans-
lators, in the days of Justinian; and from their monasteries
at Kinnesrln (Chalcis) issued numerous versions of the intro-
ductory treatises of the Aristotelian logic. To the Isagoge of
Porphyry, the Categories and the Hernuncutica of Aristotle,
the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These
they expounded, translated, epitomised and made the basis of
their compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt
the Analytic* seem to have left their task unaccomplished.
The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with
the rise of the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived
amongst them in the 13th century, in the person of Gregorius
Bax-Hebraeusr (ALulfaragius) (1326-1286), the revival was due
to the example and influence of the Arabian thinkers. It was
otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means of their
professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of the
Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar
with the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they
possessed. But the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which
added to a scanty knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance
with his Syrian commentators, were soon passed by the curiosity
and seal of the students in the Caliphate. During the 8th and
oth centuries, rough but generally faithful versions of Aristotle's
principal works were made into Syriac, and then from the
Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these translators,
such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ish&q), were heard even in the
Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the
great body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathe-
matical, became accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for
the next three centuries fresh versions, both of the philosopher
and of his commentators, continued to succeed each other.
To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek
philosophy, even as Galen became to them the code of Greek
medicine. They adopted the doctrine and system which the
progress of human affairs had made the intellectual aliment
of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian philosophers
made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to propagate
the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them.
It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and
from them the belief that in him human intelligence had reached
its limit passed to the later schoolmen (see Scholasticism).
The progress amongst the Arabians on this side lies in a closer
adherence to their text, a nearer approach to the bare exegesis
of their author, and an increasing emancipation from control
by the tenets of the popular religion.
Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the
Saracens in the days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty,
whose ways and thoughts had been moulded by their
residence in Persia amid the influences of an older CMBpbat ^
creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort sprung
from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to
Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant
278
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
Khorasan became the favourite province of the caliph. Then
was inaugurated the period of Persian supremacy, during which
Islam was laid open to the full current of alien ideas and culture.
The incitement came, however, not from the people, but from
the prince: it was in the light of court favour that the colleges
of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract students from
every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as the
upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansur, the second of the
Abbasids, encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but
it was al-Ma'mQn, the son of HarOn al-Rashld, whp deserves in
the Mahommedan empire the same position of royal founder
and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in the history of
the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was first
translated into Arabic. Qrthodox Moslems, however, distrusted
the course on which their chief bad entered, and his philosophical
proclivities became one ground* for doubting as to his final
salvation.
In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy
are those known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Alfarabius,
Avicenna and Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The
first of these, Alkindius (see Kindi), flourished at the court of
Bagdad in the first half of the 9th century. His claims to notice
at the present day rest upon a few works on medicine, theology,
music and natural science. With him begins that encyclopaedic
character — the simultaneous cultivation of the whole field of
investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian
school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristo-
telianism expressed in Neo-PJatonic terms. Towards the dose
of the 10th century the presentation of an entire scheme of
knowledge,, beginning with logic and mathematics, and ascending
through the various departments of physical inquiry to the
region of religious doctrine, was accomplished by a society
which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of al-Kindi.
This society— the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwftn us
Safft'i) — divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of
religion no less than of science; and though its attempt to
compile an encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been
premature, it yet contributed to spread abroad a desire for
further information. The proposed reconciliation between
science and faith was not accomplished, because the compromise
could please neither party. The fifty-one treatises of which
this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with apologues
in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral per-
fection, is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was
in the alleged dream of al-Ma'mQn. The materials of the work
come chiefly from Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platoniz-
ing spirit, which places as the bond of all things a universal
soul of the world with its partial or fragmentary souls. Con-
temporary with this semi-religious and semi-philosopbical
society lived Alfarabius (see FarabI), who died in 95a His
paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna
constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a
permanent effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the
tone and direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among
the Arabians. His order and enumeration of the principles
of being, his doctrine of the double aspect of intellect, and of
the perfect beatitude which consists in the aggregation of noble
minds when they are delivered from the separating barriers of
individual bodies, present at least in germ the characteristic
theory of Averroes. But al-Farftbl was not always consistent
in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative flights,
and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached
in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came
towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect
no better than a delusion.
Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the
Oriental Moslems was Avicenna (080-1037). His rank in the
Artnmma. m *hev*l world as a philosopher was far beneath his
fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus
Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him
for its formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing
between the isolated concept and the judgment or assertion;
from which two primitive elements of knowledge there is arti-
ficially generated a complete and scientific knowledge by the two
processes of definition and syllogism. But the chief interest
for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine in so far as it bears
upon the nature and function of abstract ideas. The question
had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and
the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the
problem. Fartbl had pointed out that the universal and in-
dividual are not distinguished from each other as understanding
from the senses, but that both universal and individual are in
one respect intellectual, just as in another connexion they play
a part in perception. He had distinguished the universal essence
in its abstract nature, from the universal considered in relation
to a number of singulars. These suggestions formed the basis
of Avicenna 's doctrine. The essences or forms— the inteUigibUi*
which constitute the world of real knowledge — may be looked
at in themselves (metaphysically), or as embodied in the things
of sense (physically), or as expressing the processes of thought
(logically). The first of these three points of view deals with the
form or idea as self-contained in the principles of its own being,
apart from those connexions and distinctions which it receives
in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect.
Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved
by a process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection,
and in that way as essentially expressing a relation. When
thus considered as the common features derived by examination
from singular instances, it becomes a universal or common term
strictly so called. It is intellect which first makes the abstract
idea a true universal. InteUeclus in formis agit univcrsalitaUnu
In the third place, the form or essence may be looked upon as
embodied in outward things (t* singularibus propriis), and
thus it is the type more or less represented by the members
of a natural kind. It is the designation of these outward things
which forms the " first intention " of names; and it is only at a
later stage, when thought comes to observe its own modes,
that names, looked upon as predicables and universals, are taken
in their " second intention." Logic deals with such second in*
tentions. It does not consider the forms ante muUipKcUatem,
i.e. as eternal ideas— nor in muUipHciiote, i.e. as immersed in the
matter of the phenomenal world — but post multiplicitatem, i. «.
as they exist in and for the intellect which has examined and
compared. Logic does not come in contact with things, except
as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In
other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all
equally modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning
consists in their setting forth the relations attaching to any
object of our conception. In the mind, e.g., -one form may be
placed in reference to a multitude of things, and as thus related
will be universal. The form animal, e.j.,is an abstract intelligible
or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought employs it as
a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical aspect
(respect**) of generality; and the various living beings qualified
to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural
class or kind. Avicenna's view of the universal may be com-
pared with that of Abelard, which calls it " that whose nature
it is to be predicated of several," as if the generality became
explicit only in the act of predication, in the sermo or proposition,
and not in the abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three
modes of the universal before things, in things, and after things,
spring from Arabian influence, but depart somewhat from his
standpoint.
The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in
the fact that Shahrastlnl takes him as the type of all, and that
GhaziU's attack against philosophy is in reality almost entirely
directed against Avicenna. His system is in the main a codifica-
tion of Aristotle modified by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist
origin, and it tends to be a compromise with theology. In order,
for example, to maintain the necessity of creation, he taught that
all things except God were admissible or possible in their own
nature, but that certain of them were rendered necessary by
the act of the creative first agent,— in other words, that the
possible could be transformed into the necessary. Avicenna's
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
*79
theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of his
doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned
towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as-
practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception
and acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become
a reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and
their intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility
to reason, which is sustained and helped by the light of the active
intellect. Man may prepare himself for this influx by removing
the obstacles which prevent the union of the intellect with the
human vessel destined for its reception. The stages of this
process to the acquisition of mind are generally enumerated by
Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not Aristotle, but the
Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the hylic or
material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, Hke that of a child
for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second
stage is called in habitu; it is compared to the case of a child
that has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possi-
bility is on the way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In
this period of half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture,
not yet transformed into art or science proper. When the power
of writing has been actualized, we have a parallel to the intdlectus
in actu — the way of science and demonstration is entered. And
when writing has been made a permanent accomplishment,
or lasting property of the subject, to be taken up at will, it
corresponds to the intdlectus adeptus— the complete mastery
of science. The whole process may be compared to the gradual
LDumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light.
There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect,
%jt. in theological language, to communication with God and
his angels. Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its
affinity, that without teaching it rises at one step to the vision
of truth, by a certain " holy force " above ordinary measure.
(In this way philosophy tried to account for the phenomenon
of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But the active
intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the
universal giver of forms in the world.
In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a rationale
of theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles,
divine providence and immortality. The permanence of in*
dividual souls he supports by arguments borrowed from those
of Plato. The existence of a prophet is shown to be a corollary
from a belief in God as a moral governor, and the phenomena
of miracles are required to evidence the genuineness of the
prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his predecessors,
tried to harmonise the abstract forms of philosphy with the
religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally
vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove.
His failure is made obvious by the attack of GhazaH on the
tendencies and results of speculation.
To GhaziH (q.t.) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy
had resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the
„± mm%u scepticism which concealed itself under a pretence of
piety was destroying the life and purity of the nation.
With these views he carried into the fields of philosophy the aims
and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless life was the
reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agitation.
Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current
creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The
senses are contradicted by one another, and disproved by
reason. Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with necessary
truths; but what assurance have we that the verdicts of reason
may not be reversed by some higher authority? GhazaH then
interrogated all the sects in succession to learn their criterion of
troth. He first applied to the theological schoolmen, who
grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only to
preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers,
and examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which
has come down to us— The Destruction of the Philosophers. He
assails them on twenty points of their mixed physical and meta-
physeal peripateticism, from the statement of which, in spite
of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce some very positive
metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have shown
that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence
of the world are false; that their description of the Deity as
the demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence,
the unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge
(both of species and accidents) of God; that their ascription
of souls to the celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory
of causation, which attributes effects to the very natures of
the causes, is false, for that all actions and events are to be
ascribed to the Deity; and, finally, that they cannot establish
the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its mortality. These criti-
cisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of mind, but rather
a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological stage of
thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which
the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because
he ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied
both. G. H. Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghazali's
theory of causation—" Hume n*a rien dit plus." It is true that
GhazaH maintains that the natural law according to which effects
proceed inevitably from their causes is only custom, and that
there is no necessary connexion between them. But while Hume
absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazall merely removes it one
stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of the Deity. This,
of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as he
believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next in-
vestigated the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their
doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had
no word for the doubter. They could not, he says, even under-
stand the problems they sought to resolve by the assumption
of infallibility, and he turned again, in his despair, to the in-
structors of his youth — the Sufis. In their mystical intuition
of the laws of life, and absorption in the immanent Deity, he at
last found peace. This shows the true character of the treatise
which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted as
containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called The
Tendencies of the Philosophers, translated in 1506, with the title
Logica el Philosophic Algazelis Arobis, contains neither the logic
nor the philosophy of GhazaH. It is a mere abstract or state-
ment of the Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to
that Destruction of which we have already spoken.
This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint
of the theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by
Averroes; but in Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light
of philosophy. Moderate and compliant with the popular
religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had always been, as com-
pared with their Spanish successor, they had equally failed to
conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same cate-
gory with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The
1 ath century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity
in the Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races
animated with all the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes
to the Mahommedan faith. Philosophy, which had only sprung
up when the purely Arabian influences ceased to predominate,
came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem world passed
away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1x50 Bagdad had
seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the
caliph Mostanjid; and in 1x92 the same place might have wit-
nessed a strange scene, in which the books of a physician were
first publicly cursed, and then committed to the flames, while
their owner was incarcerated. Thus, while the Latin church
showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic philosophy, and
assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date declared
impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself
towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy
of the Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy
to silence.
The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the
Mahommedan rulers of Andalusia and Morocco, with this
difference, that the time of philosophical development u ^ ¥t f
was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish thinkers
soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (06 r-
976) inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical
a8o
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
studies which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society
of Basra. From Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria,
books both old and new were procured at any price for the library
of the prince; twenty-seven free schools were opened in Cordova
for the education of the poor; and intelligent knowledge was
perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan Spain than in
any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the city
were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and
literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus pro-
raised was long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam
found it a politic step to request the most notable doctors of the
sacred law to examine the royal library; and every book treat-
ing of philosophy, astronomy and other forbidden topics was
condemned to the flames. But the spirit of research, fostered
by the fusion of races and the social and intellectual competition
thus engendered, was not crushed by these proceedings; and
for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain found
in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they
desired. At last, towards the close of the nth century, the
long-pent spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth
in a brief series of illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards
were narrowing the limits of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst
the generally fanatical dynasty of the Almohades might have
been expected to repress speculation, the century preceding
the dose of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated
by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the
Almohades there were princes, such as YusOf (who began his
reign in 1163) and YaqQb Almansar (who succeeded in 1x84),
who welcomed the philosopher at their courts and treated him
as an intellectual compeer. But about 1x95 the old distrust of
philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in disgrace;
works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated and
burned; and the son of Almansar condemned a certain Ibn-
Hablb to death for the crime of philosophizing.
Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or
Ibn Gabirol (?.*.), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About
t w a generation later the rank of Moslem thinkers was
introduced by AbQ-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya,
surnamed Ibn-Bajja, and known to the Latin world as Avem-
pace. He was born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young
at Fez in 1x38. Besides commenting on various physical
treatises of Aristotle's, he wrote some philosophical essays,
notably one on the Republic or Rigime of the Solitary, under-
standing by that the organised system of rules, by obedience to
which the individual may rise from the mere life of the senses
to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may partici-
pate in the divine thought which sustains the world. These
rules for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political
organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who
strives to lead this life is called the solitary, not because he with-
draws from society, but because, while in it, he guides himself
by reference to a higher state, an ideal society. Avempace
does not develop at any length this curious Platonic idea of the
perfect state. His object is to discover the highest end of human
life, and with this view he classifies the various activities of the
human soul, rejects such as are material or animal, and then
analyses the various spiritual forms to which the activities may
be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such forms,
through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final
or complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms,
the ideas of ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so
doing it becomes what he calls intellect** ocquisitus, and is in a
measure divine. This self-consciousness of pure reason is the
highest object of human activity, and is to be attained by the
speculative method. The intellect has in itself power to know
ultimate truth and intelligence, and does not require a mystical
illumination as GhaztU taught Avcmpacc's principles, it is
clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of the unity of
intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the Rlgimo
do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later thinker.
(See Munk, Mtianges de phti.juive et arabe, pp. 383-410.)
The same theme was developed by Ibn.-Tuiail (?.».) in his
philosophical romance, called Hayy ibn-Yakdkdn (the living.
Son of the Waking One), best known by Pococke's Latin version,
as the Philosopkus Autodidactus. It describes the process by
which an isolated truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower
passions, and raises himself above the material earth and the orbs
of heaven to the forms which are the source of their movement,
until he arrives at a union with the supreme intellect. The
experiences of the religious mystic are paralleled with the
ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit sees a world
of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown.
It was this theory which Averroes (11 26-1 198), the last and
most famous of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his
doctrine of the unity of intellect
For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded,
and to expound him was his chosen task. The uncritical re-
ceptivity of his age, the defects of the Arabic versions, j % twnm
the emphatic theism of his creed, and the rationalizing
mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes led
him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features
of Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation
between philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which
the Latins were without. The science, falsely so called, of the
several theological schools, their groundless distinctions and
sophistical demonstrations, he regarded as the great source
of heresy and scepticism. The allegorical interpretations and
metaphysics which had been imported into religion had taken
men's minds away from the plain sense of the Koran. God had
declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual
superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul
could apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious
metaphysics, Ghax&H included, are the enemies of true religion,
because they make it a mere matter of syllogism. Averroes
maintains that a return must be made to the words and teaching
of the prophet; that science must not expend itself in dogma-
tizing on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of doctrine
for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and
examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same
time, condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demon-
strative science where the mind was not capable of more than
rhetoric: they harm religion by their mere negations, destroy-
ing an old sensuous creed, but cannot build up a higher and
intellectual faith.
In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of
theological reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle,
whom he simply interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by
which he told on Europe were all implicit in Aristotle, but
Averroes set in relief what the original had left obscure, and
emphasized things which the Christian theologian passed by or
misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect He was
the great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the
other hand, he came to represent those aspects of Pcripatetidsm
most alien to, the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious
Moslem gave his name to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the
materialists, sceptics and atheists, who defied or undermined
the dominant beliefs of the church.
On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came
specially into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed,
viz. the creation of the world, the divine knowledge oi particular
things, and the future of the human soul.
The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution
of the standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his
recognition that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be
reduced to propositions and systems of dogma, but a personal
and inward power, an individual truth which stands distinct
from, but not contradictory to, the universalities of scientific
law. In his science he followed the Greeks, and to the School-
men he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers of the
ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative
science with its generalities for the few who could live in that
ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all — the common
life of each soul as an individual and personal consciousness.
But theology, or the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
281
of evil to both— fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philo-
sophers to religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a
pseudo-science.
The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to
be emphasized through the prominence which Christianity
gave to the individual life, and, apart from passing notices as
in Abclard, first found clear enunciation in the school of Duns
Scotos. The Arabians, on the contrary, emphasized the idealist
aspect which had been adopted and promoted by the Neo-
PUtonist commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the
world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The
ceaseless movement of growth and change, which presents
matter in form after form as a continual search after a finality
which in time and movement is not and cannot be reached,
represents only the aspect the world shows to the physicist and
to the senses. In the eye of reason the full f rui tion of this desired
finality is already and always attained; the actualization, in-
visible to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond
the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that
which the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or
intellect, the actuality, of which movement is but the fragment-
ary attainment in successive instants of time. Such a mind
is not in the theological sense a creator, yet the onward move-
ment is not the same as what some modern thinkers seem to
mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the con-
summation of movement is not generated at any point in the
process; it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature,
and does not wait upon them for its achievement. God is the
unchanging essence of the movement, and therefore its eternal
cause,
A special application of this relation between the prior perfect,
and the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine
of the connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with
man. This transcendent mind is sometimes connected with
the moon, according to the theory of Aristotle, who assigned
an imperishable matter to the sphere beyond the sublunary,
and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as living and intelli-
gent Such an intellect, named active or productive, as being
the author of the development of reason in man, is the permanent,
eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and physical
movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes
most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity
is the chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed;
and so long as mankind lasts there must always be some indi-
viduals destined to receive this light. What seems from the
material point of view to be the acquisition of learning, study
and a moral life, is from the higher point of view the manifesta-
tion of the transcendent intellect in the individual. The pre-
paration of the heart and faculties gives rise to a series of grades
between the original predisposition and the full acquisition of
actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those given
by Avioenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest
bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect.
The intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals,
who differ only in the degree which their illumination has
attained. Such was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of intellect
— the eternal and universal nature of true intellectual life.
By his interpreters it was transformed into a theory of one soul
common to all mankind, and when thus corrupted conflicted
not unreasonably with the doctrines of a future life, common
to Islam and Christendom. '
Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing
among the Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths
of Greek speculation. In the cities of Languedoc and
ITi'iy P rovencc > t0 w Wch they had been driven by Spanish
rrt Ur " fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic,
and translations of the works of Averroes became
necessary. His writings became the text-book of Levi ben
Cerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of Narbonne. Meanwhile,
before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the Latin Schoolmen
by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael Scot
and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who
criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name.
Albertus Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an
examination of the Averroist theory of the unity of intellect,
which they labour to confute in order to establish the orthodoxy
of Aristotle. But as early as Aegidius Romanus (1247-13 16),
Averroes had been stamped as the patron of indifference to
theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation which
was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the
Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against
the hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (nth century) had
struggled in that interest, and with Abclard, in the 12th century,
the revolt against authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue
between a Christian, a Jew and a philosopher suggested a com-
parative estimate of religions, and placed the natural religion of
the moral law above all positive revelations. Nihilists and
naturalists, who deified logic and science at the expense of
faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of Salis-
bury. In such a critical generation the words of Averroism
found willing cars, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris
became the centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of
bishops and councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors
and knights-errant of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish.
At Oxford Averroes told more as the great commentator. In
the days of Roger Bacon he had become an authority. Bacon,
placing him beside Aristotle and Aviccnna, recommends the
study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge which
bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes
and Aristotle arc the unequalled masters of the science of proof;
and he pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic
and philosophical truth, which became the watchword of Aver-
roism. By the 14th century Averroism was the common leaven
of philosophy; John Baconthorpc is the chief of Averroists, and
Walter Burley has similar tendencies.
Meanwhile Averroism had come to. be regarded by the great
Dominican school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the
emperor Frederick II. consulted a Moslem free-thinker on tho
mysteries of the faith, when the phrase or legend of the " Three
Impostors" presented in its most offensive form the scientific
survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ and Mahomet, and
when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were misunder-
stood, it soon followed that his name became the badge of the
scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle dis-
putes of the universities of Paris, went on to the materialist
teachers in the medical schools and the sceptical men of the world
in the cities of northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and
the lecturers of Padua made Averroism synonymous with
doubt and criticism in theology, and with sarcasm against the
hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good thing can
come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog barking
against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes
is at one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at
another he lies with Alius and Sabellius, vanquished by the
lance of St Thomas.
It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism
finally settled, and there for three centuries it continued as
a stronghold of Scholasticism to resist the efforts of
revived antiquity and of advancing science. Padua n **
became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism; and,
when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of
the republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the
university. As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a
notable expositor of medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy
in faith; and John of Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the
side of Louis of Bavaria, was a keen follower of Averroes, whom
he styles a " perfect and most glorious physicist." Urban us
of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajctanus dc Thicnis
(1387-1465), established by their lectures and their discussions
the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts rests
in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these
writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra
Fedele, in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses.
With Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began
2$2
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
for the school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present
interest took the place of outworn scholastic problems. The
disputants ranged themselves under the rival commentators,
Alexander and Averroes; and the immortality of the soul became
the battle-ground of the two parties. Pomponazzi defended the
Alcxandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of the soul, whilst
Agostino Nifo (q.v.), the Averroist, was entrusted by Leo X.
with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties
seemed to have changed when Avcrroism thus took the side of
the church; but the change was probably due to compulsion.
Nifo had edited the works of Averroes (1495-1 497); but his
expressions gave offence to the dominant theologians, and he
had to save himself by distinguishing his personal faith from his
editorial capacity. Alcssandro Achillini, the persistent philo-
sophical adversary of Pomponazzi; both at Padua and subse-
quently at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but
not brilliant Avcrroists, to accommodate their philosophical
theory with the requirements of Catholicism. It was this com-
paratively mild Averroism, reduced to the merely explanatory
activity of a commentator, which continued to be the official
dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its typical repre-
sentative is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1 55a), the author of a recon-
ciliation between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle.
Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded
in Greek at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study
Tmmitj at Florence; and Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus
Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the popular philo-
sophy of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of their
contempt on scholastic barbarism with its " impious and thrice-
accursed Averroes." The editors of Averroes complain that
the popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Neverthe-
less, while Fallopius, Vcsalius and Galileo were claiming atten-
tion to their discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini
(1520-1604) and Cesarc Crcmonini (1550-1631) continued the
traditions of Averroism, not without changes and additions.
Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after lecturing twelve
years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great educational
value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen consisted
in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At
the moment when it seemed as if everything had been made
that could be made out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the
compilations of Capclla, Cassiodorus and others, and when
mysticism and scepticism seemed the only resources left for
the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly widened by
the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes
inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect Organon could
not henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions,
and the mcaninglessncss of many disputes, were seen in the
new conception of Aristotelianism given by the Metaphysics
and other treatises. The former Realism and Nominalism were
lifted into a higher phase by the principle of the universalizing
action of intellect— Intellect us in formis agit univcrsalitatcm.
The commentaries of the Arabians in this respect supplied
nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than the pure
text would have been.
Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle
and increased his authority, was not less notable as the source
of the separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation
fell on irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement
was due less to foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies
of the dominant school of realism. But it is not less certain that
the very considerable freedom of the Arabians from theological
bias prepared the time when philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical
vestments. In the hurry of first terror, the church struck
Aristotle with the anathema launched against innovations in
philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1200, which
condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of
Dinant's works, forbade the study of Aristotle's Natural Philo-
sophy and the Commentaries. In 1215 the same prohibition
was repeated, specifying the Metaphysics and Physics t and the
Commentaries by the Spaniard Mauritius (i.e. probably Averroes).
Meanwhile Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting
the exegetical services of the Arabians, did their best to contro-
vert the obnoxious doctrine of the Intellect, and to defend the
orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy glosses of infidels.
But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure from the
infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide
meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 £tienne
Tempier, bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theo-
logians, anathematized thirteen propositions bearing the stamp
of Arabian authorship; but in 1277 the same views and others
more directly offensive to Christians and theologians had to be
censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with an infidel
thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine, and
carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university;
and a disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list {De erroribus
philosopher urn) of the several delusions and errors of each of
the thinkers from Kindi to Averroes. Strong in their conviction
of the truth of Aristotelianism, the Arabians carried out their
logical results in the theological field, and made the distinction
of necessary and possible, of form and matter, the basis of con-
clusions in the most momentous questions. They refused to
accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the
explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter.
They denied the particular providence of God, because knowledge
in the divine sphere did not descend to singulars. They ex-
cluded the Deity from all direct action upon the world, and
substituted for a cosmic principle the active intellect, — thus
holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the same length
in their divergence from the popular creed.
The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction
of Arabian science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II.,
to Constantinus Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have
any value, refer mainly to medical science and mathematics.
It was not till about the middle of the 12th century that under
the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of Toledo, a society of
translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus Gundisalvi at their
head, produced Latin versions of the Commentaries of Avicenna,
and GhazflU, of the Pons Vitae of Aviccbron, and of several
Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted
Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath.
With this effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic
works. Avicenna 's Canon of Medicine was first translated into
Latin by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187), to whom versions of other
medical and astronomical works are due. The movement
towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy into Europe,
however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor
Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the
narrowness of his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle
with the Papacy, this Malleus ecdesiae Romanae drew to his
court those savants whose pursuits were discouraged by the
church, and especially students in the forbidden lore of the
Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for purposes of
translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a
welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes.
Scot had sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished
the versions of several astronomical and physical treatises,
mainly, if we believe Roger Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named
Andrew. But Bacon is apparently hypercritical in his estimate of
the translators from the Arabic. Another protege of Frederick's
was Hermann the German (Alcmannus), who, between the years
1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a paraphrase of
al-Farabl on the Rlictoric, and of Averroes on the Poetics and
Ethics of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable place
in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen.
It was amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristo-
telianism found refuge after the light of philosophy was ex-
tinguished in Islam; and the Jewish family of the Bcn-Tibbon
were mainly instrumental in making Averroes known to southern
France.
See S. Munk, Melanges de philosophic juke et arabe (Paris, 1859^ :
E. Renan, De Philosophic PeripaMica a pud Syros (1852), and
Averrois el t'A^erroisme (Paris, 3rd cd., 1867); Am. Jourdato.
RechcTches critiques sur I'Age et f engine des traductions Iclines
d'ArisUU (Paris, 3— «d., 1843); B. Haureau, PhUosophU scstestifuo
ARABIAN SEA— ARABS
2*3
(Pari*. 1850), tome L
(1846-1851), tome iii. p
Araimm (Bonn, 1836), ai
Arabes (Paris, 1842); St
sopkical Sects, in Germai
X851); Dieterici, Streii 1
and his other translatbi
Sincerity (1861 to 187a)
m Islam (London, 1903J
" orfe
1861); and the Histoi
the biographies of phitoa
ARABIAN SKA (ana Mare Erytkraeum), the name applied
to the portion of the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by
Baluchistan and part of the southern Persian littoral, W. by
Arabia, and S., approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui,
the north-east point of Somaliland, and Cape Comorin in India.
It has two important branches— at the south-west the Gulf of
Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb; and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting
with the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there
are the Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An
interest and importance belong to this sea as forming part of the
chief highway between Europe and India. Its islands are few
and insignificant, the chief being Sokotra, off the African, and
the Laccadives, off the Indian coast.
ARABICI, a religious sect originating about the beginning of
the 3rd century, which is mentioned by Augustine (De H cures.
e. lrxxiii.), and called also Oyitro^vxlrai (" mortal-souled ") by
John of Damascus {De Hacrts. c. xc.) The name is given to
the Arabians mentioned by Eusebius {Hist. Eccl. vi. 37), whose
distinctive doctrine was a form of Christian materialism, snowing
itself in the belief that the soul perished and was restored to life
along with the body. We may compare Tatian's view of the
soul as a subtler variety of matter. According to Eusebius,
they were convinced of their error by Origen, and renounced it
at a council held about a.d. 246.
ARABI PASHA (c. 1830- ), more correctly Ahmad 'ArAbI,
to which in later years he added the epithet al-Misrl, " the
Egyptian," Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, was born
in Lower Egypt in 1839 or 1840 of a fellah family. Having
entered the army as a conscript he was made an officer by Said
Pasha in 1862, and was employed m the transport department
m the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A
charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in con-
nexion with this expedition and he was placed on half-pay.
During this time he joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi
with the object of getting rid of Turkish officers from the
Egyptian army. Arabi also attended lectures at the mosque
El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator. In 1878 he
was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the
ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignicres, and received
in payment a wife from Ismail's harem and the command of a
regiment. This increased his influence with the secret society,
which, under the feeble government of Tewfik Pasha and the
Dual Control, began to agitate against Europeans. In all that
followed Arabi was put forward as the leader of the discon-
tented Egyptians; he was in reality little more than the mouth-
piece and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud
SamL On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other
Egyptian colonels, summoned before a court-martini for acts
of disobedience, were rescued by their soldiers, and the khedive
was forced to dismiss his then minister of war in favour of
Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on the 8th of
September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase
the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha
for Riaz Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly
of notables. Arabi became under-secretary for war at the
beginning of 1882, but continued his intrigues. The assembly
of notables claimed the right of voting the budget, and thus
came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had been
appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the
management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February,
Mahmud Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a
pasha) minister of war. Arabi, after a brief fall from office,
acquired a dictatorial power that alarmed the British govern-
ment. British and French warships went to Alexandria at the
beginning of June; on the nth of that month rioting in that
city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could
only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now
adopted a more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming
of the forts at Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to
the British fleet. On the refusal of France to co-operate, the
British fleet bombarded the forts (nth July), and a British force,
under Sir Garnet Wolselcy, defeated Arabi on the 13th of
September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo where he sur-
rendered, and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In
accordance with an understanding made with the British
representative, Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence
of death was immediately commuted to one of banishment for
life to Ceylon. The same sentence was passed on Mahmud
Sami and others. After Arabi's exile had lasted for nearly
twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised his
prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to
return to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figure-
head than the inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and
was probably more honest, as he was certainly less intelligent,
than those whose tool, in a large measure, he was. The move-
ment which he represented in the eye of Europe, whatever the
motives of its leaders, "was in its essence a genuine revolt
against misgovernment," l and it was a dim recognition of this
fact which led Arabi to style himself " the Egyptian."
See Egypt: History; also the accounts of Arabi in Khedives
and Pashas, by C. F. Mobcrly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer's
Modern Egypt (1908).
ARABISTAN (formerly Khuzistan), a province of Persia,
bounded on the S. by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish
territory, on the N. by Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari
district and Fars. It has its modern name, signifying " land of
the Arabs " from the Arabs who form the bulk of the population,
and is subdivided into the districts of Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh
(the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as Ramiz),
Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about
200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about £30,000. The soil
is very fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was
swept away and the numerous canals which diverted the waters
of the river for irrigation became useless, a great part of the
province is uncultivated, and most of the crops and produce
depend for water on rainfall and wells. The climate is hot, and
in the low-lying, swampy districts very unhealthy; the prevail-
ing winds are north-west and south-east, the former hot and
dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the latter bear-
ing much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.
The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as
Chaab) and Bcni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and
villages and by religion Shi'ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites.
The staples of food are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere
the produce of the herds and flocks and rice, wheat and barley.
Other products are maize, cotton, silk and indigo, and the manu-
factures include carpets without pile, coarse woollens, cottons
and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively carried on in Dizful
where most of the indigo is grown.
Khuzistan (meaning " the land of the Khuz ") was a part of
the Biblical Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great
inscription of Darius as Uvaja.
ARABS, the name given to that branch of the Semitic race
which from the earliest historic times inhabited the south-
western portion of the Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day
the collective term for the overwhelming majority of the sur-
viving Semitic peoples, was originally restricted to the nomad
tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula cast of Palestine
and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense " Arab "
is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and
in the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had
come to include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is
suggested, may have been due to the fact that the " Arabs "
1 Lord Cromer in Egypt, No. 1, 1905, p. 2.
284
ARABS
were the chief people near the Greek and Roman colonies in
Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers use the term both
in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day occupy, besides
Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the Red
Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of
Africa. The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia
among the Ariba Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut
and Yemen and among the Bedouin tribes roaming over the
interior of central and northern Arabia. The Arabs of the
coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing Turkish,
Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and
Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent.
The theory that early Arab settlements were made on the east
coast of Africa as far as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without
foundation; the earliest Arab settlement on the cast coast of
Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo (Mukdishu) in the xoth
century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland, once supposed
to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be
of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands
Arab influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type
are met with in Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and
India, while the influence of the Arab language and civiliza-
tion is found in Europe (Malta and Spain), China and Central
Asia.
The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways
are the purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly
Btbmohgy. *** e inhabitants of Yemen are not, and in historic
times never were, pure Semites. Somali and other
elements, generally described under the collective racial name
of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still
present the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type.
The origin of the Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture.
From the remotest historic times it has been divided into two
branches, which from their geographical position it is simplest
to call the North Arabians and the South Arabians. Arabic
and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the latter from Joktan
(Arabic Kahtan) son of Heber, of the former from Ishmacl.
The South Arabians — the older branch — were settled in the
south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise
of the Ishmaelitcs. These latter include not only Is hm ad's
direct descendants through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16),
but the Edomitcs, Moabitcs, Ammonites, Midianites and other
tribes. This ancient and undoubted division of the Arab race
— roughly represented to-day by the universally adopted
classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs (see
Bedouins) — has caused much dispute among ethnologists.
All authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic .in the
broadest ethnological signification of that term, but some
thought they saw in this division of the race an indication of a
dual origin. They asserted that the purer branch of the Arab
family was represented by the sedentary Arabs who were of
Hamitic (Biblical Cusbite), i.e. African ancestry, and that the
nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were nearer
akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmacl. Many arguments
were adduced in support of this theory. (1) The unquestioned
envision in remote historic times of the Arab race, and the im-
memorial hostility between the two branches. (2) The concur-
rence of pre-Islamitic literature and records in representing the
first settlement of the " pure " Arab as made in the extreme
south-western part of the peninsula, near Aden. (3) The use
of Himyar, " dusky * or " red " (suggesting African affinities),
as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for the
entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic
language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic
now spoken by the " pure " Arabs, where it differs from that
of the North, to the Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked
resemblance of the pre-Islamitic institutions of Yemen and its
allied provinces — its monarchies, courts, armies and serfs — to
the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to modern Abys-
sinia. (7) The physique of the " pure " Arab, the shape and
size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting
an African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the
people, viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations,
their fondness for village life, for dancing, music and society,
their cultivation of the soil, having more in common with African
life than with that of the western Asiatic continent. (9) The
extreme facility of marriage which exists in all classes of the
southern Arabs with the African races, the fecundity of such
unions and the slightness or even total absence of any caste
feeling between the dusky " pure " Arab and the still darker
African, pointing to a community of origin. And further argu-
ments were found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their
pastoral and nomad tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom
allied to the Hebrew; their strong clan feeling, their con-
tinued resistance to anything like regal power or centralized
organization.
Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but
latterly ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little
really to be said for the African ancestry theory and that the
Arab race had its beginning in the deserts of south Arabia,
that in short the true Arabs are aborigines.
Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet's birth
toaql-cl jahillya, " the time of ignorance," but the fact is that
the Arab world has in some respects never since reached so high
a level as it had in those days which it suits Moslems to paint in
dreary colours. Writing was a fine art and poetry flourished.
Eloquence was an accomplishment all strove to acquire, and
each year there were assemblies, lasting sometimes a month,
which were devoted to contests of skill among the orators and
poets, to Hstcn to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen journeyed
long distances. Last, that surest index of a people's civilization
— the treatment of women — contrasted very favourably with
their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were
respected. The veil and the harem system were unknown before
Mahomet According to Ndldeke the Nabataean inscriptions
and coins show that women held a high social position in northern
Arabia, owning large estates and trading independently. Poly-
andry and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but the right of
divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds
of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal con-
tract, with no witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing
under marital authority. The other was a formal marriage, the
woman becoming subject to her husband by purchase or capture.
Even captive women were not kept in slavery. Arabic wealth
and culture had indeed thus early reached a stage which justified
Professor Robertson Smith in writing, " In this period the name
of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of effemi-
nate indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of
Yemen." But long before Mahomet's time this early Arab
predominance was at an end, possibly due in great measure
to the loss of the caravan trade through the increase of shipping.
The abandonment of great cities and the ruin of many tribes
contributed to the apparent nationalization of the Arab peoples.
Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the two branches,
the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the Arab
world had attained by the levelling process of common mis-
fortune the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus
formed, never a nation in the strict sense of the word, was
distinctively and thoroughly Semitic in character and language,
and has remained unchanged to the present day. The sporadic
brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms gave place to a social
and poli deal lethargy, the continuation of which for many cen-
turies made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle to
a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to
Mahomet's day had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if
it ever prevailed, early gave place to sun and star worship,
or simple idolatry.. Professor Robertson Smith suggests that
totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry, and that
each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact
that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and
that animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems
certain is that Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature,
not much to be wondered at when one remembers that Arabia
was the asylum of many religious refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews,
ARABS
285
Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic times spirits, or jinns,
as they were called, of which each tribe or family had its
own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a
Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of
360, one for each day of the lunar year, were collected in
the temple at Mecca, the chief seat of their worship. That
worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human sacrifice was
fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female infanticide
was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship
was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from
every part of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs
that even Mahomet dared not dispense with it, and it remains
the central object of sanctity in the Ra'ba to-day. The temples
of the Sabaeans and the Minacans were built east of their
cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is not believed to
have been the cult of the Minacans. Common to both was the
worship of Attar, the male Ashtorcth.
With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place
in the world's history.
Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and noblest
races of the world. Baron de Larrcy, surgeon-general to
r^ a ty MI Napoleon on his expedition to Egypt and Syria,
writes: " Their physical structure is in all respects
more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense
exquisitely acute, their size above the average of men in general,
their figure robust and elegant, their colour brown; their in-
telligence proportionate to their physical perfection and without
doubt superior, other things being equal, to that of other
nations.'* The typical Arab face is of an oval form, lean-
featured; the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under bushy
eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In
body the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. De-
formed individuals or dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except
leprosy, which is common, docs any disease seem to be hereditary
among them. They often suffer from ophthalmia, though not
in the virulent Egyptian form. They arc scrupulously clean
in their persons, and take special care of their teeth, which are
generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in their
habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor
is it common among them for the faculties of the mind to give
way sooner than those of the body.
Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind;
mentally, they surpass most, and are only kept back in the
r% , ,_ fffr march of progress by the remarkable defect of or-
ganizing power and incapacity for combined action.
Lax and imperfect as arc their forms of government, it is with
impatience that even these arc borne; of the four caliphs
who alone reigned— if reign theirs could be called — in Arabia
proper, three died a violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes,
the most genuine representatives in later times of pure Arab
rule, almost all have met the same fate. The Arab face, which
is not unkindly, but never smiling, expresses that dignity and
gravity which are typical of the race. While the Arab is always
polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also revengeful,
cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature Burck-
hardt (other authorities, e.g. Barth and Rohlfs, are far less com-
plimentary) wrote: " The Arab displays his manly character when
be defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits
to the reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with
the most patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk
by the virtues of pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab
of a more kind temper; he pities and supports the wretched, and
never forgets the generosity shown to him even by an enemy."
The Arab will lie and cheat and swear false oaths, but once his
word is pledged he may be trusted to the last. There are some
oaths such as Wallah (by Allah) which mean nothing, but such
an oath as the threefold one with wo, bi and ta as particles of
swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or at
least in the manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm;
and he rarely so much as raises his voice in a dispute. But this
outward tranquillity covers feelings alike keen and permanent;
and the remembrance of a rash jest or injurious word, uttered
years before, leads only too often to that blood-revenge which
is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia.
There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national
diversities of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants
of Hejaz are noted for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those
of Nejd are distinguished by their stern tenacity and dignity
of deportment; the nations of Yemen are gentle and pliant, but
revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful and fond of sport,
though at the same time turbulent and unsteady. Anything
approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz religion
and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost
exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known
game of the " jerld," or palm-stick, with dances and music is
not rare. In Oman such amusements are still more frequent.
Again in Yemen and Oman, coffee-houses, where people resort
for conversation, and where public recitals, songs and other
amusements arc indulged in, stand open all day; while nothing
of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the ceremonies of circum-
cision or marriage are occasions of gaiety and pastime on the
coast, but not in the central provinces.
An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet,
is invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material
than dried earth used; the walls are occasionally
flanked by towers of like construction. A dry ditch m ^J a0n
often surrounds the whole. The streets are irregular customs.
and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an
eye for the straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right
angle; an Arab servant cannot place a cloth square on a table.
The Ra'ba at Mecca has none of its sides or angles equal. The
houses are of one or two storeys, rarely of three, with flat mud
roofs, little windows and no external ornament. If the town
be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a market-
place, where arc ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee,
cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women.
The chief mosque is always near the market-place; so is also
the governor's residence, which, except in size and in being
more or less fortified Arab fashion, does not differ from a private
house. Drainage is unthought of; but the extreme dryness of
the air obviates the inconvenience and disease that under other
skies could not fail to ensue, and which in the damper climates
of the coast make themselves seriously felt. But the streets are
roughly swept every day, each householder taking care of the
roadway that lies before his own door. Whitewash and colour
are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman; elsewhere a
light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks, predominates,
and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a
large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens
and palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and
stone buildings arc rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches
and the like, woven in wattles, form the dwellings of the poorer
classes in the southern districts. Many Arab towns possess
watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys in appearance,
built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50 to 100 ft.
or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town
of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in
height, and that of Nczwah, in the same province, is reckoned
at 140; but these are of stone.
The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the
" kahwah " or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with
mats, and sometimes furnished with carpets and a few cushions.
At one end is a small furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee.
In this room the men congregate; here guests are received, and
even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at times when
strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these apartments
are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is usually
built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka'ba; it
serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who
may happen to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The
other rooms arc ordinarily small.
The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger's arrival
is often the occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier
inhabitants as to who shall have the privilege of receiving him.
286
ARABS
Arab cookery is of the simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked
with butter; bread in thin cakes, prepared on a heated iron
plate or against the walls of an open oven; a few vegetables,
generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or camel's
flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits— this is the menu
of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is
common on the coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades
back, is now largely drunk. A food of which the Arabs are fond
is locusts boiled in salt and water and then dried in the sun.
They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a great sale for them.
Spices arc freely employed; butter much too largely for a
European taste.
After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes
of an alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning
incense is then passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands,
face, and sometimes his clothes; this censer serves also on first
receptions and whenever special honour is intended. In Yemen
and Oman scented water often does duty for it. Coffee, without
milk or sugar, but flavoured with an aromatic seed brought from
India, is served to all. This, too, is done on the occasion of a
first welcome, when the cups often make two or three successive
rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any time, as
frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each time
fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled — a very
laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of
establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs
generally make but one solid meal a day — that of supper, soon
after sunset. Even then they do not eat much, gluttony being
rare among them, and even daintiness esteemed disgraceful.
Wine, like other fermented drinks, is prohibited by the Koran,
and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the inhabitants of the
mountains of Oman arc said to indulge in it. On the coast
spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium
and hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand,
wherever Wahhabiism has left freedom of action, tobacco-
smoking prevails; short pipes of clay, long pipes with large
open bowls, or most frequently the water-pipe or " nar-
ghileh," being used. The tobacco smoked is generally strong
and is cither brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or
grown in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of
Oman; the leaf is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour
even when dried; a few whiffs have been known to produce
absolute stupor. The aversion of the Wahhabis to tobacco is
well known; they entitle it " mukhzi " or "the shameful,"
and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine
would be elsewhere.
In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers
girded at the waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers,
are not often worn, even by the upper classes, in Nejd
or Yemama, where a kind of silk dressing-gown is
thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or black
cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a
handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz,
Yemen and Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the
ordinary colour is white; they are worn over one or more skull-
caps. Trousers also form part of the dress in the two former
of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in which a dagger
or an inkstand is stuck, b wrapped round the waist. The poorer
folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with
a broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the
shoulders. In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long
gown, of peculiar and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow,
is often worn. The women in these provinces commonly put
on loose drawers and some add veils to their head-dresses;
they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver); their hair
is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind. All
men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though
this is usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed
all, strictly speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so.
An Arab seldom or never dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more
often than shoes; none but the very poorest go barefoot.
Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution through-
out Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along
the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The
slaves themselves were obtained chiefly from the cast * rj *
African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar, but this
source of supply was practically closed by the end of the
iolh century. Staves are usually employed in Arabia as
herdsmen or as domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work;
they also form a considerable portion of the bodyguards with
which Eastern greatness loves to surround itself. Like their
countrymen elsewhere, they readily embrace the religion of their
masters and become zealous Mahommcdans. Arab custom
enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of seven
years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master,
instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally,
on giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for support-
ing himself and a family in comfort. Further, on every important
occasion, such as a birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death,
one or more of the household slaves are sure of acquiring their
freedom. Hence Arabia has a considerable free black popula-
tion; and these again, by inter-marriage with the whites
around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of every shade,
till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a white
skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists
against negro alliances; no social or political line separates
the African from the Arab. A negro may become a sheik,
a kadi, an amir, or whatever his industry and his talents may
render him capable of being. This is particularly so in Nejd,
Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north a faint
line of demarcation may be observed between the races.
The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal
courage, wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose,
and a contempt of death are qualities common to
almost every race, tribe and clan that compose the
Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have
few equals, while at close quarters they have often shown them-
selves capable of maintaining, armed with swords and spears
alone, a desperate struggle against guns and bayonets, neither
giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are they wholly ignorant
of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular war, being
divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and a
reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement
by the camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and
ranged in long parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from
behind which the soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks,
while the front divisions, opening ollt, act on either flank of the
enemy. This arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab
records as far back as the 5 th century, and was often exemplified
during the Wahhabi wars,
Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery
than the men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in
the chronicles or myths of the prc-Islamitic time; and in authen-
tic history the Battle of the Camel, 656 a.d., where Ayesha, the
wife of Mahomet, headed the charge, is only the first of a number
of instances in which Arab amazons have taken, sword in hand,
no inconsiderable share in the wars and victories of Islam. Even
now it is the custom for an Arab force to be always accompanied
by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a blackened
camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement
for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter
the fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the
signal of utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the
victory of her clan.
There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in
Arabia. Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few,
even of the most elementary character, in the towns ^g^^^
or villages. Where they exist, little beyond the
mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical
learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab male-
children, brought up from early years among the grown-up
men of the house or tent, learn more from their own parents
and at home than is common in other countries; reading
and writing are in most instances thus acquired, or rather
ARACAJU— ARACHNIDA
287
transmitted; besides such general principles of grammar and
eloquence, often of poetry and history; as the elders themselves
may be able to impart. To this family schooling too arc due
the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early dis-
tinguish Arab children. In the very few instances where a
public school of a higher class exists, writing, grammar and
rhetoric sum up its teachings. Law and theology, in the narrow
sense that both these words have in the Islamitic system, are
explained in afternoon lectures given in most mosques; and
some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted commentaries,
that of Baidawl for oxamplc, form the basis of the instruction.
Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of
diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic differ-
ence may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic,
that which is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words
and in its inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken
in Nejd, and the best again of that in the province of Suder.
Next in purity comes the Arabic of Shnmmar. Throughout the
Hejaz in general, the language, though extremely elegant, is
not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman it is de-
cidedly influenced by the foreign clement called Nabatacan.
In Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic
merges insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of
Hadramut and Mahra. (See Semitic Languages.)
Bibliography. — Lieutenant Wcllstcd, Travels in Arabia (Lond.,
1838); " Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb d Hajar"
(Jour. R. Geog. Soc. vii. 20); Carslcn Nicbnhr, Travels through
Arabia (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792);
John Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia (2 vols., Lond., 1829);
Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabts, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German,
Weimar, 1831); C. J. Cruttenden, Journal of an Excursion to Sana'a,
the Capital of Yemen (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprengcr, Die alte Geo-
graphic Arabiens als Grundlate der Enhoicklungsgeschichte des
Srmitismus (Berne. 1875): Sir Richard F. Burton, Personal Narra-
tive of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah (Lond., 1855); W.
Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (Cam-
bridge); E. Rectus. Les A robes (Brussels. I 898): Lady Anne Blunt,
A Pilgrimage to Nejd (2 vols., Lond., 1881) ; C. M. Doughty, A rabia
Deserta (2 vols.. 1888); Rev. S. M. Zwemer, Arabia: the Cradle of
Islam (1900) ; Albrecht Zehme, Afabien und die Araber, sett hunderi
Jahren (1875).
ARACAJC, a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state
of Sergipe, 170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba,
or Cotindiba, 6 m. from the coast. The municipality, of which
it forms a part, had a population in 1800 of 16,336, about two-
thirds of whom lived in the city itself. Aracaju is a badly built
town on the right bank of the river at the base of a ridge of low
sand-hills and has the usual features of an unprogrcasive pro-
vincial capital. Good limestone is quarried in its vicinity, and
the country tributary to this port produces large quantities of
sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends down
hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a
dangerous bar at the mouth of tho river prevents the entrance
of vessels drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, there-
fore, only by the smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The
river is navigable as far as the town of Maroim, about 10 m.
beyond Aracaju. The city was founded in 1855.
ARACATY, or Aracati, a city and port of Brazil, in the state
of Ceara, 75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m.
from the sea. Pop. of the municipality (1800) 20,182, of whom
about 12,000 belonged to the city. A dangerous bar at the
mouth of the river permits the entrance only of the smaller
coasting steamers, but the port is an important commercial
centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides,
manicoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.
ARACHNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of
Colophon in Lydia, a dyer in purple. She had acquired such
skill in the art of weaving that she ventured to challenge Athena.
While the goddess took as subjects her quarrel with Poseidon
as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the warning
examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the
immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods
and their amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that
Athena, enraged at being unable to find any blemish in it, tore
it to pieces. Arachne hanged herself in despair; but the goddess
out of pity loosened the rope, which became a cobweb, while
Arachne herself was changed into a spider (Ovid, Mclam. vi.
5-145). The story probably indicates the superiority of Asia
over Greece in the textile arts.
ARACHNIDA, the zoological name given in 181 5 by Lamarck
(Gr. apaxvv, a spider) to a class which he instituted for the
reception of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified
by Linnaeus in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta.
Lamarck at the same time founded the class Crustacea for the
lobsters, crabs and water-fleas, also until then included in the
order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck included the Thysanura
and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The Insecta of
Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda
founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was
thus reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only
the six-legged, wing-bearing " Insecta." For these Lamarck
proposed the name Hexapoda; but that name has been little used,
and they have retained to this day the title of the much larger
Linnacan group, viz. Insecta. The position of the Arachnida
in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent ana-
tomical and embryological researches, is explained in the article
Arthropoda. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of
descent in the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in
common at the start with the Crustacea) from primitive Euar-
thropods, which gave rise also to the separate lines of descent
known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea, Chilopoda and
Hexapoda.
FlC. I.— •Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of Limulus
polyphemus, Latr. Dorsal surface.
LAP, Left anterior process. PLR. Posterior lateral rod or
RAP, Right anterior process. tendon.
PhN, Pharyngeal notch. PLP, Posterior lateral process.
ALR, Anterior latei al rod or tendon. Natural size.
(From L&okester. Q.J. ilk. Set* N.S. vol. uf»., 18&4.)
Limulus an Arachnid. — Modern views as to the classifica-
tion and affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by
the demonstration that Limulus and the extinct Euryptcrincs
(Pi cry got us, &c.) are Arachnida; that is to say, are identical
in the structure and relation of so many important parts with
Scorpio, whilst differing in those respects from other Arthropoda,
that it is impossible to suppose that the identity is due to homo-
plasy or convergence, and the conclusion must be accepted that
the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship. The view
that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as
long ago as 1829 by Strauss-DUrckhcim (1), on the ground of its
possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum — also possessed
by the Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) — and of the simi-
larity of the disposition of the six leg-like appendages around
the mouth in the two cases (sec figs. 45 and 63). The evidence
of the exact equivalence of the segmentation and appendages
of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number of remarkable points
of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray Lankester in
an article published in 1881 (" Limulus an Arachnid," Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sei. vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of subsequent
memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the coxal
glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the
288
ARACHNIDA
respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, WS3 for the first time
described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown
uniformly to support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid.
A list of these memoirs is given at the close of this article (2, 8,
4, 6 and 18). The Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included
in the identification, although at that time they were supposed
Fig. 2. — Ventral surface of the entosternum of Limulus Poly-
phemus, Latr. Letters as in fig. i with the addition of NF, neural
fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous sys-
tem; PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median
process. Natural size.
(From Lankotcr.)
to possess only five pairs of anterior or prosomatic appendages.
They have now been shown to possess six pairs (fig. 47), as do
Limulus and Scorpio.
The various comparisons previously made between the struc-
ture of Limulus and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that
of a typical Arachnid, such as Scorpio, on the other, had been
vitiated by erroneous notions as to the origin of the nerves
supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus (which were finally
removed by Alphonse Milne- Edwards in his beautiful memoir
(0) on the structure
of that animal), and
secondly by the errone-
ous identification of the
double sternal plates
of Limulus, called
" chilaria," by Owen,
with a pair of append-
ages (7). Once the
}fl identity of the chilaria
' with the pentagonal
sternal plate of the
scorpion is recognized
— an identification first
insisted on by Lan-
Fic. 3.— Entosternum of scorpion (Pal- kester— the whole
amnacus indus, dc Gecr); dorsal surface, scries of segments and
asp. Paired anterior process of the sub- appendages in the two
^rsub-^iLrch. r m * ls ' Lim t s and
ap, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP Scorpio, are sccirto cor-
and LAP in fig. 1). respond most closely,
Imp, Lateral median process (same as ALR segment for segment,
xP~ ~ — - plp - £ h zst &
pf. Posterior flap or diaphragm of New- structure of the proso-
P°rt- ma tic appendages or
m» and m». Perforations o the diaphragm , cgs is also sccn {Q re _
tor the passage of muscles. . • •* .
DR, The paired dorsal ridges. ** n * ™* n y significant
GC, Gastric canal or foramen. points of agreement
AC, Arterial canal or foramen. (sec figures), but a curi-
ous discrepancy existed
(Af,«r L.nk«ur. fac.nl.) ^ ^ s j x _ joinlcd stnjC .
ture of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the seven jointed
limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R. I. Pocock of the
British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists
on the fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous
division of this segment into two, and thus establishes the agree.
ment of Limulus and Scorpio in this small feature of the number
of segments in the legs (see fig. n).
It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a
full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio.
The reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given,
with their explanatory legends (figs. 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters,
however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison
intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body
rings, are fused to form a
" prosomatic carapace," or
carapace of the prosoma, in
both Limulus and Scorpio
(see figs. 7 and 8). This
region corresponds in both
cases to six somites, as indi-
cated by the presence of six
pairs of limbs. On the sur-
face of the carapace there are
in both animals a pair of
central eyes with simple lens »
and a pair of lateral eve-
tracts, which in Limulus
consist of closely-aggregated
simple eyes, forming a " com- A
pound" eye, whilst in *
bcorpio they present several
sc —^ -es. The
m re of the Fie. 4.— Ventral surface of the same
cc teral eyes entosternum as that drawn in fig. 3.
Iw Lankester Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition
ar e (5) to of NC, neural canal or foramen.
to ucture to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the
cc orpio to be identical in structure with the
cc ilus (see below).
K>ma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14
ar lg a pair of plate-like
ar ..imulus ana Scorpio.
T the mesosoma. The
tc on and those of the
fo he mctasoma, are {
fu second or posterior
ca is, whilst remaining
fn he first pair of foli-
ac in each animal is j
the genital operculum; beneath it are
found the openings of the genital ducts.
The second pair of mesosoma tic append-
ages in Scorpio are known as the
" pec tens." Each consists of an axis,
bearing numerous blunt tooth-like pro- Fie. 5. — Entosternum of
cesses arranged in a scries. This is O neof themygalomorphous
represented in Limulus by the first gill- spiders; ventral surface,
bearing appendage. The leaves (some Ph.N., pharyngeal notch
150 in number) of the gill-book (see The posterior median pro-
figure) correspond to the tooth-like cess with its repetition of
processes of the pectens of Scorpio, triangular segments closely
The next four pairs of appendages (com- resembles the same process
plcting the mesosomatic series of six) "j n Limulus.
consist, in both Scorpio and Limulus,
°( *.!*?;. car r vi ??.. each l ^°, i 9 »5 (From Unkesier. Uc d> >
blood-holding, leal-like plates, lying on
one another like the leaves of a book. Their minute structure is
closely similar in the two cases; the leaf-like plates receive blood
from the great sternal sinus, and
serve as respiratory organs. The
difference between the gill-books of v
Limulus and the lung-books of B
Scorpio depends on the fact that the ^
latter arc adapted to aerial respira-
tion, while the former serve for
aquatic respiration. The appendage
carrying the gill-book stands out on
the surface of the body in Limulus, J
and has other portions developed
besides the gill-book and its base;
it is fused with its feltbw of the
opposite side On the other hand, in
forming a recess or chamber lor . . j__._ ;„ c„ e PkN
itself, which communicates with the fcl*^?™!* 5 ' Ph * N -
exterior by an oval or circular Pharyngeal «**<*.
" stigma " (fig. 10, stg ). That this <*«« L"*»«». *• «*•>
in-sinking has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken
f'ill-books of Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to amy.
imbs or parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (sr*
ARACHNIDA
289
figs. 17 and 18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on
the surface of the body.
The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding
limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a
matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen
of the Silurian scorpion (PaUuopkonus) from Scotland, showing the
ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this
matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer
and Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The
probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the.
appendage ana its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by
:r. It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the
FlG. 7. — Diagram of the dorsal surface of Limulus polyphemus.
wise suppressed praegenital
somite.
VIII to XIII. The six somites of
the mesosoma, each with a
movable pleural spine and a
pair of dorsal entopophysis or
muscle-attaching ingrowths.
XIV to XVIII, The confluent or
unexpressed six somites of the
mctasoma.
•C Lateral compound eyes.
«r/. Central monomeniscous eyes.
PA. Post-anal spine.
I to VI, The sue appendage*
bearing: somites of the pro-
VII, Usually considered to be
the tergum of the genital
somite, but suggested by
Pocock to be that of the other-
(According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if
VII is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should
be labelled Prg without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII
should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal
somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced
by the numbers 7 to 12 — an additional suppressed segment (making
up the typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.}
(Fram Lsakcster. Q. J. Ukr. Sd. toJ. juL, iftSt.)
accompanying diagram has taken place (fig. 15) ; but we are yet in
need of evidence as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, Ac,
obtaining between the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of
Limulus. Zoologists arc familiar with many instances (fishes,
crustaceans) in which the protective walls of a water-breathing
organ or gill-apparatus become converted into an air-breathing
organ or lung, out there is no other case known of the conversion
of gill pro ces s es themselves into air-breathing plates.
The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books
of Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in
Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is
no doubt that these are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying
numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore compai
in essential structure to the leaf •bearing plates of the second n
somatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and
projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages
of tbe four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory
function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot
subserve respiration. The " pectens " have become more firmly
chitinized and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared
with their condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their
present function in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not
specially sensitive, under ordinary conditions, and may be touched
or even pinched without causing any discomfort to the scorpion.
It is probable that they acquire special sensibility at the breeding
season and serve as " guides " in copulation. The shape of the legs
and the absence of paired terminal daws in the Silurian Polatopkonux
(see figs. 48 and 49) as compared with living
scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the early #r..y/~V^V-~1
scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope / 1 \"\ 1
some day in better-preserved specimens than . f A 1,1 j?
the two as yet discovered, to find the respira-*' f '" *°l* /jl.'..*
tory organs of those creatures in the con- I j-yi
dition of projecting appendages serving Ij^aW-sLB y-
aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus. IL u .Tl-i jI "•*'
tt \£S^*rJ& m
fc KS— 35n
la
ct
TS
19
xn
XBD
'PA
pi
ai
cl
agulated blood so as to present the appearance
of a limb axis carrying the book-like leaves
of the lung is not really, as it would seem to
be at first sight, the limb axis. That is neces-
sarily a blood-holding structure and is
obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the
sternal region so that the lamellae cannot be
detached and presented as standing out
from it. The apparent axis or basal support
of the scorpion s lung-books shown in the
figures, is a false or secondary axis and merely
a part of the infolded surface which forms
the air-chamber. The maceration of the soft
parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit
and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown
cuticle give rise to the false appearance of a
limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins
of the lamellae of the scorpion's lung-book,
which are lowermost in the figures (fig. 15) y
and appear to be free, arc really those which '
are attached to the blood-holding axis. The Fig. 8. — Diagram
true free ends are those nearest the stigma. of the dorsal surface
Passing on now from the mesosoma we of a scorpion to corn-
come in Scorpio to the mctasoma of six pare with fig. 7.
segments, the first of which is broad whilst Letters and _ Roman
the rest arc cylindrical. The last is perforated numerals as in fig. 7.
by the anus and carries the post-anal spine excepting that VII
or sting. The somites of the mctasoma carry is here certainly the
no parapodia. In Limulus the mctasoma is tergum of the first
g ractically suppressed. In the allied extinct somite of the meso-
luryptennes it is well developed, and re- soma — the genital
sembies that of Scorpio. In the embryo somite — and is not
Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the a survival of the cm-
mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace bryonic praegenital
at an early stage, and they arc followed by somite. The anus (not
tnrce separately marked metasomatic somites; seen) is on the sternal
the other three somites of the mctasoma have surface,
disappeared in Limulus, but are represented (From L*akc»tcr. Ut. tii.)
by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is
probable that we have in the mctasoma of Limulus a case of the dis-
appearance of once clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible
to suppose, on the other hand, that new somites arc only beginning
to make their appearance here. The balance of various considera-
tions is against the latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in
Limulus, we have as in Scorpio the post-anal spine — in this case
not a sting, but a powerful and important organ of locomotion,
serving to turn the animal over when it has fallen upon its
back. The nature of the post-anal spine has been strangely mis-
interpreted by some writers. Owen (7) maintained that it repre-
sented a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its post-anal
position and mode of development. The agreement of the grouping
of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages, limbs) in each
region, of the position of the genital aperture and operculum, of the
position and character of the eyes, and of the powerful post-ana I spines
not teen in other Arthropods, is \cry convincing as to the affinity
290
ARACHNIDA
of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the most important general agree-
ment of Scorpio compared with Limulus and the Eurypterines is the
division of the body into the three regions (or tagmata)— prosoma,
mesosoma and nictasoma — each consisting of six segments, the
prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having foKaceous
appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages.
In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of
Limulus with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published,
zoologists were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist,
Kishinouye (8), of a seventh prosoma tic somite in the embryo of
Limulus loneispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown
in fig. 19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus
and Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in
1896 Dr August Brauer of Marburg (9) discovered in the embryo,
of Scorpio a seventh prosoma tic somite (see VI I PrG, figs. 17 and i8),
or, if we please so to term it, a praegenital somite, hitherto unrecog-
nized. In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo
by the presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages^ carried by a
well-marked somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected
somite and its appendages disappear in the course of development.
I n fact, more or less complete " excalation " of the somite takes place.
Owing to its position it is convenient to term the somite which is
excalated in Limulus and Scorpio " the praegcnital somite." It
appears not improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between
Fig. 9. — Ventral view of the posterior carapace or meso-meta-
somatic (opisthosomatic) fusion of Limulus Polyphemus. The soft
integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well
as all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga
of these somites with their cntopophyscs are seen. The unsegmented
dense chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVlII) is
not removed. Letters as in fig. 7.
(After Lutkeslcr. Ue. tit.)
the last pair of legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal
sternite of Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13
and 20), may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the es-
calated praegcnital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an
actual following out of the development, but the position of these
pieces and the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an in-
dependent segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise
the sternal area of the vanished praegenital somite. This inter-
pretation, however, of the " metastcrnitcs " of Limulus and Scorpio
is opposed by the coexistence in Thclyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58)
of a similar metastcrnitc with a complete praegenital somite. H. J.
Hansen (10) has recognized that the " praegenital somite " persists
in a rudimentary condition, forming a " waist " to the series of
somites in the Pcdipalpi and Araneae. The present writer is of
opinion that it will be found most convenient to treat this evanescent
somite as something special, and not to attempt to reckon it to
either the prosoma or the mesosoma. These will then remain as
typically composed each of six appendage-bearing somites — the
prosoma comprising in addition the ocular prosthomere. 1 When
the praegcnital somite or traces of it arc present it should not be
called " the seventh prosoma tic " or the first mesosomatic," but
simply the " praegcnital somite." The first segment of the meso-
soma of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment, and can
be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnir 1 - ! s t
always does the genital apertures. But it is necesi ,
in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth t f
appendages is carried on the seventh somite 01 >,
there being two prosthomercs or somites in front e
first carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; t
mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh c. ^ ~.,*...Ji
of the whole series of somites which have been historically present,
but is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a
praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be
best avoided by abstaining
from the introduction of
the non-evident somites,
the ocular and the prae-
genital, into the numerical
nomenclature of the com-
ponent somites of the three
great body regions. We
shall, therefore, ignoring
the ocular somite, speak of
the first, second, third,
fourth, fifth and sixth leg-
bearing somites of the pro-
soma, and indicate the
appendages by the Roman
numerals, I, II, III, IV,
V, VI, and whilst ignoring
the praegenital somite we
shall speak of the first,
second, third, &c, somite of
the mesosoma or opistho- \
soma (united mesosoma and
metasoma) and indicate
them by the Arabic
numerals.
There are a number of r
other important points of
structure besides those re- f
ferring to the somites and
appendages in which
Limulus agrees with Scorpio
or other Arachnida and
differs from other Arthro-
poda. The chief of these
are as follows: — Fig. 10. — Ventral view of a scorpion.
I. The Composition of the Palamnaeus indus, de Geer, to show
Head (that is to say, of the the arrangement of the coxae of the
anterior part of the pro- limbs, the sternal elements, genital
soma) with especial Reference plate and pectens.
to the Region in Front of the M Mouth ^^ ^ oval median
Mouth.— It appears (see camer0 stome.
Arthropoda) that there is 1, The chelicerae.
embryological evidence of ,, The chebe
the existence of two somites m to VI. the four pairs of walking legs.
- Arachnida which were VII<0 The ^taH somite or first
somite of the mesosoma with the
{genital operculum (a fused pair of
imbs).
, ., - ,. , . VI Up, The pectinifcrous somite,
forwardly-slipped somites lXs £ tQ x R st the four pidmoauy
are called "prosthomercs. somites.
The first of these has, in Wf/ The pe ntagona i metasteraite of
Arachnids as in other thc prosoma behind all the coxae.
The sternum of the pectiniicrous
somite.
y, The broad first somite of the meta-
soma.
originally post-oral, but
have become prae-oral by
adaptational shifting of the
oral aperture. These
Arthropods, its pair of ap-
pendages represented by
the eyes. The second has
for its pair of appendages
the small pair of limbs
which in all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovcrt (as in
spiders), and is known as thc chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained
by some writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral
nervous mass in Arach-
nids indicate a larger
number of prosthomcres
as having fused in this
region, but there is no
embryological evidence at
present which justifies us
in assuming the existence
in Arachnids of more than
two prosthomercs. The
position of the chelicerae
of Limulus and of thc
ganglionic nerve-masses
from which they receive
closely similar to that of Fig. 11.— Third leg of Limulus poly-
the same structures in phemus, showing thc division of thc fourth
Scorpio. The cerebral segment of the leg by a groove S into
mass is in Limulus more two, thus giving seven segments to the
easily separated by dis- leg as in scorpion,
section as a median lobe (From * drewiac by Pooock.)
distinct from the laterally-
placed ganglia of the cheliceral somite than is thc case in Scorpio, but
the relations arc practically the same in thc two forms. Formerly
it was supposed that in Limulus both thc chelicerae and the next
following pair of appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea.
1 See the article Arthropod a for the use of thc term "prosthomere." I but the dissections of Alphonse Milne-Edward* (6) demonstrated
ARACHNIDA
291
the true limitations of the cerebrum, whilst embryologies! researches
have done as much for Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio
and differs from the Crustacea, in which there are three prostho-
ro crea one ocular and two carrying palpiform appendages. It is
true that in the lower Crustacea (Apus, &c.) we have evidence of the
gradual movement forward of the nerve-ganglia belonging to these
Fig. 12.— -The prosomatic appendages of Limulus polyphemus
(right) and Scorpio (left), Palamnaeus tndus compared. The corre-
sponding appendages are marked with the same .Roman numeral.
The Arabic numerals indicate the segments of the legs.
cor, Coxa or basal segment of the ex 1 , The exopodite of the sixth
leg. limb of Limulus.
jXc. The sterno-ooxal process or a, b, c r d, Movable processes on the
jaw-like up-growth of the coxa, same leg (see for some sug-
epic. The articulated movable
outgrowth of the coxa, called
the cpi-coxite (present only in
III of the scorpion and. Ill,
IV and V of Limulus).
gestions on the morphology
of this leg, Pocock in Quart.
J own. Micr. Set. March 1901 ;
see also fig. 50 below and
explanation).
(Prom Lankesier, lot. eit.)
palpiform appendages. But although in such lower Crustacea the
nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have not fused with the
anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the prae-oral position
of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the ocular prostho-
mcre. The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomercs in the head
and the Axachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the Arachnids
in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central nervous
systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present Closer agreement in
structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with
either. The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma
and their connexion by transverse commissures, together with the
" attraction " of ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group whicb
properly belongto hinder segments, are very nearly identical In the
two animals. The form anddisposition of the ganglion cells are also
peculiar and closely similar in the two. (See Patten (42) for important
observations on the neuromcres, &c, of Limulus and Scorpio.)
2. The Minute Structure of ike Central Eyes and of the Lateral
Eyes. — Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of
central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure of
those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes respectively.
The central eyes are " simple eyes," that is to say, have a single lens,
and are hence called " monomeniscous." The lateral eyes are in
Limulus " compound eyes," that is to say, consist of many lenses
placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex of protoplasmic
cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each such unit is termed
an " ommatidium. The lateral eyes of Scorpio consist of groups
of separate small lenses each with its ommatidium, but they do not
form a continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium
(soft structure beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very
simple in both Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer
of cells, continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous
covering of the prosoma. The cells of the bmmatidium are a good
deal larger than the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis.
They secrete the knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the
nerve fibres of the optic nerve. They are at the same time both
optic nerve-end cells, that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or
secretors of the chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each
ommatidium has a peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central
position, whilst the *t
ommatidium of the
lateral eyelets of
Scorpio shows
small intermediate
cells between the
larger nerve - end
cells. The struc-
ture of the lateral
eye of Limulus was
first described by
Grenacher, and
further and more
accurately by
Lankester and
Bourne (5) and by
Watase; that of
Scorpio by Tan- ^ #
kester and Bourne, Frc. 13. — Diagrams of the meta-sternite rt,
who showed that with genital operculum op, and the first lamelti-
the statements of gerous pair of appendages *a, with uniting
von Graber were sternal element st of Scorpio (left) and Limulus
erroneous, and (right).
that the lateral (From Lankester. fee. «*.)
eyes of Scorpio
have a single cell-layered or " monostichous " ommatidium like that
of Limulus. Watase has shown, in a very convincing way, how by
deepening the pit-like set of cells beneath a simple lens the more com-
plex ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustaceaand Hexapoda may
be derived from such a condition as that presented in the lateral
eyes of Limulus and Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred
to Watase (1 1) and to Lankester and Bourne (5).) The structure of
the central eyes of Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs
essentially from that of the lateral eyes in having two layers of celts
(hence called diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated from one
another by a membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the
corneagen and secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The
mass of soft cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is
called an "ommatoeum." It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a
tendency to segregate into minor groups or " ommatidia." It is
found that in embryological growth the retinal layer of the central
eyes forms as a separate pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath
the corneagen layer from the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in
origin double, and consists of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal
layer (fig. 24, B), though these are not separated by a membrane.
Accordingly the diplostichous ommatoeum or soft tissue of the
Arachnid s central eye should strictly be called " triplostichous,"
since the deep layer is itself doubled or folded. The retinal cells of
both the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and Scorpio produce
cuticular structures on their sides; each such piece is a rhabdomcre
and a number (five or ten) uniting form a rhabdom (fig. 26). In
the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustacea and
Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure. 1 It is a very
significant fact that the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and
Scorpio not only agree each with each in regard to their mono-
stichous and diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in
both classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the
component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26). Whilst
each unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom bf ten' pieces
1 See fig. 12 in the article Arthropoda.
* Though ten is the prevailing number of retinula cells and rhabdo-
meres in the lateral eye of Limulus. Watase states that they may be
as few as nine and *» many as eighteen.
292
ARACHNIDA
forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of
Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating
that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the detached
lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of one lens
with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms in
Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also.
Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the
opening remains in the adult scorpion. In all the <
permanent opening b on the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic
limbs. Thus an organ newly discovered in Scorpio was found to
have its counterpart in Limulus.
The name " coxa! gland " needs to be carefully distinguished
from " crural gland," with which it is apt to be confused. The crural
glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal
in origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The
coxal glands of the Arachnida are structures of the same
nature as the green glands of the higher Crustacea and
the so-called " shell glands " of the Entomostraca. The
latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs of the
Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal
joint of the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both
belong to the category of " coelomoducts," namely,
tubular or funnel-like portions of the coelom opening to
the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,) and
k usually persisting in only a few somites as either "urocoels"
1 (renal organs) or "gonocoels" (genital tubes). InPeripatua
j they occur in every somite of the body. They have till
f recently been very generally identified with the nephridia
of Chaetopod worms, but there is good reason for con-
sidering the true nephridia (typified by the nephridia
of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see
Lankester in vol. li. chap. iii. of A Treatise on Zoology,
The genital ducts of Arthropoda arc, like the
"shell glands and coxal' glands, to be
Fig. 14. — The first three pairs of mesosomatic appendages of Scorpio and
Limulus compared.
IP, Genital pore.
epst, Epistigmatic sclerite.
stg. Stigma or orifice of the hollow
tendons of the branchial plates of
Limulus.
VII, The genital operculum.
VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the
first branchial plate of Limulus.
IX, The first pair of lung-books of
Scorpio and the second branchial
plate of Limulus.
(After Lankester, Utdl.) %
eyes, it b to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corre-
sponding to the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these
occur again (with differences in detail) in Hcxapoda. Possibly,
however, an investigation of the development of the median eyes of
some Crustacea(Apus,Palacmon)may prove them to be diplostichous
in origin.
3. The so-called "Coxal Glands."— In 1882 (Proc Roy. Soc.
No. 221) Lankester described under the name "coxal
glands" a pair of brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in
the Scorpion's prosoma immediately above the coxae of
the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig. 27). These bodies
had been erroneously supposed by Newport (12) and
other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the ali-
mentary canal. a They are really excretory glands, and
communicate with the exterior by a very minute aperture
on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth limb on each
side. When examined with the microscope, by means of
the usual section method, they are seen to consist of a
labyrinthine tube lined with peculiar cells, each cell having
a deep vertically striated border on the surface farthest
from the lumen, as is seen in the cells of some renal organs.
The coils and branches of the tube are packed by connective
tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands,
lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by
Lankester in My gale, and it was also shown by him that
the structures in Limulus called " brick-red glands " by
Packard have the same structure and position as the coxal
glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these organs
consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal
margin of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic
limbs, the four lobes being connected to one another by
a transverse piece or stem (fig. 28). Microscopically their
structure is the same in essentials as that of the coxal
glands of Scorpio (13). Coxal glands have since been
recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it
was shown that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided
with a very delicate thin-walled coiled duct which opens,
even in the adult condition, by a minute pore on
the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen. 13a).
Previously to this, Lankester's pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that
in the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube,
which opens to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity
Into a coclomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie
(17) in Lankester's laboratory (1890) with regard to the early
condition of the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bcrtkau (41) as to
that of the spider At y pus. H. M. Bernard (13b) showed that the
1900). „
green glands, „
Sarded as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The coxal glands
o not establish any special connexion between Limulus
and Scorpio, since thay also occur in the same somite
in the lower Crustacea, but it b to be noted that the
coxal glands of Limulus are in minute structure and
probably in function more like those of Arachnids than
those of Crustacea.
4. The Entosternites and their Minute Structure. — Strauss-
Durckheim (1) was the first to insist on the affinity
between Limulus and the Arachnids, indicated by the
presence of a free suspended entosternum or plastron
or cntostcrnite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to
6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale.
Lankester some years ago made a special study 01 the
histology (3) of these entosternites for the purpose of
comparison, and also ascertained the relations of the
very numerous muscles which are inserted into them
(4). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they
have neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure
of the hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in
place of chondrin or gelatin — as does also the cartilage of
the Cephalopod's cndoskcleton. In microscopic Structure they all
present the closest agreement with one another. We find a firm,
homogeneous or sparsely fibrillated matrix in which arc embedded
Fig. 15. — The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic appendages of Scorpio
and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14 /130 indicates that there are 130 lamellae
in the scorpion's lung-book, whilst /150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are
counted in the gill of Limulus.
(After Lankester. be. cd.)
nucleated cells (corpuscles of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three.
six or eight, parallel with the adjacent lines of fibrillation.
A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is
found in the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles,
and also in the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean
does it attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the
entosternite of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature
ARACHNIDA
fa the structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part
in the economy of these organism*. In Limulus (figs, i and a) it
has as many as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming
Fig. 16.— Diagram to
show the way in which an
outgrowing gill
bearing blood-holding
lamellae, may give rise, u
the sternal body wall sinks
jnwards, to a lungrchamber
with air-holding lamellae.
I is the embryonic condi-
tion.
bs. Blood sinus.
L is the condition of out-
growth with gl, gill
lamellae.
A is the condition of in-
sinking of the sternal
surface and consequent
enclosure of the lamel-
ligerous surface of the
appendage in a chamber
with narrow orifice — the
pulmonary air - holding
chamber.
£f, Pulmonary lamellae.
bs, Blood sinus.
(After King*?.)
to h from the bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal
carapace and from the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate a in.
in length and 1 m breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths
landing out from it at right angles on each side. It " floats "
between the prosomatic nerve
.... tge centres and the alimentary
"'.iJJ/ canal. In each somite of the
._ I mesosoma is a small, free cnto-
~ *• sternite having a similar posi-
"^ " tion, but below or ventral to
1 the nerve cords, and having a
■— IV smaller number of muscles
— v attached to it. The entoster-
_ VI nite was probably in origin
.._ _ part of the fibrous connective
" J[J ' ** tissue lying close to the integu-
" Vl * ment of the sternal surface —
rrGo***
— IX
— X
— XI
— XII
— XIII
"XIV
giving attac
correspondin
those at pr
it. It beca
detached, w
advantage t
ficult to
Fie. 17.— Embryo of scorpion " £5^ l A ™
ventral view.showing somites and J^ the
4pP cndages. ^^ ^^ w|
**c. Frontal groove. position th-» , ~ at
ts. Rudiment of lateral eyes. present. We know that such
ell, Ca merest orae (upper hp). a lateral position of the nerve
*\ Sense-organ of Patten. cords preceded the median
PrGaftp*. Rudiment of the appen- position in both Arthropoda
dage of the praegcnital somite and Chaetopoda. Subse-
whkh disappears. quently to the floating off of
«V, Rudiment of the right half of the entosternitc the approxi-
tbe genital operculum. mation of the nerve cords took
ehp», Rudiment of the right pecten. p|a Ce in the* prosoma, and thus
abp* to abfP, Rudiments of the four they were able to take up a
appendages which carry the pul- position below the entosternitc.
raonary lamellae. In the mesosoma the approxi-
I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs mation had occurred before the
of the prosoma. entostcrnites were formed.
VI I PrG, The evanescent praegenital I n the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4)
lomite. the entosternitc has tough
VIII, The first mesosomatic somite membrane - like outgrowths
orgenital somite. which connect it with the
IX, The second mesosomatic somite body-wall, both dorsally and
or pectiniferous somite. ventrally forming an oblique
X to XIII. The four pulmoniferous diaphragm, cutting off the
flora it es. cavity of the prosoma from
X IV, The first metasomatic somite, that of the mesosoma. It was
(Alter Wnms.Zritxh. viu. I0M. *d. lb., described by Newport as " the
****■> diaphragm/' Only the central
and horizontal parts of this structure correspond precisely totheento-
sfrrnitcof Limulus : the right and left anterior processes( marked op in
figs. 3 and 4. and RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two
animals, and the median lateral process Imp of the scorpion repr e s en ts
the tendinous outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The
*93
►, besides the great posterior
1, unrepresented in Limulus.
sural canal through which the
k snp), and further a dorsal
transmit the alimentary tract
k 3 and 4, GC, DR).
found in each somite of the
VIIPiO
R11
km
IX
cai Fig. 1 8. — Portion of a simi-
km lar embryo at a later stage
pli of growth. The praegenital
tt somite, VII PrG, U still
.» _ w „.,-^. »«-* „_ «.„ present, but has lost its
singularly ignorant as to the functional rudimentary appendages;
significance of these remarkable organs !•% the genital operculum,
—the entosternites. Their movement »«t halt ; Km, the left
in an upward or downward direction pecten; °°P to °bj?* the
in Limulus and My gale must exert a rudimentary appendages of
pumping action on the blood con- the lung-sacs,
tained in the dorsal arteries and the (After Error, to. at.)
ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio
the completion of the horizontal plate by oblique flaps, so as to form
an actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the
rest of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the
anterior chamber a physiological
advantage in respect of the supply
of arterial blood and its separa-
tion from the venous blood of the
mesosoma. Possibly the move-
ment of the diaphragm may
determine the passage of air into
or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular
fibres connected with the suctorial
pharynx are in Limulus inserted
into the entosternitc, and the
activity of the two organs may be op ^
"T The' Blood ond the Blood- £ ,c - x ?*— Sec f i< i n . l }S ou *> h an
tabular System.-The blood fluids ^ WW of Lim utus longt-
of Limulus and Scorpio are very *•*?• showing seven transverse
similar. Not only are the blood ^visions in the region of the
corpuscles of Limulus more like Jf"** 1 "*" 1 ^ ©R c, 2 or ^pace.
in form and granulation to those £hc *venth, VII. is anterior to
of Scorpio than to those of any the geniul operculum, op. and
Crustacean, but the fluid is in » **J cavity of the praegenital
j__^i. — • — 1_ _.. i__ : y. somite which is more or less
, J| completely suppressed in sub-
1 in 9eo , ucnt development, possibly
od indicated by the area marked
t (Ut VII in fig. 7 and by the great
i lus entopophyses of the prosomatic
i nd carapace.
, I ft (After Kbhtaoaye. Jovn. Sd. CtB.
j l " Upon, vd. ».. »S9a.)
i vessel or " heart " of Limulus it»
1 fo; its ostia or incurrent orifices are
Fig. 20. — View of the ventral surface
of the mid-line of the prosomatic region
of Limulus Polyphemus. The coxae of
the five pairs of limbs following the chcli-
ccrae were arranged in a scries on each
side between the mouth, M, and the rneta-
sternites, nuts.
sf. The sub-frontal median sclerite.
Ch, The cheliccrae.
cam. The camerostome or upper lip.
M, The mouth.
pmst, The promesosternal sclerite or
chitinous plate, unpaired,
awl*. The right and left metasternites
(corresponding to the similarly placed
pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural
size.
(After Luikcsler.')
placed in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one
additional posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the
294
ARACHNIDA
heart differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining In Scorpio,
in that a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as
described by Alphonse Milne- Edwards (6)) leading to a suppression
of the more primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior
Fig. 21. — Development of the lateral eyes of a scorpion, k, Epi-
dermic cdl-layer; mes, mesoblastk connective tissue; n, nerves;
11, 111, IV, V. depressions of the epidermis in each of which a
cuticular lens will be formed.
(Fran Koracndt and Hrfder, after Uorfe.)
lateral arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the
heart itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed
in both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly unjil minute
arterioles are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries;
Fig. 22. — Section
through the lateral eye of
Euscorpius italicus.
lens, Cuticular lens.
k nerv.c, Retinal cells (nerve-
1 1 end cells).
I rhabd, Rhabdomes.
f nerv.f, Nerve fibres of the
' optic nerve.
int. Intermediate cells
(lying between the bases
of the retinal cells).
(After Lankealer and Bourne
from Parker and HasweH'i Trxt
*«•• o\ L*cUty, Macmillan * Co.)
these open into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or
venous sinuses. A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described
by Owen, is the close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres
and nerves by arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass
and its out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by
Fig. 23. — Section through a portion of the lateral eye of Limulus,
showing three ommatidia — A, B and C. hyp, The epidermic cell -layer
(so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in volume below
each lens, /, and become nerve-end cells or retinula-cells, rt; in A,
the letters rh point to a rhabdomere secreted by the cell rt; c, the
peculiar central spherical cell; n, nerve fibres; mes, meaoblastic
skeletal tissue; ch, chitinous cuticle.
(From KondMtt and Haider after Walaae.)
arteries. The connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is never-
theless a very close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods
in which the arterial system is well developed, e.g. the Myriapoda
and some of the arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a
primitive tendency in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany
the nerve cords, and a " supra-spinal " artery—that is to say, an
artery In dose relation to the ventral nerve cords— has been described
in several cases. On the other hand, in many Arthropods, especially
those which possess tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course,
but soon open into wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes
nearer to Limulus in the high development of its arterial system,
and the intimate relation of the anterior aorta and its brandies
to the nerve centres and great nerves, than does any other Arthropod.
An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the
venous system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by
Lankcstcr to be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement
has not hitherto been detected in any other class than the Arachnida.
and if it should ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would
have considerable weight as a proof of the doss genetic affinity of
Limulus and Scorpio.
A
Fig. 24.— Diagrams of the development and adult structure of one
of the paired central eyes of a scorpion.
A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding
of the epidermic cell-layer into three.
B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding.
C, Section through the fully formed eye.
*, Epidermic cell-layer.
r, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding, lies
between gl, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and pr, the
post-retinal or capsular portion or fold.
/, Cuticular lens.
% . Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells of
the epidermis.
n. Nerve fibres.
rh, Rhabdomeres.
[How the inversion of the ncrve-end-cells and their connexion with
the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the
adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been
explained.)
(From Koncbrit and Reidcr.)
The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals.
Its walls are fibrous and complete, andit holds a considerable volume
of blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in
each somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins,
which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the lung-
books to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the heart.
The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by a
Ksat venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In
th animals the waU of the pericardial sinus is connected by vertical
muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus (its lateral ex-
pansions around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite through
which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these frw-
pericardiac vertical muscles in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus (see
figs. 30, 31 , 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these muscles
ARACHNIDA
295
nan cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a rising
of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent increase of
volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium and
the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the move-
ment is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend
on conditions 01 tension. In any case it is clear that we have in
these muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially
in increased volume into cither the pericardium, through the veins
leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into
the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs.
These m u s cl es act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory
organs.
It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial
system Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechan-
ism for determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs.
That this is, so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory
Fig. 25.— Section through one of the central eyes of a young
Limulus.
L, Cuticmar or corneous lens. ret\ Retinula celts.
ky, Epidermic cell-layer. nf, Nerve fibres.
corn, Its corneagen portion im- con. tiss. Connective tissue (meso-
modiately underlying the lens. blastic skeletal tissue).
(Alter Laakotcr ind Bourne, Q. J. lite. Sei., 18S3)
organs b seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose
in other animals, e.f . the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.
The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by
Newport but not described by htm. Those of Limulus were described
and figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely
" tra nspar e nt ligaments," and did not discover their muscular
structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time
recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of
Lunulas and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (4).
6. Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands. — The alimentary canal in
Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx,
in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth
is relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus — in fact is minute,
as it is in all the terrestrial Arachnids which suck the juices of
^»;«n a l« or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a
ht course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards
" '1 towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is
r w, cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point In which
the gut of Limulus resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of
any of the Crustacea, is in possessing more than a single pair of ducts
or lateral outgrowths connected with ramified gastric glands or
gastric caeca. Limulus has two pairs of these. Scorpio as manyas
six pairs. The Crustacea never have more than one pair. The
minute microscopic structure of the gastric glands in the two animals
is practically identical. The functions of these gastric diverticula
have never been carefully investigated. It is very probable that in
Scorpio they do not serve merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown
is other Arthropods to resemble toe pancreatic fluid), but that they
also become distended by the juices of the prey sucked in by the
scorpion— as certainly must occur in the case of the simple unbranched
gastric caeca of the spiders.
The most important difference which exists between the structure
of Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the
alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double
pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier
authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod
insects. Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to
this subject below.
Fig.
A, Diagram of a retinula of the
central eye of a scorpion con-
sisting 01 five retina-cells (ret) t
with adherent branched pig-
ment cells (pit).
B, Rhabdom of the same, con-
sisting of five confluent rhab-
of the
(Afer
C, Transverse section
rhabdom of a retinula of the
scorpion's central eye, showing
its five constituent rhabdo-
meres as rays of a star.
D, Transverse section of a
retinula of the lateral eye of
Limulus, showing ten retinula
cells (ret), each bearing a
rhabdomere (rkab).
7. Ovaries and Spermaries: GonoceeU and Gonoducts. — The
scorpion is remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom
from the walls of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed
according to sex, in the form of a simple but extensive network.
It is not a pair of simple tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed
network. The same fact is true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (7)
Fig. 27. — Diagram showing
the position of the coxal glands
of a scorpion, Buikus australis,
Lin., in relation to the legs, dia-
phragm (cntosternal flap), and
the gastric caeca.
I to 6, The bases of the six pro-
somatic limbs.
A, prosomatic gastric gland
(sometimes called salivary).
B, Coxal gland.
C, Diaphragm of Newport* fib-
rous flap of the entosternum.
D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca
(so-called liver).
E, Alimentary canal.
(Pram Lufaftcr. Q. J. Mk. Set., «oL
xsiv. N.S. pi 15a-)
in regard to the ovary, and by Benham (14) in regard to the testis.
This is a very definite and remarkable agreement, since such a
reticular gonocoel is not found in Crustacea (except in the male
Apus). Moreover, there is a significant agreement in the character
of the spermatofoa of Limulus and Scorpio. The Crustacea are —
with the exception of the Cirrhipedia— remarkable for having stiff,
motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found (IS) the
spermatozoa to possess active nagelliform " tails," and to resemble
very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most terrestrial
Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic point of
agreement, but is none the less significant.
In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertiliza-
tion of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another.
296
The eggs of Limulus are fertilised in the tea after they have been
bid. Sjcorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilise* by copulation.
The male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous
nature, and the eggs are fertilised in the female without even quitting
the place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoei.
The female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a
highly 'developed condition as fully formed scorpions.
Differences between Limulus and Scorpio. — We have now passed in
review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees
with Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for
consideration the one important structural difference between the
two animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in
being destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the
hinder part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common
Fig. 28. — The right coxa!
G* rndof Limulus Polyphemus,
tr.
a' to a*, Posterior borders of
the chitinous bases of the
coxae of the second, third.
fourth and fifth prosomatic
limbs.
h, Longitudinal lobe or stolon
of the coxal gland.
c. Its four transverse lobes or
outgrowths corresponding
to the four coxae.
(From Lankcster, Ue. en, after
Packard.)
with all air-breathing Arthropoda except Peri pat us, possesses these
tubules, which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has
been made of this difference by some writers. It has been considered
by them as proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements
with Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the
writers in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent,
whilst Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be
unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnids to the tracheate
Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all
possess Malpighian tubes.
It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal
excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question
Fie. 29.— Diagram of the
arterial system of A, Scorpio,
and B, Limulus. The Roman
numerals indicate the body
somites and the two figures
are adjusted for comparison.
ce. Cerebral arteries; sp,
supra - spinal or medullary
artery; c, caudal artery;
/, lateral anastomotic artery
of Limulus. The figure B
also shows the peculiar neural
investiture formed by the
cerebral arteries in Limulus
and the derivation from this
of the arteries to the limbs,
III. IV. VI. whereas in
Scorpio the latter have a
separate origin from the
anterior aorta.
(From Laakestcr, "Lianhn aa
- - „ Arachnid.)
of adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration,
and not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory
tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea (Talor-
chest ia, &c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This view
has been accepted and supported by Professors Korscbelt and Heider
(16). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie (17),
who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under
Lankestcr's direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of
Scorpio arc developed from the mesenteron. via. that portion of the
gut which is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects
the similar caccal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or
in-pushed portion of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact
it is not possible to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the
gut are of one common origin in the Arthropoda. They have
appeared independently in connexion with a change in the excretion
of nitrogenous waste in Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes
of Arthropoda when aerial, as opposed to aquatic, respiration has
been established— and they have been formed in some cases from
the mesenteron, in other cases from the proctodaeum. Their
appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not separate those
forma f rom the water-breathing Arachnids which are devoid of them.
ARACHNIDA
pjf
VsVt*
m 9
any more than does their appearance in certain Amphipoda separate
those Crustaceans from the other members of the class.
Further, it is pointed out by Korscbelt and Heider that the hinder
portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of
nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules,
and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate
lines of descent docs not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of
Jrowth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial
Liachnida are homoplastic with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda,
and not homogenetic with them. We are compelled to take a similar
view of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnid*
and other tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see 18) one
of another, and do not owe their existence in the various classes
compared to a common inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system.
Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and
Scorpio.— When we consider the relationships of the various
classes of Arthropoda, having _ _
accepted and established the
fact of the close genetic affinity
of Limulus and Scorpio, we arc
led to important conclusions.
In such a consideration we have
to make use not only of the fact c
just mentioned, but of three im- ^
portant generalizations which Kfl¥ f
serve as it were as implements
for the proper estimation of the JK
relationships of any series of VPM*
organic forms. First of all there fa
is the generalization that the
relationships of the various
forms of animals (or of plants)
to one another is that of the 4 VPM*
ultimate twigs of a much-branch-
ing genealogical tree. Secondly, *
identity of structure in two or-
ganisms does not necessarily Fig. 30.— View from below of
indicate that the identical • ,c °!P io " (guthus occitanus)
structurehasbeeninheritedfrom ^wl^^Sm with iS
an ancestor common to the two muscles, the lateral arteries, and
organisms compared (homo- the tergo-sternal muscles,
geny), but may be due to ^^P'Xl xmjm ^ 1
independent deveJopn^nt of . SftSSftS* -"*■
like structure in two different /«*», Tergo-sternal muscle (la-
lines of descent (homoplasy). belled 3» in fig. 31) of the
Thirdly, those members of a aecoiid (pectwiferous) mesoso-
•***••» wk.vh «rhii<» »»fc;k;»;n„ matic somite; this is the most
group which whilst exhibiting anterior ir of the ierfct ^
undoubted structural characters six, none are present in the
indicative of their proper assign- genital somite.
ment to that group, yet are *"»*. Tergo-sternal muscle of
.: m »i.» »k^« * M /t i^Uwi^ .'1 the fifth mesosomatic somite.
simpler than and inferior in ^ Tergo-sternal muscle of
elaboration of their organization the enlarged first metasomatac
to other members of the group, somite.
are not necessarily represents- ££i£ cri ^."!j ura - _,
lives of the earlier and primitive VPM to V PM • ^ a ? n «i. of
Z • r j 1 . * Mven pairs of veno- pericardiac
phases in the development of muscles (labelled /win fig. 31).
the group — but are very often . There is some reason to admit
examples of retrogressive change the existence of another more
«.. jlMUftiAn TUm m-^^A anterior pair of these muscles in
or degeneration. The second Scorpio; this would make the
and third implements of analysis number exactly correspond with
above cited are of the nature of the number in Limulus.
cautionsorchecks. Agreements /Afirr fenknicr. tv«io. Zmi. s*c
are not necessarily due to
common inheritance; simplicity is not necessarily primitive and
ancestral.
On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements
as due to " homoplasy " or " convergence of development " if
we find two or three or more concurrent agreements. The prob-
ability is against agreement being due to homoplasy when the
agreement involves a number of really separate (not correlated)
coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour cf some one
homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring
between some member or other of a large group a and some
member or other of a large group b t the matter is very different
ARACHNIDA
297
when by such an initial coincidence the two members have been
particularized. The chances against these two selected members
exhibiting another really independent homoplastic agreement
are enormous: let us say 10,000 to x. The chances against yet
another coincidence are a hundred million to one, and against
yet one more " coincidence " they are the square of a hundred
million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the co-
incidence is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably
supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions
upon like material in two separate lines of descent 1
So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the ex-
planation of a simplicity of Structure. There is a very definite
criterion of the simplicity due to degeneration, which can in
most cases be applied. Degenerative simplicity is never uni-
formly distributed over all the structures of the organism. It
affects many or nearly all the structures of the body, but leaves
some, it may be only one, at a high level of elaboration and
complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and does
not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ.
Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by theexamina-
tion of an isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms
indicating the steps of a change in structure— and what we have
to decide is whether the movement has been from the simple
to the more complex, or from the more complex to the simple.
The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient exampleof primitive
and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of elaboration
in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great eye-painted
tail feathers. From these we* can pass by gradual transitions
in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers
with a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft
and of uniform metallic coloration— or to the simple contour
feathers of small size, with the usual symmetrical series of
numerous rami right and left of the shaft and no remarkable
colouring. Tne one-sided specialization and the peculiar metallic
colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as the extreme
terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry, likeness of
constituent parts inter se, and absence of specialized pigment,
as well as the fact that they differ little from any average feather
of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively
»imple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elabor-
ated eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.
Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arach-
nida, we arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler
Arachnids are not the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites
are, in fact, a degenerate group. This was maintained by
Lankester in 1878 (19), again in 1881 (20); it was subsequently
announced as a novelty by Oaus in 1885 (21). Though the
aquatic members of a class of animals are in some instances
derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from an
aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no
doubt, from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the
aquatic water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the post by
the Eurypterines and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have
preceded the terrestrial air-breathing forms of that group.
Hence we sec at once that the better-known Arachnida form
a series, leading from Limulus-likc aquatic creatures through
scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate Acari or
ciitcs. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent
complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be
regarded as degenerate since the concentration of structure
which occurs in them results in greater efficiency and power than
are exhibited by the scorpion. The determination of the relative
degree of perfection of organization attained by two animals
1 A grew? deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put forward
in the name of " the principle of convergence of characters " by a
cert nn school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by these
*f -rrs to have originated by separate lines of descent in the Old
\V. rlj and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important
consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in
structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and
even phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force
which brings about " convergence irrespective of heredity and
selection. Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are
(E. R. L)
compared is difficult when we introduce, as seems inevitable,
the question of efficiency and power, and do not confine the
question to the perfection of morphological development We
have no measure of the degree of power manifested by various
animals — though it would be possible to arrive at some con-
clusions as to how that " power" should be estimated. It hi not
possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content
to point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and
Alter Beck. Trmu. ltd. Sm. wu si. iSSj.
Fig. 31. — Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section 01
a scorpion.
d, Chelicera. ad. Muscle from carapace to en-
ck. Chela. tosternum.-
cam, Camerostome. md. Muscle from tergite of genital
m. Mouth. somite to entosternum (same
ent, Entosternum. as dpm jn fig. 30).
P, Pecten. aV to eV, Dorso-ventral muscles
stif, First pulmonary aperture. (same as the series labelled Urn
sttg*, Fourth pulmonary aper- in tag. 30).
ture. p* 1 to pv, The seven veno-peri-
dam, Muscle from carapace to a cardiac muscles of the right
praeoral entosclerite. aide ^labelled VPM in fig. 30).
other large Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions
directly, but have independently developed from aquatic
ancestors, and from one of these independent groups — probably
through the harvest-men from the spiders— the Acari have finally
resulted.
After Beahtn. Tnmi. Imt Stc. td. «i. sSSj.
Fig. 3a. — Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section of
Limulus.
rynx.
aL
s sinus.
Ettiap*, Fourth dorsal entapo-
pbysis of left side.
tsm, Tergo-sternal muscles, six
pairs as in Scorpio (labelled
dv in fie. 41).
VPM' to^PMV The eight pairs
of veno-pericardiac muscles
to lum. (labelled to in fig. 31). VPM 1
br chial append- is probably represented in
ages. Scorpio, though not marked
met, Unsegmented metasoma. in figs. 30 and 31.
Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with
the systematic statement of the characters of the various groups
of Arachnida which follows on p. 200, it is well now to consider
the following question, viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are
such highly developed and specialized forms, and that they seem
to constitute as it were the first and second steps in the series of
recognized Arachnida— what do we know, or what are we led to
suppose with regard to the more primitive Arachnida from which
the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have sprung ? Do
we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive
Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but
prompted by the analogy of at least one other great class of
Arthropods. The great Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents
to the zoologist at the present day an immense range of forms,
298
ARACHNIDA
comprising the primitive phyUopods, the minute copepods, the
parasitic drrhipedcs and the powerful crabs and lobsters, and
the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has been
insisted, by those who accepted Lankestcr's original doctrine
of the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthro-
pod*, that Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the
ancestral forms which connected those two great branches of
Appendicular (Parapodiate) animals. On the other hand, the
land crabs are at an immense distance from these simple forms.
The record of the Crustacean family-
tree is, in fact, a fairly complete
' one — the lower primitive members
of the group are still represented
c' by living forms in great abundance.
*'v In the case of the Arachnida, if we
( % A have to start their genealogical
"" history with Iimulus and Scorpio,
we are much in the same position
as we should be in dealing with the
Crustacea, were the whole of the
Entomostraca and the whole of the
Arthrostraca wiped out of existence
and record. There is no possibility
of doubt that the series of forms
corresponding in the Arachnidan
line of descent, to the forms dis-
tinguished in the Crustacean line
of descent as the lower grade — the
Entomostraca— have ceased to
exist, and not only so, but have
left little evidence in the form of
fossils as to their former existence
and nature. It must, however, be
admitted as probable that we should
find some evidence, in ancient rocks
or in the deep sea, of the early more
primitive Arachnids. And it must
be remembered that such forms
must be expected to exhibit, when
found, differences from Limulus and
Scorpio as great as those which
separate Apus and Cancer. The
existing Arachnida, like the higher
Crustacea, are " nomomcristic,"
that is to say, have a fixed typical
number of somites to the body.
Further, they are like the higher
Crustacea, " somatotagmic," that is
to say, they have this limited set of
somites grouped in three (or more)
" tagmata " or regions of a fixed
number of similarly modified somi tcs
—each tagma differing in the modi-
fication of its fixed number of somi tcs
from that characterizing a neigh-
bouring " tagma." The most
primitive among the lower Crus-
tacea, on the other hand, for
example, the Phyllopoda, have
not a fixed number of' somites, some genera — even allied
species — have more, some less, within wide limits; they
are " anomomeristic" They also, as is generally the case
with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any con-
formity to a fixed plan of " tagmatism " or division of the
somites of the body into regions sharply marked off from one
another; the head or prosomatic tagma is followed by a trunk
consisting of somites which either graduate in character as we
pass along the scries or exhibit a large variety in different genera,
families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They are
anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.
When it is admitted— as seems to be reasonable— that the
primitive Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be
From Lukcstcr,
Arachnid."
Fig. 33.— The alimentary
canal and gastric glands of
a scorpion (A) and of
Limulus (B).
ps, Muscular suctorial en-
largement of the pharynx.
sal, Prosomaticpair of gas-
tric caeca in Scorpio,
called salivary glands by
some writers.
e 1 , and «■, The anterior two
pairs of gastric caeca
and ducts of the meso-
■omatic region.
t*, c* and c 9 . Caeca and ducts
of Scorpio not represented
in Limulus.
M, The Malpighian or renal
caecal diverticula of
Scorpio.
pro, Trie proctodaeum or
portion of gut leading to
anus and tonncdembryo-
logtcally by an inversion
of the epiblast at that
orifice.
anomomeristic and anomotagmic, we shall not demand of
claimants for the rank of primitive Arachnids agreement with
Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact number of their
somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and when
we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of the
appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of Arthropods
(q.v.), we shall not over-estimate a difference in the form of this
or that appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with
the higher Arachnids. With those -considerations in mind, the
claim of the extinct group of the trilobites to be considered as
representatives of the lower and more primitive steps in the
Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems, receive a favourable judg-
ment. They differ from the Crustacea in that they have only
a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair being
definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their
association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is
to be the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural
coincidence. On the contrary, this particular point is one in
which they agree with the higher Arachnida. But little is known
of the structure of these extinct animals; we are therefore
compelled to deal with such special points of resemblance and
difference as their remains still exhibit. They had lateral eyes 1
which resemble no known eyes so closely as the lateral eyes of
Limulus. The general form and structure of their prosomatio
carapace are in many striking features identical with that of
Limulus. The trilobation of the bead and body— due to the
expansion and flattening of the sides or "pleura" of the tegu-
mentary skeleton— is so closely repeated in the young of Limulus
that the latter has been called " the trilobite stage " of Limulus
(fig. 43 compared with fig. 41). No Crustacean exhibits this
trilobite form. But most important of the evidences presented
by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and therefore with the
Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some, strongly carried
out in others, to form a pygidial or tebonic shield— a fusion of
the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely identical
in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When
to this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to
a large sue in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of limulus and
Scorpio, and that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are
frequent as in Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion
of somites nor post-anal spine, nor lateral pleural spines are
found in any Crustacean, nor all three together in any Arthropod
besides the trilobites and Limulus— the claim of the trilobites
to be considered as representing one order of a lower grade
of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the
Crustacea, seems to be established.
The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of
trilobites, known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular
case a pair of uni-ramose antennae— docs not render the associa-
tion of trilobites and Arachnids improbable. Although the
prae-oral pair of appendages in the higher Arachnida is usually
chelate, it is not always so ; in spiders it is not so ; nor in many Acari.
The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral limbs, demonstrated by
Becchcr in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more inconsistent with
its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the foliaceous
modification of the limbs in PhyUopods inconsistent with
their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as
Gammarus and Oniscus.
Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the repre-
sentatives of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The
simple anomomeristic trilobite, with its equi-formal somites
and equi-formal appendages, is one term of the scries which
ends in the even more simple but degenerate Acari. Between the
two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as morphological
differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to it in
the trilobite's direction (that is, on the ascending side) are
Limulus and the Euryptcrines— with a long gap, due to oblitera-
tion of the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the
1 A pair of round tubercles on the labrum (eamerostome or hypo-
stooia; of several species of Trilobites has been described and held to
be a pair of eyes (22). Sense-organs in a similar position were
discovered in Limulus by Patten (42) in 1894.
ARACHNIDA
299
other side— tending downwards from the scorpion towards die
Acari — are the Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the
harvest-men and the watcr-mites.
The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on
(he ascending half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus.
They are strangely modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as
explained in the systematic review) the remnant of an Arach-
oidan group holding the same relation to the scorpions which the
Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate Crustacea.
We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and
to pass in review the larger groups, with a brief statement of
their structural characteristics.
In the bibliography at the dose of this article (referred to by
leaded arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages),
the titles of works are given which contain detailed information
as to the genera and Species of each order or sub-order, their
geographical distribution and their habits and economy so far
as they have been ascertained. The limits of space do not permit
of s fuller treatment of those matters here.
Tabulae Classification 1 or the Arachnida.
Class. ARACHNIDA.
Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA.
Sob-Class. TRILOBITAB.
Orders, Not satisfactorily determined.
Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA.
Sob-Class L PANTO POD A.
Order 1. Nymphonomorpha.
„ 2. Ascorhynchomorpha.
„ 3. Pycnogonomorpha.
Sob-Class IL ED-ARACBNIDA.
Grade a. delobranchia, Lankester {vei hydro-
FNBUSTEA, PoCOCk).
Order 1. Xiphosura.
„ 2. Gigantostraca.
Grade b. bmbolosranchia, Lankester (vet abko-
PNEUSTEA. PoCOCk).
Section a. Pectintfera
Order 1. Scorpionidea.
Sub-order a. Apoxypoda.
M b. Dionychopoda.
Section fi. Epeciinala.
Order 2. PedipalpL
Sob-order a. Uropygi.
Tnbe 1. Urotricha.
" a. Tartarides.
Sub-order b. Amblypygi.
Order 3. Araneae.
Sub-order a. Mcsothelae.
b. Opisthothelae.
Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.
" a. Arachnomorphae.
Order 4. Palrigradi (-Microthelyphonidae).
Order 5. SoUnagae (-Mycttophorse).
Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones ( - Chelonethi).
Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.
„ b. Hemictenodactyli.
Order 7. Podogona (-Ricinulei).
Order 8. Opiliones.
Sub-order a. La nis tores.
w b. Palpatores.
„ e. Anepignathi.
Order ft, Bhynchostoml ( -Aeari).
Sub-order a. Notostigmata.
M 6. Cryptostigmata.
„ c. Mctastigmata.
„ d. Prostigmata.
„ *. Astigmata.
M /. Vermiformia.
„ j. Tetrapoda.
Class. ARACHNIDA. — Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres
(somites which have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral position),
the appendages of the first represented by eyes, of the second by
solitary rami which are rarely antenniform, more usually chelate.
A tendency is exhibited to the formation of a mctasomatic as well
as a prosomatic carapace by fusion of the tergal surfaces of the
somites. Intermediate somites forming a mesosoma occur, but tend
to fuse superficially with the mctasomatic carapace or to become
coordinated with the somites of the metasoma, whether fused or
distinct to form one region, the optsthosoma (abdomen of authors).
In the most highly developed forms the two anterior divisions
(tagmata) of the body, prosoma and mesosoma. each exhibit sis
pairs of limbs, pediform and plate-like respectively, whilst the
metasoma consists of six limbless somites and a post-anal spine.
The genital apertures are placed in the first somite following the
prosoma. excepting where a praegenital somite, usually suppressed,
is retained. Little is known of the form of the appendages in the
lowest archaic Arachnida, but the tendency of those of the proso-
matic somites has been '(as in the Crustacea) to pass from a
generalized bi-ramose or multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose
antennae, chelae and walking legs.
The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure— accord-
ing to the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up
the body: —
Grade A (of the Arachnida). ANOMOMERISTJCA.—Extioct
archaic Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea)
the number of well-developed somites may be more or less than
eighteen and may be grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or
may be further differentiated. A telsonk tergal shield of greater
or less size is always present, which may be imperfectly divided into
well-marked but immovable tergites indicating incompletely differ-
entiated somites. The single pair of palpiform appendages in front
of the mouth has been found in one instance to be antenniform,
whilst the numerous post-oral appendages in the same genus were
bi-ramose. The position of the genital apertures is not known.
Compound lateral eyes present ; median eyes wanting. The body
and bead have the two pleural regions of each somite, flattened and
expanded on either side of the true gut-holding body-axis. Hence
the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a condition realized
also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of this group,
whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups of a
branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them essentially
in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in addition to the
eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as in all
Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomemtic Arachnida form a
single sub-class, of which only imperfect .fossil remains are known.
Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAB.— The smgle
sub-class Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has
been variously divided into orders by a number of writers. The
greater or less evolution and specialisation of the metasomatic
carapace appears to be the most important basis for classification —
but this has not been made use of In the latest attempts at drawing
up a system of the Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral
regions of the prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive
importance attached to the demarcation of certain areas in that
structure. Sutures are stated to mark off some of these pieces, but
in the proper sense of that term as applied to the skele al structures
of the Vertebrata, no sutures exist in the chitinons cuticle of Arthro-
poda. That any partial fusion of originally distinct chitinous
plates cakes place in the cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable
to the partial fusion of bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a
suggestion contrary to fact.
The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and
prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata.
As many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small
metasomatic carapace* consisting of three to six fused segments
distinctly marked though not separated by soft membrane, are
Herpes, Paradoxides and Triarikrus (fig. 34). In Calynune, Homa-
lonotns and Phacops (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly
marked by ridges and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in
lUaenus the shield so formed is large but no somites are marked out
on its surface. In this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur
between the prosomatic and metasomatic carapaces. Asapkns
and Megalaspu (fig. 39) are similarly constituted. In Agnostus
(fig. 40) the anterior and posterior carapaces constitute almost the
entire body, the two carapaces being connected by a mid-region of
only two free somites. It has been held that the forms with a small
number of somites marked in the posterior carapace and numerous
free somites between the anterior and posterior carapace, must be
considered as anterior to those in which a great number of posterior
somites are traceable in the metasomatic carapace, and that those
in which the traces of distinct somites in the posterior or mcta-
somatic carapace are most completely absent must be regarded as
derived from those in which somites are well marked in the posterior
l The writer is indebted to R. I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural
History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance
in the preparation of this article and for the classification and de-
finition of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general
scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into
agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts
those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of
the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation.
The writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan
A Co. for permission to use figs 22.43.44 * nd 45. w hich are taken from
Parker and Harwell's Text-look of Zoology; and to Messrs. Swan
Sonnenschein & Co. for the loan of several figures from the trans-
lations published by them of the admirable treatise on Embryotop
by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the publishers of the
treatise on Palatcntototj by Professor Zittel, Herr Oldenbourg and
The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of extinct forms.
3oo
ARACHNIDA
carapace and similar in appearance to the free somites. The genus
Agnostms, which belongs to the last category, occurs abundantly in
Cambrian strata and is
one of theearliest forms
known. This would
lead to the supposition
that the great develop-
ment of metasomatic
carapace is a primitive
and not a late character,
were it not for the fact
that Paradoxides and
A tops, with an incon-
spicuous telsonic cara-
pace and numerous free
somites, are also Cam-
brian in age, the latter
Ml.
ted
or
is
ion
tes
&
ior
ilo-
t is
in
w _... _ .ast
segment of the body
which carries the anus.
From the front of this
region new segments are
produced in the first
instance, and are added
during growth to the
existing series. This
telson may enlarge, it
may possibly even be-
come internally and
sternally developed as
partially separate som-
ites, And the tergum
may remain without
trace of somite forma-
tion, or, as appears to
be the case in Limulus.
the telson gives rise to
a few well-marked som-
ites (mesosoma and two
others) and then en-
larges without further
trace of segmentation,
whilst the chitinous
integument which de-
velops in increasing
thickness on the terga
as growth advances
welds together the un-
segmented telson and
the somites in front of
it, which were previ-
ously marked by
separate tergal thicken-
ings. It must always be
FiC. 34. — Restoration of Triartkrus remembered that we are
Bccki. Green, as determined by Beecher liable (especially in the
from specimens obtained from the Utica case of fossilized 1 ntcgu-
Slates (Ordovician). New York. A. dorsal; ments) to attach an
B, ventral surface. In the Utter the single unwarranted lnterpre-
pair of antennae springing up from each tation to the mere
side of the camerostome or hypostomc or discontinuity or con-
upper lip-lobe are eccn. Four pairs of tmuity of the thickened
appendages besides these arc seen to belong plates of chitinous
to the cephalic tergum. All the append- cuticle on the back of
ages are pediform and bi- ramose; all have an Arthropod. l ]* ctc
a prominent gnathobasc, and in all the plates may fuse, and I yet
exopodite carries a comb-like series of the somites to which
secondary processes. «J?^ belong may remain
«*.»*«*.»*> arssyus-tts
well developed. On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate,
whether terminal or in the series, is not always due to fusion
of the dorsal plates of once-separate somites, but is often a case
enlargement of a single somite without formation
of growth and enl
of any tract of a new somite. For the literature of Trilobitea ace
(22*).
Grade B {of the Arachnid*) NOMOMERISTICA.— Arachnida
in which, excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prostho-
mere. the somites are primarily (that is to say, in the common
Q
Fig. 35.— Triarlhrns Bccki, Green, o, Restored thoracic limbs in
transverse section of the animal; b, section across a posterior
somite; c, section across one of the sub-terminal somites.
(After Ikcdier.)
ancestor of the grade) grouped in three regions of six — (a) the
" prosoma " with palpiform appendages, (b) the " mesosoma " v iiK
plate-like appendages, and (c) the mrtasoma " with suppressed
Fig. 36. — Triartkrus Becki, Green. Fig. 37. — D<it>honForbr r ii,
Dorsal view of second thoracic leg Banr. One of the Chcuu-
with and without setae, en. Inner ridae. Silurian Bohemia,
ramus; ex. Outer ramus. fFrom Ziiid't PaUcmtekgy >
(After Dcccher.)
appendages. A somite placed between the prosoma and mesosr.na
— the prae-gcnital somite — appears to have belonged originally to
the prosomatic series (which with its ocular prosthomere and palpi-
Fig. 38. — DalmanHes
limulurus, Green. One of
the Phacobidae, from the
Silurian, New York.
(FranZbtd.)
Fig. 39-— Megalaspis cxUnuatus.
One of the Asaphtdae allied to
Iliaenus, from the Ordovician of
East Gothland, Sweden.
(From Zitld).
form limbs (Pantopoda], would thus consist of eight somites), but
to have been gradually reduced. In living Arachnids, excepting
the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of its appendages) with
the prosoma {Limulus, 1 Scorpio), after embryonic appearance, or is
•Pocock suggests that the area marked vil. in the outline figure
of the dorsal view of Limulus (fig. 7) may be the tergum of tht
suppressed orae-genital somite. Cmbryological evidence must settle
whether this b so or not.
ARACHNIDA
301
B
retained at a rudimentary, separate, detached somite in front of the
mesosoma. or disappears altogether (excalation). The atrophy
and total disappearance of ancestrally well-marked somites fre-
Fie. 40. — Fourstagesin
the development of the
trilobite Agnostus nudus.
8. - . . { f A, Youngest stage with
( ] If I no mesosomatic somites ;
JH\ feg < I B and C, stages with two
r~J JRjtt I mesosomatic somites be-
tween t he prosomatic and
telsonic carapaces; D,
adult condition, still with
only twofree mesosomatic
somites.
(From Korachetl and Hcidcr.)
quently take place (as in all Arthropoda) at the posterior extremity
of the body, whilst excalation of somites may occur at the constricted
areas which often separate adjacent " regions," though there are
A B C ver / f cw "^stances in
which it has been recog-
nized. Concentration of
the organ-systems by
fusion of neighbouring
regions (prosoma, meso-
soma, metasoma), pre-
viously distinct, has
frequently occurred,
together with oblitera-
tion of the muscular
and chitinous structures
indicative of distinct
somites. This concentra-
tion and obliteration of
somites, often accom-
panied by dislocation
of important segmental
structures (such as ap-
pendages and nerve-
ganglia), may lead to
highly developed speci-
alization (individuation,
H. Spencer), as in the
Araneae and Opiliones,
and, on the other hand,
may terminate in simpli-
fication and degenera-
tion, as in the Acari.
The most important
general change which
has affected the struc-
ture of the nomomeristic
Arachnida in the course
of their historic develop-
ment is the transition
from an aquatic to a
terrestrial life. This has
been accompanied by
the conversion of the
bmelliform gill-plates into lamdliform lung-plates, and later the
development from the lung-chambers, and at independent sites,
of tracheae or air-tubes (by adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of
the blood-vessels) similar to those independently developed in
A B
Fie. 42. — So-called
"trilobite stage" of
Limulus polyphemus.
A, Dorsal; B, ventral
view.
(From Konehdt tad Heidcr.
alter Lrackart.)
Peripains. Diplopoda, Hexapoda and Chilopoda. Probably tracheae
have developed independently by the same process in several groups
of tracheatc Arachnids. The nomomeristic Arachnids comprise two
*ub-cla«es— one a very small degenerate offshoot from early ances-
tor; the other, the great bulk of the class.
Sob- Class L (of the Nomomeristica). PANTO PODA.— Nomo-
meristic Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma
and metasoma have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes
the eighth, leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like append-
ages fully developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really
triple) cell-layer formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida.
are present. The Pantopoda stand in the same relation to Limulus
and Scorpio that Cyamus holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea
I The reduction of the organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which
the 6rst pair, as in so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of
degeneration connected with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit re-
sembling that of the crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pore*
are situate at the base of the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated
Fie. 41.— Five stages in the develop-
ment of the trilobite Sao kirsuta.
A. Youngest stage.
B. Older stage with distinct pygidial
carapace.
C. Stage with two free mesosomatic
somites b et wee n the prosomatic and
telsonic carapaces.
D. Stage with seven free intermediate
somites.
E. Stage with twelve free somites; the
telsonic carapace has not increased in
size.
s. Lateral eye.
f. So-called facial "suture" (not really a
suture).
p, Telsonic carapace.
From Parker and Harwell's raf-tw* »/ Ztototy. «ncr Hoek.
Fig. 43. — One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda, Nympkon
hispidum, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; ab, the
rudimentary opisthosoma ; s, the mouth-bearing proboscis.
on the 4th, 5th, and 6th. In all known Pantopoda the size of the
body is quite minute as compared with that of the limbs: the ali-
mentary canal sends a long caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae)
and the genital products are developed in gonocoels also placed in
the legs.
The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of
which are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number
of legs.
Order 1 (of die Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha, Pocock (nov.)
(fig. 43). — In primitive forms belonging to the family Nympkonidat
the full complement of appendages is retained — the 1st (mandibular),
the and (palpiform), ana the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well de-
veloped in both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting
the family PoUcnidae, however, the appendages of the and pair
are either rudimentary or atrophied altogether.
Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus Nympkon), and 2. Pallent-
dae (genus Pallene).
Order 2. Aacorhynchomorpha, Pocock ( nov.).— Appendages of
the 2nd and 3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primi-
tive types of Nymphonomorpha ; but those of the 1st pair are either
rudimentary, as in the Astorhynehidae, or atrophied, as in the
Cdossendeidae. In the latter a further specialization is shown in
the fusion of the body segments.
Two families: 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera Ascorhynckus and
Ammotkea); 2. Colossendeidae (genera Cofossendois and Disco-
arachne).
gonomorpha, Pocock (nov.). — Derivative forms in
y n in number of the anterior appendages is carried
I other orders, reaching its extreme in the Pycno-
j ; 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and
1 arc absent in the female. In the Bonnoniidae,
1 semblc the Pycnogonida* in the absence of the
ale and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair
i h sexes.
1. Hannoniidac (genus Hannonio); 2. Pycno-
] fcnogonum and Pkoxickiius).
Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition.
' „ __- , marine, and are not uncommon in tne coralline
zone of the sea-coast. The species arc few, not more than fifty (23).
Some large species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths.
Their movements are extremely sluggish. They are especially
remarkable for the small size of the body and the extension of
viscera into the legs. Their structure is eminently that of degenerate
forms. Many frequent growths of coralline Algae and nydroid
polyps, upon the jukes of which they feed, and in some cases a species
of gall is produced in hydroids by the penetration of the larval
Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp.
Sub-Class H. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACH-
NIDA.— These start from highly developed and specialized aquatic
branchiferous forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of
appendages, an intermediate prac-gcnital somite, a mesosoma of six
somites bearing lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma
of six somites devoid of appendages, and the last provided with
a post-anal spine. Median eyes are present, which are mono-
meniscous. with distinct retinal and corneagenous cell-layers, and
placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral eyes also may be
present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a single or double
cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs is often
chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second, third
and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or walking
legs.
3°2
ARACHNIDA
An internal skeletal plate, the Mxalled " entosternite " of fibro-
cartilaginous tissue, to which many muscles arc attached, is placed
between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma
of the larger forms (Limulus, Scorpio, Mygalt). In the same and
other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal
glands (coclomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the
coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular
system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large
arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves;
capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large amoe-
biiorm cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by haemocyanin.
The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise
laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair
in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple
caeca. The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial,
never gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial
coelom) arc originally reticular and paired, though they may be
reduced to a simpler condition. They open on the first somite of
the mesosoma. In the numerous degenerate forms simplification
occurs by obliteration of the demarcations of somites and the
fusion of body-regions, together with a gradual suppression of the
lamellifcrous respiratory organs and the substitution for them of
tracheae, which, in their turn, in the smaller and most reduced
members of the group, may also disappear.
The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to
the condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or
terrestrial life.
Grade a (of the Eu-arachnida). dblobranchia
( Hydropncustca).
Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages,
the 1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs
being provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen
dissolved in water. The prac-genital somite partially or wholly
obliterated in the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the
basal segments of all the prosomatic appendages, excepting those
of the 1st pair, are capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral
eyes consisting of a densely packed group of eye-units ( compound "
eyes).
Order 1. Xiphoaura. — The prac-genital somite fuses in the
embryo with the prosoma and disappears (see fig. to). Not free-
swimming, none of the prosomatic appendages modified to act as
paddles; segments of the mesosoma and metasoma (-opisthosoma)
not more than ten in number, distinct or coalesced.
Family — Limulidae (Limutus).
„ *Belinuridae (Betinurus, Agios pis, Prestwichia).
„ •Hemiaspidae {Hernias pis, Bunodes).
Remarks. — The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the
shore. They are represented at the present day by the single genus
Limulus (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, n, to 15 and 20), often
termed the king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the
Fie. 44. — Dorsal view
of Limutus polyph^mus,
Latr.
(From Paricrr and Hanrrll,
Tt*-txx>k •) Z~i*gy, aim
UuckarO
Atlantic Ocean, but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast
Of the Pacific. The Atlantic species (L. folyphemus) is common on
the coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or
horse-shoe crab. A single »pctimen was found in the harbour of
Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried
over by a ship to which it clung.
A species of Limutus is found in the Buntersandstein of the
Vosgcs ; L. Walchi is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of
Bavaria.
The genera Belinurus, Agios pis. Prestwichia, Hemiaspis and
Bunodes consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks.
Fig. 45. — Ventral
view of Limutus poly-
pkemus.
1 to 6, The six proso-
matic pairs of appen-
dages.
abd, the solid optstho-
somatic carapace.
Uls, the post-anal spine
(not the telson as t he
lettering would seem
to imply, but only
its post-anal por-
tion).
operc, the fused first
pair of mesosomatic
appendages forming
the genital oper-
culum.
(From Parker aad Haswrll.
ftrf-feff* 0J Z-Ugy. aits
Leuckan.)
In none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the
two carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly
intermediate between Limulus and the Trilobitae. The young form
of Limulus itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as its
segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of
Limulus appear to be identical in structure and position with those
of certain Trilobitae.
Order 2. Gigantostraca (figs. 46, 47). — Free-swimming forms, with
the appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened
FlG.46.— Eury-
Ptfrus Fischeri,
Eichwald. Silu-
rian of Rootzikil.
Restoration after
Schmidt.
The
dorsal aspect is
presented show-
ing the prosomatic
shield with paired
compound eyes
and ( the proso-
matic appendages
II. to VI. The
small first pair of
appendages is con-
cealed from view
by the carapace.
1 to 12 are the
somites of the
opisthosoma; 13.
the post-anal
spine,
fProm Zbteft Text-
to* el Pal^mhttfy.
The MarmiHan Co.
New York, ,890
to art as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma ("opistho-
soma), twelve in number.
ARACHNIDA
3P3
Appendages of anterior pair very luge and chelate.
Sub-order Pterygotomorpha. Pterygotidae (PUrygotus).
Appendage* of anterior pair minute and chelate.
( Stylonuridae (Stybnurus)*
Sub-order Eurypteromorpha < Eurypteridae (EmrypUnu,
( Siimouia).
Remarks. — The Gigmntoatraca arc frequently spoken of a* " the
Eurypterines." Not more, than thirty species are known. They
became extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the
Upper Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carbon-
iferous. They may be regarded as" macrourous" Xiphosura; that
is to say, Xiphosura in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen
Fratt Bud's PaUetmUttJ-
Fig. 47. — Plerygotus osiliensis, Schmidt. Silurian of RootxilciL
Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after
Schmidt.
a, Camerostome or epistoma. I to 8, Segments of the sixth
as. Chilarium or mctasternite of prosomatic appendage.
the prosoma (so-called- meta- V to V', First five opisthosomatic
stoma). somites.
oc. The compound eyes. 7', Sixth opisthosomatic somite.
[Observe the powerful gnathobascs of the sixth pair of prosomatic
limbs and the median plates belli nd m. The dotted line on somite I
indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably
provided with branchial lamellae.)
well-developed somites is present and the posterior ones form a long
tail-like region of the body. There still appears to be some doubt
whether in the sub-order Eurypteromorpha the first pair of proso-
matic appendages (fig. 46) is atrophied, or whether, if present, it has
the form of a pair of tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there
are indications of lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesoso-
raatic somites following that bearing the genital operculum, we
cannot be said to have any proper knowledge as to such appendages,
and further evidence with regard to them is much to be desired.
(For literature see Zittel, 22* J
Grade b (of the Eu-arachiuda). bmbolobranchia
(Aeropncustea).
In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of
the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites
are sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to
breathe atmospheric oxygen, forming tne leaves of the so-called
lung-books. In specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly
or partly replaced by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the meso-
soma generally suppressed ; in the more primitive forms one or two
pairs may be retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-
spinning. Mouth situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no
share in mastication being taken by the basal segments of the 5th
and 6th pairs of prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present,
represented' by separate ocelli.
The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is
obliterated {Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilto and others) or is retained as
a reduced narrow region of the bodv, the " waist," between prosoma
and mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the
Psetido-scorpiones. #
Section a. Pectiniftra, — The primitive distinction between the
mesosoma and the mctasoma retained, the latter consisting of six
somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which
is furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including
the prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult,
Btstand after TtatU's bdkatlass
by R. L Pocork.
Fig. 48.— Dorsal view of a
restoration of Palaeopkonus
nuncius, Thorell. The Silu-
rian scorpion from Gothland.
there are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of
the 1st and and mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital oper-
culum and pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and
6th somites (? in Palaeopkonus) sinking below the surface during
growth in connexion with the forma-
tion of the four pairs of pulmonary /
sacs (see fig. 17).. Lateral eyes/
monostichous. \
Order 1. Scormoiwa.— Prosoma ]
covered by a single dorsal shield,
bearing typically median and lateral
eyes; its sternal elements reduced
to a single plate lodged between or
behind the basal segments of the
5th and 6th pairs of appendages.
Appendages of 1st pairtri-segmented,
chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with
their basal segments subserving
mastication ; of jrd, 4th, 5th and 6th
pairs similar in form and function,
except- that in recent and Carbon-
iferous forms the basal segments of
the 3rd and 4th are provided with
sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes, those
of the 4th pair meeting in the middle
line and underlying the mouth. The
jive posterior somites of the meta-
soma constricted to form a " tail,"
the post-anal sclerite persisting as a
weapon of offence and provided with
a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8,
10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).
Sub-order Apoxypoda. — The 3rd,
4th, 5th and 6th pairs of append-
ages short, stout, tapering, the
segments about as wide as long,
except the apical, which is distally
slender, pointed, slightly curved,
and without distinct movable claws.
Family — Palaeophonidae, Palate
phonus (figs. 48 and 49).
Sub-order Dionychopoda.— The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of
appendages slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than
wide; the apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with
a pair of movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs
of appendages abutting against the. sternum of the prosoma (see
fig. 10 and figs. 51, 52 and 53).
Family— Pandinidae (Pandinus, Opistkopktkalmus, Urodacus).
„ Vejovidac (Vaeiovis, Jurus. Euscorpius. Br ottos).
„ Bothriuridae {Bothriurus. Cercopkonius).
„ Buthidac (Buthus, Centrums).
„ •Cyclophthalmidac (Cyclopktkalmus) ( Carbon-
„ •Eoscorpiidae (Eoscorpius, Centromackus) \ ifcrous.
Remarks on the Order Scorpiones. — The Scorpion is one of the
great animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are
Fie. 49.— Ventral view of
a restoration of Palaeophonus
Hunteri, Pocock, the Silurian
scorpion from Lesmahagow,
Scotland. Restored by R. I.
Pocock. The meeting of the
coxae of all the prosomatic
limbs in front of the penta-
gonal sternum; the space for
a genital operculum; the pair
of pectens, and the absence
of any evidence of pulmonary
stigmata arc noticeable in this
specimen.
(See Pocock. Qmiri J»*r. Mkr.
&*- 1901.)
the only two Invertebrates which had impressed the. minds of carry
men sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical represen-
tation. It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves to be
the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted to
the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion
have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland,
3°4
ARACHNIDA
tavi
poll
ofb
oft
Artl
are
»P
thai
oft
orifi
the
surf
spir<
spec
F
At t
war
Bav
Iron
trop
Fi
The
with
£ P J
juric
slori
ofb
such
(Uut
it
(Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals which are not immune
to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young children of the
human race who can be actually Killed by a scorpion's sting. When
the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two short cheli-
cerae are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing action of their
pincers, and an alternate backward and forward movement, they
bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim close to the
minute pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion's mouth. The
muscles acting on the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pump-
ing action (see Huxley, 26); and the juices— but so solid
matter, excepting such as is reduced to
powder — are sucked into the scorpion's
alimentary canal. A scorpion appears to
prefer for its food another scorpion, and
will suck out the juices of an individual as
large as itself. When, this has taken
place, the gorged scorpion becomes
distended and tense in the mesosomatic
region. It is certain that the absorbed
juices do not occupy the alimentary
canal alone, but pass also into its caccal
off-sets which are the ducts of the
gastric glands (sec fig. 33).
rept
and
(fig.
;. 52).
•--^: - ..
From Luikour, J»ur». Limn. Soe. Prom Lankttiw. Jtmu.
Fig. 52.— Drawing from life of the L*m.S«
Italian scorpion Euscorpius italicus, Fig. 53. — The same
Herbst, holding a bluc-bottlc fly with its scorpion carrying the
left chela, and carefully piercing it be- now paralysed fly held
twecn head and thorax with its sting, in its chcliccrae. the
Two insertions of the sting are effected chelae liberated for
and the fly is instantly paralysed by the attack and defence,
poison so introduced into its body. Drawn from life.
All Arachnida, including Limulus, feed by suctorial action in
essentially the same way as Scorpio.
Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing
noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is
produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of
the limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera
(see Pocock, 27). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in
contact. The eggs arc fertilized, practically in the ovary, and de-
velop tit situ. Trie young are born fully formed and are carried by
the mother on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in
a brood. For information as to the embryology of scorpions, the
reader is referred to the works named in the Bibliography below.
Scorpions do not possess spinning organs nor form either snares or
nests, so far as is known. But some species inhabiting sandy deserts
form extensive burrows. The fifth pair of prosomatic appendages
is used by these scorpions when burrowing, to kick back toe sand as
the burrow is excavated by the great chelae.
References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical
distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (28).
Section 0. Eftctinata. — The primitive distinction between the
mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated,
the two regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists
of more than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breath-
ing-organs behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the
opisthosoma, when present, represented by two pairs of stigmata,
opening either upon the 1st ana and (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd
somites (Solifugae, Pscudo-scorpioncs), or by a single pair upon the
3rd (? 2nd) somite (Opilioncs) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely
an additional stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages
of the 2nd somite of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-
like (some Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prac-genital somite
is often present cither in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedi-
palpi, Araneae, Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pscudo-
scorpioncs) ; in some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holocomata.
and Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous.
Remarks. — The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the
aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectinifcrous
scorpions. At the same time we arc not justified in supposing that
the scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between
any of the existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable
that the Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately
evolved as distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arach-
nida. The Holosomata and Rhynchostomi arc probably offshoots
from the stem of the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the
structure of the prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the
Solifugae are connected in origin with the Pedipalpi The appear-
ance of tracheae in place of lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a start*
The' poison of the stfng w similar to snake-poison I ing-point for a new line of descent comprising all the tracheate forms;
ARACHNIDA
3©S
trachea* teem to have developed independently in different lines of
descent. On the whole, the Epectinata are highly specialized and
degenerate forms, though there are few, if any, animals which
surpass the spiders in rapidity of movement, deadliness of attack
and constructive instincts.
Order 2. Pedipalpi (figs. 54 to 59).— Appendages of 1st pair
biseginented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their
basal segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-
-/»•/
Fran Lankcftcr. 0. / Uk. Sci. N.S. wj|. xxi.. 1S81.
Fig. 54. — Thclyphonus, one of the Pedipalpi.
A, Ventral view. 1 to 11, Somites of the opistho-
I, Cheltoera (detached). soma (mesosoma plus meta-
II, Chelae. soma).
III, Palpiform limb. msg. Stigmata of the tergo-
IV to VI, The walking legs. sternal muscles.
sic, Sterno-coxal process (gnatho- «#, Anus.
base) of the chelae. B, Dorsal view of the opistho-
sr\ Anterior sternal pbte of the . soma of the same.
proeoma. ^ re ^" 1 ' The prae-genital somite.
sf. Posterior sternal plate of the p, The tergal stigmata of the
prosoma. tergo-sternal muscles.
P*rten t Position of the prac- paf. Post-anal segmented fila-
gvnital somite (not seen). ment corresponding to the
1,1, Position of the two pul- post-anal spine of Umuhw.
monary sacs of the right side.
enxal (maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single
movable or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from
the remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment
many-jointed and clawlcss. The ventral surface of the prosoma
bears prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitimv
plates (fig. 55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between
opisthosoma and prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting
oi eleven somites, almost wholly without visible appendages. Intro-
mittent organ of male beneath the genital operculum ("Sternum
of the 1st somite of opisthosoma).
Fio. 55 • — Thelyphonns
sp. Ventral view of the
anterior portion of the
body to show the three
prosomatic sternal plates
a, b, c. and the rudimentary
sternal element of the prae-
genital somite; opisth 1,
first somite of the opistho-
(Fraea s drawing suds
Pkkard - Cambridge, under
direction ot R. I. Pocock.)
£
Note. — The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior
somite* of the mesosoma and the prae«genital somite must be borne
in mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the
two king-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of
Scorpi*. and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same
caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excatation of one or of
It *
two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite,
would then have to be supposed to have occurred also.
Sub-order c. Uropygi. — Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal
area very narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal
plate, and often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of
2nd pair with their basal segments united in the middle line and
incapable of lateral „
movement; append-
ages of 3rd pair with
»»j*Wm
0tidk$*
only the apical seg-
ment many -jointed.
Opisthosoma with-
out trace of append-
ages; its posterior
somites narrowed to
form a movable tail
for the support of
the post • anal
sclerite, which has
no poison glands.
tricha — Dorsal area FiG.56.— rAr/y0*w«r a ssamensistf. Ventral
of prosoma covered «^a<*°ftheanteriorregionofthcopisthosoma,
with a single shield thc first 80m * te ^-"a" pushed upwards and for-
( > two in Geralin- ward * »o as to expose the subjacent structures.
ura) heart tut median Opistho I, First somite of the opisthosoma;
?<$' Uter2^vS •***• *• **°nddo.; g, genital aperture;
Post -anal sclerhe* '• «■■«■ <* the ,ame,1ae of the lung-books; m,
mSified^s along! ,ti « mat * of '"^crna! »««'«•
many-jointed feeler. # (Original drawing by Pocodt)
Appendages of 2nd. pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely
chelate, the claw immovably united to the sixth segment.
Respiratory organs present in the form of pulmonary sacs.
Family— Thelyphonidae (JhtJyphonus (fig. 54), Hypoctonus,
*Geralinura),
Tribe 2. Tartarides.— Small degenerate forms with the dorsal
area of the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front
covering the anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering
the 5th and 6th somites: the latter generally subdivided into a
right and left portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites
interposed between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evan-
escent or absent. Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane,
not chelate, the claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short
and undivided. No distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna
of the 1st and and somites of the opisthosoma.
Family— Hubbardiidae {Schizomns, Hubbardia) (figs. 57*59).
I
Fie. 57.— Schizomus crassi- Fie. 58.— Sckitomus erassu
caudaius, one of the Tartarid caudaius, a Tartarid Pedipalp.
Dorsal view of a male with the
appendages cut short.
I to VI. The prosomatic ap-
pendages.
a. Anterior plate*
b. Posterior plate of the proso-
matic carapace.
1 opisth. First somite. of the prac-gtn, Tcrgum of the prae-
Pedipalpi. Ventral view of
female with the appendages cut
short near the base,
a, Prosternum of prosoma.
b, Metastcrnum of prosoma.
prac-gen. The prae-genital
somite.
opisthosoma.
11 opisth, Eleventh somite of
the opisthosoma.
genital somite.
11, The eleventh somite of the
opisthosoma.
pa. Post-anal lobe of the female pa, Post -anal lobe of the male—
(compare the jointed filament a conical body with narrow
tn Thelypho*us t fig. 54)- ***& Btalk *
(Original drawing by Pkkard-Can> (Original u preceding.)
bridge, directed by Pocock.)
Sub-order b. Amblypygi. — Prosoma wider than long, covered
above by a single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which
have diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal,
two mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting
forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Append-
ages*of and pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal 1
la
3©6
ARACHNIDA
freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th
pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair
with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a many-
jointed flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and
posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate
II III IV V VI
J f
< Pic. 59. — Schizomus crassicaudatus, one of the Pcdipalpi. Lateral
view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic appendages, the first being
concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and 11, the eleventh tergiies of
the opisthosoma; pa, the conical post-anal lobe.
(Origin! as preceding.)
appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs,
as in Urotricha.
Family — Phrynichidae {Phrynickus, Damon).
„ Admctidac (Admttus, Hetcrophrynus).
„ Charontidae {Charon, Sarax).
(Family })—*Gratophonus.
Remarks.— The Pcdipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer
temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the
Carboniferous. The small forms known as Schizomus and Hub-
bardia are of special interest from a morphological point of view.
The Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature
Order 3. Araneae (figs, 60 to 64). — Prosoma covered with a single
shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of
diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface
wide, continuously chitinued, but with prostcrnal and mctastcrnal
Pic. 60. — Liphislius dt suitor, Schiodtc, one of the Araneae Mcso-
thelae. Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages; 4, 5, 6,
the fourth, fifth and sixth tcrgites of the opisthosoma. Between
the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic cara-
pace is seen the tergite of the small prac-gcnital somite,
(Orifiaal by PickardCamtaridc* and Pocock.)
dementi generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior
ends respectively of the large mesosternum. Prostemum underlying
the proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in
Pedipalpi, but are furnished with poison gland, and are retrovert*.
Appendages of and pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable
ana, except in primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe ; the
rest of the limb like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite un-
modified (except in cf). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in
form and function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opistho-
soma when segmented showing the same number of somites as in the
Pedipalpi: usually unncgmcntcd, the prae-genital somite constricted
to form the waist ; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites re-
tained as spinning mammillae Respiratory organs (see fig. 6jj«f),as
in the Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior peir
as well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of mak- m
the apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage.
Sub-order a. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62). — Opisthosoma dis-
tinctly segmented furnished with 1 1 tergal plates, as in the Ambly-
pygi; the ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with lar^e
sternal plates, covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of
Fie. 61.— Li phi situs de suitor. Ventral
1 view with the prosomatic appendages cut
short excepting the chclicerae (1). whose
I sharp retrovcrts are seen. Between the
bases of the prosomatic limbs an anterior
II and a posterior sternal plate (black) are
., seen. 1, The sternum of the first opiv-
thosomatic or genital somite covering the
' genital aperture and the first pair of lung^
v sacs. In front of it the narrow waist is
• formed by the soft sternal area of the
praegenital somite. 2, the sternite of tr<-
second opisthosomatic somite covcrirj
« the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4.
the spinning appendages (limbs) of tic
opisthosoma; a, inner, b, outer ramus of
the appendage ; 1 1 , sternite of the eleven t h
1 somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it
other rudimentary stcrnitcs; on, anus.
(Original aa abovO
pulmonary sacs, the sternal plates from the 6th to the nth somite*
represented by intcgumcntal ridges, weakly chitinued in the middle.
The two pairs of spinning appendages retain their primitive position
in the middle of the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance
of the anus on the 3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting
of a stout, many- jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmcrmd
inner branch. Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphac, except that the
mesostcrnal area is long and narrow.
Family— Liphistiidae (Liphislius. *Artkrolvcosa).
Sub-order b. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63). — Opisthosoma without
trace of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely repre-
sented posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the
1st and 2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sa<-s.
The spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opis-
thosoma and take up a position close to the anus; the inner brant- lies
of the anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetic^: !y
by a plate, the cribcllum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the
cotulus.
Tribe I. Mygalomorphae. — The plane of the articulation of the
appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovcrt) vertical,
the basal segment pro-
jecting straight forwards
at its proximal end, the
distal segment or fang
closing backwards in a
direction subparallel to
the long axis of the body.
Two pairs of pulmonary
sacs.
Families — Thera-
Jhosidae (Avicularia,
} oecilotheria). Bary-
chelidae {Borychdus,
Plagiobothrus). Dipluri-
dae (Diptura, Macro-
thele). Ctenizidae
(Clenita, Ncmesia).
Atypidae {Atypus,
Catommata).
Tribe 2. Arachno-
II III IV V VI j j
#r«f m t a j
PlC. 6a. — Liphislius de suitor. Lateral
view.
I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut
off at the base.
o. Ocular tubercle.
praegen. The prae-genital somite.
I and 2, Stcrnitcs of the first and second
. «„. , -~~..~~- opisthosomatic somites.
«»i££Z* TICKETS 3 and 4. Appcndagesof thethirdand fourth
J^rtf;,7Jj«„ P «f .hi opisthosomatic somites, which are the
grating to the anal region as in other
spiders.
5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic
somite.
:, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; an.
Anus.
(OrlffaaJj
pair to the prosoma
horizontal, the basal
segment projecting ver-
tically downwards, at
The posterior pulmonary sacs
af tubes; the anterior and
least at its proximal
end, the distal segment
or fang closing inwards
nearly or quite at right
angles to the lone axis of the body.
(except in Hypochilus) replaced by tracheal 1
posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae.
Principal families — Hypochilidae (Hypo<hilus). Pysderidae (Pyt-
dcra, Scerstrin). Caponiidac (Cap-wia, Nops). Filistatidac (/.;;-
lata). Uloboridae (llohorus, Dinopis). Argiapidae (Kfpk.la.
Gasleracantha). Pholcidae (Pholcus, Arttma). Agclenidae (Ttctn-
aria). Lycosidae (Lycosa). Clubionidac (Clubiona, Olios, Sjbarassuj)
Cnaphosidae (Gnaphosa. Hrmiclata). Thorn isidae (Tmomiius).
Attidae (Salticus). Uroctcidac (Vrot tea). Erc-sidae (Ertsus).
Remarks cm Uu Arantot.—Tht Spiders arc the most numerous
ARACHNIDA
3°7
sum dive rained group of the Arachntda; about sooo species are
known. No noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-pre-
served are in amber of Oligocene age. Protolycosa and Artkrolycosa
occur in the Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are re-
markable for the concentration and specialization of their structure,
which is accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger
species of Bird's Nest Spiders \Avictdaria), the opisthosoma of which
is as large as a bantam s egg. undoubtedly attack young birds, and
~" ~ t ot the capture in its web by an ordinal
M'Cook gives an account
bouse spider of a small mouse.
The " retrovert '
ry
or bent-back
Fxc. 63. — Ventral view of
a male mygalomorphous
spider.
I to VI, The six pairs of
prosomatic appendage?.
a, Copulatory apparatus of
the second appendage.
b, Process of the fifth joint of
the third appendage.
M. Mouth.
pro, Prosternite of the pro-
soma.
mes, Mesostemite of the pro-
soma: observe the contact
of the coxae of the sixth
pair of limbs behind it;
compare Lipkistius (fig. 61 )
where this does not occur.
stg t Lung aperture.
gn. Genital aperture.
a. Anus with a pair of back-
wardly migrated spinning
appendages on each side
01 it ; compare the posi-
tion of these appendages in
Liphislius (fig. 61).
(From Lankmcr.
Arachnid")
« pair of appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on
the fang or terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of
constructions— snares for the capture of prey and nests for the
preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female,
which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like
the scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism,
and accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose
of fertilizing her is liable to be (alien upon and sucked dry by the
object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from
the genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment
Fie. 64.— Liphislius desulfr. Under side of the uplifted genital
or first opisthosoma tic somite of the female: g. genital aperture;
{►, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion of adhesive material
or the eggs; /, the edges of the lamellae of the lung-books of the
first pair.
(Original driving by PKocfc )
of the and prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance
from the body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the
genital aperture of the female.
For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their
webs and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of
M'Cook (JO) and the Peckhams (31). whilst an excellent account of
the ne»ts of trap-door spiders is given by Moggridgc (32). References
to systematic works will also be found at the end oi this article (33).
Order 4. Palpigradl ■ Mierothelyphonidae (see fig. 60. — Prosoma
jovered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal ele-
ments of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the
dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th.
Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal
and one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of
three segments, completely chelate, without poison gland: of 2nd
pair slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the nasal segment
aithout sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and
widely separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd* ath, 5th
and 6th appendages similar in form to the and and to each other.
Proboscis free, net supported from below by either the presternum
or the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair.
Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal
and sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a
" waist," as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a
B
i [ poi-t a 3 4 S S 78910
1 II III IV V VI *» Ofiilkoicma
Fig. 65.— JCoeaemo mirabilis, Grassi, one of the PalptgradL
A, Ventral view of prosoma and B, Dorsal view. I to VI, pro-
of anterior region of opistho- somatic appendages; 1 opisth.
_ ; 1 e*M»,
genital somite (first opisthoso-
matic somite).
C, Lateral view, I to VI, pro-
somatic appendages ; a,b,c,
the three tergal plates of the
prosoma; prae-gen, the prae
genital somite; I to 10, the
ten somites of the opisthosoma.
D. Cheliccra.
soma with the appendages cut
off near the base; a and b,
prosternites; c. mesosternite ;
and d, metastcrnite of the
prosoma; /, ventral surface
of the prae-genital somite;
g, sternite of the genital
somite (first opisthosomatic
somite).
(Original drawing by Pocodt sad Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen aad
caudal support for the many-jointed flagcllifocm telson, as in the
Urotricha. Respiratory organs atrophied.
Family — Koeneniidae (Koenenia).
Remarks. — An extremely remarkable minute form originally
described by Grassi (34) from Sicily, and since further described by
Hansen (35). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A.
Only one genus of the order is known.
Order 5. Solifugae - Mycetophorae (see figs. 66 to 69).— Dorsal
area of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller
representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger
representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced
terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The
latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each
side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces
of a presternum and met astern urn alone remaining. Rostrum free,
not supported by either the presternum or the basal segments of the
appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmentcd.
articulated to the sides of the head-shield: appendages of and pair
simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no daws
at the tip: their basal segments united in the middle line and fur*
nished with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages
with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface,
similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws
supported on long stalks: the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing
five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital
somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites.
Respiratory organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of
the 2nd and 3rd. and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opistho*
soma. A supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal
segment of the 4th appendage of the prosoma.
(? Intromit tent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the
1st pair of prosomatic appendages.)
Families— Hexisopodidae (Hexuopus). Solpugidae (Sotpugt,
Rk&t9iu). Galeodidae (Gakodes)
3©8
ARACHNIDA
Remarks.— These mo«t ttrange-tookfog Arachnids occur in warmer
temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their
anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed
material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal
Fig. 66.— Caleodes sp.,
one of the Solifugac. Ven-
tral view to show legs and
somites.
I to VI, The six leg-bearing
somites of the prosoma.
opisth i. First or genital
somite of the opistho-
soma.
te, Site of the genital
aperture.
si, Thoracic tracheal
aperture.
/*, Anterior tracheal aper-
ture of the opisthosoma
in somite 2 of the opistho-
soma.
/•, Tracheal aperture in
somite 3 of the opistho-
o. Anus.
(FrotnUak«ler.';Lim
AnchokL )
II
HI
\
VI
•plM
n
ni
rv
v
VI
Fig. 67. — Caleodes sp., one Fig. (A.— Caleodes sp., one of the
of the Solifugae. Ventral view Solifugac. Dorsal view,
with the appendages cut off j lo VI, Bases of the prosomatio
at the base. appendages.
I to VI, Prosomatic append- o. Lyes.
ages. a, Lateral region of the cephalic plate
x, Frosomadc stigma or aper- to which the first pair of append-
ttirc of the tracheal system. ages arc articulated.
1, First opisthosomatic stcr- b, Cephalic plate with median eye.
nite covering the genital c, Dorsal element of somites bearing
aperture {. third And fourth pairs of append-
2, Second opisthosomatic stcr- ages.
nite covering the second 4. Second plate of the prosoma with
pair of tracheal apertures fifth pair of appendages.
sp\ e. Third or hindermost plate of the
spa, The third pair of tracheal prosoma beneath which the sixth
apertures. pair of legs is articulated,
to, The tenth opisthosomatic I, 2, 9, 10. First, second, ninth and
somite. tenth somites of the opisthosoma.
an, The anal aperture. an. Anus.
(Orlgfaul by Ptckard-Cunbrklge sad (Onjliisl )
Pococi.)
glands was determined by Madeod in 1884. The proportionately
enormous chelae (chciicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not
provided with poison glands; their bite is not venomous.
Caleodes has been made the means of a comparison between the
structure of the Arachruda and Hexapod insects by Hacckel and
other writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a
genetic affinity between the two grouper-through Caleodes, or
extinct forms similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and
the form of the appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the
head, pro-, meso-, and meta- thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles,
maxillary palps and three pairs of walking legs; while the opistbo-
Fig. 69. — Caleodes sp., one of the Solifugae.
I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs carrying appendage VI
cut short.
0, The eyes.
b, c. Demarcated areae of the
cephalic or first prosomatic
platecorrespondingrespcctively
to appendages I, II, HI, and
to appendage IV (see fig. 68).
d. Second plate of the oroeoma-
carrying appendage }
«► Third plate of the prosoma-
.... The
prac-gcnital somite is absent.
1, First somite of the opistho-
soma.
2, Second do.
S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture
between legs IV and V.
S' and S'.Opisthosomatic tracheal
apertures.
10, Tenth opisthosomatic a
an. Anus.
(Original.)
soma agrees in form and number of somites with the abdomen of
a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata present certain agreements
in the two cases. Reference to literature (36).
Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones - Chelonethi, also called CberaetidU
(see figs. 70, 71, 72). — Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at
most furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal
elements obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st
Fig. TO.—Garypus litoralis, one
or the Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral
view.
I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.
0, Sterno-coxal process of the basal
segment of the second appendage.
Fig. 71.— Gary push totalis,
one of the Pseudoscorpiooes.
Dorsal view.
I to VI, The prosomatic ap-
pendages.
Sterniteof the genital or first opis- prae-gen, Prae-genital somite.
Tergite of the genital or
first opisthosomatic somite.
10, Tergite of the tenth
somite of the opistho-
soma.
11, The evanescent eleventh
somite of the opisthosoma.
an, Anus.
(OricbalJ
thosomatic somite; the prae-geni-
tal somite, though represented by
a tergum, has no separate sternal
plate.
2 and 3, Sternttes of the second and
third somites of the opisthosoma,
each showing a tracheal stigma.
10 and li,Stcrnitesof the tenth and
eleventh somites of the opistho-
soma.
am. Anus.
(Original by Pocock sad Mckard-Caabrfafcr )
pair bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs,
the serrula and the lamina. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and
completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line,
as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like
processes underlying^ the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd. 4th,
5th and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two
claws, their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line.
The prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate.
but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma
ARACHN1DA
309
composed, at least in many eases, or eleven somites, the nth
somite very small, often hidden within the 10th. Respiratory
organs in the form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata
in the and and 3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittcnt organ
of male beneath sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma.
Sab-order a. Panctenodactyli. — Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace)
narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much
narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
Scrrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout
its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end ; the
immovable digit with an external process.
Family— Cheliferidae (Cheiifer (figs. 70, 71.7a). Ckiridium).
„ Garypidac (Garypus).
Sub-order b. Hemictenodactyli. — Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely
narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much
narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace
• frtgtn
Fig. 72.— Garypvs litoralis, one of the Pseudoscorpiones.
Lateral view.
I to VI, Basal segments of the 2. 3. »<»» The second, third and
six prosomatic appendages. tenth somites of the opistho-
0. Eyes. soma.
pnu-gm, Tergite of the prac- 1 1. The minute eleventh somite ;
Snital somite. [somite, an. The anus,
nital or first opisthosomatic
(Oriciiui)
The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at
the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit.
Family— Obisiidac (Obisiutn, Pseudobisium)
Chthoniidae (Chtkonius, Tridenchihonius).
Remarks,— The book-scorpions— so called because they were, in
old times, found not unfrequently in libraries— are found in rotten
wood and under stones. The similarity of the form of their append-
age, to those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate
fp.-.ip derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-gcnital
somite in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the
scorpions. Reference to literature (37).
Order 7. Podogona -Ricinulei (sec figs. 73 to 76)— Dorsal area
of prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind represent-
ing, probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in
front, which is freely articulated to the former and fokb over the
C «
FlO. 73. — Cryptostcmma Karschii, one of the Podogona Dorsal
view of male.
Ill to VI, The third, fourth, fifth followed by the opisthosoma of
and sixth appendages of the four visible somites,
prosoma. a«, Orifice within which the caudal
a. Movable (hinged) sclcrite (so- segments are withdrawn,
called bood) overhanging the E. Extremity of the fifth append-
first pair of appendages, age of the male modified to
*, Fused terga of the prosoma subserve copulation.
(Original drawing by Pocock and Ptckard-Cambridge )
appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal
pbtes. Appendages of ist pair, bi-segmented, completely chelate.
Appendages of *nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the
middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages
of v± ath, Sth and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments
io contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those
of the 3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of
the 2nd and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable
membranous joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the
g e nerative aperture opening upon the ventral side of the membrane
Prae-gcnital somite suppressed : the opisthosma consisting of nine
segments, whereof the first and second are almost suppressed and
concealed within the joint between the prosoma and the opistho-
soma: the following four large and manifest, and the remaining
three minute and forming a slender generally-retracted tail like that
of Thetypkonus. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a pair of
spiracles* in the prosoma above the base of the fifth appendage on
IV 1U ! Fig. 7^—Cryptostanma, Karschii.
anterior aspect of the prosoma with
the " hood " removed. I to IV, first
to fourth appendages of the prosoma :
a, basal segment of the second pair
of appendages meeting its fellow in
the middle Tine (see fig. 75).
(Original drawing by Pocndt and
' Pkkari-Canbridge.)
each side. Intromittent organ of male placed at the distal end of
the appendage of the 5th pair. «...,„
Family— Cryptostemmidae (CryptosUmma, Poltcckera), Car-
Rmarks on the Podogona.— -The name given to this small but
remarkable group has reference to the position of the male intro-
mittent organ (fig. 73. *)• They are small degenerate animals
with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and
twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found
« Fig. y$.—CryptosUMMa Karschii, one
of the Podogona. Ventral view.
I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of
the prosoma, the last three cut short.
2, 3/4, The four somites of the opis-
thosoma.
Visible hood overhanging the first pair
of appendages.
Position of the genital orifice.
Part of 3rd appendage.
Fourth segment of and appendage
Observe that the basal segment of
appendage III does not meet its fellow
in the middle line.
(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-
in West Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in
regard to them is that the genus Pohochera. from the Coal Measures,
appears to be a member of the same group. The name Crypto-
stemma, given to the first-known genus of the order, described by
Guerin-Meneville, refers to the supposed
concealment of the eyes by the movable
cephalic scierite. Reference to litera-
ture (38). , „ % _ ,
Order 8. Opiliones(see fig. 77).— Dorsal
area of prosoma covered by a single shield
usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal
elements much reduced. Appendages of
1st pair large, three segmented and
completely chelate; of 2nd pan* either
simple and pediform, or prehensile and
subchelate; of remaining four pairs, _ , CrvbtosUmma
similar in form, ambulator) rln function: F 0. 76. ^^STS
the basal segment of the 2nd, 3"^ I and * fifth p^ of append-
sometimes ofthe 4th pairs of appendages "*„'," •£ r ema Ve for
furnished with sterno-coxal (max.Uary) *£«J* Jg ™hat of
lobe. Opisthosoniaconftuenttlirouahoutcompar^njan inai 01
its breadth with the prosoma, with the the male fc in ng. 73-
dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal
plates ire more or less fused; at most ten opirthosomatic ■mbUm
traceable; the generative aperture thrust far forwards between
the basal segments of the 6th appendages. Prae-geiutal somite
suppressed. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a paw of stig-
mata situated immediately behind the basal segments of the 6th
pair of appendages on what is. probably the sternum of the and
opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases upon the 5th segment
Intromittcnt organ of male lying within the genital orifice.
Sub-order a. Laniatores.-Orifice of, foetid glands opening above
the con of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a .tubercle. Orifice
of coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal
plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a d»«inct nrosternaletement
underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th •PP« n <3*
immovable. Appendages of and pair, strong, usually prehensile
and spiny Genital orifice covered by an operculum.
Families— Gonoleptidae (CoaoUpies, Gontasomo).
Biantidae (Biantes).
Oncopodidae (Oncopus, PetttKUi).
Trioenonychidae (Tnotnonyx, Acnmonius).
Suborder b. Palpatores.-6rifice oHoetid glands opening abwe
the coxa of the 3 rdappendage, not raised upon . • tubercle. Orifice
of coxal gland situated between the coxae of the Mh and 6th append-
ages. Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer
than broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying
the mouth. Coxae of 3rd' 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable
3io
ARACHNIDA
or immovable. Appendage* of and pair weak, pediform not pre-
hensile. Genital orifice covered by an operculum.
Families — Phalangiidac (Fhaiangium, CagreUa).
Ischyropsalidae (Isckyropsalis, Taracus),
Nemastomidae (Nemastoma).
Trogulidae (Trogulus, Anelasmocephatus).
Sub-order % c. Cyphobhlhalmt (Antpignalhi). — Orifice of foetid
glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the
carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal
gland probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal
f>late of prosoma minute or absent ; no prosterhal element under-
ying the mouth. Coxae of 5th and 6tn, and usually also of 4th
appendages immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform,
not prehensile. Genital orifice not covered by an operculum.
Families— Sironkiae (Siro, PeUalus).
Stylocellidae (Styiocellus).
Remarks on the Opilioncs. — These include the harvest-men, some-
times called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and
very long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the
male are remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The
» from the Spiders to the Mites, Reference to litera-
confluence of the regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures
from their typical position are result* of degeneration. The Opilioncs
seem to lead on fi " ..... ~
ture (39).
Apparently related to the Opilioncs are two extinct groups, the
Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have
survived the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the
Fig. 77.— SiyUctllus
sumojranus, one of the
.j Opilioncs; after Thorell.
- 11 Enlarged.
r—Ul A, Dorsal view: I to VI,
nr-^lv the six prosomatic ap-
~ v pendages.
~Vi B, Ventral view of the
prosoma and of the first
somite of the opistho-
tonus with the append-
ages I to VI cut off at
the base; a, tracheal
stigma; mx, maxillary
processes of the coxae of
the 3rd pair of append-
ages ;g,genital aperture.
C, Ventral surface of the
prosoma and opi&tho-
soma; a, tracheal
stigma; 6, last somite.
D. Lateral view of the
1st and and pair of ap-
pendages.
E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, show-
ing the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single
plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly seg-
mented plate continuous with that of the prosoma.
opisthosoma was movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted
of from eight to ten segments furnished with movable lateral plates,
the anal segment being overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion
of the preceding segment. The carapace, of the prosoma was un-
segmented and often bore a pair of eyes. The appendages of the
2nd pair were slender and pediform ; those of the 3rd, ath, 5th and
6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory in function with
their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as in the order
Araneae. The best-known genera were Antkracomartus and
Eopkognus.
In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the
Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs,
were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and
narrow sternal area between : and the carapace of the prosoma was
unsegmented. The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly con-
fluent and probably immovably welded together. The opisthosoma
consisted of eight or nine segments, whereof the anterior five or six
were very short in the dorsal region, and the posterior three ex-
ceptionally large with the anal orifice terminal.
Several genera have been established, the best-characterized
being Gtraphognns and Arckilarbus.
Order 9. Rhynchostomi- Acari (see fig. 78).— Degenerate Arach-
nids resembling the Opiltones in many structural points, but chiefly
distinguishable from them by the following features:— The basal
segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle
line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, ath. 5th and 6th pairs arc
widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary)
lobes, and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stig-
mata, when present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive
segmentation of the opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely
disappeared.
Sub-order a. Notostipnata.— Opisthosoma consisting of ten
segments denned by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four
of these furnished with a single pair of dorsally-pUced aptmcW or
tracheal stigmata.
Family— Opilioacaridae (OpUioacarus).
Sub-order 0. Crjrptostigmala.— Integument hard, strengthened
by a continuously cfutinized dorsal ana ventral sclerite Tracheae
typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets
(acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th. 5th and 6th pairs of appendages.
Family— Oribatidae (Oribata, Notkrus, Hoplopkora).
Sub-order c. MetastitnuUa. — Integument mostly like that of the
"* ; by a pair of stigmata situated
or 5th or 6th pair of appendages.
Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated
above ana behind the base of the ath or 5th or 6th pair ' '
Families— Garoasidae (Gomana, PUroptns),
Argasidae (Arras, OmUkodoros).
Ixodidae {Ixodes, Rkipictpkalus).
Sub-order d, Prostigmala. — Integument soft, strengthened by
special sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma appar-
ently representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the
skin. Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are
atrophied, opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above
the base of the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles).
Families— Trorobidiidae (Trombidtmm, Tttranyckms).
Hydrachnidae {Hydnukna, Alas).
Halacaridae (HoJocorus, Lepiegnathmi),
Bdellidae (Bdelia, Eupodes).
Sub-order «. A stigmata.— Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms
approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental
Fio. 7%.—Holothyrus nitidissimus, one of the Acari ; alter TharelL
A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed, I. plate
covering the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal
sclerites of the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, aiinilariy-formed
ventral plate ; 3, tracheal stigma.
B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of
appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C
are retracted.
C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; a, genital orifice;
6, anus; c, united basal segments of the second pair of append-
ages; d, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the
right side. The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV
and V, has been cut away.
sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory system
absent.
Families— Tyroglyphidae (Tyroglyphus. Rhixogiypkms).
Sarcoptidae (Sarcoptis, Analges).
Sub-order f. Vermiformia. — Degenerate atracneate parasitic forms
with the body produced posteriorly into an annotated caudal pro-
longation, and the 3rd. 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short
and.only three-jointed.
Family— Demodicidae (Demodex).
Sub-order g . Tctrapoda.-- Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which
the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in Denude*, but in
which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally
segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent.
Family — Eriophyidae (Eriophyes, PkyUo c opUs).
Remarks on the Rkynckosiomt. — The Acari include a number of
forms which are of importance and special interest on account of
their parasitic habits. The ticks (Ixodes) are not only injurious
as blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs
of Texas cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria.
The itch-insect (Sarcoptes scabiei) is a well-known human parasite,
so minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century,
and " the itch " was treated medicinally as a rash. The female
burrows in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows
in turf in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male
does not burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin.
Demodex foUktilorum is also a common parasite of the sebaceous
ARAD
3"
j of the skin of the face In man, and is frequent in the sidn
of the dog Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater
molluscs, and others are found on the feathers of birds and the hair
of mammals. Others have a special faculty of consuming dry,
p owdery vegetable and animal refuse, and are liable to multiply
in manufactured products of this nature, such as mouldy cheese.
A species of Acarus is recorded as infesting a store of powdered
strychnine and feeding on that drug, so poisonous to larger organisms.
Reference to literature (40).
Aut Hon ties cited by numbers in the text. — 1. Strauss-DQrckheim
(as reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an append ix to the sixth
volume of the^French translation of Meckel's Anatomy, 1829). 2.
Lankester, " Limulusan Arachnid," Quart. Journ. titer. Sei. vol. xxi.
N.S., 1881 ; 3. Idem, " On the SkeJetotrophic Tissues of Limulus,
Scorpio and Mygalc," Quart. Journ Micr. Sei. vol. xxiv N.S., 1884;
4. Idem, Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xi., 1883 ; S. Lankester and A.G. Bourne.
" Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio," Quart. Journ After. Set. vol. xxiii.
N-S.. Ian. 1883; 6. Milne-Edwards, A., " Recherches sur l'anatomie
des Limules," Ann. Set. Nat. 5th Series, Zoologte, vol. xvii , 1873;
7. Owen, Richard, " Anatomy of the King-Crab," Trans Linn. Soc,
Land., vol. xxviii., 1872; 8. Kishinouye, 7 ' Development of Limulus
longispina," Journal of the Science College of Jaban, vol. v , 1892;
9. ESraaer. ** Development of Scorpion," Zcifsehnftfir vnss Zoologte,
voT lix., 18951 10. Hansen, H £.. " Organs and Characters in
_,. Watase, "On the Morphology ,
Arthropods," Studies from the Btotog Lab Johns Hopkins University,
Different Orders of Arachnida," Entomol Meddd vol iv. pp. 137-
149: 11. Watase, " On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of
vol. iv pp. 287 334: 12. Newport, George, " Nervous and Circula-
tory Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids." Phil.
Trans. Roy Soc., 1843. 13 Lankester, " Coxal Glands of Limulus.
- " *- _i~ •• A..__« r-..._ \m.~- c. ..„i :.. xt c .00..
tory Systems
TraMS. Roy Svi., 104,). ••# Miuftcaici, v^»*ai vwuub vi umuiu
Scorpio and Mygalc," Quart Journ Micr Set vol. xxiv NS., 1884;
13a. W Patten and A. P Hazen. " Development of the Coxal Glands
of Limulus," Journ. of Morphology, vol xvi, 1900, 13d. Bernard,
" Coxal Glands of Scorpio," Ann and Mag. Nat Hist, vol xii . 1893,
p. 55. H. Benham. "Testis of Limulus, Trans Ltnn Soc. 1882;
IS. Lankester. " Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus," Quart.
Journ. Mter. Sei. vol xviii. NS.. 1878. 16 Korschelt and Hcidcr,
Entmckdungsgeschtchte (Jena, 1802), ibtque alata, 17 Laurie. M.,
" The Embryology of a Scorpion, Quart Journ Mter Sri. vol xxxi.
N S. 1890, and * On Development of Scorpio fulvipes," ibid. vol.
xxxii., 1891; 18. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), "On
the Use of the term Homology in Modern Zoology," Ann. and Mag
Nat. Hist., 1870, 10. Idem, "Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism. '
1878, reprinted in the Advancement of Sctence (Macmillan, 1800);
20. Idem, "Limulus an Arachnid." Q J Mter Set. vol xxi. N.S.;
21 Claus, " Degeneration of the Acan and Classification of Arthro-
poda," Ameigerd. h h Akad. Wissen. Wten, 1885. see also A un. and
Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) vol xvii , 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225;
22. Lindstrom, G., " Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilo-
bites," K. Svenska Vet. Akad Handl. xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pis. i.-vi ,
1901 ; 22*. Zittel, American edition of his Palaeontology (the Mac-
millan Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of
Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found, also references to
literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; 23 Hoek, " Report on the
Pycnogonida," Challenger Expedition Reports, 1881; Mcinert,
"Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition," vol. Hi., 1899;
Morgan, " Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids," Btol.
Lab. Baltimore, vol. v., 1891; 24. Bourne, A. G., "The Reputed
Suicide of the Scorpion." Proe. Roy. Soc. vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; 25.
Lankester, " Notes on some Habits of Scorpions," Journ. Linn. Soc.
Zool. vol. xvi. p. 455, 1882; 26. Huxley, ' Pharynx of Scorpion,"
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sei. vol. viu. (old series), i860, p. 250; 27.
Pocock. " How and Why Scorpions hiss," Natural Sctence, vol. ix.,
1896; cf. idem, " StriduUting Organs of Spiders," Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; 28. Kraepelin, Das Thterreich
{Scorpiones et Pedipalpi) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, " Eine neue Ein-
thcilung der Skorpione. Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1861; Pocock,
"'Classification of Scorpions," Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xii.,
1893; Thorell and Lindstrom, "On a Silurian Scorpion," Kdnrl.
Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl. xxi. No. 9. 1885; 29. Cambridge. O.P.,
" A New Family (Tartarides) and Genus of Thdyphonidea," Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) x., 1872, p. 413; Cook, " Hubbardia, a New
Genus of Pedipalpi." Proc Entom. Soc. Washington, vol. iv., 1899;
Thorell. "Tartarides, &c." Ann. Mus,. Geneva, vol. xxvii., 1889;
30. M'Cook, American Spiders and their Spinning Work (3 vols.;
Philadelphia. 1889-1893); 31. Peckham, "On Sexual Selection in
Idem, same journal. 1875, p. 235. and 1878, p 351 , Cambridge,
O. P.. '* Arancidea " in Btolopa Centr. Americana, vols i. and ti.
(London, 1890); Keyserling, Sptnnen Amenkos (Nuremberg, 1880-
1892); Pocock, " Liphistius and the Classification of Spiders,"
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hut. (6) x.. 1892; Simon. Hut not des
Araignies, vols. 1. and iL, 1892. 1897; Wagner, "L'lndustrie des
Araneina." Mem. Acad. St-Pitersbourg. Idem. "La Muc des
Aratgnec*," Ann. Sei. Nat vol. vi.; 34. Grassi. G. B " Intorno
ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogartro {Koenenia mirobtits) Ac." Boll.
Soc. Ens. ItaL vol. xviii.. 1886: 35. H. J. Hansen and Sdrensen.
" The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (Koenenia), and its Relationships
with other Arachnida," Ent Tidtkr vol. xviii pp 235-240, 1898;
Kraepelin, Das Thterreich (Berlin, 1901), 36. Bernard. Com par.
Morphol. of the Galeodidac." Trans. Ltnn. Soc. Zool. vol. vi., 1896,
ibtque citato; Dufour, " Galeodcs," Mim. pris. Acad. Sei. Paris.
vol xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, Das Thterreich (Berlin, 1001); Pocock,
"Taxonomy of Solifugae." Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xx.;
37. Balzan, " Voyage au Venezuela (Pscudoscorpiones)," Ann. Soc.
Entom. France. 1891, pp. 497-522; 38. Guerin-Menevillc, Rev. Zool.,
1838, p. it ; Karach, ueber Cryptostemma Guer." Berliner entom.
Zettsekrtjt, xxxviii. pp. 25-32. 1892; Thorell, "On an apparently
new Arachnid belonging to the family Cryptostemmidae, Westo.
Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar, vol xvii. No. 9, 1892; 39.
Hansen and Sdrensen, On Two Orders of Arachnida (Cambridge.
1904), Sdrensen, " Opiliones laniatores," Nat. Tidskr. (3) vol. xiv..
1884: Thorell, "Opilioni." Ann. Mus. Geneva, vol. visi.. 1876;
40.P-'- " A — * *- : - , *- ,: " " (Padova, 1892): Canesr
trini Canestrini and Kramer,
" Dc uierretch (Berlin, 1899) :
Mkl Idem, " Oribattdae rt in
Das igress and Present State
of H £r. Soc., 18941 Nalepa.
" Ph #) ; Trouessart, " Classi-
ficat st. p. 289, 1892 ; Wagner,
Emb urg, 1893); 41 Bertkau,
Ph.. Ntederf. Cesellsch., 1 885 .
42. f Limuhis," Quart. Journ.
Mic. igin of Vertebrates from
Arac
Ai text:—
Lung-books:— Berteaux, M Le Poumon des Arachnidea." La
Cellule, vol. v. 1 891 ; Jawarowski, " Die Ent wick. d. sogen. Lunge
bci der Arachnidcn," Zettsch. wiss. Zool. vol. lviii., 1894; Madeod,
" Recherches sur la structure et la signification de I appareil res-
A.
"I
U
di
M
vc
Zi
G
st
Ai
Grcnachcr, CehOrorgane der Arthrotoden (Gdttingen, 1879); Kis'h'i-
L' Organisation du rigne animal: Gaubcrt, " Recherches sur les
Arachnides," Ann. Sei. Nat. (7) vol. xiii., 1892: Koch. C, Die
Arachniden (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1 831-1848); Koch, Keyserling
and Sdrensen, Die Arachniden Austraiiens (Nuremberg, 1871-1890) :
Pocock. Arachnida o£ British India (London, 1900); Idem, On
African Arachnida," in Proc. Zool. Soc. and Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist., 1897-1900; Simon, Les Arachnides de la France (7 vols.,
Paris, 1874-1881); Thorell, "Arachnida from the Oriental Region,"
Ann. Mus. Cenooa, 1877-1890. (E R. L.)
ARAB, or 0-Ajlad, a town of Hungary, capital of the county
of the same name, x 59 m. S. E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. ( 1900)
53.003. It i» situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and
consists of the inner town and five suburbs, Arad is a modern-
built town, and contains many handsome private and public build-
ings, including a cathedral. It is the seat of a Greek-Orthodox
bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox theological seminary,
two training schools for teachers — one Hungarian, and the other
Rumanian — and a conservatoire for musk. The town played
an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-40,
and possesses a museum containing relics of this war of inde-
pendence. One of the public squares contains a martyrs'
monument, erected in memory of the thirteen Hungarian
generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by order of the
Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal future of
312
ARAEOSTYLE— ARAGO
Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the
executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction,
and has become the largest industrial and commercial centre
of south-eastern Hungary. Its principal industries are: dis-
tilling, milling, machinery-making, leather-working and saw-
milling. A large trade is carried on in grain, flour, alcohol,
cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was captured
by the Turks during the wars of the 17 th century, and kept by
them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in
1763, although small, was formidable, and played a great role
during the Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849.
Bravely defended by the Austrian general Berger until the
1st of July 1849, it was then captured by the Hungarian rebels,
who made it their headquarters during the latter part of the
insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his famous
proclamation (nth August 1849), and it was here that he handed
over the supreme military and civil power to Gorgei. The
fortress was recaptured shortly after the surrender of Gttrgei
to the Russians at Vilagos. The fortress is now used as an
ammunition depot.
The town of Uj-Arad, i.e. New Arad (pop. 6x24), situated on
the opposite bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad,
with which it is connected by a bridge. The town was founded
during the Turkish wars of the x 7 th century. The works erected
by the Turks for the capture of the fortress of Arad formed
the nucleus of the new town.
Viligos, the town where the famous capitulation of Gorgei
to the Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies
si m. by rail north-east of Arad.
ARAEOSTYLE (Gr. dpoior, weak or widely spaced, and <rrvXot,
column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (q.v.)
given to those temples where the columns had only timber
architraves to carry.
ARAEOSYSTYLB (Gr. apotet, widely spaced, and rforvXor,
with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to
a colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (q.v.) is alternately
wide and narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul's
cathedral and the east front of the Louvre by Perrault.
ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN (1786-1853), French
physicist, was bom on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a
small village near Perpignan, in the department of the eastern
Pyrenees. He was the eldest of four brothers. Jean (1788-
1836) emigrated to America and became a general hi the Mexican
army. Jacques fctienne Victor (1700-1855) took part in L. C.
do S. de Freycinet's exploring voyage in the " Uranie " from
1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to
journalism and the drama. The fourth brother, £tienne Vincent
(1802-1892), is said to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the
Hiriiierede Bit ague, and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number
of light dramatic pieces, mostly in collaboration. A strong
republican, he was obliged to leave France in 1849, but returned
after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was nominated director
of the Luxembourg museum.
Showing decided military tastes Francois Arago was sent to
the municipal college of Perpignan, where he began to study
mathematics in preparation for the entrance examination of
the polytechnic school. Within two years and a half he had
mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination, and a
great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse,
he astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange.
Towards the close of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school,
with the artillery service as the aim of his ambition, and in 1804,
through the advice and recommendation of S. D. Poisson, he
received the appointment of secretary to the Observatory of
Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and through
his influence was commissioned, with J. B. Biot, to complete
the meridional measurements which had been begun by J. B. J.
Delambre, and interrupted since the death of P. F. A. Mechain
(1744-1804). The two left Paris in 1806 and began operations
among the mountains of Spain, but Biot returned to Paris
after they had determined the latitude of Formentera, the
southernmost point to which they were to carry the survey,
leaving Arago to make the geodellcal connexion of Majorca
with Ivica and with Formentera.
The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only
beginning. The political ferment caused by the entrance of
the French into Spain extended to these islands, and the ignorant
populace began to suspect that Arago's movements and his
blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo were telegraphic
signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so in-
furiated that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated
in the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he
managed to escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after
an adventurous voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August.
Thence he procured a passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles,
but on the x6th of August, just as the vessel was ncaring Mar-
seilles, it fell into the hands of a Spanish corsair. With the rest
of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas, and imprisoned first in
a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of that seaport, until
the town fell into the hands of the French, when the prisoners
were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months' imprison-
ment they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers,
and again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but
when within sight of their port they were driven back by a
northerly wind to Bougie on the coast of Africa. Transport
to Algiers by sea from this place would have occasioned a weary
stay of three months; Arago, therefore, set out for it by land
under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached it on
Christmas day. After six months' stay in Algiers he once again,
on the a 1 st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to
undergo a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine In the
lazaretto, before his difficulties were over. The first letter he
received, while in the lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt;
and this was the origin of a connexion which, In Arago's words,
" lasted over forty years without a single cloud ever having
troubled it."
Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserv-
ing the records of his survey; and his first act on his return
home was to deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at
Paris. As a reward for his adventurous conduct in the cause
of science, he was in September 1809 elected a member of the
Academy of Sciences, in room of J. B. L. Lalande, at the re-
markably early age of twenty-three, and before the dose of
the same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic
school to succeed G. Mongc in the chair of analytical geometry.
About the same time he was named by the emperor one of the
astronomers of the Royal Observatory, which was accordingly
his residence till his death, and it was in this capacity that he
delivered his remarkably successful scries of popular lectures
on astronomy, which were continued from 181 a to 184 s.
In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the Annales de
ckimie el de physique, and in 1&18 or 18x9 he proceeded along
with Biot to execute geodetic operations on the coasts of France,
England and Scotland. They measured the length of the
seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one of the Shetland
isles, the results of the observations being published in 18; 1,
along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member
of the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contri-
buted to each of its Annuals, for about twenty-two years,
important scientific notices on astronomy and meteorology
and occasionally on civil engineering, as well as interesting
memoirs of members of the Academy.
In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the
extreme republican type, was elected a member of the chamber
of deputies for the Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid
gifts of eloquence and scientific knowledge in all questions con-
nected with public education, the rewards of inventors, and the
encouragement of the mechanical and practical sciences. Many
of the most creditable national enterprises, dating from this
period, are due to his advocacy— such as the reward to L. J. M.
Dagucrre for the invention of photography, the grant for
the publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace,
the acquisition of the museum of Cluny, the development
of railways and electric telegraphs, the improvement of the
ARAGON
3U
navigation of the Seine, and the boring of the artesian wells at
Grenclle.
In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observ-
atory, and as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able
to obtain grants of money for rebuilding it in part, and for the
addition of magnificent instruments. In the same year, too,
he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences,
in room of J. B. J. Fourier. Arago threw his whole soul into its
sen ice, and by his faculty of making friends he gained at once
for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As perpetual
secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical iloges on deceased
members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of thought
his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge
peculiarly adapted him.
In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of
the British Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848
be led a life of comparative quiet — not the quiet of inactivity,
however, for his incessant labours within the Academy and the
Observatory produced a multitude of contributions to all depart-
ments of physical science, — but on the fall of Louis Philippe he
left his laboratory to join in forming the provisional govern-
ment. He was entrusted with the discharge of two important
functions, that had never before been united in one person, viz.
the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity
he effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of
rations in the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also
abolished political oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of
moneyed interests, succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro
slavery in the French colonics.
In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of
Louis Napoleon required an oath of allegiance from all its
functionaries, Arago peremptorily refused, and sent in his
resignation of his post as astronomer at the Bureau des Longi-
tudes. This, however, the prince president, to his credit, de-
clined to accept, and made w an exception in favour of a savant
whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose existence
his government would regret to embitter." But the tenure
of office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago
was now on his death-bed, under a complication of diseases,
induced, no doubt, by the hardships and labours of his earlier
> C2 rs. In the summer of 1853 be was advised by his physicians
to try the effect of his native air, and he accordingly set out
for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was unavailing, and
after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first from diabetes,
then from Blight's disease, complicated by dropsy, he died in
Paris on the 2nd of October 1853.
Arago's fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly
on his contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He
found that a magnetic needle, made to oscillate over non-
fcrmginous surfaces, such as water, glass, copper, &c, falls
more rapidly in the extent of its oscillations according as it is
more or less approached to the surface. This discovery, which
gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1825, was
followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends to
communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over
it (" magnetism of rotation "). Arago is also fairly entitled
to be regarded as having proved the long-suspected connexion
between the aurora borealis and the variations of the magnetic
elements.
In optics we owe to him not only important optica! discoveries
of hi3 own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A. J.
Fresnel, with whose history, as well as with that of E. L. Malus
and of Thomas Young, this part of his life is closely interwoven.
Shortly after the beginning of the 19th century the labours of
these three philosophers were shaping the modern doctrine
of the undulatory theory of light. Frcsnel's arguments in
favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace, Poisson
and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were
ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been
appointed by the Academy to report on the paper. This was
the foundation of an intimate friendship between Arago and
Fresnel, and of a determination to carry on together further
researches In this subject, which led to the enunciation of the
fundamental laws of the polarization of light known by their
names (see Polarization). As a result of this work Arago
constructed a polariscope, which he used for some interesting
observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him
is also due the discovery of the power of rotatory polarization
exhibited by quartz, and last of all, among his many contri-
butions to the support of the undulatory hypothesis, comes
the txperimtntum cruets which he proposed to carry out for
comparing directly the velocity of light in air and in water
or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be acceler-
ated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave
theory, it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the
Academy the details of his apparatus, which utilized the re-
volving mirrors employed by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for
measuring the velocity of the electric discharge; but owing to
the great care required in the carrying out of the project, and to
the interruption to his labours caused by the revolution of 1848,
it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put his idea
to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before
his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media
was demonstrated by the experiments of H. L. Fizcau and
J. B. L. Foucault,' which, with improvements in detail, were
based on the plan proposed by him.
1
(
1
ARAGON, or Airagon (in Span. Aragdn), a captaincy*
general, and formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the
N. by the Pyrenees, which separate it from France, on the E.
by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by Valencia, and W.« by the two
Castilcs and Navarre. Pop. (1000) 012,711; area, 18,294
sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of Huesce,
Teruel and Saragossa;an account of its modern condition is
therefore given under these names, which have not, however,
superseded the older designation in popular usage.
Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges.
On the south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and
rugged, are of no great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees
attain their greatest altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.)
and Monte Pcrdido (10,998 ft.)— also known as Las Trcs Sororcs,
and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The central pass over the
Pyrenees is the Port dc Canfranc, on the line between Saragossa
and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (q.v.), which flows
through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly equal
parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibcro. The Ebro is the prin-
cipal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through
the province, the Arba, the Gallcgo and the united waters
of the Cinca, Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa
and Segre— the last three belonging to Catalonia. From the
south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca (or Xalon and Xihca)
and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of Aragon, which was
begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained un-
finished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to
El Burgo de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of ft, and
an average breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about
8b tons. The Royal Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north
side of the Ebro, was cut for purposes of irrigation, and gives
fertility to the district. Two leagues north-north-east of Albar-
radn is the remarkable fountain called Cella, 3700 ft above the
3H
ARAGONITE— ARAGUA
tea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and between this river
and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called Gallocanta,
covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by
extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the
mountains the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent,
but there is comparatively little rain.
Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was un-
doubtedly submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil
remains saturated with salt, while many of the smaller streams
run brackish. As the mountains of Valencia and Catalonia
effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture of the sea-winds,
much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony, ash-coloured,
scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any vegetation
except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid
fertility of Valencia or the south, of France, the landscape of
this region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a con-
tinuation of the north African desert area. There are, however,
extensive oak, pine and beech forests in the highlands, and many
beautiful oases in the deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers,
especially beside the Ebro, which is, therefore, often called the
" Nile of Aragon." In such oases the flora is exceedingly rich.
Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp, of fine quality, are grown
in considerable quantities; as well as saffron, madder, liquorice,
sumach, and a variety .of fruits. Merino wool is one of the chief
products.
In purity of race the Aragonest are probably equal to tne
CastQtans, to. whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians,
they are also allied in character. The dress of the women is less
distinctive than that of the men, who wear a picturesque black
and white costume, with knee-breeches, a brilliantly coloured
sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief wound round
the head.
Three counties— Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of
the Cinca, Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorca,
to the cast— are indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles
as the cradle of the Aragonese monarchy. These districts were
never wholly subdued when the Moors overran the country
(7 x 1-7 13). Sobrarbe especially was for a time the headquarters
of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035,
Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom
of Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned,
bequeathed them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro
soon rid himself of his rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza
and Aragon into a single kingdom, which thenceforward grew
rapidly in size and power and shared with Castile the chief part
in the struggle against the Moors. The history of this period,
which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon under
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full account
of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under Spain
(?.».). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276),
the kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands
and the considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while
Peter III. (1 276-1 285) added Sicily to his dominions.
The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in
addition to the works cited in the article Spain (section History),
" Lc» Archives d' Aragon ct dc Navarre," by L. Cadicr, in Biblioihiquc
de Vtuole des Charles, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important
original authorities, tne following may be selected:— for general
history, Ancles de la corona dt Aragon, by G. Curita, yrd ed. in 7
folio volumes (Saragossa, 1 668-1 671; 1st ed^ 1562-1580) ;— for
ecclesiastical history, Tcatro historico de las iglesias at Aragon
(Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, Hist6ria de la
economiapolitica de Arag6n, by I. I. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa,
1798). For the constitution and laws of Aragon, sec Ortgines del
Jnsticia deAragdn, Sec, by J. Ribcra Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and
Insiituciones y reyes de Aragdn, by V. Balagu6r (Madrid, 1896). The
topography, inhabitants, art, products,. &c, of the kingdom are
described in a volume of the series Espafla entitled Aragdn, by J. M.
Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886).
ARAGOMITB, one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate
(CaCOi), the other form being the more common mineral calcite.
It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and the crystals are
either prismatic or acicular in habit. Simple crystals are, how-
ever, rare; twinning on the prism planes (M in the figures)
being a chara cter ist ic feature of the mineral (fig. 1). This
Fig. 1.
Fie a.
twinning is usually often repeated on the same plane (fig. 2),
and gives rise to striatums on the terminal faces (A) of the
crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on
two of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently
hexagonal prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish,
transparent or translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in (act, is
not unlike calcite in general appearance. It may, however,
always be readily distinguished from calcite by the absence of
any marked cleavage, and by its greater hardness (H.=»3J— 4)
and specific gravity (2*93); further, it is optically biaxial, whilst
calcite is uniaxial It is brittle and has a subcoochoidal fracture;
on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly resinous in character.
The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with
the form of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where
it occurs with gypsum and
small crystals of ferruginous yf^V-JL
quarts in a red clay. It is
from this locality that the
mineral takes its name,
which was originally spelt
arragonite. Fine groups of
crystals of the same habit
are found in. the sulphur
deposits of Girgcnti in
Sicily; also at Hcrrcn-
grund near Ncusohl in
Hungary. At many other
localities the mineral takes the form of radiating groups of
acicular crystals, such as those from the haematite mines of
west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been found
in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also
common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as fiosfcrri
("flower of iron") consists of radially arranged fibres:
magnificent snow-white specimens of this variety have long
been known from the iron mines of Eiscncrz in Styria. The
calcareous secretions of many groups of invertebrate animals
consist of aragonitc (calcite is also common); pearls may be
specially cited as an example.
Aragonitc is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals
comprising withcrilc (BaCOs), strontianite (SrCOa), cerussite
(PbCOa) and bromlitc ((Ba, Ca)CO»); and crystals of aragonitc
sometimes contain small amounts of strontium or lead. A
variety known as tarnowitzile, from Tarnowitx in Silesia,
contains about 5 % of lead carbonate.
Aragonitc is the more unstable of the two modifications of
calcium carbonate. A crystal of aragonitc when heated becomes
converted into a granular aggregate of calcite individuals:
altered crystals of this kind (paramorphs) are not infrequently
met with in nature, whilst in fossil shells the original nacreous
layer of aragonitc has invariably been altered to calcite. From
a solution of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon
dioxide crystals of calcite arc deposited at the ordinary tem-
perature, but from a warm solution aragonitc crystallizes
out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical
concretions of aragonitc, forming masses known as pisolite or
Spruddstci*. (L. J. S.)
ARAGUA, one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the
rcdivision of 1004, lying principally within the parallel ranges
of the Venezuelan Cordillera, and comprising some of the most
fertile and healthful valleys of the republic. It is bounded E.
by the Federal District and Maturin, S. by Cu&rico and W. by
Zamora and Carabobo. Top. (1005, est.) 152,364. Aragua
has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the Federal
District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and goats
arc raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans,
cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is sub-
tropical, the mean annual temperature ranging from 74" to 8o° F.
The capital, La Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile
Aragua valley, 1558 ft. above sea -level and 36 m> south-west of
Caracas. Other important towns a re Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on
the left bank of the Guarico in a highly fertile region, Ciudad
de Cura and Maracay (pop. 7500), 56 m. west-south-west of
ARAGUAYA— ARAKCHEEV
3»5
Caracas near the north-east shore of Lake Valencia. The last
two towns are on the railway between Caracas and Valencia.
ARAGUAYA* Araguay or Abaguia, a river of Brazil and
principal affluent of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayap6,
where it is known as the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by
east direction to a junction with the Tocantins at Sao Jofto do
Araguaya, or Sao Joao das DuasBarras. Its upper course forms
the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The river
divides into two branches at about 1 3* 20* S. lat., and unites again
at io° yf, forming the large island of Santa Anna or Bananal.
The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats,
as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal
affluent is the Rio das Mortcs, which rises in the Serra de Sao
Jeronymo, near Cuyaba, Matto Grosso, and is utilised by
boatmen going to Pari, Of other affluents, the Bonito, Cartas,
Crisullino and Tapirape on the west, and the Pitombas, Claro,
Vermelho, Tucupa and Chavante on the cast, nothing definite is
known as the country is still largely unexplored. The Araguaya
has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which arc
navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa
Anna Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places-
one having a fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft.
in 12 m. — it affords no practicable outlet for the products of
the state. It was explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1807.
See Coudreau** Voya£tatt Tocanlitu-Anguaya (Paris, 1897).
ABAKAN, a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip
of country running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of
Bengal, from the Naaf estuary, on the borders of Chittagong,
to Cape Negrais. Length from northern extremity to Cape
Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in the northern part,
90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it is hemmed
in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south,
it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across.
The coast is studded with islands, the most important of which
are Cheduba, Ramree and'Shahpuxa. The division has its head*
quarters at Akyab and consists of four districts—namely, Akyab,
Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and Kyaukpyu,
formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The popu-
lation at the time of the British occupation in t8s6 did not exceed
100.000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000,
and in 1001 to 762,10a.
The principal rivers of Arakan are — (1) the Naaf estuary, in
the north, which forms the boundary between the division and
Chittagong; (a) the Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a
course almost parallel with the coast for about 50 m.; (3) the
Koladafng river, rising near the Blue mountain, in the extreme
north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal a few miles south
of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to 400 tons
burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river,
a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of
the Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness
of the range which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of
but little importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng,
navigable by boats; and the Sandoway, the Taungup and the
Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance,
owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or haven for
vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes over
the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng
route, leading from the village of that name into- Upper Burma.
The staple crop of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco,
sugar, hemp and indigo. The forests produce abundance of
excellent oak and teak Umber.
The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as
2666 B.C., and give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down
to modern times. According to them, their empire had at one
period far rider limits, and extended over Ava, part of China,
and a portion of Bengal. This extension of their empire is not,
however, corroborated by known facts in history. At different
times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms into the heart of
the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness
in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in
178a the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from
which period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the
treaty of Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma.
The old city of Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is
situated on an inferior branch of the Koladaing river. Its
remoteness from the ports and harbours of the country, com*
bined with the extreme unhealthincss of its situation, have led
to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation of the com-
paratively recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the
chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50
m. north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole
population of the province,, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which
are universally professed throughout Burma. The priests are
selected from all classes of men, and one of their chief employ,
ments is the education of children. Instruction is consequently
widely diffused, and few persons, it is said, can be found In the
province who are unable to read. The qualifications for entering
into the priestly order arc good conduct and a fair measure of
learning— such conduct at least as is good according to Buddhist
tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their votaries.
The Arakancsc arc of Burmese origin, but separated from the
parent stock by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have
a dialect and customs of their own. Though conquered by the
Burmese, they have remained distinct from their conquerors.
The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a super-
intendent, who is usually a police officer, with headquarters
at Paletwa. The area of the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m. ; pop.
(1001) 20,682. (J. G. Sc.)
ARAKCHEEV, ALBKSYEt ANDRBEVICH, Count (1760-
1834), Russian soldier and statesman, was descended from an
ancient family of Great Novgorod. From his mother, Elizabeth
Vitlttsaya, he inherited most of his characteristics, an insatiable
love of work, an almost pedantic love of order and the most
rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps of noble
cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his
ability, especially fn mathematics, soon attracted attention.
In July 1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count
N. I. Saltuikov, who (September 1792) recommended him to
the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the artillery officer most capable
of reorganizing the army corps maintained by the prince at
Gatchina. Arakchcev speedily won the entire confidence of
Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability.
His inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends)
soon made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the
Russian army. On the accession of Paul to the throne Arak-
chcev was promptly summoned to St Petersburg, appointed
military commandant in the capital, and major-general in the
grenadier battalion of tho Preobrazhenskoe Guard. On the
X2th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and
a rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the
only substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of
his career. At the coronation (sth of April 1797) Paul created
him a baron, and he was subsequently made quartermaster-
general and colonel of the whole Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It
was to Arakchcev that Paul entrusted the reorganisation of the
army, which during the latter days of Catherine had fallen into
a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev remorselessly
applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the imperial
forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally
detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly
and introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. " Clean
barracks are healthy barracks," was his motto. Nevertheless,
the opposition of the officers proved too strong for him, and on
the 1 8th of March 1798 he was dismissed from all his appoint-
ments. Arakchccv's first disgrace only lasted six months. On
the nth of August he was received back into favour, speedily
reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of May 1799
was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto:
" Devoted, not servile." Five months later he was again in
disgrace, the emperor dismissing him on the strength of a
denunciation subsequently proved to be false. It was a fatal
step on Paul's part, for everything goes to prove that he would
never have been assassinated had Arakcheev continued by his
316
ARAL
si<jc. During the earlier yean of Alexander, Arakcheev was
completely overlooked. Only on the a 7th of April 1803, was
the count recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-
general of the artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization
of the whole department contributed essentially to the victories
of the Russians during the Napoleonic wars. All critics agree,
indeed, that the Arakcheev administration was the golden era
of the Russian artillery. The activity of the inexhaustible
inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing which
could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were
the subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate inde-
pendent units, the formation of artillery brigades, the estab-
lishment of a committee of instruction (1808), and the publishing
of an Artillery Journal. At Austertitz he had the satisfaction
of witnessing the actual results of his artillery reforms. The
commissariat scandals which came to light after the peace of
Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of the stern and
incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources of
the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general
and war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war
of 1809, the emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an
unusually severe frost and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland,
it was only the presence of Arakcheev that compelled an un-
willing general and a semi-mutinous army to begin a campaign
which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the institution of
the "Imperial Council" (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev was
made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while
still retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was
alienated from him owing to the intrigues of the count's enemies,
who hated him for his severity and regarded him as a dangerous
reactionary. The alienation was not, however, for long. It is
true, Arakcheev took no active part in the war of 181 2, but
all the correspondence -and despatches relating to it passed
through his hands, and he was the emperor's inseparable com-
panion during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March
1814) Alexander, with his own hand, wrote the ukca appointing
him a field-marshal, but he refused the dignity, accepting,
instead, a miniature portrait of his master. From this time
Alexander's confidence in Arakcheev steadily increased, and
the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many projects of
reform, especially his project of military colonies, the carrying
out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824).
The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count,
but to the inefficiency and insubordination of -the district
officers. In Alexander's lost years Arakcheev was not merely
his chief counsellor, but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted
all his projects for consideration and revision. The most inter-
esting of these projects was the plan for the emancipation of the
peasantry (1818). On the accession of Nicholas I., Arakcheev,
thoroughly broken in health, gradually restricted his immense
sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April 1826, resigned all his
offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000 roubles presented
to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once handed to
the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of
poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina,
carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory
he most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for
the author of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arak-
cheev died on the 21st of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the
last on the late emperor's portrait. " I have now done every-
thing," he said, " so I can go and make my report to the emperor
Alexander." In 1806 he had married Natalia Khomulova. but
they lived apart, and he bad no children by her.
Sec Vasiiy Raich, Memorials of Count Arakcheev (Rus.) (St Peters-
burg, 1864); Mikhail Ivanovicn Semcvsky, Count Arakcheev and
the Military Colonies (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 4871): Theodor Schic-
mann, Gesch. Rus stand's unter Kaiser Ntkotaus /., vol. i , Alex-
ander /., &c. (Berlin. 1904). (R. N. B.)
ARAL, a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated
between lat 43° 3©' and 46° 51' N., and long. 58 13' and
6t° 56' £. It was known to the ancient Arab and Persian
geographers as the Sea of Khwarizm or Kharczm, from the neigh-
bouring district of the Chorasmians, and derives its present name
from the Kirghiz designation of Aral-denghiz, or Sea of Islands.
In virtue of its area (26,233 sq.m.) it is the fourth largest inland
sea of the world. Il has nearly the same length as width,
namely about 170 ra., if its northern gulf (Kichkineh-denghis)
is left out of account. Its depth is insignificant, the maximum
being 220 ft. in a depression in the north-west, and the mean
depth only 50 ft., so that notwithstanding its area it contains
only eleven times as much water as the Lake of Geneva, Its
altitude is 242} ft. above the Caspian, i.e. about 155 ft. above
the ocean. The lake is surrounded on the north by steppes; an
the west by the rocky plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it from
the Caspian; on the south by the alluvial district of Khiva; and
on the east by the Kyzy 1-kum, or Red Sand Desert. On the north
the shores are comparatively low, and the coast-line is broken by
a number of irregular bays, of which the most important are
those of Sary-chaganak and Paskcvich. On the west an almost
unbroken wall of rock extends from Chcrnychcv Bay south-
wards, rising towards the middle to 500 ft The southern coast
is occupied by the delta of the Oxus (Jlhun, Amu-darya), one
of the arms of which, the Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long
and 30 broad, before it discharges into the sea. The only
other tributary of any size that the sea receives is the Jaxartcs
(Sihan, Syr-darya) which enters towards the northern extremity
of the cast coast, and is suspected to be shifting its embouchure
more and more to the north. This river, as well as the Amu,
conveys vast quantities of sediment into the lake; the delta
of the Syr-darya increased by 13 i sq. m. between 1847 *od 1000.
The eastern coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands,
and other islands, some of considerable size, arc situated in the
open towards the north and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies
opposite the mouth of the Syr-darya, cutting oft the Kichkineh-
denghiz or Little Sea. The next largest island is the Nikolai,
nearly in the middle. Navigation is dangerous owing to the
frequency and violence of the storms, and the almost total
absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most prevalent,
arid sometimes blows for months together The only other
craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on
the waters, arc the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz.
In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were
formerly two theories. According to Sir H. C- Rawlinson
{Proc. Roy. Ccog. Soc., March 1867) the disturbances which
produced the present lake took place in the course of the middle
ages; while Sir Roderick Murchisoa contended (Jour*. 0/ Hoy.
Ceog. Soc,, 1867, p. cxliv. &c.) thai the Caspian and Aral existed
as separate seas before and during all the historic period, and
that the main course of the rivers Jaxartcs and Oxus was deter-
mined in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely
on historical evidence, and the latter trusted principally to
geological data. There is no doubt that in recent historical
limes Lake Aral had a much greater extension than it has at the
present time, and that its area is now diminishing. This is, of
course, due to the excess of evaporation over the amount of
water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-da rya and the Syr-
darya, both of which arc seriously drawn upon for irrigation in
all *the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other
indications point to the level of the lake having once been so ft.
above the existing level. Nevertheless the general desiccation
is subject to temporary fluctuations, which appear to corre-
spond to the periods recently suggested by Kduard Brtckner
(b. 1862), for, whereas the lake diminished and shrank during
1850-1880, since the lat.cr year it has been rising again. Islands
which were formerly connected with the shore are now some
distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. More-
over, on a graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a per-
manent rise of nearly 4 fL by 1001. The temperature at the
bottom was found (1900-iooa) by Emil Berg to be 33*8° Fahr.»
while that of the surface varied from 44-5° to 80-5° between
May and September; the mean surface temperature for July
was 75°. The salinity of the water is much less than that of
the ocean, containing only 1-05% of salt, and the lake freezes
every year for a great distance from its shores. The opinion,
that Lake Aral periodically disappeared, which was lot a lout
ARAM— ARANDA
317
time countenanced by Western geographers, loses more and
more probability now that it is evident that at a relatively
recent period the Caspian Sea extended much farther eastward
than it does now, and that Lake Aral communicated with it
through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present writer is
even inclined to think that, besides this southerncommunication
with the Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in historical
times, connected with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of
the Caspian, discharging part of its water into that sea through
a depression of the Ust-Urt plateau, which is marked by a chain
of lakes (Chumyshty, AsmanUi). In this case it might have
been easily confounded with a gulf of the Caspian (as by Jenkin-
son). That the level of Lake Aral was much higher in post-
Pliocene times is proved by the discovery of shells of its char-
acteristic species of Pecten and Myttfus in the Kara-kum Desert,
35 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 it above its
present level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft (by Syevertsov).
The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in
some of its rapid tributaries the interesting Scaphirhynchus,
which represents a survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found.
The fishing is very productive, the fish being exported to Turkes-
tan, Merv and Russia. The snores of the lake are uninhabited;
the nearest settlements are Kazala, 55 m. east, on the Syr, and
Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu.
ArrrHonmss. — Maksheev'a " Description of Lake Aral,'* and
Kaulbars' " Delta of the Amu," in Zapiski of Russ. Geotr. Soc.,
which contains bibliographical references; Rosier, Die Aralseefrage
(1873); Wood, The Shores of the Aral Lake (1876); and Berg in
Itsestia, Turkestan Branch of Russian Ceog. Soc. (vol. iii., Tashkent,
1902). (P. A. K.)
ARAM, EUGENB (1704-1759), English scholar, but more
famous at the murderer celebrated by Hood in his ballad, the
Drum of Eugene Aram, and by Bulwer Lytton in his romance
of Eugene Aram, was born of humble parents at Ramsgill,
Yorkshire, in 1704. He received little education at school, but
manifested an intense desire for learning. While still young,
he married and settled as a schoolmaster at Netherdale, and
during the years he spent there, he taught himself both Latin
and Greek. In 1734 he removed to Knaresborough, where he
remained as schoolmaster till 1745. In that year a man named
Daniel Clark, an intimate friend of Aram, after obtaining a con-
siderable quantity of goods from some of the tradesmen in the
town, suddenly disappeared. Suspicions of being concerned in
this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was
searched, and some of the goods found there. As, however,
there was not evidence sufficient to convict htm of any crime,
he was discharged, and soon after set out for London, leaving
his wife behind. For several years he travelled through parts
of England, acting as usher in a number of schools, and settled
finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels he had amassed
considerable materials for a work he had projected on etymology,
to be entitled a Comparatiot Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek,
Hebrew and Celtic Languages. He-was undoubtedly an original
philologist, who realised, what was then not yet admitted by
scholars, the affinity of the Celtic language to the other languages
of Europe, and could dispute the then accepted belief that Latin
was derived from Greek. Aram's writings show that he had
grasped .the right idea on the subject of the Indo-European
character of the Celtic language, which was not established
till J. C Prichard published his book. Eastern Origin of the Celtic
Nations, in 1831. But he was not destined to live in history as
the pioneer of a new philology. In February 1758 a skeleton
was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that
it might be Clark's. Aram's wife had more than once hinted
that her husband and a man named Houseman knew the secret
of Clark'a disappearance. Houseman was at once arrested and
confronted with the bones that had been found. He affirmed his
innocence, and, taking up one of the bones, said, " This, is no
more Dan Clark's bone than it is mine." .His manner in saying
this roused suspicion that he knew more of Clark'a disappearance
than he was willing to admit. He was again examined, and
confessed that he had been present at the murder of Clark by
Aram and another man, Terry, of whom nothing further is heard.
He also gave information as to the place where the body had been
buried in St Robert's Cave, a well-known spot near Knares-
borough- A skeleton was dug up here, and Aram was im-
mediately arrested, and sent to York for trial Houseman was
admitted as evidence against him. Aram conducted his own
defence, and did not attempt to overthrow Houseman's evidence,
although there were some discrepancies in that; but made a
skilful attack on the fallibility of circumstantial evidence in
general, and particularly of evidence drawn from the discovery
of bones. He brought forward several instances where bones
had been found in caves, and tried to show that the bones found
in St Robert's Cave were probably those of some hermit who
had taken up his abode there. He was found guilty, and con-,
demned to be executed on the 6*th of August 1750, three days
after his trial. While in his cell he confessed his guilt, and threw
some light on the motives for his crime, by asserting that he had
discovered a criminal intimacy between Clark and his own wife.
On the night before his execution he made an unsuccessful
attempt at suicide by opening the veins in his arm.
ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, a class of languages so called from
Aram, a geographical term, which in old Semitic usage desig-
nates nearly the same districts as the Greek word Syria. Aram,
however, does not include Palestine, while it comprehends
Mesopotamia (Hcb. Aram of two rivers), a region which the
Greeks frequently distinguish from Syria proper. Thus the
Aramaic languages may be geographically denned as the Semitic
dialects originally current in Mesopotamia and the regions
extending south-west from the Euphrates to Palestine. (See
Semitic Languages; Sykxac; Takcum.)
ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DB BOLEA. Count or
(1710*1798), Spanish minister and general, was born at the castle
of Stftamo, a lordship of his family near Hucsca in Aragon, on the
1 st of August 17 19. The house of Abarca was very ancient, a
fact of which Don Pedro, who never forgot that he was a " rico
hombre " (noble) of Aragon, was deeply conscious. He was
educated partly at Bologna and partly at the military school
of Parma. In 1740 he entered the army as captain in the
regiment " Castilla," of which his father was proprietary coloneL
On the death of his father he became colonel, and served in the
Italian campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession. In
1749 he married Dona Ana, daughter of the oth duke of Hijar,
by whom he had one son, who died young, and a daughter.
During the following years he travelled and visited the camp
of Frederick the Great, whose system of drill he admired and
afterwards introduced into the Spanish army. After a short
period of diplomatic service in Portugal, where his exacting
temper made it impossible for him to agree with the premier,
Pombal, he returned to Madrid, was made a knight of the Golden
Fleece, and director-general of artillery— a post which he threw
up, together with his- rank of lieutenant-general, because he
was not allowed to punish certain fraudulent contractors. The
king, Ferdinand VI., exiled him to his estates, but Charles III.
on his accession took him into favour. He was again employed
in diplomacy, and then appointed to command an army against
Portugal in 1763. In 1764 he was made governor of Valencia.
When in 1766 the king was driven from his capital in a riot, he
summoned Aranda to Madrid and made him president of the
council, and captain-general of New Castile. Until 1773 Aranda
was the most important minister in Spain. He restored order
and aided the king most materially in his work of administrative
reform. But his great achievements, which gave him a high
reputation throughout Europe with the philosophical and anti-
clerical parties, were his expulsion of the Jesuits, whom the
king considered responsible for the riot of 1766, and the active
part he took in the suppression of the order. Aranda had come
much under foreign influence by his education and his travels,
and had acquired the reputation of Being a confirmed sceptic
By Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists he was erected into a hem
from whom great things were expected. His ability.
3*8
ARAN ISLANDS— ARANY
remarkable capacity for work, and his popularity made him in-
dispensable to the king. But he was a trying servant, for his
temper was captious and his tongue sarcastic, while his aristo-
cratic arrogance led him to display an offensive contempt for
the gdillas (the stiff collars), as he called the lawyers and public
servants whom the king preferred to choose as ministers, and
he permitted himself an amazing freedom of language with his
sovereign. At last Charles III. sent him as ambassador to Paris
in a disguised disgrace. Aranda held this position till 1787, but
in Paris he was chiefly known for his oddities of manner and
for perpetual wrangling with the French on small points of
etiquette. He resigned his post for private reasons. In the
reign of Charles IV., with whom he had been on familiar terms
during the life of the old king, he was for a very short time prime
minister in 1792. In reality he was merely used as a screen by
the queen Maria Louisa and her favourite Godoy. His open
sympathy with the French Revolution brought him into collision
with the violent reaction produced in Spain by the excesses of
the Jacobins, while his temper, which had become perfectly
uncontrollable with age, made him insufferable to the king.
After his removal from office he was imprisoned for a short time
at Granada, and was threatened with a trial by the Inquisition.
The proceedings did not go beyond the preliminary stage, and
Aranda died at Epila on the oth of January 1798.
See Don Jacob© de la Pczuela in the Revuta de Espana, vol.
xxv. (1872); Don Antonio M\ Fabie, in the Diccionario general
de politico y administration of Don E. Suarez lnclan (Madrid, 1868),
vol. i. ; M. Morel Fatio, Etudes sur I'Espagne (2nd series, Paris,
1890). (D. H.)
ARAN ISLAHDS, or South Asan, three islands lying across
Galway Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, in a south-easterly
direction, forming a kind of natural breakwater. They belong
to the county Galway, and their population in 1001 was 2863.
They arc called respectively— beginning with the northernmost
—Inishmore (or A ran more), the Great Island; Inishmaan, the
Middle Island; and Inishecr, the Eastern Island. The first
has an elevation of 354 ft., the second of 25$, and the third of
202. Their formation is carboniferous limestone. These islands
are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very
early date. In Inishmore there stand, on a cliff 2 20 ft. high, large
remains of a circular cyclopean tower, called Dun-Aengus,
ascribed to the Fir-bolg or Bclgae; or, individually, to the first
of three brothers, Aengus, Conchobar and Nil, who reached Aran
Islands from Scotland in the xst century a.d. There are seven
other similar structures in the group. Inishmore also bears the
name of Aran-na-naomh, Aran-of-the-Saints, from the number
of religious recluses who took up their abode in it, and gave a
celebrity to the holy wells, altars and shrines, to which many
are still attracted. No less, indeed, than twenty buildings of
ecclesiastical or monastic character have been enumerated in
the three islands. On Inishmore are remains of the abbey of
Killenda. Christianity was introduced in the 5th century, and
Aran soon became one of the most famous island-resorts of
religious teachers and ascetics. The extraordinary fame of the
foundations here has been inferred from the inscription " VII.
Romani " on a stone in the church Teampull Brccain on Inish-
more, attributed to disciples from Rome. The total area of the
islands is 11,579 acres. The Congested Districts Board made
many efforts to improve the condition of the inhabitants, especi-
ally by introducing better methods of fishing. A curing station
is established at Killeany, the harbour of Inishmore.
ARAM JUBZ (perhaps the ancient Ara J oris), a town of central
Spain, in the province of Madrid, 30 m. S. of Madrid, on the left
bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the main southern
railways to Madrid, and at the western terminus of the Aranjues-
Cuenca railway. Pop. (1000) 12,67a Aranjuez occupies part
of a wide valley, about 1500 ft above the sea. Its formal,
straight streets, crossing one another regularly at right angles,
and its uniform, two-storeyed houses were built in imitation of
the Dutch style, under the direction of Jcronimo, marquis de
Grimaldi (17x6-1788), ambassador of Charles III. at the Hague.
A rapid in the Tagus, artificially converted into a weir, renders
irrigation easy, and has thus created an oasis in the midst of the
barren plateau of New Castile. On every sfde the town h sur-
rounded by royal parks and woods of sycamores, plane-trees
and elms, often of extraordinary size. The prevalence of the
dark English elms, first introduced into the country and planted
here by order of Philip II. (1527-1508), gives to the Aranjuez
district a character wholly distinct from that of other Spanish
landscapes; and at an early period, despite the unhealthy
climate, and especially the oppressive summer heat, which often
approaches ioo° F., Aranjues became a favourite residence of
the Spanish court. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the master
of the Order of Santiago had a country seat here, which passed,
along with the mastership, into the possession of the crown
of Spain in 1522. Its successive occupants, from the emperor
Charles V. (1500-1558) down to Ferdinand VII. (1784-1833),
modified it according to their respective tastes. The larger
palace was built by Pedro Caro for Philip V. (1683-1746), in the
French style of the period. It overlooks the Jardin de la Isla, a
beautiful garden laid out for Philip II. on an island in the
Tagus, which forms the scene of Schiller's famous drama Don
Carlos. The Casa del Labrador, or Labourer's Cottage, as ft
is called, is a smaller palace built by Charles IV. in 1803,
and full of elaborate ornamentation. The chief local industry
is farming, and an annual fair is held in September for the sale
of live stock. Great attention is given to the rearing of horses
and mules, and the royal stud used to be remarkable for the
beauty of its cream-coloured breed. The treaty of 1772 between
France and Spain was concluded at Aranjuez, which afterwards
suffered severely from the French during the Peninsular War.
Here, also, in 1808, the insurrection broke out which ended in
the abdication of Charles IV.
For a fuller description of Aranjuez tec D.S. Viflas y Rcy. Aranjue*
(Madrid, 1890) ; F. Nard, Cuia de Aranjuez, su kistoria y description
(Madrid, 1851), (illustrated); Alvarez de Quindos. Description
kUtorica del real basque y casa de Aranjuez (Madrid, 1804).
ARANY, JANOS (1817-1882), the greatest poet of Hungary
after Petofi, was born at Nagy-Szalonta on the and of March
1 81 7, the son of GyOrgy Arany and Sara Megyeri; his people
were small Calvinist yeomen of noble origin, whose property
consisted of a rush-thatched cottage and a tiny plot of land.
An only son, late born, seeing no companions of his own age,
hearing nothing but the voices of his parents and the hymns
and prayers in the little Calvinist chapel, Arany grew up a grave
and gentle, but by no means an ignorant child. His precocity
was remarkable. At six years of age he went to school at
Szalonta, where he read everything he could lay his hands
upon in Hungarian and Latin. From 1832 to 1836 Arany was
a preceptor at Kis-Ujszallas and Debreceen, still a voracious
reader with a wider field before him, for he had by this time
taught himself French and German. Tiring of the monotony
of a scholastic life, he joined a troupe of travelling actors. The
hardships he suffered were as nothing compared with the pangs
of conscience which plagued ham when he thought of the despair
of his father, who had meant to make a pastor of this prodigal
son, to whom both church and college now seemed for ever
closed. At last he borrowed sixpence from the stage-manager
and returned home, carrying all his property tied up in a hand-
kerchief. Shortly after his home-coming his mother died and
his father became stone-blind. Arany at once resolved that it
was his duty never to leave his father again, and a conrectorship
which he obtained at this time enabled them to live in modest
comfort. In 1840 he obtained a notaryship also, and the same
year married Juliana Ercscy, the penniless orphan daughter of
an advocate. The next few happy years were devoted to his
profession and a good deal of miscellaneous reading, especially
of Shakespeare (he learnt English in order (o compare the
original with his well-thumbed German version) and Homer.
Meanwhile the reactionaries of Vienna were goading the Magyar
Liberals into revolt, and Arany round a safety-valve for his
growing indignation by composing a satirical poem in hex-
ameters, entitled "The Lost Constitution." The Kisfalody
Society, the great literary association of Hungary, about this
time happened to advertise a prise for the best satire on current
ARAPAHO— ARARAT
319
events. Arany sent in bis work, and shortly afterwards was
awarded the 25-guldcn prize (7th of February 1846) by the
society, which then advertised another prise for the best Magyar
epic poem. Arany won this also with his Toldi (the first part
of the present trilogy), and immediately found himself famous.
All eyes were instantly turned towards the poor country notary,
and Petofi was the first to greet him as a brother. In February
of the following year Arany was elected a member of the Kis-
faludy Society. In the memorable year 1848 the people of
Szalonta elected him their deputy to the Hungarian parliament
But neither now nor subsequently (1861, 1869) would he accept
a parliamentary mandate. He wrote many articles, however,
in the gazette Nipbardtja, an organ of the Magyar government,
and served in the field as a national guard for eight or ten weeks.
In 1849 he was in the civil service of the revolutionary govern-
ment, and after the final catastrophe returned to his. native
place, living as best he could on his small savings till 1850, when
Lajos Tisza, the father of Kalman Tisza, the future prime
minister, invited him to his castle at Gcszt to teach his son
Domokos the art of poetry. In the following year Arany was
elected professor of Hungarian literature and language at the
Nagy-Kords gymnasium. He also attempted to write another
epic poem, but the time was not favourable for such an under-
taking. The miserable condition of his country, and his own
very precarious situation, weighed heavily upon his sensitive
soul, and he suffered severely both in mind and body. On the
other hand reflection on past events made clear to him not only
the sufferings but the defects and follies of the national heroes,
and from henceforth, for the first time, we notice a bitterly
humorous vein in his writings. Thus Bolond Jstdk, the first
canto of which he completed in 1850, is full of sub-acrid merri-
ment. During his nine years' residence at Nagy-Kords, Arany
first seriously turned his attention to the Magyar ballad, and
not only composed some of the most beautiful ballads in the
language, but wrote two priceless dissertations on the technique
of the ballad in general: " Something concerning assonance "
(1854), and" On Hungarian National Versification " (1856).
When the Hungarian Academy opened its doors again after
a ten years' cessation, Arany was elected a member (15th
of December 1858). On the 15th of July i860 he was elected
director of the revived Kisfaludy Society, and went to Pest.
In November, the same year, he started Szipirodalmi Figyelo,
a monthly review better known by its later name, Koszeru, which
did much for Magyar criticism and literature.. He also edited
the principal publications of the society, including its notable
translation of Shakespeare's Dramatic Works, to which he con-
tributed the Midsummer Night's Dream (1864), Hamlet and
King John (1867). The same year he won the N&dasdy prize
of the Academy with his poem " Death of Buda." From 1865
to 1879 he was the secretary of the Hungarian Academy.
Domestic affliction, ill-health and his official duties made these
years comparatively unproductive, but he issued an edition of
his collected poems in 1867, and in 1880 won the Kar&csonyi
prize with his translation of the Comedies of Aristophanes (1880).
In 1879 he completed his epic trilogy by publishing The Love
of Toldi and Toidi's Evening, which were received with universal
enthusiasm. He died suddenly on the 24th of October 1882.
The first edition of his collected works, in 8 volumes, was pub-
lished in 1884-1885.
Arany reformed Hungarian literature. Hitherto classical
and romantic successively, like other European literatures, he
first gave it a national direction. He compelled the poetry of
art to draw nearer to life and nature, extended its boundaries and
made it more generally intelligible and popular. He wrote not for
one class or school but for the whole nation. He introduced the
popular element into literature, but at the same time elevated
and ennobled it. What Petofi had done for lyrical he did for
epic poetry. Yet there were great differences between them.
Petofi was more subjective, more individual; Arany was more
objective and national. As a lyric poet Petofi naturally gave
expression to present moods and feelings; as an epic poet Arany
plunged into the past. He took his standpoint on tradition.
His art was essentially rooted in the character of the whole
nation and its glorious history. His genius was unusually rich
and versatile; his artistic conscience always alert and sober.
His taste was extraordinarily developed and absolutely sure.
To say nothing of his other great qualities, he is certainly the
m
'any, edited by
Li le ' Arany," in
6r Gaal, Life of
yosy, Jdnos
ngyos. .
Translations
ito 6 of Buda's
e en 12 chants
t Buda's Tod
(R. N. B.)
der "), a tribe
of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly
ranged over the central portion of the plains between the Platte
and Arkansas. They were a brave, warlike, predatory tribe.
With the Sioux and Cheyennes they waged unremitting warfare
upon the Utes. The southern divisions of the tribe were placed
(1867) on a reservation in the west of Indian Territory (now
Oklahoma), while the northern are in western Wyoming. The
southern section sold their reservations in 1892 and became
American citizens. The Arapahos number in all some 2000.
See Indians, North American; H. R. Schoolcraft, History of the
Indian Tribes of the United States (1851-1857, 6 vols.); Handbook
of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
ARARAT (Armen. Massis, Turk. Egri Dagh, i.e. " Painful
Mountain," Pers. Koh-i-Nuh, i.e. " Mountain of Noah,"), the
name given to the culminating point of the Armenian plateau
which rises to a height of 17,000 ft. above the sea. The massif
of Ararat rises on the north and east out of the alluvial plain of
the Aras, here from 2500 ft. to 3000 ft. above the sea, and on the
south-west sinks into the plateau of Bayezid, about 4500 ft. It
is thus isolated on all sides but the north-west, where a col about
6900 ft. high connects it with a long ridge of volcanic mountains.
Out of the massif rise two peaks, " their bases confluent at a
height of 8800 ft., their summits about 7 m. apart." The higher,
Great Ararat, is " a huge broad-shouldered mass, more of a dome
than a cone "; the lower, Little Ararat, 12,840 ft. on which the
territories of the tsar, the sultan, and the shah meet, is " an
elegant cone or pyramid, rising with steep, smooth, regular sides
into a comparatively sharp peak " (Bryce). On the north and
west the slopes of Great Ararat are covered with glittering fields
of unbroken trfvi. The only true glacier is on the north-
east side, at the bottom of a large chasm which runs into the
heart of the mountain. The great height of the snow-line,
14,000 ft., is due to the small rainfall and the upward rush of dry
air from the plain of the Araxes. The middle zone of Ararat,
5000-11,500 ft., is covered with good pasture, the upper and
lower zones are tor the most part sterile. Whether the tradition
which makes Ararat the resting-place of Noah's Ark is of any
historical value or not, there is at least poetical fitness in the
hypothesis, inasmuch as this mountain is about equally distant
from the Black Soa and the Caspian, from the Mediterranean and
the Persian Gulf. Another tradition— accepted by the Kurds,
Syrians and Nestorians — fixes on Mount Judi, in the south of
Armenia, on the left bank of the Tigris, near Jezirc, as the Ark's
resting-place. There so-called genuine relics of the ark were
exhibited, and a monastery and mosque of commemoration
were built; but the monastery was destroyed by lightning
in 776 a.d., and the tradition has declined in credit. Round
Mount Ararat, however, gather many traditions connected with
the Deluge. The garden of Eden is placed in the valley of the
Araxes; Marand is the burial-place of Noah's wife; at Arghuri,
a village near the great chasm, was the spot where Noah planted
the first vineyard, and here were shown Noah's vine and the
monastery of St James, until village and monastery were over-
whelmed by a fall of rock, ice and snow, shaken down by an
earthquake in 1840. According to the Babylonian account, the
resting-place of the Ark was " on the Mountain of Nizir," which
some writers have identified with Mount Rowanduz, and others
with Mount Elburz, near Teheran.
320
ARARAT— ARASON
From the Armenian plateau, Ararat rises In a graceful Isolated
cone far into the region of perennial snow. It was long believed
by the Armenian monks that no one was permitted to reach the
" secret top " of Ararat with its sacred remains, but on the 27th
of September 1829, Dr. Johann Jacob Parrot (1792-1840) of
Dorpat, a German in the employment of Russia, set foot on the
"dome of eternal ice." Ararat has since been ascended by
S. Aftonomov (1854 and 1843); M. Wagner and W. H. Abich
(184 s); J. Chodzko, N. W. Chanykov, P. H. Morita and a party
of Cossacks in the service of the Russian government (1850);
Stuart (1856); Monteith (1856); D. W. Freshfield (1868);
James Bryce (1876); A. V. Markov (1888); P. Pashtukhov and
H. B. Lynch (1893). Mr Freshfield thus described the moun-
tain:— "It stands perfectly isolated from all the other ranges,
with the still more perfect cone of Little Ararat (a typical
volcano) at its side. Seen thus early in the season (May), with
at least 9000 ft. of snow on its slopes, from a distance and height
well calculated to permit the eye to take in its true proportions,
we agreed that no single mountain we know presented such a
magnificent and impressive appearance as the Armenian Giant."
There are a number of glaciers in the upper portion, and the
climate of the whole district is very severe. The greater part of the
mountain is destitute of trees, but the lower Ararat is clothed with
birches. The fauna and flora arc both comparatively meagre.
Both Great and Little Ararat consist entirely of volcanic rocks,
chiefly andesltes and pyroxene andesites, with some obsidian. No
crater now exists at the summit of either, but well-formed para-
sitic cones occur upon their flanks. There are no certain historic
records of any eruption. The earthquake and fall of rock which
destroyed the village of Arghuri in 1840 may have been caused
by a volcanic explosion, but the evidence is unsatisfactory.
The name of Ararat also applies to the Assyrian Urardhu, the
country in which the Ark rested after the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4),
and to which the murderers of Sennacherib fled (2 Kings xix. 37;
Isaiah xxxvii. 38). The name Urardhu, originally that of a
principality which included Mount Ararat and the plain of the
Araxes, is given in Assyrian inscriptions from the 9th century b. c.
downwards to a kingdom that at one time included the greater
part of the later Armenia. The native name of the kingdom was
Biainas, and its capital was Dhuspas, now Van. The first king,
Sarduris I. (c. 833 B.C.), subdued the country of the Upper
Euphrates and Tigris. His inscriptions are written in cuneiform,
in Assyrian, whilst those of his successors are in cuneiform,
in their own language, which is neither Aryan nor Semitic. The
kings of Biainas extended their kingdom eastward and westward,
and defeated the Assyrians and Hittites. But Sarduris II. was
overthrown by Tiglath Pileser III. (743 B.C.), and driven north of
the Araxes, where he made Armavir, Armcuria, his capital.
Interesting specimens of Biainian art have been found on the site
of the palace of Rosas II., near Van. Shortly after 645 B.C. the
kingdom fell, possibly conquered by Cyaxares, and a way was
thus opened for the immigration of the Aryan Armenians. The
name Ararat is unknown to the Armenians of the present day.
The limits of the Biblical Ararat are not known, but they must
have included the lofty Armenian plateau which overlooks the
plain of the Araxes on the north, and that of Mesopotamia on
the south. It is only natural that the highest and most striking
mountain in the district should have been regarded as that upon
which the Ark rested, and that the old name of the country
should have been transferred to it
See also H. B. Lynch, Armenia (1901); Sayce, "Cuneiform
Inscriptions of Lake Van," in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, vols,
xiv., xx. and xxvi.; Maspcro, Hislotre ancienne des temples da
vr^i~.» ~i~..l~— .___ ::: r~. c—^j /n :- .o_^\. f o
I' Orient dassique, tome iii.. Lis Empires (Paris, 1899); I. Bryce,
Transcaucasia and Ararat (4th ed. f 1896); D. W. Freshfield, Travels
in Ike Central Caucasus and Bashan (1869); Parrot, Reise mum
Ararat (1834); Wagner, Reise nach dan Ararat (1848); Abich, Die
Bestrieung des Ararat (1849); articles "Ararat, in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible, and the Encyclopaedia Bibliea. (C. W. W.)
ARARAT, a municipal town of Ripon county, Victoria,
Australia, 130 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
3580. It lies at an elevation of 1028 ft. towards the western
extremity of the Great Dividing range. It b the commercial
centre of the north-western grain and wool-producing district
and is also noted for its quartz and alluvial gold-mines. Excellent
wine is made, and flour-milling, leather-working, brick and candle
making and soap-boiling are the chief industries. The district
also yields the best timber in great quantity. Granite, bruestone,
limestone and slate abound in the neighbourhood.
ARAROBA POWDER, a drug occurring in the form of a
yellowish-brown powder, varying considerably in tint, which
derives an alternative name — Goa powder— from the Portuguese
colony of Goa, where it appears to have been introduced about
the year 1852. The tree which yields it is the Andira Araroba
of the natural order Leguminosae. It is met with in great abund-
ance in certain forests in the province of Bahia, preferring as a
rule low and humid spots. The tree is from 80 to 100 ft. high
and has large imparipinnatc leaves, the leaflets of which are
oblong, about 1} in. long and f in. broad, and somewhat truncate
at the apex.' The flowers are papilionaceous, of a purple colour
and arranged in panicles. The Goa powder or araroba is con-
tained in the trunk, filling crevices in the heartwood. It is a
morbid product in the tree, and yields to hot chloroform 50%
of a substance known officially as chrysarobin, which has a
definite therapeutic value and is contained in most modem
pharmacopoeias. It occurs as a micro-crystalline, odourless,
tasteless powder, very slightly soluble in either water or alcohol;
it also occurs In rhubarb root This complex mixture con-
tains pure chrysarobin (CuH t &), di-chrysarobin methylether
(CaHaOrOCHi), di-chrysarobin (CsHmOt). Chrysarobin is a
methyl trioxyanthracene and exists as a glucoside in the plant,
but is gradually oxidized to chrysophanic add (a cUoxy-inethyt
anthraquinone) and glucose. This strikes a Wood-red colour in
alkaline solutions, and may therefore cause much alarm if
administered to a patient whose urine is alkaline. The British
pharmacopoeia has an ointment containing one part of chrysa-
robin and 24 of benzoated lard.
Both internally and externally the drug is a powerful irritant.
The general practice amongst modern dermatologists is to use
only chrysophanic add, which may be applied externally and
given by the mouth in doses of about one grain m cases of
psoriasis and chronic eczema. The drug is a feeble parasiticide,
and has been used locally in the treatment of ringworm. It
stains the skin— and linen— a deep yellow or brown, a coloration
which may be removed by caustic alkali in weak solution.
ARAB, the anc Araxes, and the Phasis of Xenophon (Turk.
and Arab. Ras, Armen. Yerask, Georg. Rasktf), a river which
rises south of Erzerum, in the Bingeul-dagh, and flows east
through the province of Erzerum, across the Pasin plateau,
and then through Russian Armenia, passing between Mount
Ararat and Erivan, and forming the Russo- Persian frontier.
Its course is about 600 m. long; its principal tributary is the
Zanga, which flows by Erivan and drains Lake Gokcha or
Sevanga. It b a rapid and muddy stream, dangerous to cross
when swollen by the melting of the snows in Armenia, but
fordable in its ordinary state. It formerly joined the Kura;
but in 1897 It changed its lower course, and now runs direct
to the Kizil-agach Bay of the Caspian. On an island in its bed
stood Artaxata, the capital of Armenia from 180 B.C. to a.d. 5a
ARASON, JON (1484-1551), Icelandic bishop and poet,
became a priest about 1504, and having attracted the notice
of Gottskalk, bishop of Holar, was sent by that prelate on two
missions to Norway. In 1522 he succeeded Gottskalk in the
see of Holar, but he was soon driven out by the other Icelandic
bishop, Ogmund of Skalholt. His exile, however, was brief, and
some years after his return he became involved in a dispute
with his sovereign, Christian III., king of Denmark, because
he refused to further the progress of Lutheranism in the island.
Then in 1548, when a large number of the islanders hid accepted
the reformed doctrines, Arason and Ogmund joined their forces
and attacked the Lutherans. Civil war broke out, and in 15SI
the bishop of Holar and two of Ms sons were captured and
executed. Arason, who was the last Roman Catholic bishop in
Iceland, is celebrated as a poet, and as the man who introduced
printing into the island.
ARATOR— ARAUCANIANTS
321
ARATOB, of Ugurix, & Christian poet, who lived during the
6th century. He was an orphan, and owed his early education
to Laurentius,archbtshop of Milan, and Ennodius, bishop of Pa via,
who took great interest in him. After completing his studies, he
practised with success as an advocate, and was appointed to an
influential post at the court of Alhalaric, king of the Ostrogoths.
About 540, he quitted the service of the state, took orders and
was elected sub-deacon of the Roman Church. He gained the
favour of Pope Vigilius, to whom he dedicated his De Aciibus
Aposiohntm (written about 544), which was much admired
in the middle ages. The poem, consisting of some 2500 hexa-
meters, is of little merit, being full of mystical and allegorical
interpretations and long-winded digressions; the versification,
except for certain eccentricities in prosody, is generally correct
Text by Hflbner, 1850. See Leimbach, " Der Dtchter Arator," in
TkepUpscke Studitn und Krilik (1873)} Maoitius, CeschichU ief
cMrisUtch-laieinischen Potsie (1891).
ARATUS* Greek statesman, was born at Sicyon in 271 B.C.,
and educated at Argos after the death of his father,. at the hands
of Abantidas, tyrant of Sicyon. When twenty years old Aratus
delivered Sicyon from its tyrant by a bold coup de main. £y
enrolling it in the Achaean League (?.*) he secured it against
Macedonia, and with funds received from Ptolemy Phfladelphus
he pacified the returned exiles. Ever anxious to extend the
league, in which after 245 he was general almost every second
year, Aratus took Corinth by surprise (243),. and with mingled
threats and persuasion won over other cities, notably Megalopolis
(253) and Argos (229), whose tyrants abdicated voluntarily.
He fought successfully against the Aetolians (241), and in 228
induced the Macedonian commander to evacuate Attica: But
when Cleomenes III. (9.9.) opened hostilities, Aratus sustained
several reverses, and was badly defeated near Dyme (226 or 225).
Rather than admit Cleomenes as chief of the league, where he
might have upset the existing timocracy, Aratus opposed, all
attempts at mediation. As plenipotentiary in 224 he called
m Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and helped to recover Corinth
and Argos and to crush Cleomenes at Sellasia, but at the same
time sacrificed the independence of the league. In 220-219 the
Aetolians defeated him in Arcadia and harried the Pefoponnese
unchecked. When Philip V. of Macedon came to expel these
marauders, Aratus became the king's adviser, and averted a
treacherous attack on Messene (215); before long, however, he
lost favour and in 2x3 was poisoned. The Slcyonians accorded
him hero-worship as a " son of Asdepius." To Aratus is due the
credit of having made the Achaean League an effective instru-
ment against tyrants and foreign enemies. But his military
incapacity and his blind hatred of democratic reform went far
to undo his work.
Polybhis (u.-vfil.) follows the Memoirs which Aratus wrote to
justify his statesmanship, — Plutarch {Aratus and Geomenes) used
this same source and the hostile account of Phylarchua; Pans. H.
10; see Neumeyer, Aratos ton Sikyon (Leipzig, 1886).
:(M. O. B. C)
ARATUS, of Soli in Cflkia, Greek didactic poet, a contem-
porary of Callimachus and Theocritus, was born about 315 B.C.
He was invited (about 276) to the court of Antigonus Gonatas
of Macedonia, where he wrote bis most famous poerajtatvitfcva
(Appearances, or Phenomena). He then spent some time with
Aatiochus L of Syria; but subsequently returned to Macedonia,
where he died about 245. Aratus's only extant works are two
short poems, or two fragments of his one poem, written in
hexameters; an imitation of a prose work on astronomy by
Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Auxnfucia (on weather signs), chiefly
from Theophrastus. The work has all the characteristics of the
Alexandrian school of poetry. Although Aratus was ignorant
of astronomy, his poem* attracted the favourable notice of
distinguished specialists, such as Hipparchus, who wrote com-
mentaries upon it. Amongst the Romans it enjoyed a high
reputation (Ovid, Amores, i. 15, 16). Cicero, Caesar Germanicus
and Avienus translated it; the two last versions and fragments of
Cicero's are still extant. Quintilian (Instil, x. 1, 55) is less
enthusiastic. Virgil has imitated the Prognostic*! to some extent
in the Ceorgics. One verse from the opening invocation to Zeus
has become famous from being quoted by St Paul (Act* xvii. 28).
Several accounts of his life are extant, by anonymous Greek
writers.
Editio princeps, 1499; Buhle. 1793; Maass, 1893; Aratea (1892),
Commentariorum tn Aralum Reliquiae (1898), by the same. English
translations: Lamb, 1848; Poste, 1880; R. Brown, 1885; Prince.
1895. On recently discovered fragments, see H. I. Bell, in Classical
Quarterly, April 1907; also Berliner KlassikcrUxtc, Heft v. I,
PP. 47-54-
ARAUCANIA. the name of a large territory of Chile, South,
America, S. of the Bio-bio river, belonging to the Araucanian
Indians (see below) at the time of their independence of Spanish
and Chilean authority. The loss of their political independence
has been followed by that of the greater part of their territory,
which has been divided up into the Chilean provinces of Arauco,
Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the Indians, much reduced in
number, now live in the wooded recesses of the three provinces
last named.
ARAUCANIANS (or Auca), a tribal group of South American
Indians in southern Chile (see above). Physically a fine race,
their hardiness and bravery enabled them successfully to
resist the Incas in the 15th century. Their government was
by four toqtds or princes, independent of one another, but
confederates against foreign enemies. Each tetrarchy was
divided into five provinces, ruled by five chiefs called apo-vlmeni
and each province into nine districts, governed by as many ulmen,
who were subject to the apo-ulmen, as the latter were to the
toquia. These various chiefs (who all bore the title of ulmen)
composed the aristocracy of the country. They held, their
dignities by hereditary descent in the male line, and in the order
of primogeniture. The supreme power of each tetrarchy resided
in a council of the ulmen, who assembled annually in a large plain.
The resolutions of this council were subject to popular assent.
The chiefs, indeed, were little more than leaders in war; for the
right of private revenge limited their authority in judicial matters;
and they received no taxes. Their laws were merely traditional
customs. War was declared by the council, messengers bearing
arrows dipped in blood being sent to all parts of the country
to summon the men to arms. From the time of the first Spanish
invasion (1535) the Araucanians made a vigorous resistance, and
after worsting the best soldiers and the best generals of Spain for
two centuries obtained an acknowledgment of their independence
Their success was due as much to their readiness in adopting
their enemy's methods of warfare as to their bravery. Realizing
the inefficiency of their old missiles when opposed to musket,
balls, they laid aside their bows, and armed themselves with
spears, swords or other weapons fitted for dose combat. Their
practice was to advance rapidly within, such a distance of the
Spaniards as would not leave the latter time to reload after
firing. Here they received without shrinking a volley, which was
certain to destroy a number of them, and then rushing forward
in close order, fought their enemies hand to hand.
The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in many
subordinate spirits, good and bad. They believe also in omens
and divination, but they have neither temples nor idols, nor
religious rites. Very few have become Roman Catholics. They
believe hra future state, and have a confused tradition respecting
a deluge, from which some persons were savedon a high mountain.
They divide the year into twelve months of thirty days, and add
five days by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence,
but can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing.
The tribal divisions have little or no organization. Some
50,000 in number, they spend a nomad existence wandering front
pasture to pasture, living m low akin tenia, their herds providing
their food. They still preserve their warlike nature, though in
1870 they formally recognised Chilean rule. In 166 1 Antome de
Tounens (1820*1878), a French adventurer in Chile, proclaimed
himself king of Araucania under the title of Oreiie Antoine I.,
and tried to obtain subscriptions from France to support ma
enterprise* But his pretensions were ludicrous; he was quickly
captured by the Chileans and sent back to France (1862) as a
madman; and though he made one more abortive effort in '°~-
3«
ARAUCARIA— ARBE
to recover hi* " kingdom/' and occupied hit pen in magnifying
hit achievement*, nobody took him seriously except a few- of the
deluded Indians.
See Domeyko, Araucania y sut habitantes (Santiago, 1846); de
Ginoux. " Le Chili et lc« Araueans," in Butt, de la soc. de giogr.
(185*); E. R. Smith. Araucanians (New York. 1855): J. T. Medina,
Lot aborjenet de Chile (Santiago. 1882) ; A. Polakowsky, Dieheutigen
Araukonen, Globus No. 74 (Brunswick, 1898).
ARAUCARIA, a genus of coniferous trees included in the tribe
Araucarineae. They are magnificent evergreen trees, with
apparently whorled branches, and stiff, flattened, pointed leaves,
found in Brazil and Chile, Polynesia and Australia. The name
of the genus is derived from Arauco, the name of the district in
southern Chile where the trees were first discovered. Araucaria
imbricata, the Chile pine, or " monkey puzzle," was introduced
Into Britain in 1706. It is largely cultivated, and usually stands
the winter of Britain; but in some years, when the temperature
fell very low, the trees have suffered much* Care should be
taken in planting to select a spot somewhat elevated and well
drained. The tree grows to the height of 1 50 ft. in the Cordilleras
of Chile. The cones are from 8 to 8] in. broad, and 7 to 7} in. long.
The wood of the tree is hard and durable. This is the only
spec let which can be cultivated in the open air in Britain'.
Araucaria braiiliana, the Brazil pine, is a natlveof the mountains
of southern Brazil, and was introduced into Britain in 18x9.
Jt Is not so hardy as A. imbricate, and requires protection
during winter. It Is grown In conservatories for half-hardy
plants. Araucaria excelsa, the Norfolk Island pine, a native of
Norfolk Wand and New Caledonia, was discovered during
ruptnln Cook's second voyage, and introduced Into Britain by
h\r iwph Ilnnki In 170.J. It cannot be grown in the open air
J» Mflinln, o« It requires protection from frost, and is more
l«tMl«r ihrtn Ihr Ura/.illan pine. It Is a majestic tree, sometimes
uiuiMhg a bright of more than a jo ft. The scales of its cones
no. »ihgtt|, ami hnvo a hook at the apex. Araucaria Cunning*
hami, ih*. Mnretim Hay pine, is a tall tree abundant on the shores
hi M./ftiuh IJ«y, Australia, and found through the littoral region
ui tjuLLhtUuii to Cape York Peninsula, also in New Guinea.
It requires protection in England during the winter. Araucaria
ftidwilli, the JlunyaBunya pine, found on the mountains of
southern Queensland, between the rivers Brisbane and Burnett,
at if h. lat., is a noble tree, attaining a height of 100 to 150 ft.,
with a straight trunk and white wood It bears cones as large
as a man's head. Its seeds are very large, and are used as food by
the natives. Araucaria Rulei, which is a tree of New Caledonia,
attains a height of 50 or 60 fL Araucaria Cookii, also a native
of New Caledonia, attains a height of x 50 ft. It is found also in
the Isle of Pines, and in the New Hebrides. The tree has a
remarkable appearance, due to shedding its primary branches
for about five-sixths of its height and replacing them by a small
bushy growth, the whole resembling a tall column crowned with
foliage, suggesting to its discoverer, Captain Cook, a tall column
of basalt.
ARAUCO, a coast province of southern Chile, bounded N., E.
and S. by the provinces of Concepci6n r Bio-bio, Malleco and
Cautin. Area, 2458 sq. m.; pop. (eat. 1002) 70,635. The
province originally covered the once independent Indian territory
of Araucania (?.*.), but this was afterwards divided into four
provinces. It is devoted largely to agricultural pursuits. The
capital Lebu (pop. in 1002, 3178) is situated on the coast about
55 m. south of Concepd6n, with which it is connected by rail.
AHA V ALU HILLS, a range of mountains in India, running
for 300 m. in a north-easterly direction, through the Rajputana
States and the British district of Ajmere-Merwam, situated
between 24° and 27 s 10' N. lat., and between 72° and 75° E. long.
They consist of a series of ridges and peaks, with a breadth
varying from 6 to 60 m. and an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft,
the highest point being Mount Abu, rising to $653 ft., near the
south-western extremity of the range. Geologically they belong
to the primitive formation—granite, compact dark blue slate,
gneiss and syenite. The dazzling white effect of their peaks is
— J <ced, not by snow, as among the Himalayas, but by enormous
masses of vitreous rose-coloured quartz. On the north their
drainage forms the Luni and Sakhi rivers, which fall into the
Gulf of Cutch. To the south, their drainage supplies two distinct
river systems, one of which debouches in comparatively small
streams on the Gulf of Cambay, while the other unites to form
the Chambal river, a great southern tributary of the Jumna,
flowing thence via the Ganges, into the Bay of Bengal on the
other side of India. The Aravalli mils are for the most part bare
of cultivation, and even of jungle. Many of them are mere heaps
of sand and stone; others consist of huge masses of quartz. The
valleys between the ridges are generally sandy deserts, with an
occasional oasis of cultivation. At long intervals; however, a
fertile tract marks some great natural line of drainage, and
among such valleys A jmerc city, with its lake, stands conspicuous.
The hills are inhabited by a very sparse population of Mhairs,
an aboriginal race. For long these people formed a difficult
problem to the British government. Previously to the British
occupation of India they had been accustomed to live, almost
destitute of clothing, by the produce of their herds, by the chase
and by plunder. But A j mere having been ceded to the East
India Company in 1818, the Mhair country was soon afterwards
brought under British influence, and the predatory instincts of
the people were at the same time controlled and utilized by
forming them into a Menvara battalion. As the peaceful resul ts
of British rule developed, and the old feuds between the Mhairs
and their Rajput neighbours died out, the Mhair battalion was
transformed into a police force. The Aravalli mountaineers
strongly objected to this change, and pleaded a long period of
loyal usefulness to the state. They were accordingly again
erected into a military battalion and brought upon the roll of the
British army. Under Lord Kitchener's scheme of 1003 they
were entitled the 50th Mcrwara Infantry. The Aravalli hills serfd
off rocky ridges in a north-easterly direction through the states'
of Alwar and Jaipur, which from time to time reappear in the
form of isolated hills and broken rocky elevations to near Delhi
ARAWAK (" meal-caters," in reference to cassava, their
staple food), a tribe of South American Indians of Dutch
and British Guiana. The Arawaks have given their name to a
linguistic stock of South America, the Arawakan, which includes
many once powerful tribes. The Arawakans were once numerous,
their tribes stretching from southern Brazil and Bolivia to Central
America, occupying the whole of the West Indies and having
settlements on the Florida seaboard. . They were found by the
Spaniards in Haiti and possibly in the Bahamas, but Che Caribs
had expelled them from most of the islands. The Arawaks
proper were physically an undersized, weakly people, peaceable
agriculturists, by far the most civilized of all Guiana peoples,
being skilful weavers and workers in stone and gold. The chief
tribes which may be called Arawakan are the Anti, Arawak',
Barre, Goajiro, Guana, Manaos, Manetcneri. Maipuri, Maranho,
Moxo, Passl, Piro and Taruma.
Sec Evcrard F, tm Thurn, Anumg the Indians if Guiana (London,
1883).
ARBACES, according to Ctesias (Diodor. ii. 94 ft". 3*), one
of the generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria and founder of
the Median empire about 830 B.C. But Ctesias's whole history
of the Assyrian and Median empires is absolutely fabulous;
his Arbaces and his successors are not historical personages.
From the inscriptions of Sargon of Assyria we know one u Arbaku
Dynast of Arnashia " as one of forty-five chiefs of Median districts
who paid tribute to Sargon in 713 B.C. See Media. (Ed. M.)
ARBE (Serbo-Croatian Rab), an island in the Adriatic
Sea, forming the northernmost point of Dalmatia, Austria.
Pop. (xooo) 4441. Arbe is 13 m. long; its greatest breadth
is 5 m. The capital, which bears the same name, is a walled
town, remarkable, even among the Dalmatian cities, for its
beauty. It occupies a steep ridge jutting out from the west
coast. At the seaward end of this promontory is the 13th-
century cathedral; behind which the belfries of four churchrs,
at least as ancient, rise in a row along the crest of the ridge;
while behind these, again, arc the castle and a background of
desolate hills. Many of the houses are roofless and untenanted;
ARBBLA--ARBITRAGE
323
for, »fter five centuries of prosperity under Venetian or Hungarian
rule, an outbreak of plague in 1456 swept away the majority
of the townsfolk, and ruined the survivors. Some of the old
palaces are, nevertheless, of considerable interest; one especially
as the birthplace of the celebrated philosopher, Marc Antonio
de Dominis. Fishing and agriculture constitute the chief re-
sources of the islanders, whose ancient silk industry is still
maintained. In 1018 the yearly tribute due to Venice was
filed at ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold.
ARBSLA (Akba'il, i.e. "Four-god-city"), an ancient town
in Adiabene, the capital in Assyrian and pre-Assyrian times
of the country between the greater and lesser Zab, and seat
of an important cult of Ishtar. The battle in which Alexander
overthrew Darius in 331 B.C., though named in the old books
after Arbela, was probably fought at Gaugamela, some 60 m.
away (Yorck von Wartenburg, Kune Obersickt der FeldzUge
A. des Cr.), The modern town of Erbil or ArbU, in the vilayet
of Mosul, is about 40 m. from Mosul on the road to Bagdad.
The greater part of the town, which seems at one time to have
been very large, is situated on an artificial mound about 150 ft.
nigh. It became the seat of the A yyubite sultan Saladin in 1 184 ;
was bequeathed in 1233 to the caliphs of Bagdad; was plundered
by the Mongols in 1236 and in 1393 by Timur, and was taken
in 1732 by the Persians under Nadir Shah. In the 14th century
the Christians were almost exterminated. The population, which
varies from 2000 to 6000, is chiefly composed of Kurds.
The ruins of another Ajubela (Irbid, Beth-Arbel) in Palestine,
situated near the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, a little north
of its centre, are not in themselves of high interest, but the site
is noteworthy through its connexion with the neighbouring
caves in the lofty flank of the Wadi Hamam, above which Arbela
stood. These caves (called by the Arabs Kulat ibn Ma'an)
are apparently natural, but were enlarged and fortified. They
were used by the inhabitants of Arbela as a place of refuge
from the army of Bacchides, general of Demetrius III., king of
Syria, and were the resort of bandits in the reign of Herod the
Great. He laid siege to them, and his men could only gain access
to the caves by being let down from above. The caves were
also fortified against the Romans by Josephus.
ARBER, EDWARD (1836- ), English man of letters,
was born in London on the 4th of December 1836. From 1854
to 1878 he was a clerk in the admiralty; from 1878 to 1881
lecturer on English, under Prof. H. Morlcy, at University College;
and from 1881 to 1894 professor of English at 'Mason College,
Birmingham. From 1894 be lived in London as emeritus pro-
fessor, being also a fellow of King's College. In 1005 he received
the honorary degree of D. Litt. at Oxford. He married in 1869,
and had two sons, one of them, E. A. N. Arber, becoming
demonstrator in palaeobotany at Cambridge. As a scholarly
editor Professor Arber's services to English literature are memor-
able. His name is associated particularly with the series of
" English Reprints " (1868-1880), by which an accurate text of
the works of many English authors, formerly only accessible in
rare or expensive editions, was placed within reach of the
general public. Among the thirty volumes of the series were
Gosson's School of Abuse, Ascham's Toxophilus, Tolld's Mis-
cellany, Naunton's Fragmenta Regalia, &c. It was followed by
the " English Scholar's Library " (16 vols.) which included the
Works (1884) of Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and
the Poems (1882) of Richard Barnficld. In his English Garner
(8 vob. 1877-1896) he made an admirable collection of rare old
tracts and poems; in 1899-1901 he issued British Anthologies
(10 vols.), and in 1907 began a series called A Christian Library.
He also accompfished single-handed the editing of two vast, and
invaluable, English bibliographies: A Transcript of the Registers
of the Stationers' Company, 1553-1640 (187 5-1894), and The
Term Catalogues, 2668-1700; vith a number for Easter Term
17 11 (1904-1906), edited from the quarterly lists of the book-
sellers.
ARBITRAGE, the term applied to the system of equalising
prices in different commercial centres by buying in the cheaper
market and selling in the dearer. These transactions, or their
converse, are mainly confined to stocks and shares, foreign
exchanges and bullion; and are for the most part carried on
between London and other European capitals and largely with
New York. When prices in London are affected by financial or
political causes, all other markets are sooner or later influenced,
as London is the banking and financial centre for the commerce
of the world. It may, however, also occur that some local event
of importance initiates a rise or fall in a particular market which
must ultimately affect other countries. For instance, a crisis
in France would immediately depress all French securities, and
by exciting the fears of capitalists would stimulate transfers
of funds and raise all the exchanges against France.
In ordinary times those engaged in arbitrage operate with a
very small margin of profit. The great improvement in postal,
telegraphic and telephonic communication enables operators
to close transactions with amazing rapidity, while competition
reduces the margin of profit to a minimum. Operations in
American stocks and shares are carried on between London and
New York on a vast scale, while transactions in African mining
shares are undertaken to a considerable extent between London
and Paris. The frequent fluctuations in the prices of the latter
securities offer a large and fruitful field to bold operators possessed
of large resources, while those who have small means often
succumb in a commercial crisis. As regards foreign exchange
and bullion, arbitrage operators stand on a fairly safe foundation,
the fluctuations being slight and involving little or no risk,
although they yield a very small margin of profit Arbitrage
operations are for these reasons resorted to frequently by one
country in supplying the requirements of another. The slightest
advantage in any market is put to profit, and as the margin in
ordinary exchange transactions is minute, the ability to operate
in this cross fashion renders business possible, which would
otherwise be impracticable. To give concrete instances of the
working of arbitrage the following may be cited r*-*
.On the sist of May 1906 the exchange on London in Vienna
was telegraphed from that dty 24 kronen 4} cents; London,
requiring to purchase remittances, found that Antwerp had
some Vienna to sell, and arranged to buy there. The transac-
tions worked out as follows:— The direct exchange in Antwerp
on London being 25*23!, and Antwerp's selling price of Vienna
being 105 francs for xoo kronen, on dividing *$• 25 J by 105 an
exchange of 24*05} was obtained or J cent cheaper than the
direct exchange between Vienna and London.
Again a portion of the proceeds of the Russian loan of 1006
had to be remitted to Berlin from Paris. Having exhausted
local balances in Berlin, Paris on one side, and Berlin on the
other, sought to prevent gold shipments from Berlin, and thus
cause stringency in that money market. On the 21st of May 1906
Berlin was therefore seeking to sell Paris in London at 81*35
marks for xoo francs, and draw on London for the proceeds at
20*50. This transaction produced a parity between the exchanges
of 25*20, which left a small margin in London.
Two instances of arbitrage of stocks are the following:—*
On the 24th of March 1906, Japanese exchequer bonds, series
2 and 3, were bought in Tokio at 93} and were paid for by
telegraphic transfer at 24 1 pence per yen, and were sold in
London the same day at 94 for payment on arrival of bonds.
It took five weeks for the transmission of the bonds to London,
where they were dealt in on the fixed basis of exchange, namely
24! pence per yen. The London price works out thus:
93-25X24*375. a . y
to which must be added the loss of interest, as the firm in London
paid cash on the 24th of March for the telegraphic transfer,
and did not recover payment until the arrival of the bonds from
Tokio five weeks later. The following is a computation of the
transaction: —
London prfce 99*77
Five weeks at 5% -45
English stamp I % on nominal amount 50
Insurance ft % -is
43*84
3*4
ARBITRATION
This sum represents the net cost to the arbitrage house in London,
and the money paid on the 28th of April left a profit of about
<\ %. The bonds being " to bearer " insurance was necessary
for the safety in this, as in all similar transactions.
In the next example, however, this expense was unnecessary,
the bonds being " inscribed" On the 21st of May 1006 American
Steel common shares were sold for cash in New York at 41 tV
dollars per share, and were bought in London at 42^ for the
account day, May 31st These figures are explained by the
fact that transactions in the United States stocks and shares are
on the fixed basis of five dollars per pound sterling, while as
regards payments in New York the exchange varies daily. Rail-
way shares are generally 100 dollars each. In the London market,
however, five shares of 100 dollars would be £100 nominal
These shares, therefore, cost in London, at the purchase price
of 42 &> £4* : 4- S- The money realized in New York for five
shares at 41 A was 205-93 dollars. A cheque on London was
bought at 4 dollars 85 J cents, realizing £42 : 8 z 9. It should be
noted that the shares in these cases are generally lent by the
New York correspondent, thus saving loss of interest. The
resulting profit in this particular instance was 4s. 4<d. for each
five shares, divided between the London and New York arbitrage
firms. Arbitrage operations with distant countries such as India
are large and mainly profitable. Arbitrage with India consists
chiefly in buying bills of exchange in London, such as India
Council rupee bills amounting to about 16 millions sterling
annually, and commercial bills drawn against goods exported
to India. The counter-operation consists in purchasing in India,
for short or long delivery, sterling bills drawn against exports
to Great Britain of Indian produce, such as cotton, tea, indigo,
jute and wheat. These operations greatly facilitate trade and the
moving of produce from the interior of India to the seaports.
Without this assistance Great Britain's enormous trade could
hot be carried on, and she would have to revert to the primitive
system of barter. The same advantages are afforded to her vast
trade with China and Japan, with the material difference that
the supply of government council bills is confined to the Indian
trade. The balance of trade with all countries is generally
settled by specie shipments; hence, with the Far East, silver
and gold play an important part in arbitrage.
It will thus be seen that arbitrage fills a useful place in com*
mcroe; the profits are small because the competition as great;
nevertheless huge transactions employing thousands of clerks
result from this system.
The literature of the subject U extremely meagre. Lord Goschen's
Theory of Foreign Exrhanges(Lon6on, 1 866) is general and t heoretical,
but throws great light upon particular aspects of the philosophy of
arbitrage, without touching specially on the details of the subject
itself. The principal other works are: Kelly's Cambist (181 1,
1835); Otto bwoboda, Die kaufmannische Arbitrage (Berlin. 1873),
and Borse und Actien (Cologne, 1869); Coquchnet Guillaumin,
Dulionnaire dc Viconomie politique (Paris, 1851-1853) ; Ottoraar
Haupt, London Arbitrageur (London, 1870); Charles le Touze,
Traiit thiorique el pratique du change (Paris, 1868); Tate, Modern
Cambist (London, 1868); Simon Spitzer, Ueber Miint- und Arbi-
tragtnrechnung (Vienna. 1872); J. W. Gilbart. Principles and Prac-
tice of Banking (London. 1871); G. Clare, The A B C of Foreign
Exchanges (2nd ed.. 1895); Money Market Primer and Key to the
Exchanges (2nd ed., 1900) ; J. Pallain, Let Changes itr angers et les
prix (Paris, 1905). (Sw.)
ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge), a term
derived from the nomenclature of Roman law, and applied to an
arrangement for taking, and abiding by, the judgment of a
selected person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying
it to the established courts of justice. In disputes between
states, arbitration has long played an important part (see
Arbitration, International). The present article is restricted
to arbitration under municipal law; but a separate article
is also devoted to the use of arbitration in labour disputes (see
Arbitration and Conciliation).
Roman Law. — Arrangements for avoiding the delay and
expense of litigation, and referring a dispute to friends or neutral
persons, are a natural practice, of which traces may be found
in any state of society; but it is from Roman Law that we
derive arbitration as a system which has found its way into the
practice of European nations In general, and has even evaded
the dislike of the English common lawyers to the civil law.
The praetor, who had the arrangement of all trials or private
suits and the formal appointment of judges for them, referred
the great majority of such cases for decision to a judge who
was styled usually judex but sometimes arbiter. The phrase
judex arbjkrve frequently occurs.. The judex and the arbiter
had the same functions, and apparently the only express basis
for the distinction between the two words is that there might
be several arbitri but never more than one judex in a cause.
The term arbiter seems, however, to have been sometimes used
when the referee had it certain degree of latitude, and was en-
titled to give weight to equitable considerations (Roby, Inst.
Rom. Law, i. 318; Hunter, Roman Law 11897), p. 48; and
see Cicero pro Rose. Com. 4, ss. 10-13; Gaius, Inst. iv. s. 163).
Apart from this system of compulsory reference by the praetor,
Roman law recognized a voluntary reference (compromissum)
to an arbiter or arbitrator by the parties themselves. The
arbitrator ex compromisso sumptus had no coercive jurisdiction,
and in order to make his award effective, the agreement of
reference was confirmed by a stipulation and usually provided
a penalty (poena, petunia compromisso) in case of disobedience.
The sum agreed on by way of penalty might be either specific
or unliquidated, e.g. " whatever the matter may be worth "
(Dig. iv., tit 8, s. 38). The arbitrator ex compromisso sumptus,
like the- judicial arbiter, was expected to take account of equitable
considerations in coming to a decision. If three arbitrators
were appointed, a majority could decide; in case of two being
appointed and not agreeing, the praetor would compel them to
choose a third (Roby, ubi sup., i. 320, 321 ; Dig. iv., tit. 8, s. 17).
As in English law, it was necessary that the award should cover
all the points submitted (Dig. iv., tit 8, s. 21).
Law of England.— The law of England as to arbitration is now
practically summed up in the Arbitration Act of 1889. This
statute is an express code as to proceedings in all arbitration,
but " criminal proceedings by the crown " cannot be referred
under it (ss. 13, 14). The statute subdivides its subject-matter
into two headings. L References by consent out of court;
II. References under order of court.
(1) Here the first matter to be dealt with is the submission. A
submission is denned as a written agreement (it need not be signed
by both parties) to submit present or future differences Rokwaem
to arbitration, ^ whether a particular arbitrator is ay e&mmmt
named in it or not. The capacity of a person to agree * *y
to arbitration, or to act as arbitrator, depends on the
general law of contract. A submission by an infant Ib sot void,
but is voidable at his option (see Infant). A counsel has a
general authority to deal with the conduct of an action, which
includes authority to refer it to arbitration, but be has no
authority to refer an action against the wishes of his client, or
on terms different from those which his client has sanctioned;
and if he does so, the reference may be set aside, although the
limit put by the client on his counsel's authority is not made
known to the other side when the reference is agreed upon
(Ncale v. Cordon Lennox, 1902, A.C. 465). The committee of
a lunatic, with the sanction of the judge in lunacy, may refer
disputes to arbitration. As an arbitrator is chosen by the parties
themselves the question of his eligibility is of comparatively
minor importance; and where an arbitrator has been chosen
by both parties, the courts are reluctant to set the appointment
aside. This question has arisen chiefly in contracts for works,
which frequently contain a provision that the engineer shall be
the arbitrator, in any dispute between the contractor and his
own employer. The practical result is to make the engineer
judge in his own cause. But the courts will not in such cases
prevent the engineer from acting, where the contractor was
aware of the facts when he signed the contract, and there is no
reason to believe that the engineer will be unfair (Ins and
Barker v. WUlans, 1894. * Ch. 478). Even the fact that be has
expressed an opinion on matters in dispute wiB not of itself
disqualify him (Halliday v. Hamilton's Trustees, 1003, 5 Eraser,
800). So, too, where a barrister was appointed arbitrator, the
ARBITRATION
3*5
court refused to stop the' arbitration on the mere ground that
he was the client of a firm of solicitors, the conduct of one of
whom was in question {Bright v. Rivet Plate Construction Co.,
xooo, a Ch. 835).
Under the law prior to the act of 1889 (0) an agreement to
refer disputes generally, without naming the arbitrators, was
always irrevocable, and an action lay for the breach of it,
although the court could not compel either of the parties to
proceed under it; (b) an agreement to refer to a particular arbi-
trator was revocable, and if one of the parties revoked that
particular arbitrator's authority he could not be compelled
to submit to it; (c) when, however, the parties had got their
tribunal fixed, and were proceeding to carry out the agreement
to refer, the act 9 and 10 Will. HI. c. 15 provided that the
submission might be made a rule of court, a provision which
gave the court power to assist the parties in the trial of the case,
end to enforce the award of the arbitrators; (d) the statute
3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (s. 39) put an end to the power to revoke
the authority of a particular arbitrator after the reference to him
had been made a rule of court; and— a liability which existed
also under the act of 9 and xo Will. III. c. 15— any person
revoking the appointment of an arbitrator after the submission
had been made a rule of court might be attached. The Arbi-
tration Act 1889 provides that a submission, unless a contrary
intention is expressed in it, is irrevocable except by leave of the
court or a judge, and is to have the same effect in all respects
as if it had been made an order of court. The object of this enact-
ment was to save the expense of making a submission a rule of
court by treating it as having been so made, and it leaves the
taw in this position, that while the authority of an arbitrator,
once appointed, is irrevocable, there is no power—any more than
there was under the old law— to compel an unwilling party to
proceed to a reference, except in cases specially provided for by
sections 5 and 6 of the act of 1889. The former of these sections
deals with the power of the court, the latter with the power of
the parties to a reference, to appoint an arbitrator in certain
circumstances. Section 5 provides that where a reference is to
be to a single arbitrator, and all the parties do not concur in
appointing one, or an appointed arbitrator refuses to act or
becomes incapable of acting, or where the parties or two arbi-
trators fail, when necessary, to appoint an umpire or third
arbitrator, or such umpire or arbitrator when appointed refuses
to act, or becomes incapable of acting, and the default is not
rectified after seven clear days' notice, the court may supply the
vacancy. Under section 6, where a reference is to two arbi-
trators, one to be appointed by each party, and either the
appointed arbitrator refuses to act, or becomes incapable of
acting, and the party appointing him fails, after seven clear
days' notice, to supply the vacancy, or such party fails, after
similar notice, to make an original appointment, a binding
appointment (subject to the power of the court to set it aside)
may be made by the other party to the reference. The court
may compel parties to carry out an arbitration, not only in the
above cases by directly appointing an arbitrator, &c., or by
allowing one appointed by a party to proceed alone with the
reference, but also indirectly by staying any proceedings before
the legal tribunals to determine matters which come within the
scope of the arbitration. Where the agreement to refer stipulates
that the* submission of a dispute to arbitration shall be a con-
dition precedent to the right to bring an action in regard to it,
an action does not lie until the arbitration has been held and an
award made, and it is usual in such cases not to apply for a
stay of proceedings, but to plead the agreement as a bar to the
action {Viney v. Bignotd, 1887, 20 Q.B.D. 172). The court wil!
refuse to stay proceedings where the subject-matter of the liti-
gation falls outside the scope of the reference, or there is some
serious objection to the fitness of the arbitrator, or some other
good reason of the kind exists.
An arbitrator is not liable to be sued for want of skill or for
negligence in conducting the arbitration (Pappa v. Rose, 1872,
L.R. 7 C.P. 525). When a building contract provides that a
certificate of the architect, showing the final balance due to the
contractor, shall be conclusive evidence of the works having
been duly completed, the architect occupies the position of an
arbitrator, and enjoys the same immunity from liability for
negligence in the discharge of his functions (Chambers v. Gold-
thorpe, root, x Q.B. 624). An arbitrator cannot be compelled
to act unless he is a party to the submission.
An arbitrator (and the following observations apply mutatis
mutandis to an umpire after he has entered on his duties) has
power to administer oaths to, or take the affirmations of, the
parties and their witnesses; and any person who wilfully and
corruptly gives false evidence before him may be prosecuted
and punished for perjury (Arbitration Act 1889, ached, i. and
a. 22). At any stage in the reference he may, and shall if he be
required by the court, state in the form of a special case for the
opinion of the court any question of law arising in the arbitration.
The arbitrator may also state his award in whole or in part as
a special case (ib. s. 19), and may correct in an award any clerical
mistake or error arising from an accidental slip or omission.
The costs of the reference and the award — which, under sched. L
of the act, must be in writing, unless the submission otherwise
provides— are in the arbitrator's discretion, and he has a lien
on the award and the submission for his fees, for which — if there
is an express or implied promise to pay them: — he can also sue
{Crampton v. Ridley, 1887, *> Q.B.D. 48). An arbitrator or
umpire ought not, however, to state his award in such a way
as to deprive the parties of their right to challenge the amount
charged by him for his services; and accordingly where an
umpire fixed for his award a lump sum as costs, including
therein his own and the arbitrators' fees, the award was re-
mitted back to him to state how much he allotted to himself
and how much to the arbitrators (in Re Gilbert v. Wright, 1004,
20 Times L.R. 164). But in the absence of evidence to show
that the fees charged by arbitrators or umpire are extortionate,
or unfair and unreasonable, the courts will not interfere with
them (Uandrindod WeUs Water Co. v. Havksley, 1904, 20 Times
L.R. 241).
If there is no express provision on the point in the submission,
an award under the Arbitration Act 1889 must be made within
three months after the arbitrator has entered on the reference,
or been called upon to act by notice in writing from any party
to the submission. The time may, however, be extended by
the arbitrator or by the court. An umpire is required to make
his award within one month after the original or extended
time appointed for making the award of the arbitrators has
expired, or any later day to which he may enlarge it. The
court may by order remit an award to the arbitrators or
umpire for reconsideration, in which case .the reconsidered
award must be made within three months after the date of the
order.
An award must be intra vires: it must dispose of all the points
referred; and it must be final, except as regards certain matters
of valuation, &c. (see in Re Stringer and Riley Brothers, 1001,
r K.B. 105). An award may, however, be set aside where the
arbitrator has misconducted himself (an arbitrator may also be
removed by the court on the ground of misconduct), or where
it is ultra vires, or lacks any of the other requisites— above
mentioned — of a valid award, or where the arbitrator has been
wilfully deceived by one of the parties, or some such state of
things exists. An award may, by leave of the court, be enforced
in the same manner as a judgment or decree to the same effect.
Under the Revenue Act 1906, s. 9, a uniform duty of ten
shillings is payable on awards in England or Ireland, and on
decreets arbitral in Scotland.
Provisions for the arbitration of special das** of -disputes are
contained in many acts of parliament, e.g. the Local Government
Acts 1888, 1894, the Agricultural Holdings (England) Acts 1883 to
1906, the Small Holdings and Allotments Act JJQ07. the Light Kail-
ways Act 1806, the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, the
Workmen's Compensation Act 1906, Ac.
The Conciliation Act 1896 provides machinery for the prevention
and settlement of trade disputes, and in 1893 a chamber of arbltrftr
tion for business disputes was established by the joint action of the
corporation of the city of London and the London chamber of
commerce. At the time when the London chamber of arbitration
326
ARBITRATION
was established, there was considerable dissatisfaction among the
mercantile community with the delays that occurred in the disposal
of commercial cases before the ordinary tribunals. But the special
provision made by the judges in 189s for the prompt trial of com-
mercial causes to a large extent destroyed the raison d'iire of the
chamber of arbitration, and it did not attain any great measure of
(2) The court or a judge may refer any question arising
in any cause or matter to an official or special referee, whose
1 report may be enforced like a judgment or order to
the same effect. This power may be exercised whether
J£ZJ wm the parties desire it or not The official referees are
salaried officers of court. The remuneration of special
referees is determined by the court or judge. An entire action
may be referred, if all parties consent, or if it involves any pro-
longed examination of documents, or scientific or local examina-
tion, or consists wholly or partly of matters of account.
Scots lav.— The Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894, unlike the
English Arbitration Act 1889, did not codify the previously existing
law, and it becomes necessary, therefore, to deal with that law in
some detail. It differs in important particulars from the law of
England. Although (as in England apart from the Arbitration Act
1889) there is nothing to prevent a verbal reference, submissions
are generally not merely written but are effected by deed. The
deedof submission first defines the terms of the reference, the name
or names of the arbiters or arbitrators, and the " oversman " or
umpire, whose decision in the event of the arbiters differing in opinion
b to be final. Formerly, where no oversman was named in the sub-
mission, and no power given to the arbiters to name one, the pro-
ceedings were abortive if the arbiters disagreed, unless the parties
consented to a nomination. But under the Arbitration (Scotland)
Act 1894, s. 4, where arbiters differ in opinion, they, or, if they fail
to agree on the point, the court, on the application of either party,
may nominate an oversman whose decision is to be final. The deed
of submission next gives to the arbiters the necessary powers for
disposing of the matters referred (e.g. powers to summon witnesses,
to administer oaths and to award expenses), and specifics the time
within which the " decreet arbitral is to be pronounced. If this
date is left blank, practice has limited the arbiter's power of deciding
to a year and a day, unless, having express or clearly implied power
in the submission, he exercises thispower, or the parties expressly
or tacitly agree to its prorogation. The deed of submission then goes
on to provide that the parties bind themselves, under a stipulated
penalty to abide by the decreet arbitral, that, in the event of the
death of either of them, the submission shall continue in force against
their heirs and representatives, and that they consent to the regis-
tration, for preservation and execution, both of the deed itself and
of the decreet arbitral. .The power to enforce the award depends on
this last provision. Under the common law of Scotland:, a sub-
1 01 future " ■""
! disputes or differences to an arbiter, or arbiters,
unnamed, was ineffectual except where the agreement to refer did
not contemplate the decision of proper disputes between the parties
but the adjustment of some condition, or the liquidation of some
obligation, contained in the contract of which the agreement to
submit formed a part. And by the Arbitration (Scotland) Act 1894,
s. 1, an agreement to refer to arbitration is not invalid by reason of
the reference being to a person not named, or to be named by another,
or to a person merely described as the holder for the time being of
any office or appointment. An arbiter who has accepted office may
be compelled by an action in court of session to proceed with hfs
duty unless he has sufficient cause, such as ill-health or supervening
interest, for renouncing. The court may name a sole arbiter, where
provision is made for one only and the parties cannot agree (Arbitra-
tion (Scotland] Act 1894, s. 2); and may name an arbiter where a
party having the right or duty to nominate one of two arbiters
will not exercise it (ib. s. 3). Scots law as to the requisites of a valid
award is practically identical with the law of England. The grounds
of reduction of a decreet arbitral arc "corruption," "bribery,"
" false hold " (Scots Act of Regulations 1695, s. a$). An attempt
was made to include, under the expression " constructive corruption,"
among these statutory grounds of reduction, irregular conduct on the
part of an arbitrator, with no suggestion of any corrupt motive.
But it was definitely overruled by the House of Lords (Adams v.
Great North of Scotland Railway Co., 1 891, A.C. 31). The statutory
definition of the grounds, of reduction was intended, however,
merely to put an end to the practice which had previously obtained
of reviewing awards on their merits, and it does not prevent the
courts from setting aside an award where the arbitrator has exceeded
his jurisdiction, or disregarded any one of the expressed conditions
of the submission, or been guilty of misconduct. A private arbiter
cannot demand remuneration except in virtue of contract, or by
implication from the nature of the work done, or if the reference is
in pursuance of some statutory enactment («.£. the Lands Clauses
[Scotland} Act 1845, •• 3*)-
Judicial References have been long known to the law of Scotland.
When an action is in court the parties may at any stage withdraw
it from judicial determination, and refer it to arbitration. Thb
is done by minute of reference to which the court interposes its
authority. When the award is issued it becomes the judgment of
the court. The court has no power to compel parties to enter into a
reference of this kind, and it is doubtful whether counsel can bind
their clients in such a matter. A judicial reference falls like the
other by the elapse of a year; and the court cannot review the
award on the ground of miscarriage. By the Court of Session Act
1850, s. 50, a provision is introduced whereby parties to an action in
the supreme court may refer judicially any issue for trial to one,
three, five or seven persons, who shall sit as a jury, and decide by a
majority.
Lav of Ireland. — The Common Law Procedure Act (Ireland)
1856, which is incorporated by s. 60 of the Supreme Court of Judi-
cature Act (Ireland) 1877, and thereby made applicable to all
divisions of the High Court of Justice, provides, on the lines of the
English Common Law Procedure Act 1854, for the conduct of
arbitrations and the enforcement of awards. Irish statute law, like
that of England and Scotland, contains numerous provisions for
arbitration under special enactments.
Indian and Colonial Law. — The provisions of the English Arbitra-
jof _.
1899, Bahamas; No. 10 of 1895, Gibraltar; No. 29 of 1898, Cape
of Good Hope: s. 7 of this last statute excludes from submission to
arbitration criminal cases, so far as prosecution and punishment are
concerned, and, without the special leave of the court, matters
relating to status, matrimonial causes, and matters affecting minors
or other perons under legal disability; Trinidad and Tobago, No. 33
of 1898).
United Steles. — The common law and statute law of the
United States as to arbitration bear a general resemblance
to the law of England.
All controversies of a civil nature, and any question of personal
injury on which a suit for damages will lie, although it may aho
be indictable, may be referred to arbitration; but „_.
crimes, and perhaps actions on penal statutes by Jjjjjj"'"*
common informers may not The submission may be mkntemt
effected sometimes by parol, sometimes by written
instrument, sometimes by deed or deed poll. Capacity to refer
depends on the general law of contractual capacity. The law
of England as to the capacity to act as an arbitrator and as to
objections to an arbitrator on the ground of interest has been
closely followed by the American courts. The same observation
applies as to the requisites of an award, the mode of its enforce-
ment and the grounds on which it will be set aside. The
arbitrator has a lien on the award for his fees; and— a point of
difference from the English law — he may sue for them without
an express promise to pay (cf. Goodall v. Cooley, 1854, 99 New
Hamp. 48) . At common law, a submission is generally revocable
at any time before award; and it is also, in the absence of
stipulation to the contrary, revoked by the death of one of the
parties. Provision has been made in Pennsylvania for com-
pulsory arbitration by an act of the 16th of June 1836 (see
Pepper and Lewis, Pennsylvania Digest, til. " arbitration ").
The rules of court also of many of the states of the United
States provide for reference through the intervention of
the court at any stage in the progress of a litigation. Jj^JJJS^
Such submissions are usually declared irrevocable by Qm / im
the rules providing for them.
In addition to voluntary submissions and references by rules
of court there are in America, as in the United Kingdom, various
statutes which provide for arbitration in particular
cases. Most of these statutes are founded on the 9 and
xo Will III., & 15, and 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 4s, s. 49,
" by which it is allowed to refer a matter in dispute
(not then in court) to arbitrators, and agree that the submission
be made a rule of court. This agreement, being proved on the
oath of one of the witnesses thereto, is enforced as if it had been
made at first a rule of court" (Bouvier, Law Did. s.v. "Arbitra-
tion").
Ample provision is made in America for the arbitration of
labour disputes.
Lam of France. — Voluntary arbitration has always been recognised
in France. In cases of mercantile partnerships, arbitration was
formerly compulsory; but in 1856 (law of the 17th of July 1856)
jurisdiction m disputes between parties was conferred on the
Tribunals of Commerce C*» to which see Cade da Common* ens*
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL
327
615 et acq.), and Arbitration at the present time is purely voluntary.
The subject is very fully dealt with in the Code de Procedure Cmle
(arts. loot. 1028). The submission to arbitration (compromis) must,
on pain of nullity, be acted upon within three months from its date
(art. 1007). The submission terminates (I) by the death, refusal,
resignation or inability to act of one of the arbitrators; (ii.) by the
expiration of the period agreed upon, or of three months if no time
had been fixed ; (ui) by the disagreement of two arbitrators, unless
power be reserved to them to appoint an umpire (art. 1012). An
arbitrator cannot resign if he has once commenced to act, and can
only be relieved on some ground arising subsequently to the sub-
mission (art. 1014). Each party to the arbitration is required to
produce his evidence at least fifteen days before the expiration of
the period fixed by the submission (art. 1016). If the arbitrators,
differing in opinion, cannot agree upon an umpire (tiers arbitre), the
president of the Tribunal 01 Commerce will appoint one, on the
application of either party (art. 1017). The umpire is required to
give his decision within one month 01 his acceptance of the appoint-
ment ; before making his award, he must confer with the previous
arbitrators who disagreed (art. 1018). Arbitrators and umpire must
proceed according to the ordinary rules of law, unless they are
specially empowered by the submission to proceed as amiable*
compositeurs (art. 1019). The award is rendered executory by an
order of the president of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance (art.
1020). Awards cannot be set up against third parties (art. 1022),
or attacked by way of opposition. An appeal against an award lies
to the Civil Tribunal of First Instance, or to the court of appeal,
according as the subject-matter, in the absence of arbitration,
would have been within the jurisdiction of the justice of the peace,
or of the Civil Tribunal of First Instance (art. 1023). In the manu-
facturing towns of France, there arc also boards ofumpires (Conseils
de Pnufhommts) to deal with trade disputes between masters and
workmen belonging to certain specified trades.
Other Foreign Laws. — The provisions of French law as to arbitra-
tion are in force in Belgium {Code de Proc. Civ., arts. 1003 ct scq.) ;
and a convention (8th of Jury 1809) between France and Belgium
regulate* inter alia, the mutual enforcement of awards. The law of
France has also been reproduced in substance in the Netherlands
(Code of Civil Procedure, arts. 620 et seq.). The German Imperial
Code of Procedure did not create any system of arbitration in civil
cases. But this omission was supplied in Prussia by a law of the
29th of March 1879, which provided for the appointment, in each
commune, of an arbitrator (Schicdsmann) before whom conciliation
proceedings in contentious matters might be conducted. The pro-
cedure was gratuitous and voluntary; and the functions of the
arbitrator were not judicial; he merely recorded the arrangement
arrived at, or the refusal of conciliation. This law was followed in
Brunswick by a law of the 2nd of July 1896, and in Baden by a law
of the roth of April 1686. In Luxemburg, compulsory arbitration
in matters affecting commercial partnerships was abolished in 1879
(law of the f6th of April 1879). A system of conciliation, similar to
the Prussian, exists in Italy (laws of the 16th of June 1892, and the
26th of December 1892) and in some of the Swiss cantons (law of .the
29th of April 1883). Spain (Code of Civil Proc., arts. 1003-1028;
Civil Code, arts. 1820-1821) and Sweden and Norway (law of the
28th of October 1887) have followed the French law. In Portugal,
provision has been made for the creation m important industrial
centres, on the application of the administrative corporations, of
boards of conciliation (decrees of the 14th of August 1889, and the
18th of May 1893).
Authorities. — Russell, Arbitration (London, 1906); Annual
Practice (London, yearly); Redman, Arbitration (London, 1897);
Crewe, Arbitration Act 0} 1889 (London. 1898); Pollock, On Arbi-
trators (London, 1906). As to Scots law: Bell, On Arbitration
(2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1877); Erskine, Principles (20th cd., Edin-
burgh, 1903). As to American law: Morse, Law of Arbitration
(Boston. 1872). As to foreign law generally: the texts of the laws
cited, and the Annuaire de legislation Hrangtrt. (A. W. R.)
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. International arbitra-
tion is a proceeding in which two nations refer their differences
to one or more selected persons, who, after affording to each
party an opportunity of being heard, pronounce judgment on
the matters at issue. It is understood, unless otherwise expressed,
that the judgment shall be in accordance with the law by which
civilized nations have agreed to be bound, whenever such law is
applicable. Some authorities, notably the eminent Swiss jurist,
J. K. Bluntschli, consider that unless this tacit condition is
complied with, the award may be set aside. This would, however,
be highly inconvenient since international law has never been
codified. A fresh arbitration might have to be entered on to
decide (1) what the law was, (2) whether it applied to the
matter in hand. Arbitration differs from Mediation (q.v.) in so
far as it is a judicial act, whereas Mediation involves no
decision! but merely advice and suggestions to those Who invoke
its aid.
Arbitral Tribunals.'— An international arbitrator may be the
chief of a friendly power, or he may be a private individual.
When he is an emperor, a king, or a president of a republic, it is
not expected that he will act personally; he may appoint a
delegate or delegates to act on his behalf, and avail himself of
their labours and views, the ultimate decision being his only in
name. In this respect international arbitration differs from
civil arbitration, since a private arbitrator cannot delegate his
office without express authority. The analogy between the two
fails to hold good in another respect also. In civil arbitration,
the decision or award may be made a rule of court, after which it
becomes enforceable by writ of execution against person or
property. An international award cannot be enforced directly;
in other words it has no legal sanction behind it. Its obligation
rests on the good faith of the parties to the reference, and on the
fact that, with the help of a world-wide press, public opinion
can always be brought to bear on any state that seeks to evade
its moral duty. The obligation of an ordinary treaty rests on
precisely the same foundations. Where there are two or any
other even number of arbitrators, provision is usually made for
an umpire (French sw-arbiirc). The umpire may be chosen by
the arbitrators themselves or nominated by a neutral power.
In the " Alabama " arbitration five arbitrators were nominated
by the president of the United States, the queen of England, the
king of Italy, the president of the Swiss Confederation, and the
emperor of Brazil respectively. In the Bering Sea arbitration
there were seven arbitrators, two nominated by Great Britain,
two by the United States, and the remaining three by the
president of the French Republic, the king of Italy, and the king
of Sweden and Norway respectively. In neither of these cases
was there an umpire; nor was any necessary, since the decision,
if not unanimous, lay with the majority. (Sec separate articles
on Bering Sea Arbitration and "Alabama" Arbitration.)
Arbitral tribunals may have to deal with questions either
of law or fact, or of both combined. When they have to deal
with law only, that is to say, to lay down a principle or decide a
question of liability, their functions arc judicial or quasi-judicial,
and the result is arbitration proper. Where they have to deal
with facts only, e.g. the evaluation of pecuniary claims, their
functions are administrative rather than judicial, and the terra
commission is applied to them. " Mixed commissions," so
called because they are composed of representatives of the
parties in difference, have been frequently resorted to for
delimitation of frontiers, and for settling the indemnities to be
paid to the subjects of neutral powers in respect of losses sustained
by non-combatants in times of war or civil insurrection. The
two earliest of these were nominated in 1794 under the treaty
negotiated by Lord Grenvule with Mr John Jay, commonly
called the "Jay Treaty," their tasks being (1) to define the
boundary between Canada and the United States which had been
agreed to by the treaty signed at Paris in 1783; (?) to estimate
the amount to be paid by Great Britain and the United States
to each other in respect of illegal captures or condemnation of
vessels during the war of the American Revolution.
Although arbitrations proper may be thus distinguished from
" mixed commissions," it must not be supposed that any hard
or fast theoretical line can be drawn between them. Arbitrators
strictly so called may (as in the " Alabama " case) proceed to
award damages after they have decided the question of liability;
whilst " mixed commissions," before awarding damages, usually
have to decide whether the pecuniary claims made are or are not
well founded.
Awards. — International awards, as already pointed out,
differ from civil awards in having no legal sanction by which
they can be enforced. On the other hand, they resemble civil
awards in that they may be set aside, i.e. ignored, for sufficient
reason, as, for example, if the tribunal has not acted in good
faith, or has not given to each party an opportunity of being
heard, or has exceeded its jurisdiction. An instance under the
last head occurred in 183 1, when it was referred to the king of
the Netherlands as sole arbitrator to fix the north-eastern
boundary of the state of Maine. The king's repress
3*8
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL
were unable to draw the frontier line by reason of the imperfection
of the map* then in existence, and he therefore directed a
further survey. This direction was beyond the terms of the
reference, and the award, when made, was repudiated by the
United States as void for excess. The point in dispute was
only finally disposed of by the Webster-Ashbuxton treaty of
184*.
Subjed~mat let. —The history of international arbitration is
dealt with in the article Peace, where treaties of general arbitra-
tion are discussed, both those which embrace all future differences
thereafter to arise between the contracting parties, and also
those more limited conventions which aim at the settlement
of all future differences in regard to particular subjects, eg.
commerce or navigation. The rapid growth of international
arbitration in recent times may be gathered from the following
figures. Between 1810 and 1840, there were eight such instances;
between 1840 and i860, there were thirty; between i860 and
1880, forty-four; between 1880 and 1900, ninety. Of the
governments which were parties in these several cases Great
Britain heads the list in point of numbers, the United States of
America being a good. second. France, Portugal, Spain and the
Netherlands arc the European states next in order. The present
article is concerned exclusively with arbitration in regard to
such existing differences as are capable of precise statement and
of prompt adjustment. These differences may be arranged in
two main groups:—
(a) Those which have arisen between state and state in
their sovereign capacities;
(6) Those in which one state has made a demand upon another
state, ostensibly in its sovereign capacity, but really on
behalf of somo individual, or set of individuals, whose
Intercut* it was bound to protect.
To group (a) belong territorial differences in regard to ownership
of In ml anil rights of fishing at sea; to group (b) belong pecuniary
(I (tints In rmj.ci t of arts wrongfully done to ono or more subjects
of on* slate by, or with tho authority of, another state. To
PhwmrralP even a tenth part of the successful arbitrations in
Ip* n\t liiur* would occupy too much space* Some prominent
MAirtiilflft (droll with rUewhcre under their appropriate titles)
at* 1 (in dispute between tho United States and Great Britain
rt>ft|>«< Hug 1 he " Alabama " and other vessels employed by the
l i/Mft'l'Mitc government during the American Civil War (award
In »fc/'Jl that between the same powers respecting the fur-seal
fmlitry In Hiring Sea (award in 1803); that between Great
Id (Mlfi and Venezuela resecting the boundary of British Guiana
fuwitrd in 1H09); that between Great Britain, the United States
ttrcl J'orUiKul respecting the Dclagoa railway (award in 1000);
Hint bHwern Great Britain and tho United States respecting the
bourubtry of Alaska (award in 1003). The long-standing New-
fi/uiMilund fishery dispute with France (Anally settled in 1004) is
fit all with under Newfoundland. Other examples are shortly
limited in the tables on p. 339, which although by no means
lAhuuftlive, sufficiently indicate the scope and trend of arbitra-
tion during the years covered. The cases decided by the peima-
lunl tribunal at the Hague established in 1900 are not included
In ih<»c tables. They arc separately discussed later.
The Hague Tribunal, — The establishment of a permanent
tribunal at the Hague, pursuant to the Peace convention of 1899,
mark* a momentous epoch in the history of international arbitra-
tion. This tribunal realized an idea put forward by Jeremy
iitntham towards the close of the 18th century, advocated by
luiiies Mill in the middle of the 10th century, and worked out
Inter by Mr Dudley Field in America, by Dr Goldschmidt in
(itrmany, and by Sir Edmund Hornby and Mr Leone Levi in
1, upland. The credit of the realization is due, in the first place,
to the tsar of Russia, who initialed the Hague Conference of
1H1/0, and, in the second place to Lord Paunccfotc (then Sir
Julian Pauncefotc, British ambassador at Washington), who
uiti'd before a committee of the conference the importance of
o/Ka nixing a permanent international court, the service of which
should be called into requisition at will, and who also submitted
an outline of the mode in which such a court might be formed.
The result was embodied in the following articles of the Con-
vention, signed on behalf of -sixteen of the assembled powers on
the 29th of July 1809.
(Art. 23). Each of the signatory powers is to designate within
three months from the ratification of the convention four persons at
the most, of recognized competence in international law. enjoying
the highest moral consideration, and willing to accept the duties of
arbitrators. Two or more powers may agree to nominate one or
more members in common, or the same person may be nominated
by different powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for
six years and may be re-nominated. (Art. 25). The signatory
powers desiring to apply to the tribunal for the settlement of a
difference between them are to notify the same to the arbitrators.
The arbitrators who arc to determine this difference are. unless
otherwise specially agreed, to be chosen from the general list of
members in the following manner: — each party is to name two
arbitrators, and these are to choose a chief arbitrator or umpire
(sur-arbiire). If the votes are equally divided the selection of the
chief arbitrator is to be entrusted to a third power to be named by
the parties. (Art. 26). The tribunal is to sit at the Hague when
practicable, unless the parties otherwise agree. (Art. 27). " The
signatory powers consider it a duty in the event of an acute conflict
threatening to break out between two or more of them to remind
these latter that the permanent court is open to them. This action
is only to be considered as an exercise of good offices.'* Several of
the powers nominated members of the permanent court pursuant
to Art. 25, quoted above, those nominated on behalf of Great Britain
being Lord Pauncefote. Sir Edward MaJet. Sir Edward Fry and
Professor West lake. On the death of Lord Pauncefote. Major-
General Sir John C. Ardagh was appointed in bis place.
Hague Cases. — (1) The first case decided by the Hague court was
concerned with the " Pious Fund of the Californias." A fund bearing
this name was formed in the 18th century for the purpose -^ -*^—
of converting to the Catholic faith the native Indians of gZaJZi
Upper and Lower California, both of which then belonged ^TT ^.
to Mexico, and of maintaining a Catholic priesthood there. e^ rm f m
By a decree of 1842 this fund was transferred to the
public treasury of Mexico, the Mexican government undertaking to
pay interest thereon in perpetuity in furtherance of the design of the
original donors. After the sale of Upper California to the United
States, effected by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), the
Mexican government refused to pay the proportion of the interest-
to which Upper California was entitled. The question of liability
was then referred to commissioners appointed by each state, and, on
their failing to agree, to Sir Edward Thornton, British minister at
Washington, who by his award, in 1875, found there was due from
Mexico to Upper California, or rather to the bishops there as ad-
ministrators of the fund, an arrear of interest amounting to nearly
$100,000, which was directed to be paid in gold. This award was
carried out, but payment of the current interest was again withheld
as from the 24th of October 1868. Claim was thereupon nude oa
Mexico by the United States on behalf of the bishops, but without
success. Ultimately, in May 1902, an agreement was come to be-
tween the two governments whichprovided for the settlement of the
dispute by the Hague tribunal. The points to be determined were
( 1) whether the matter was res judicata by reason of Sir E. Thornton's
award ; (2) whether, if not, the claim for the interest was just. The
arbitrators selected by the United States were Sir E. Fry and
Professor F. de Martens, and by Mexico, Professor Asser and Pro-
fessor de Savornin Lohman, both of Amsterdam. These four (none of
whom, it will be observed, was of the nationality of either party in
difference) chose for their umpire Professor Matzcn, of Copenhagen.
president of the Landsthing there. In October 1 002, the court
decided both questions in the affirmative, awarding the payment by
Mexico of the annual sum claimed, not in gold, but en monnaie ayant
cours Ugal au Mexique. The direction to pay in gold made by Sir
E. Thornton was held to be referable only to the mode of the execu-
tion of the award, and therefore not to be chose jngie.
(2) The second arbitration before the Hague court was more
important than the first, not only because so many of the great
powers were concerned in it, but also because it brought q^^
about the discontinuance of acts of war. The facts may iEJJL
be stated shortly thus. By three several protocols signed *"""■»
at Washington in February 1903, it was agreed that fmgfZZ
certain claims by Great Britain, Germany and Italy, on |>fl ^^
behalf of their respective subjects against the Venezuelan vmmmIb.
government should be referred to three mixed commissions,
and that for the purpose of securing the payment of these claims
?o % of the customs revenues at the ports of La Guayra and Puerto
!abailo should be remitted in monthly instalments to the repre-
sentative of the Bank of England at Caracas. Prior to the date
of these pr oto cols, an attempt had been made by Great Britain.
Germany and Italy to enforce their claims by blockade, and a
further question arose as between these three powers on the one
hand, and the United States of America, France, Spain, Belgium,
the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, and Mexico (alt of whom had
claims against Venezuela, but had abstained from hostile action)
on the other hand, as to whether the blockading powers were entitled
to preferential treatment. By three several protocols signed in May
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL
329
MOO thi« qjwtkw unagreed to be submitted to the Hague court,
three members of which were to be named as arbitrators by the
tsar of Russia, but no arbitrator was to be a subject or citizen
of any of the signatory or creditor powers. The arbitrators named
Dates of
agreement
to refer.
Parties.
Arbitrating Authority.
Subject-Mattcr.
Date
of
award.
1857
1869
X872
1876
1885
1886
1 903
1869
187 1
1873
1885
i8qo_
1895
1897
1 901
1903
1851
1863
1863
I870
1873
1*74
1879
1885
1888
1895
Table I.
Territorial Disputes {Ownership).
Holland and Ven-
ezuela
Great Britain and
Portugal
Great Britain and
Portugal
Argentine Republic
and Paraguay
Great Britain . and
Germany
Bulgaria and Servia
Austria and
Hungary
Great Britain and
the Transvaal
Great Britain and
the United States
Italy and Switzer-
Great Britain and
Russia
France and Holland
Great Britain and
Portugal
France and Brazil
Great Britain and
Brazil
Great Britain and
Portugal
Pecuniary
United States and
Portugal
Great Britain and
Brazil
Great Britain and
Peru
United States . and
Spain
Japan and Peru
United States and
Colombia
France and Nica-
ragua
United States and
Spain
United States and
Denmark
Great Britain and
the Netherlands
Queen of Spain
President of United
States
President of French
Republic
President of United
States
Mixed Commission
Mixed Commission
Mixed Commission
(with President of
Swiss Federal tri-
bunal as umpire)
Table II.
Delimitation of Frontiers.
Lieutenant Governor
of Natal
TheGcrmanEraperor
Mixed Commission
(with U.S. Minister
at Rome as umpire)
Mixed Commission
Tsar of Russia
President of the
Italian Court of
Appeal
President of the
Swiss Confedera-
tion
King of Italy
King of Italy
ordered payment of their claims out of the 30 % of the receipts
at the two Venezuelan ports which had been set apart to meet
them.
(3) The third case before the Hague court waa heard in 1904-
1905. A controversy not amenable
to ordinary diplomatic methodsaroae
between Great Britain,
France and Germany on
the one hand and Japan
on the other hand as to
the legality of a house-
tax imposed by Japan on
certain subjects of those
powers who held leases in
perpetuity. The question turned
upon the true construction of certain
treaties between theEuropean powers
and Japan which had been made a
few years previously. By three
protocols signed at Tokyo in August
190a this question was agreed to be
submit ted to arbitrators, members of
the court at the Hague, one to be
chosen by each party with power to
name an umpire. The arbitrators
chosen were M. Renault, professor
of the law faculty in Paris, and M.
Montono, the Japanese envoy to the
French capital. They named as
their umpire and president M. Gram f
ex-minister of the state of Norway.
In May 190c, an award was pro-
nounced by the majority (M. Gram
and M. Renault) in favour of the
European contention, M. Montono
dissenting both from the conclusion
of his colleagues and from the reasons
on which it was based.
(4) Barely two months Had
elapsed since the date of the last
award when the Hague ^
court wasagain called into
requisition. The scene of
dispute this time was on
the S.E. coast of Arabia.
Muscat, the capital of the
kingdom of Oman on that
coast, is ruled by a sultan, whose
independence both Great Britain
and France had, in March i86z>
" reciprocally engaged to respect."
Notwithstanding this, the French
republic had issued to certain native
dhows, owned by subjects of the
Island of Avea in Venezuela
Island of Bulama on West
Coast of Africa
Delagoa Bay (partoQ,Inyack
and Elephant Is. ,S.E. Africa
Territory between the Verde
and the Pilcomayo river of
Paraguay
Islets and guano deposits on
S.W. Coast of Africa
Territory near the village of
Bregovo
Territory in the district of
Upper Tatra
The southern boundary of the
S. African Republic
The San Juan water bound-
ary
The Canton of Tkino
North-western Afghanistan
French Guiana and Dutch
Guiana
Manicaland
River Yapoe named in the
Treaty of Utrecht 1813
British Guiana
Barotseland
1865
1870
1875
1878
1886
1887
1902
1870
1872
1874
1887
1 89 1
1897
1900
1904
«905
Table HI.
Claims in respect of Seizures and Arrests.
President of French
Republic
King of the Belgians
Senate of Hamburg
Mixed Commission
Tsar of Russia
Mixed Commission
French Court of
Cassation
Italian Minister at
Madrid
British Minister at
Athens
Tsar of Russia, who
delegated his duties
to Professor F. de
Martens
Seizure of the American priva-
teer " General Armstrong "
Arrest of three British officers
of the ship " La Forte "
Arrest at Callao of Capt.
Melville White, a British
subject
The American S.S. "Col.
Lloyd Aspinwall "
The Peruvian barque " Maria
Lux"
The American S.S. " Montijo"
The French ship " Le Phare H
The American S.S. "The
Masonic "
Tfie S.S. " Benjamin Frank-
lin" and the barque
" Catherine Augusta "
Arrest of the master of the
" Costa Rica " packet (a
British subject)
1852
1863
1864
1870
1875
187S
1880
1885
1890
1897
sultan, papers authorizing them to
fly the French flag, not only on the
by the tsar were M. Muravievi minister of justice and attorney-
general of the Russian empire; Professor Lammasch, member of
the Upper House of the Austrian parliament; and M. de Martens,
then member of the council of, the ministry of foreign affairs
at St Petersburg. The arbitrators by their award in February
1904 decided unanimously in favour of the blockading powers and
Oman littoral but in the Red Sea.
A question thereupon arose as to
the manner in which the privileges
thereby purported to be conferred
affected the jurisdiction of the sultan
over such dhows, the masters of
Which, as was alleged, used their
immunity from search for thepurpose
of carrying on contraband trade in
slaves, arms and ammunition. In
October 1904 the two governments
agreed to refer this question to the
Hague court. Chief Justice Mehrille
W. Fuller, of the Supreme Court of
the United States, was named aa
arbitrator on the part of Great
Britain, M. de Savornin Lohman,
who had acted in the case of the
Californias (No. l), as arbitrator on
the part of France. The choice of
an umpire waa entrusted to the king
of Italy. He named Professor Lam-
masch, who, as we have seen, had
acted in the arbitration with
Venezuela in 1903.
A unanimous award was made in
August 1905. It was held that
although generally speaking every
sovereign may decide to whom he will accord the right to fly his flag,
yet in this case such right was limited by the general act j6f the Brussels
conference of July 1890 relative to the African slave trade, an act which
was ratified by France on the 2nd of Tune 189a ; that accordingly the
owners and master of dhows who had been authorized by France to fly
the French flag before the last-named date retained this authorization
33o
ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL
so long as Fiance chose to renew it, but that after that date such
authorization was improper unless the guarantees could establish
that they had been treated by France as her proteges within the
meaning of that term as explained in a treaty of 1863 between France
and Morocco. A further point decided was that the owners or
master of dhows duly authorized to fly the French flag within the
ruling of the first point, did not enjoy, in consequence of that fact!
any such right of extra-territoriality as would exempt them from
the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the sultan. Such exemption
would be contrary to the engagement to respect the independence
of the sultan solemnly made in 1862,
Arbitral Procedure.— Not the least of the benefits of the Hague
convention of 1899 (strengthened by that of 1907) is that it con-
tains rules of pi ocedure which furnish a guide for all arbitrations
whether conducted before the Hague court or not These may be
summarized as follows:— The initial step is the making by the
parties of a special agreement dearly defining the subject of the
dispute. The next is Jthe choice of the arbitrators and of an
umpire if the number of arbitrators is even. Each party then by
its agents prepares and presents its case in a narrative or argu-
mentative form, annexing thereto all relevant documents. The
cases so presented are interchanged by transmission to the opposi tc
party. The hearing consists in the discussion of the matters
contained in the several cases, and is conducted under thedirection
of the president who is cither the umpire, or, if there is no umpire,
one of the arbitrators. The members of the tribunal have the
right of putting questions to the counsel and agents of the parties
and to demand from them explanation of doubtful points. The
arbitral judgment is read out at a public sitting of the tribunal,
the counsel and agents having been duly summoned to hear it.
Any application for a revision of the award must be based on the
discovery of new evidence of such a nature as to exercise a
decisive influence on the judgment and unknown up to the
time when the hearing was closed, both to the tribunal itself
and to the party asking for the revision. These general rules
are universally applicable, but each case may require that
special rules should be added to them. These each tribunal
must make for itself.
One special and necessary rule is in regard to the language to
be employed. This rule must vary according to convenience and
is therefore made ad hoc. In case No. 1 noted above, the court
allowed English or French to be spoken according to the nation-*
ality of the counsel engaged. The judgment was delivered in
French only. In case No. 2 it was agreed that the written and
printed memoranda should be in English but might be accom-
panied by a translation into the language of the power op whose
behalf they were put in. The oral discussion was either in
English or French as happened to be convenient. The judgment
was drawn up in both languages. In case No. 3 French was the
official language throughout, but the parties were allowed to
make any communication to the tribunal, in French, English,
German or Japanese. In case No. 4 French was again the
official language, but the counsel and agents of both parties were
allowed to address the tribunal in English. The protocols and
the judgment were drawn up in French accompanied by an
official English translation.
Limits of International Arbitration. — Of the numerous treaties
for general arbitration which have been made during the 20th
century that between Great Britain and France (1003) is a type.
This treaty contains reservations of all questions involving the
vital interests, the independence or the honour of the contracting
parties. The language of the reservation is open to more interpre-
tations than one. What, for instance, is meant by the phrase
"national independence" in this connexion? If it be taken
in its strict acceptation of autonomous state sovereignty, the
exception is somewhat of a truism. No self-respecting power
would, of course, consent to submit to arbitration a question of
life or death . This would be as if two men were to agree to draw
Ipts as to which should commit suicide in order to avoid fighting a
ducL On the other hand, if the exception be taken to exclude all
questions which, when decided adversely to a state, impose a
restraint on its freedom of action, then the exception would seem
to exclude such a question as the true interpretation of an
ambiguous treaty, a subject with which experience shows
international arbitration is well fitted to deal. Again, we may
ask, what Is meant by the phrase " national honour "? It was
thought at one time that the honour of a nation could only be
vindicated by war, though all that had happened was the
slighting of its flag, or of its accredited representative, during
some sudden ebullition of local feeling. France once nearly
broke off peaceful relations with Spain because her ambassador at
London was assigned a place below the Spanish ambassador, and
on another occasion she despatched troops into Italy because her
ambassador at Rome had been insulted by the friends and
partisans of the pope. The truth is that the extent to which
national honour is involved depends on factors which have
nothing to do with the immediate subject of complaint. So long
as general good feeling subsists between two nations, neither will
easily take offence at any discourteous act of the other. But
when a deep-seated antagonism is concealed beneath an unruffled
surface, the most trivial incident will bring it to the light of day.
" Outraged national honour " is a highly elastic phrase. It may
serve as a pretext for a serious quarrel whether the alleged
" outrage " be great or small.
The prospects of the expansion of international arbitration
will be more clearly perceived if we classify afresh all state
differences under two heads r~(i) those which have a legal
character, (2) those which have a political character. Under
" legal differences " may be ranged such as are capable of being
decided, when once the facts are ascertained, by settled, recog-
nized rules, or by rules not settled nor recognized, but (as in the
" Alabama u case) taken so to be for the purpose in hand. Boun-
dary cases and cases of indemnity for losses sustained by non-com*
batants in time of war, of which several instances have already
been mentioned, belong to this class. To the same class belong
those cases in which the arbitrators have to adapt the provisions
of an old treaty to new and altered circumstances, somewhat in
the way in which English courts of justice apply the doctrine of
" cy-prcs." " Political differences " on the other hand, are such
as affect states in their external relations, or in relation to their
subjects or dependants who may be in revolt against them.
Some of these differences may be slight, while others may be
vital, or (which amounts to the same thing) may seem to the
parties to be so. All differences falling under the first of these
two general heads appear to be suitable for international arbitra-
tion. Differences foiling under the second general head are, for
the most part, unsuitable, and may only be adjusted (if at all)
through the mediation of a friendly power.
The interesting problem of the future is— are we to regard this
classification as fixed or as merely transitory? The answer
depends on several considerations which can only be glanced at
here. It may be that , just as the usages of civilized na lions have
slowly crystallized into international law, so there may come a
time when the political principles that govern states in relation to
each other will be so clearly defined and so generally accepted as
to acquire something of a legal or quasi-legal character. If they
do, they will pass the line which at present separates arbitrable
from non-arbitrable matter. This is the juridical aspect of the
problem. But there is also an economic side to it by reason
of the conditions of modern warfare. Already the nations are
groaning under the burdens of militarism, and are for ever
diverting energies that might be employed in the furtherance of
useful productive work to purposes of an opposite character.
The interruption of maritime intercourse, the stagnation of
industry and trade, the rise in the price of the necessaries of life,
the impossibility of adequately providing for the families of
those — call them reservists, " landwchr," or what you will — who
are torn away from their dally toil to serve in the tented field,—
these are considerations that may well make us pause before we
abandon a peaceful solution and appeal to brute force. Lastly,
there is the moral aspect of the problem. In order that inter-
national arbitration may do its perfect work, it is not enough to
set up a standing tribunal, whether at the Hague or elsewhere,
and to equip it with elaborate rules of procedure. Tribunals and
rules arc, after all, only machinery. If this machinery is to act
smoothly we must improve our motive power, the source of
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
33'
which is human passion and sentiment Although i s
animosities between Christian nations have died out, a! i
dynasties may now rise and fall without raising half Eu »
arms, the springs of warlike enterprise are still to be f < i
commercial jealousies, in imperialistic ambitions and e
doctrine of the survival of the fittest which lends scientific i t
to both. These must one and all be cleared away before i
enter on that era of universal peace towards the attain: f
which the tsar of Russia declared, in his famous circular < ,
the efforts of all governments should be directed. Mean t
is legitimate to share the hope expressed by President Rx t
in his message to Congress of December 1005 that som< e
Hague conference may succeed in making arbitration the <
ary method of settling international disputes in all save r
classes of cases indicated above, and that— to que r
Roosevelt's words—" these classes may themselves be as r
defined and rigidly limited as the governmental anc 1 1
development of the world will for the time being permit
Authorities. — Among special treatises are: Kamaron
Tribunal international (traduit par Scree de Westman) (Pari*
Rouard de Card, Les Destinies de r arbitrage international, d
sentence rendue par le tribunal de Cenhe (Paris, 1892): Michel
V Arbitrate international (Paris, 1892); Ferdinand Dreyfus.
trap international (Paris, 1894) (where the earlier authori
collected) ; A. M erignhac, Traili de r arbitrage international
1895) ; Le Chevalier Descamps, Essai sur /' 'organisation de Pc
international (Bruxelles, 1806); Feraud-Giraud. Des Traitet
trage international gineral el permanent. Revue de droit inter*
(Bruxelles. 1897); Pasicrisie International, by Senator H.
taine (Berne, 1902) ; Recueils trades et protocols de lacour per
£ 'Arbitrate, Langenhuysen Freres, the Hague.
Of works in English there is a singular dearth. The most in
b by an American, J. B. Moore, History of the International ,
turns to which the United States has been a Party (Washington
The appendices to this work (which is in six volumes) conta
much other matter of great value, full historical notes of arbi
between other powers. Arbitration and mediation will b
briefly noticed in Phillimore's International Law, in Sir
Maine's Lectures, delivered in Cambridge in 1887: in W. E
International Law, and more at length in an interest ln|
contributed by John Westlake to the International Journal 4
October 1896, which its author has reprinted privately. A
journal. The Herald of Peace and International Arbitration
some years ago a list of instances in which arbitration or mt
had been successfully resorted to during the 19th century.
Dudley Field, of New York, subsequently enlarged this list
has been continued under the title International Tribunals,
W. Evans Darby, and is published, alone with the texts of I
projects for general arbitration, at the offices of the Peace ! ,
47 New Broad Street, London. (M. I
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION. The terms "1
tfcra and conciliation " as employed in this article, are 1 >
describe a group of methods of settling disputes between em 1
and work-people or among two or more sets of work- ,
of which the common feature is the intervention of some 1
party not directly affected by the dispute. If the partie »
beforehand to abide by the award of the third party, the 1 I
settlement is described as " arbitration." If there be 1 t
agreement, but the offices of the mediator are used to p :
an amicable arrangement between the parties themseh :
process is described as " conciliation." The third party : :
one or more disinterested individuals, or a joint-board
sentative of the parties or of other bodies or persons.
The process here termed " arbitration " is rarely an 1
tion in the strict legal sense of the term (at least in the I
Kingdom), because of the defective legal personality
associations or groups of individuals who are usually »
to labour disputes, and the consequent absence in tbi
majority of cases of a valid legal "submission " of the dif
to arbitration. Whether or not trade unions of emplq
workmen m the United Kingdom are capable of entering t 1
their ftgents into contracts which are legally binding 0:
members it is fairly certain that the great majority of the
ments actually made by the representatives of employe !
Workmen to submit a dispute to the decision of a third
are of no legal force except as regards the actual sign]
Broadly speaking, therefore, the provisions of the Arbi
Act 1889, which consolidated the law relating to arbitration
in general, would as a rule have no application to the settlement
of collective disputes between employers and workmen, even if
the act had not been expressly excluded by section 3 of the
Conciliation Act of 1806 in the case of disputes to which that act
applies. Besides (he absence of a legal "submission," labour
arbitrations differ from ordinary arbitrations in the fact that
the questions referred often (though by no means always)
relate to the terms on which future contracts shall be made,
whereas the vast majority of ordinary arbitrations relate t6
questions arising out of existing contracts. The defective " per-
sonality " of the parties to labour disputes also prevents the
enforcement of an award by legal penalties. Since, however,
difficulties of enforcement affect not only settlements arrived at
by arbitration, but all agreements between bodies of employers
and work-people with regard to the terms of employment,
they are most appropriately considered at a later stage of this
article.
The term "conciliation" is ordinarily used to cover a large
number of methods of settlement, shading off in the one direction
into " arbitration " and in the other into ordinary direct negotia-
tion between the parties. In some cases conciliation only differs
from arbitration in the absence of a previous agreement to accept
the award. The German " Gewcrbegericklen, " when dealing
with labour disputes, communicate a decision to both parties,
who must notify their acceptance or otherwise (sec below).
Some of the state boards in America take similar action. The
conciliation boards established under the New Zealand Arbitra-
tion Act of 1894 (see below) make recommendations, though either
side may decline to accept them and may appeal to the court
of arbitration, which in that colony has compulsory powers.
Most frequently, however, in Great Britain, the mediating
party abstains from pronouncing a definite judgment of his
own, but confines himself to friendly suggestions with a view
of removing obstacles to an agreement between the parties.
On the other hand, it is not easy to define how far the " outside
party" must be independent of the parties to the dispute,
in order that the method of settlement may be properly described
as " conciliation." There is a sense in which a friendly conversa-
tion between an employer or his manager and a deputation of
aggrieved workmen Is rightly described as "conciliation,"
but such an interview would certainly not be covered by the
term as ordinarily used at the present day. Again, when the
parties arc represented by agents {e.g. the officials of an employers'
association and of a trade union) the actual negotiators or some
of them may not personally be affected by the particular
dispute, and may often exercise some of the functions of the
mediator or conciliator in a manner not clearly to be distinguished
from the action of an outside party. It seems best, however, to
exclude such negotiations from our* purview so long as those
between whom they are carried. on merely act as the authorized
agents for the parties affected. In the same way, a meeting
arranged ad hoc between delegates of an employers' association
and a trade union, for the purpose of arranging differences
as to the terms on which the members of the association shall
employ members of the union is not usually classed as " con*
alia lion," unless the meeting is held m the presence of an
independent chairman or conciliator, or in pursuance of a
permanent agreement between the associations laying down the
procedure for the settlement of disputes. If, however, the
dispute is considered and arranged not by a casual meeting
between two committees and deputations appointed ad hoc,
but by a permanently organized " joint committee " or board
with a constitution, rules of procedure and officers of its own,
the process of settlement is by ordinary usage described as
"conciliation," even though the board be entirely representative
of the persons engaged in the industry. Such Joint boards, as will
be seen, play a most important part in conciliation at the present
day, and they almost always have attached to them some
machinery for the ultimate derision by arbitration of questions
on which they fail to agree. Another form of conciliation is that
in which the mediating board represents a wider group of
Industries than those affected by the dispute (e.g. tb<- T *«*«»
33*
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
and other " district " boards referred to below). Moreover,
in some of the most important cases of settlement of disputes
by conciliation, the mediating party has not been a permanent
board but a disinterested individual, e.g. the mayor, county
court judge, government official or member of parliament. As
will be seen below, the Conciliation Act now provides for the
appointment of " conciliators " by the Board of Trade.
Voluntary trade boards, however (i.e. permanent joint boards
representing employers and work-people in particular trades),
are at once the most firmly established and the most important
agencies in Great Britain for the prevention and settlement of
labour disputes. Among the earliest of such bodies was the
board of arbitration in the Macclesfield silk trade, formed in
1849, in imitation of the French " Consols de Prud'hommes"
but which only lasted four years. The first board, however,
which attained any degree of permanent success was that estab-
lished for the hosiery and glove trade in Nottingham in i860,
through the efforts of A. J. Mundella. In 1864 a board was
established in the Wolverhampton building trades, with Rupert
Kettle as chairman, and in 1868 boards were formed for the
pottery trade, the Leicester hosiery trade and the Nottingham
lace trade. In 1869 there was formed one of the most important
Of the still existing boards, viz. the board of arbitration and
conciliation in the manufactured icon and steel trades of the
north of England, with which the names of Rupert Kettle,
David Dale and others are associated. In 1872 and 1873 joint
committees were formed in the Durham and Northumberland
coal trades to deal with local questions. The Leicester boot and
shoe trade board, the first of an elaborate system of local boards
in this trade, was founded in 1875. From about 1870 onwards
there was a great movement for the establishment of " sliding
scales w in the coal and iron and steel trades, which by regulating
wages automatically rendered unnecessary the settlement of
general wages by conciliation or arbitration. These sliding
scales, however, usually had attached to them joint committees
for dealing with disputed questions. A sliding scale arranged by
David Dale was attached to the manufactured iron trade board
in 1 87 1. A sliding scale for the Cleveland blast furnace men
came into force in 1879. Sliding scales were also adopted in the
coal trade in many districts, e.g. South Wales (1875), Durham
(1877) and Northumberland (1879). The movement was,
however, followed by a reaction, and several of the sliding
scales in the coal trade were terminated between 1887 and 1889.
In 190a the last surviving: sliding scale in the coal trade, viz. in
South Wales, ceased to exist and was replaced by a conciliation
board.
The formation on a large scale of conciliation boards in the
coal trade to fix the rate of wages dates from the great miners'
dispute of 1893, one of the terms of settlement agreed to at the
conference held at the foreign office under Lord Rosebery being
the formation of a conciliation board covering the districts
affected. Northumberland followed in 1894, Durham in 2895,
Scotland in 1900 and South Wales in 1003.
In 1907 an important scheme for the formation of conciliation
boards for railway companies and their employees was adopted
as the result of the action taken by the president of the Board of
Trade to prevent a general strike of railway servants in that year.
Under this scheme separate boards (sectional and general) were
to be formed for the employees of each railway company which
adhered to the scheme, with provision for reference in case of a
deadlock to an umpire.
The first general district board to be formed was that estab-
lished in London in 1890, through the London chamber of
commerce, as a sequel to the Mansion House committee which
mediated in the great London dock strike of 1889. The example
was followed by several large towns, but the action taken by
the boards in most of these provincial districts has been very
limited.
In addition there axe two boards composed of representatives
of co-operators and trade-unionists for the settlement of disputes
arising between co-operative societies and their employees.
The most typical form of machinery for. the settlement of
disputes by voluntary conciliation is a joint board consisting of
equal numbers of representatives of employers and
employed. The members of the board are usually
elected by the associations of employers and workmen,
though in some cases {e.g. in the manufactured iron
trade board) the workmen's representatives arc elected
not by their trade union but by meetings of workmen
employed at the various works. The chairman may be
an independent person, or, more usually, a representative of the
employers, the vice-chairman being a representative of the work*
men. In the arbitration and conciliation boards in the boot and
shoe trade, provision is made by which the chair may be occupied
by representatives of the employers and workmen in alternate
years. An independent chairman usually has a casting vote,
which practically makes him an umpire in case of equal voting,
but where there is no outside chairman there is often provision for
reference of cases on which the board cannot agree to an umpire,
who may either be a permanent officer of the board elected for a
period of time (as in the case of several of the boards in the boot
and shoe trade), or selected ad hoc by the board or appointed by
some outside person or body. Thus the choice of the permanent
chairman or umpire of the miners' conciliation board, formed in
pursuance of the settlement of the coal dispute of 1893 by Lord
Rosebery, was left to the speaker of the House of Commons.
The nomination of umpires under the Railway Agreement of
1907 was left to the speaker and the master of the rolls. Since the
passing of the Conciliation Act, several conciliation boards have
provided in their rules for the appointment of umpires by the
Board of Trade.
Conciliation boards constituted as described above usually
have rules providing that there shall always be equality of voting
as between employer and workmen, in spite of the casual absence
of individuals on one side or the other. In order to expedite
business it is sometimes provided that all questions shall be first
Considered by a sub-committee, with power to settle them by
agreement before coming before the full board. Boards of con-
ciliation and arbitration conforming more or less to the above
type exist in the coal, iron and steel, boot and shoe and other
industries in the United Kingd om. A some wha t different form of
organization has prevailed in the cotton-spinning trade (since the
dispute of 1892-1893) and in the engineering trade (since the
engineering dispute of 1897-1 898). In these important industries
there are no permanent boards for the settlement of general
questions, but elaborate agreements are in force between the
employers' and workmen's organizations which among other
things prescribe the mode in which questions at issue shall be
dealt with and if possible settled. In the first place, if the
question cannot be settled between the employer and his work-
men, it is dealt with by the local associations or committees or
their officials, and failing a settlement in this manner, is referred
to a joint meeting of the executive committees of the two
associations. In neither agreement is there any provision for the
ultimate decision of unsettled questions by arbitration. The
agreement in the cotton trade is known as the " Brooklands
Agreement," and a large number of questions have been amicably
settled under its provisions. In the building trade, it is very
customary for the local " working rules," agreed to mutually by
employers and employed in particular districts, to contain
" conciliation rules " providing for the reference of disputed
questions to a joint committee with or without an ultimate
reference to arbitration. Yet another form of voluntary board is
the " district board," consisting in most cases of representatives
elected in equal numbers by the local chamber of commerce and
trades council respectively. In the case, however, of the London
Conciliation Board the workmen's representatives arc elected,
twelve by specially summoned meetings of trade union delegates
and two by co-optation. The functions of district boards are to
deal with disputes in any trade which may occur within their
districts, and of course they can only lake action with the
consent of both parties to the dispute, in this respect differing
from the majority of " trade " boards, which, as a rule, ana
empowered by the agreement under which they are constituted
ARBITRATION. AND CONCILIATION
333
to deal with questions on the application of either party.
Another interesting type of board is that representing two or
more groups of workmen and sometimes their employers, with
the object of settling " demarcation " disputes between the
groups of workmen (.*.«. questions as to the limits of the work
which each group may claim to perform). Examples of such
boards are those representing shipwrights and joiners on the
Clyde, Tyne and elsewhere. While the arrangements for volun-
tary conciliation and arbitration differ in this way in various
industries, there is an equally wide variation in the character and
range of questions which tpe boards are empowered to determine.
For example, some boards in the coal trade (e.g. the concilia*
tion boards in Northumberland and the so-called " Federated
Districts ") deal solely with the general rate of wages. Others,
e.g. the " joint committee " in Northumberland and Durham,
confine their attention solely to local questions not affecting the
counties as a whole. The Durham conciliation board deals with
any general or county questions. This distinction between
"general" and "local" questions corresponds nearly, though not
entirely, to the distinction often drawn between questions of the
terms of future employment and of the interpretation of existing
agreements. Some conciliation boards are unlimited as regards
the scope of the questions which they may consider. This was
formerly the case with the boards in the boot and shoe trade, but
under the " terms of settlement " of the dispute in 1895 drawn up
at the Board of Trade, certain classes of questions (e.g. the
employment of particular individuals, the adoption of piece-work
or time-work, &c.) were wholly or partially withdrawn from
their consideration, and any decision of a board contravening the
" terms of settlement " is null and void. A special feature in the
procedure for conciliation and arbitration in the boot and shoe
trade, is the deposit by each party of £xooo with trustees, as a
financial guarantee for the performance of agreements and
awards. A certain class of conciliation boards, mostly in the
Midland metal trades, were attached to " alliances " of employers
and employed, having for their object the regulation of produc-
tion and of prices (e.g. the Bedstead Trade Wages Board).
None of these alliances, however, have survived.
At all events up to the year 1806, the development of arbi-
tration and conciliation as methods of settling labour disputes
Fufcf, in the United Kingdom was entirely independent of
t*aim isw any legislation. Previously to the Conciliation Act of
"J*** 1896 several attempts had been made by parliament to
X**** "- promote arbitration and conciliation, but with little or
no practical result, and the act of 1896 repealed all previous
legislation on the subject, at the same time excluding the opera-
tion of the Arbitration Act of 1889 from the settlement of " any
difference or dispute to which this act applies." The laws repealed
by the Conciliation Act need only a few words of mention. Dur-
ing the 1 8th century the fixing of wages by magistrates under the
Elizabethan legislation gradually decayed, and acts of 1745 and
1757 gave summary jurisdiction to justices of the peace to
determine disputes between masters and servants in certain
circumstances, although no rate of wages had been fixed that
year by the justices of the peace of the shire. These and other
laws, relating specially to disputes in the cotton-weaving trade,
were consolidated and amended by the Arbitration Act of 1824.
This act seems chiefly to have been aimed at disputes relating to
piece-work in the textile trades, though applicable to other
disputes arising out of a wages contract It expressly excluded,
however, the fixing of a rate of wages or price of labour or work-
manship at which the workmen should in future be paid unless
with the mutual consent of both master and workmen. The act
gave compulsory powers of settling the disputes to which it relates
on application of cither party to a court of arbitrators represent-
ing employers and workmen nominated by a magistrate. The
award could be enforced by distress or imprisonment. The act
was subsequently amended in detail, and by the " Councils of
Conciliation " Act of 1867 power was given to the home secretary
to license "equitable councils of conciliation and arbitration"
equally representative of masters and workmen, who should
thereupon have the powers conferred by the act of 1814. The
act con tains provisions for the appointment of conciliation
committees, and other details which are of little interest seeing
that the act was never put into operation. Another amendment
of the act of 1824 was made by the Arbitration (Masters and
Workmen) Act of 1872, which contemplated the conclusion of
agreements between employers and employed, designating some
boaTd of arbitration by which disputes included within the scope
of the former acts should be determined. A master or workman
should be deemed to be bound by an agreement under the act, if
he accepted a printed copy of the agreement and did not re-
pudiate it within forty-eight hours. Like the previous legislation,
however, the act of 1872 was inoperative. The evidence given
before the Royal Commission on Labour (1891-1894) disclosed
the existence of a considerable body of opinion in favour of some
further action by the state for the prevention or settlement of
labour disputes, and some impetus was given to the movement by
the settlement through official mediation of several important
disputes, eg. the great coal-miners' dispute of 1893 by a con-
ference presided over by Lord Rosebery, the cab-drivers' dispute
of 1894 by the mediation of the home secretary (H. H. Asquith),
and the boot and shoe trade dispute of 1895 by a Board of Trade
conference under the chairmanship of Sir Courtenay Boyle. In
these, and a few other less important cases, the intervention of
the Board of Trade or other department took place without any
special statutory sanction. The Conciliation Act passed in 1896
was framed with a view to giving express authorization to such
action in the future.
This act is of a purely voluntary character. Its most import-
ant provisions arc those of section 2, empowering the Board of
Trade in cases " where a difference exists or is apprehended
between any employer, or any class of employers, and workmen;
or between different classes of workmen," to take certain steps'
to promote a settlement of the difference. They may of their
own initiative hold an inquiry or endeavour to arrange a meeting
between the parties under a chairman mutually agreed on or
appointed, from the outside, and on the application of either
party they may appoint a conciliator or a board of conciliation
who shall communicate with the parties and endeavour to bring
about a settlement and report their proceedings to the Board
of Trade. On the application of both parties the Board of Trade
may appoint an arbitrator. In all cases the Board of Trade
has discretion as to the action to be taken, and there is no pro-
vision either for compelling the parties to accept their mediation
or to abide by any agreement effected through their intervention.
There are other provisions in the act providing for the registration
of voluntary conciliation boards, and for the promotion by the
Board of Trade of the formation of such boards in districts and
trades in which they are deficient. During the first eleven years
after the passage of the act the number of cases arising under
section 2 (providing for action by the Board of Trade for the
settlement of actual or apprehended disputes) averaged twenty-
one per annum, and the number of settlements effected fifteen. In
the remaining cases the Board of Trade either refused to entertain
the application or failed to effect a settlement, or the disputes
were settled between the parties during the negotiations. About
three-quarters of the settlements were effected by arbitration
and one-quarter by conciliation. A number of voluntary con*
ciliation boards formed or reorganized since the passing of the
act provide in their rules for an appeal to the Board of Trade
to appoint an umpire in case of a deadlock. At least thirty-six
trade boards are known to have already adopted this course.
The figures given above show that the Conciliation Act of 1896
has not, like previous legislation, been a dead letter, though
the number of actual disputes settled is small compared with
the total number annually recorded.
Arbitration and conciliation in labour disputes as practised
in the United Kingdom are entirely voluntary, both as regards
the initiation and conduct of the negotiations and the
carrying out of the agreement resulting therefrom. Aw .£J'"/
In all these respects arbitration, though terminating
in what is called a binding award, is on precisely » L_
same legal footing as conciliation, which resul'
33+
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
agreement. Various proposals have been made (and in some
cases carried into effect in certain countries) for introducing
an element of compulsion into this class of proceeding. There
are three stages at which compulsion may conceivably be intro-
duced, (i) The parties may be compelled by law to submit
their dispute to some tribunal or board of conciliation; (2) the
board of conciliation or arbitration may have power to compel
the attendance of witnesses and the production of documents;
(3) the parties may be compelled to observe the award of the
board of arbitration. The most far-reaching schemes of com-
pulsory arbitration in force in any country are those in force in
New Zealand and certain states in Australia. Bills have been
introduced into the British House of Commons for clothing
voluntary boards of conciliation and arbitration, under certain
conditions, with powers to require attendance of witnesses
and production of documents, without, however, compelling
the parties to submit their disputes to these boards or to abide
by their decisions. In the United Kingdom, however, more
attention has recently been given to the question of strengthen-
ing the sanction for the carrying out of awards and agreements
than of compelling the parties to enter into such arrangements.
An interesting step towards the solution of the difficulty of en-
forcement in certain cases is perhaps afforded by the provisions
of the terms of settlement of the dispute in the boot and shoe
trade drawn up at the Board of Trade in 1805. Under this agree-
ment £1000 was deposited by each party with trustees, who
were directed by the trust-deed to pay over to either party, out
of the money deposited by the other, any sum which might be
awarded as damages by the umpire named in the deed, for the
breach of the agreement or of any award made by an arbitration
board in consonance with it. Very few claims for damages have
been sustained under this agreement. Nevertheless it cannot
be doubted that the pecuniary liability of the parties has given
stability to the work of the local arbitration boards, and the
satisfaction of both sides with the arrangement is shown by the
fact tnat the trust-deed which lapsed in 1000 has been several
times renewed by common agreement for successive periods of
two years, and is now in force for an indefinite period subject
to six months' notice from either side.. Theoretically a trust-
deed of this kind can only offer a guarantee up to the point
at which the original deposit on one side or the other is exhausted,
as it is impossible to compel either party to renew the deposit.
A proposal was made by the duke of Devonshire and certain of
his colleagues on the Royal Commission on Labour for empower-
ing associations of employers and employed to acquire, if they
desired it, sufficient legal personality and corporate character to
enable them to sue each other or their own members for breach
of agreement. This would give the association aggrieved by a
breach of award the power of suing the defaulting organization
to recover .damages out of their corporate funds, while each
association could exact penalties from its members for such a
breach. For this reason the suggestion has met with a good deal
of support by many interested in arbitration and conciliation, but
has been steadily opposed by representatives of the trade unions.
The question is not free from difficulties. The object of the
change would be to convert what are at present only morally
binding understandings into legally enforceable contracts. But
apart from the possibility that some of such contracts would be
held by the courts to be void as being " in restraint of trade,"
the tendency might be to give a strict legal interpretation to
working agreements which might deprive them of some of their
effectiveness for the settlement of the conditions of future con-
tracts between employers and workmen, while possibly deter-
ring associations from entering into such agreements for fear
of litigation. Individuals, moreover, could avoid liability by
leaving their associations. In practice the cases of repudiation
or breach of an award or agreement are not common. In
countries like New Zealand, where the parties are compelled
to submit their differences to arbitration, some of the above
objections do not apply.
The following statistics are based on the reports of the Labour
department of the Board of Trade. The number of boards of
conciliation and arbitration known to be in existence in the
United Kingdom is nearly 200, but a good many of
these do little or no active woTk. Only about one-third JJ^JJ
of these boards deal with actual cases in any one ^§mdu.
year, the active boards being mainly connected with
mining, iron and steel, engineering and shipbuilding, boot and
shoe and building trades. During the ten years 1897-1006
the total number of cases considered by these boards averaged
about 1500 annually, of which they have settled about half,
the remainder having been withdrawn, referred back or other-
wise settled. About three-quarters of the cases settled were
determined by the boards themselves and only one-quarter by
umpires. The great majority of the cases settled were purely
local questions. Thus more than half the total were dealt with
by the " joint committees " in the Northumberland and Dur-
ham coal trades, which confine their action to local questions,
such as fixing the " hewing prices " for new seams. The great
majority of the cases settled did not actually involve stoppage
of work, the most useful work of these permanent boards being
the prevention rather than the settlement of strikes and lock-
outs. A certain number of disputes are settled every year by
the mediation or arbitration of disinterested individuals) e.g.
the local mayor or county court judge.
The extent to which the methods of arbitration and concilia-
tion can be expected to afford a substitute for strikes and lock-
outs is one on which opinions differ very widely. The ^^^
difficulties arising from the impossibility of enforcing 22Tm*
agreements or awards by legal process have already «, »,,
been discussed. Apartfrom these, however, it is evident
that both methods imply that the parties, especially the work-
people, are organised at least to the extent of being capable of
negotiating through agents. In some industries (e.g. agriculture
or domestic service) this preliminary condition is not satisfied;
in others the men's leaders possess little more than consultative
powers, and employers may hesitate to deal either directly or
through a third party with individuals or committees who have
so little authority over those whom they claim to represent
And even where the trade organizations are strong, some em-
ployers refuse in any way to recognize the representative char-
acter of the men's officials. The question of the " recognition "
of trade unions by employers is a frequent cause of disputes
(see Strikes and Lock-outs.) It may be observed, however,
that it often occurs that in cases in which both employers and
employed are organized into associations which arc accustomed
to deal with each other, one or both parties entertain a strong
objection to the intervention of any outside mediator, or to the
submission of differences to an arbitrator. Thus the engineering
employers in 1807 were opposed to any outside intervention,
though ready to negotiate with the delegates chosen by the men.
On the other hand, the cotton operatives have more than once
opposed the proposal of the employers to refer the rate of wages
to arbitration, and throughout the great miners' dispute of 1893
the opposition to arbitration came from the men. Naturally,
■the party whose organization is the stronger is usually the less
inclined to admit outside intervention. But there have also been
cases in which employers, who refused to deal directly with trade
union officials, have been willing to negotiate with a mediator
who was well known to be in communication with these officials,
e.g. in the case of the Railway Settlement of 1907.
Apart, however, from the disinclination of one or both parties
to allow of any outside intervention, we have to consider how
far the nature of the questions in dispute may in any particular
case put limits to the applicability of conciliation or arbitration
as a method of settlement. Since conciliation is only a general
term for the action of a third party in overcoming the obstacles
to the conclusion of an agreement by the parties themselves,
there is no class of questions which admit of settlement
by direct negotiation which may not equally be settled by this
method, provided of course that there js an adequate supply of
sufficiently skilful mediators. As regards arbitration the case
is somewhat different, seeing that in this case the parties agree
to be bound by the award of a third party. For the success
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
33S
of arbitration, therefore, it is important that the general principles
which should govern the settlement of the particular question
at issue should be admitted by both sides. Thus in the manu-
factured iron trade in the north of England, it has throughout
been understood that wages should depend on the prices realized,
and the only question which an arbitrator has usually had to
decide* has been how far the state of prices at the time warranted
a particular change of wage. On the other hand, there are many
questions on which disputes arise (e.g. the employment of non-
union' labour, the restriction of piece-work, &c.) on which there
is frequently no common agreement as to principles, and an
arbitrator may be at a loss to know what considerations he is
to take into account in determining his award. Generally speak-
ing, employers are averse from submitting to a third party ques-
tions involving discipline and the management of their business,
while in some trades workmen have shown themselves opposed to
allowing an arbitrator to reduce wages beyond a certain point
which they wish to regard as a guaranteed " minimum."
Another objection on the part of some employers and work-
men to unrestricted arbitration is its alleged tendency to multiply
disputes by providing an easy way of solving them without
recourse to strikes or lock-outs, and so diminishing the sense
of responsibility in the party advancing the claims. It is also
sometimes contended that arbitrators, not being governed in
their decisions by a definite code of principles, may tend to
" split the difference," so as to satisfy both sides even when the
demands on one side or the other are wholly unwarranted.
This, it is said, encourages the formulation of demands purposely
put high in order to admit of being cut down by an arbitrator.
One of the chief practical difficulties in the way of the success-
ful working of permanent boards of conciliation, consisting of
equal numbers of employers and employed, with an umpire
in case of deadlock, is the difficulty of inducing business men
whose time is fully occupied to devote the necessary time to the
work of the boards, especially when either side has it in its power
to compel recourse to the umpire, and so render the work of the
conciliation board fruitless. In spite of all these difficulties
the practice of arranging differences by conciliation and arbitra-
tion is undoubtedly spreading, and it is to be remembered that
even in cases in which theoretically a basis for arbitration can
Scarcely be said to exist, recourse to that method may often
serve a useful purpose in putting an end to a deadlock of
which both parties are tired, though neither cares to own itself
beaten.
New Zealand. — The New Zealand Industrial Conciliation
and Arbitration Act 1894 is important as the first practical
attempt of any importance to enforce compulsory arbitration
in trade disputes. The original act was amended by several
subsequent measures, and the law has been more than once
consolidated. The law provides for the incorporation of associa-
tions of employers or workmen under the title of industrial
unions, and for the creation in each district of a joint conciliation
board, elected by these industrial unions, with an impartial
chairman elected by the board, to which a dispute may be re-
ferred by any party, a strike or lock-out being thenceforth illegal.
If the recommendation of the conciliation board is not accepted
by either party, the matter goes to a court of arbitration con-
sisting of two persons representing employers and workmen
respectively, and a judge of the supreme court. Up to 1901
disputes were ordinarily required to go first to a board of con-
ciliation except by agreement of the parties, but now either
party may carry a dispute direct to the arbitration court.
The amendment was adopted because it was found in practice
that the great majority of cases went ultimately to the arbitra-
tion court, and conciliation board proceedings were often mere
waste of time. The award of the court is enforceable by legal
process, financial penalties up to £500 being recoverable from
defaulting associations or individuals. If the property of an
association is insufficient to pay the penalty, its members are
individually liable up to £10 each. It is the duty of factory
inspectors to see that awards are obeyed. The law provides for
the extension of awards to related trades, to employers entering
the industry hereafter, and in some cases to a whole industry.
The above is only an outline of the principal provisions of this
law, under which questions of wages, hours and the relations of
employers and workmen generally in New Zealand (9.9.) in-
dustries became practically the subject of state regulation.
The act must more properly be judged as a measure for the state
regulation of industry, but as a method of putting an end to
labour disputes its success has only been partial.
Australia. — The laws which are practically operative in Aus-
tralia with respect to arbitration and conciliation arc all based
with modifications on the New Zealand system. The first com-
pulsory arbitration act passed in Australia was the New South
Wales Act of 1901. The principal points of difference between
this and the New Zealand act are that the conciliation procedure
is entirely omitted, the New South Wales measure being
purely an. arbitration act. The arbitration court has greater
power over unorganized trades than in New Zealand, and the
scope of its awards is greatly enlarged by its power to declare
any condition of labour to be common rule of an industry,
and thus binding on all existing and future employers and
work-people in that industry. In Western Australia laws
were passed in 1000 and 1002 which practically adopted the
New Zealand legislation with certain modifications in detail.
In 1004 the commonwealth of Australia passed a compulsory
arbitration law based mainly on those in force in New Zealand
and New South Wales, and applicable to disputes affecting more
than one Australian state. The arbitration court is empowered
to require any dispute within its cognizance to be referred to it
by the state authority proposing to deal with it. There are other
Australian laws which, though unrepealed (e.g. the South Aus-
tralian Act of 1804), are a dead-letter. Generally speaking,
the Australasian laws on arbitration and conciliation are more
stringent and far-reaching than any others in the world.
Canada. — In 1000 a conciliation act was passed by the Domin-
ion parliament resembling the United Kingdom act in most of its
features, and in 1903 the Canadian Railway Labour Disputes Act
made special provision for the reference of railway disputes to a
conciliation board and (failing settlement) to a court of arbitration.
This act was consolidated with the Conciliation Act 1000
during 1906 in an act respecting conciliation and .labour, and
in March 1007 the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act became
law by which machinery is set up for the constitution of a board,
on the application of either side to a dispute in mines and
industries connected with public utilities, whenever a strike
involving more than ten employees is threatened. The pro-
visions of the act may be extended to other industries and rail-
way companies, and their employees may take action under
either the Conciliation and Labour Act or the Industrial Dis-
putes Investigation Act. Under the Investigation Act it is
unlawful for any employer to cause a lock-out, or for an em-
ployee to go on strike on account of any dispute prior to or dur-
ing a reference of such dispute to a board constituted under the
act, or prior to or during a reference under the provisions con-
cerning railway disputes under the Conciliation and Labour Act.
There is nothing, however, in the act to prevent a strike Of
lock-out taking place after the dispute has been investigated.
France.— The French Conciliation and Arbitration Law of
December 1892 provides that either party to a labour dispute
may apply to ihc juge de paix of the canton, who informs the
other party of the application. If they concur within three days,
a joint committee of conciliation is formed of not more than
five representatives of each party, which meets in the presence
of the juge dc paix, who, however, has no vote. If no agreement
results the parties are invited to appoint arbitrators. If such
arbitrators are appointed and cannot agree on an umpire, the
president of the civil tribunal appoints an umpire. In the case
of an actual strike, in the absence of an application from either
party it is the duty of the juge de paix to invite the parties to
proceed to conciliation or arbitration. The results of the action
of \Xiejuge depaix and of the conciliation committee are placarded
by the mayors of the communes affected. The law Im«« **»*
336
ARBOGAST
parties entirely free to accept or reject the services ol thtjuge
de paix.
During the ten years 1 897-1 906 the act was put in force
in 1800 cases — viz. 916 on application of workmen; 49 of
employers; 40 of both sides; and 804 without application.
Altogether 616 disputes were settled — 549 by conciliation and
67 by arbitration.
Germany. —In several continental European countries, courts
or boards are established by law to settle cases arising out of
existing labour contracts, — e.g. the French " Conscils de PruaV-
hommes," the Italian " Probi-Viri," and the German "Gewcr-
bcgcricltten," — and some of the questions which come before
these bodies are such as might be dealt with in England by
voluntary boards or joint committees. The majority, however,
are disputes between individuals as to wages due, &c, which
would be determined in the United Kingdom by a court of
summary jurisdiction. It is noteworthy, however, that the
German industrial courts (Gcwerbegerichten) are empowered
under certain conditions to offer their services to mediate
between the parties to an ordinary labour dispute. The main
* law is that of 1890 which was amended in xooi. In the case
of a strike or lockout the court must intervene on application
of both parties, and may do so of its own initiative or on the
invitation of one side. The conciliation board for this purpose
consists under the amending law of 1901 of the president of the
court and four or more representatives named by the parties
in equal numbers but not concerned in the dispute. Failing
appointment by the parties the president appoints them. Fail-
ing a settlement at a conference between the parties in the
presence of the president and assessors of the court, the court
arrives at a decision on the merits of the dispute which is com-
municated to the parties, who are allowed a certain time within
which to notify their acceptance or rejection. The court has
no power to compel the observance of its decision, but in certain
cases it may fine a witness for non-attendance. In the first
five years after the passage of the amending law of 1901 (via.
1 902- 1906) there were 1x39 applications for the intervention
of the industrial courts: 493 agreements were brought about
and X07 decisions were pronounced by the courts, of which 64
were accepted by both parties.
Switzerland. — The canton of Geneva enacted a law in 1900
providing for the settlement by negotiation, conciliation or
arbitration of the general terms of employment in a trade,
subject, however, to special arrangements between employers
and workmen in particular cases. The negotiations take place
between delegates chosen by the associations of employers and
employed, or failing them, by meetings summoned by the
council of state on sufficient applications. Failing settlement,
the council of state, on application from either party, is to
appoint one or more conciliators from its members, and if this
fail the central committee of the Prud'kommes, together with
the delegates of employers and workmen, is to form a board of
arbitration, whose decision is binding. Any collective sus-
pension of work is illegal daring the period covered by the award
or agreement. Up to the end of 1904 only seven cases occurred
of application of the law to industrial differences. In Basel
(town) a law providing for voluntary conciliation by means of
boards of employers and workmen with an independent chairman
appointed ad hoe by the council of state of the canton, has been
in force since 1897, but it remained practically unused until 1902.
In the period from January 1902 to May 1905, 18 disputes were
dealt with and ro settled under this law. A similar law was
adopted in St Gall in 1904. In the three years 1902- 1904,
10 disputes were dealt with and 3 settled.
Sweden— By a law which came into force on the xst of January
1007, Sweden was divided into seven districts and in each district
a conciliator was appointed by the crown. The conciliator
must reside within his district and his principal duty is to promote
the settlement of disputes between employers and work-people or
between members of either class among themselves. He is also
on request to advise and otherwise assist employers and work-
people in framing agreements affecting the conditions of labour
if and so far as agreements.are designed to promote good relations
between the two classes and to obviate stoppages of work.
Untied States.— In the United States several states have
legislated on the subject of conciliation and arbitration, among
the first of such acts being the " Wallace " Act of 1883, ia
Pennsylvania, which, however, was almost inoperative. Al-
together, 24 states have made constitutional or statutory pro-
vision for mediation in trade disputes, of which 17 contemplate
the formation of permanent state boards. The only state laws
which require notice are those of Massachusetts and New York
providing for the formation of state boards of arbitration. The
Massachusetts board, founded in x886, consists of one employer,
one employed and one independent person chosen by both. The
New York board (1886) consists of two representatives of different
political parties, and one member of a bona fide trade organiza-
tion within the state. In both states it is the duty of the board,
with or without application from the parties, to proceed to the
spot where a labour dispute has occurred, and to endeavour
to promote a settlement. The parties may decline its services,
but the board is empowered to issue a report, and on application
from either side to hold an inquiry and publish its decision,
which (in Massachusetts) is binding for six months, unless
sixty days' notice to the contrary is given by one side to the
other. Several states, including Massachusetts and New York,
provide not only for state boards, but also for local boards.
In Massachusetts, during 1906, the state board dealt with
158 disputes. Of these the board was appealed to as arbitrator
in 95 cases. Awards were rendered in 80 cases, 12 cases were
withdrawn and 3 cases were still pending at the end of the year.
In New York the number of cases dealt with is much smaller.
Federal legislation can only touch the question of arbitration
and conciliation so far as regards disputes affecting commerce
between different states. Thus an act of June 1898 provides
that in a dispute involving serious interruption of business on
railways engaged in inter-state commerce, the chairman of the
Inter-State Commerce Commission and the commissioner of
labour shall, on application of either party, endeavour to effect
a settlement, or to induce the parties to submit the dispute
to arbitration. While an arbitration under the act is pending
a strike or lock-out is unlawful.
Authorities. — For the recent development of arbitration and
conciliation in the United Kingdom, see the Annual Reports of the
Labour Department of the Board of Trade on Strikes and Leek-outs
from 1888 onwards. Since 1890 these reports have contained special
appendices on the work of arbitration boards. See also the Labour
Commission on Labour (1891-1894) contain much valuable informa-
tion on the subject. For the working of the Conciliation Act see the
Reports of the Board of Trade on their proceedings under the
Conciliation Act 1896. For the earlier history in the United King-
dom: Crompton, Industrial Conciliation (1876); Price, InduHruti
Peace (1887). For foreign and colonial development*: the third
Abstract of Foreign Labour Statistics (1906), issued by the Board of
Trade; Report on Government Industrial Arbitration, by L. W. Hatch
(Bulletin of Bureau of Labour of United States Department of
Commerce and Labour, September 100O ; the report of the French
Office du Travail, De la conciliation el de l' arbitrage dans Us confiiu
collect if t entre patrons et ouvriers en France el d VHranger (189^);
the Annual Reports of the same Department on Strikes, Lenk*
outs and Arbitration; the Reports of the Massachusetts and Sew
York State Arbitration Boards, and of the New Zealand Depart-
ment of Labour i and the Labour Gazette. See also the following
general works: N. P. Oilman, Methods of Industrial Peace (Boston,
X904); A. C. Pigou, Principles and Methods of Industrial Peace
(190s). (X.)
ARBOQAST (d. 394), a barbarian officer in the Roman army,
at the end of the 4th century. His nationality is uncertain,
but Zosimus, Eunapius and Sulpidus Alexander (a Gallo-
Roman historian quoted by Gregory of Tours) all refer to him
as a Frank. Having served with distinction against the Goths in
Thrace, he was sent by Theodosius in 388 against Maximns, who
had usurped the empire of the west and had murdered Grattan.
Hiscompletesuccess, which resulted in the destruction of Maxim us
and his sons and the pacification of Gaul, led Theodosius
to appoint him chief minister for his young brother-in-law
ARBOIS— ARBORETUM
337
Valentinian II. His rule was most energetic; but while be
favoured the barbarians in the imperial service, and appointed
them to high office, Valentinian, openly jealous of his minister,
sought to surround himself with Romans. As an offset to this,
Arbogast allied himself with the pagan element in Rome, while
Valentinian was strictly orthodox. In 392 Valentinian was
secretly put to death at Viennc (in Gaul), and Arbogast, naming
as his successor Eugenfus, a rhetorician, descended into Italy
to meet the expedition which Theodosius was heading against
him. He proclaimed himself the champion of the old Roman
gods, and as a response to the appeal of Ambrose, is said to have
threatened to stable his horses in the cathedral of Milan, and
to force the monks to fight in his army. His defeat in the hard-
fought battle of the Frigidus saved Italy from these dangers.
Theodosius. after a two days' fight, gained the victory by the
treachery of one of Arbogast's generals, sent to cut off his
retreat. Eugenius was captured and executed, but Arbogast
escaped to the mountains, where however he slew himself three
days afterwards (8th of September 394). Although we have only
most distorted narratives upon which to rely— pagan eulogy and
Christian denunciation — Arbogast appears to have been one of
the greatest soldiers of the later empire, and a statesman of
no mean rank. His energy, and his apparent disdain for the
effete civilization which he protected, but which did not affect
his character, make his personality one of the most interesting
of the 4th century.
See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1880), vol. i. chap. ii.
ARBOIS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura,
oh the Cuisance, 20 m. N.N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier by rail. Pop.
<ioo6) 3454. The town is the seat of the tribunal of first
instance of the arrondisscmenf of PoUgny, and has a communal
college. The church of St Just, founded in the 10th century,
has good wood-carving. An Ursulinc convent, built in 1764,
serves as hotel de villc and law court, and a church of the 14th
century is used as a market. There is an old chateau of the
dukes of Burgundy. Arbois is well known for its red and white
wines, and has saw-mills, tanneries and market gardens, and
manufactures paper, oil and casks.
ARBOIS DB JUBAINVILLB. MARIS HBNRI D* (1827-1910),
French historian and philologist, was born at Nancy on the 5th of
December 1827. In 1851 he left the £cole des Charles with the
degree of palaeographic archivist. He was placed in control
of the departmental archives of Aube, and remained in that
position until 1880, when he retired on a pension. He pub-
lished several volumes of inventorial abstracts, a Riperloire
arehtologique du dipartement in 1861; a valuable Histoire des
dues et comics de Champagne dtpuis le VI* Steele jusqu'a la
fin du XI*, which was published between 1859 and 1869 (8 vols.),
and in 1880 an instructive monograph upon Les Intendants de
Champagne. But already he had become attracted towards
the study of the most ancient inhabitants of Caul; in 1870
he brought out an Elude sur la diclinaison des nomr
proprcs dans la langue franque d Vipoque tniroxingienne\
and in 1877 a learned work upon Les Premiers Habitants de
r Europe (2nd edition in 2 vols. 1889 and 1894). Next he con-
centrated his efforts upon the field of Celtic languages, literature
and law, in which he soon became an authority. Appointed in
1882 to the newly founded professorial chair of Celtic at the
College de France, he began the Cows de litUrature celtique
which in 1008 extended to twelve volumes. For this he himself
edited the following works: Introduction d I'eUude de la litUrature
celtique (1883); Utpople celtique en Irlande (1892); Etudes
sur le droit celtique (1895); and Les Principaux Auteurs de
Pantiquiti A consuUer sur V histoire des Cdles (1902). He was
among the first in France to enter upon the study of the most
ancient monuments of Irish literature with a solid philological
preparation and without empty prejudices. We owe to him
also Les Celtes depuis les temps les plus reculis jusqu'd Fan 100
avant notre ire (1904), and a study of comparative law in La
Famitte celtique (100$). Numerous detailed studies upon the
Gaulish names of persons and places took synthetic form in the
Recherches sur Vorigine de la propriM jondtre (1890), which
illumined one of the most interesting aspects of the Roman
occupation of Gaul. The Recueil de memoires concemant
la litUrature et r histoire cdtiques, made by the most notable
among his disciples on the occasion of his seventy-eighth birth-
day (1006), was a well-deserved tribute to his persevering and
fruitful industry. He died in February 1910. (C. B.*)
ARBOR DAY, the name applied in the United States of
America to a day appointed for the public planting of trees
(see Arbour). Originating, or at least being first successfully
put into operation, in Nebraska in 1872 through the instrument-
ality of J. Stciling Morton, then president of the state Board of
Agriculture, it received the official sanction of the stale by the
proclamation of Governor R. W. Furnas in 1874 and by the
enactment in 1 88$ of a law establishing it as a legal holiday in
Nebraska. The movement spread rapidly throughout the
United States until with hardly an exception every state and
territory celebrates such a day either as a legal or a school holiday.
The time of celebration varies in different states — sometimes
even in different localities in the same state— but April or early
May is the rule in the northern states, and February, January
and December are the months in various southern state*. A
like practice has been introduced in New Zealand.
See N. H. Egleston, Arbor Day: Us History and Observance
(Washington, 1896), Robert W. Furnas, Arbor Day (Lincoln, Neb.,
1888), and R. H. Schauffler (ed.). Arbor Day (New York. 1909).
ARBORETUM, the name given to that part of a garden or park
which is reserved for the growth and display of trees. The term,
in this restricted sense, was seemingly first so employed in 1838
by J* C Loudon, in his book upon arboreta and fruit trees.
Professor Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., the Regius Keeper of the
Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, has described an arboretum
as a living collection of species and varieties of trees and shrubs
arranged after some definite method — it may be properties, or
uses, or some other principle — but usually after that of natural
likeness. The plants are intended to be specimens showing the
habit of the tree or shrub, and the collection is essentially an
educational one. According to another point of view, an
arboretum should be constructed with regard to picturesque
beauty rather than systematically, although it is admitted that
for scientific purposes a systematic arrangement is a sine qua non.
In this more general respect, an arboretum or woodland affords
shelter, improves local climate, renovates bad soils, conceals
objects unpleasing to the eye, heightens the effect of what is
agreeable and graceful, and adds value, artistic and other, to the
landscape. What Loudon called the " gardenesque " school of
landscape naturally makes particular use of trees. By common
consent the arboretum in the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew
Is one of the finest in the world. Its beginnings may be traced
back to 1762, when, at the suggestion of Lord Bute, the duke of
Argyll's trees and shrubs were removed from Whitton Place,
near Hounslow, to adorn the princess of Wales's garden at Kew.
The duke's collection was famous for its cedars, pines and firs.
Most of the trees of that date have perished, but the survivors
embrace some of the finest of their kind in the gardens. The
botanical gardens at Kew were thrown open to the public in 1841
under the directorate of Sir William Hooker. Including the
arboretum, their total area did not then exceed ix acres. Four
years later the pleasure grounds and gardens at Kew occupied by
the king of Hanover were given to the nation and placed under
the care of Sir William for the express purpose of being converted
into an arboretum. Hooker rose to the occasion and, zealously
reinforced by his son and successor, Sir Joseph, established a
collection which rapidly grew in richness and importance. It b
perhaps the largest collection of hardy trees and shrubs known,
comprising some 4500 species and botanical varieties. A large
proportion of the total acreage (288) of the Gardens is monopolized
by the arboretum. Of the more specialized public arboreta in
the United Kingdom the next to Kew are those in the Royal
Botanic Garden in Edinburgh and the.Glaanevin Garden in
Dublin. The collection of trees in the Botanic Garden at Cam-
bridge is also one of respectable proportions. There is a small
bat very select collection of trees at Oxford, the oldest botanical
338
ARBORICULTURE— ARBOS
garden in Great Britain, which was founded in 1632. In the
United States the Arnold Arboretum at Boston ranks with Kew
(or size and completeness. It takes its name from its donor, the
friend of Emerson. It was originally a well-timbered park,
which, by later additions, now covers ass acres. Practically,
it forms part of the pork system so characteristic of the city,
being situated only 4 m. from the centre of population. There is
a fine arboretum in the botanical gardens at Ottawa, in Canada
(65 acres). On the continent of Europe the classic example is
still the Jar din des Planus in Paris, where, however, system lends
more of formality than of beauty to the general effect. The
collection of trees and shrubs at Schftnbrunn, near Vienna, is an
extensive one. At Dahlem near Berlin the new Kgl. Never
Botanischer Garten has been laid out with a view to the accom-
modation of a very large collection of hardy trees and shrubs.
There are now many large collections of hardy trees and shrubs
in private parks and gardens throughout the British Islands,
the interest taken in them by their proprietors having largely
increased in recent years. Rich men collect trees, as they do
paintings or books. They spare neither pains nor money in
acquiring specimens, even from distant lands, to which they
often send out expert collectors at their own expense. This, too,
the Royal Horticultural Society was once wont to do, with
valuable results, as in the case of David Douglas's remarkable
expedition to North America in 1823-1824. It will be remembered
that when the laird of Dumbicdikes lay dying (Scott's Heart of
Midlothian, chap, viii.) he gave his son one bit of advice which
Bacon himself could not have bettered. "Jock," said the old
reprobate, " when ye hae naething else to do, ye may be aye
sticking in a tree; it will be growing, Jock, when ye're sleeping."
Sir Walter assures us that a Scots earl took this maxim so
seriously to heart that he planted a large tract of country with
trees, a practice which in these days is promoted by the English
and Royal Scottish Arboricultural Societies.
ARBORICULTURE (Lat arbor, a tree), the science and art
of tree-cultivation. The culture of those plants which supply
the food of man or nourish the domestic animals must have
exclusively occupied his attention for many ages; whilst the
timber employed in houses, ships and machines, or for fuel, was
found in the native woods. Hence, though the culture of fruit-
trees, and occasionally of ornamental trees and shrubs, was
practised by the Egyptians, Creeks and Romans, the cultivation
of timber-trees on a large scale only took place in modern times.
In the days of Charlemagne, the greater part of France and
Germany was covered with immense forests; and one of the
benefits conferred on France by that prince was the rooting up of
portions of these forests throughout the country, and substituting
orchards or vineyards. Artificial plantations appear to have been
formed in Germany sooner than in any other country, apparently
as early as the 15th century. In Britain planting was begun,
though sparingly, a century later. After the extensive transfers
of property on the seizure of the church lands by Henry VIII.,
much timber was sold by the new owners, and the quantity thus
thrown into the market so lowered its price, as Hollingshed
informs us, that the builders of cottages, who had formerly
employed willow and other cheap and common woods, now
built them of the best oak. The demand for timber constantly
increased, and the need of an extended surface of arable land
arising at the same time, the natural forests became greatly
circumscribed, till at last timber began to be imported, and the
proprietors of land to think, first of protecting their native woods,
afterwards of enclosing waste ground and allowing it to become
covered with self-sown seedlings, and ultimately of sowing acorns
and mast in such enclosures, or of filling them with young plants
collected in the woods— a practice which exists in Sussex and
other parts of England even now. Planting, however, was not
general in England till the beginning of the 17th century, when
the introduction of trees was facilitated by the interchange of
plants by means of botanic gardens, which, in that century, were
first established in different countries. Evelyn's Syiva, the first
edition of which appeared in 1664* rendered an extremely im-
portant service to arboriculture; and there is no doubt that the
ornamental plantations in which England surpasses all oth«*r
countries are in some measure the result of his enthusiasm. In
consequence of a scarcity of timber for naval purposes, and i h c
increased expense during the Napoleonic war of obtaining foreign
supplies, planting received a great stimulus in Britain in the
early part of the 19th century. After the peace of 1815 the rage
for planting with a view to profit subsided; but there was a grow-
ing taste for the introduction of trees and shrubs from foreign
countries, and for their cultivation for ornament and use. The
profusion of trees and shrubs planted around suburban villas and
country mansions, as well as in town squares and public parks,
shows how much arboriculture is an object of pleasure to the
people. While isolated trees and old hedgerows are disappearing
before steam cultivation, the advantages of shelter from well-
arranged plantations are more fully appreciated; and more
attention is paid to the principles of forest conservancy both at
home and abroad. In all thickly peopled countries the forests
have long ceased to supply the necessities of the inhabitants by
natural reproduction; and it has become needful to form
plantations either by government or by private enterprise, for
the growth of timber, and in some cases for climatic amelioration.
This subject is, however, dealt with more fully under Forests
amd Forestry (?.».); and the separate articles on the various
sorts of tree may be consulted for details as to each.
ARBOR VITAB (Tree of Life), a name given by Clusius to
species of Thuja. The name Thuja, which was adopted by
Linnaeus from the Thuya of Tournefort, seems to be derived from
the Greek word 9bot, signifying sacrifice, probably because the
resin procured from the plant was used as incense. The plants
belong to the natural order Coniferae, tribe Cupressineae
(Cypresses). Thuja occidental** is the Western or American
arbor vitae, the Cupressus Arbor Vitae of old authors. It is a
native of North America, and ranges from Canada to the moun-
tains of Virginia and Carolina. It is a moderate-sixed tree, and
was introduced into Britain before 1597, when it was mentioned
in Gerard's Herbal, In its native country it attains a height of
about 50 ft The leaves are small and imbricate, and are borne on
flattened branches, which are apt to be mistaken for the leaves.
When bruised the leaves give out an aromatic odour. The
flowers appear early in spring, and the fruit is ripened about the
end of September. In Britain the plant is a hardy evergreen,
and can only be looked upon as a large shrub or low tree. It is
often cut so as to form hedges in gardens. The wood is very
durable and useful for outdoor work, such as fencing, posts, etc
Another species of arbor vitae is Thuja orientalis, known also as
Biota orientalis. The latter generic name is derived from the
Greek adjective punto, formed from /Slot, life, probably in
connexion with the name " tree of life." This is the Eastern or
Chinese arbor vitae. It is a native of China. It was cultivated
in the Chelsea Physick Garden in 1752, and was believed to have
been sent to Europe by French missionaries. It has roundish
cones, with numerous scales and wingless seeds. The leaves,
which have a pungent aromatic odour, are said to yield a yellow
dye. There are numerous varieties of this plant in cultivation,
one of the most remarkable of which is the variety pendula, with
long, flexible, hanging, cord-like branches; it was discovered in
Japan about 1776 by Carl Peter Thunberg, a pupil of Linnaeus,
who made valuable collections at the Cape of Good Hope, in the
Dutch East Indies and in Japan. The variety pygmaea forms a
small bush a few inches high.
Thuja gfyantea , the red or canoe cedar, a native of north-western
America from southern Alaska to north California, is the finest
species, the trunk rising from a massive base to the height of x 50 to
200 ft. It was not introduced to Britain till 1 853. It is one of the
handsomest of conifers, forming an elongated cone of foliage,
which in some gardens has already reached 70 or 80 ft in height.
It thrives in most kinds of soils. The timber is easily worked and
used for construction, especially where exposed to the weather.
ARBOS, FERNANDEZ (1863- ), Spanish violinist and
composer, was bom in Madrid, and trained at the conservatoire
there, and later at Brussels and at Berlin under Joachim. He
became a professor at Hamburg and then at Madrid, becoming
ARBOUR— ARBUTHNOT
339
famous meanwhile as one of the finest violinists of the day; and
after visiting England in 1800 and establishing his reputation
there, he became professor at the Royal College of Music in
London. As a composer he is best known by his violin pieces,
and by a comic opera, El Centro de la Tierro (1895).
ARBOUR, or Arbor (originally "hcrber" or "erbcr," O.
Fr. her bier, from Lat. herbarium, a collection of herbs, her ha,
grass; the word came to be spelt " arbcr " through its pronuncia-
tion, as in the case of Derby, and by the 16th century was
written " arbour," helped by a confusion of derivation from Lat.
arbor, a tree, and by change of meaning), a grass-plot or lawn, a
herb-garden, or orchard, and a shady bower of interlaced trees,
or climbing plants trained on lattice-work. The application of
the word has shifted from the grass-coVcred ground, the proper
meaning, to the covering of trees overhead. " Arbor " (from the
Latin for " tree ") is a term applied to the spindle of a wheel,
particularly in clock-making.
ARBROATH, or Abekbrothock, a royal, municipal and
police burgh, and seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated
at the mouth of Brothock water, 17 m. N.E. of Dundee by the
North British railway, which has a branch to Forfar, via Guthrie,
on the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1891) 22,821; (1901) 22,398.
The town is under the jurisdiction of a provost, bailies and
council, and, with Brechin, Forfar, Inverbervie and Montrose,
returns one member to parliament. The leading industries
include the manufacture of sailcloth, canvas and coarse linens,
tanning, boot and shoe making, and bleaching, besides engineer-
ing works, iron foundries, chemical works, shipbuilding and
fisheries. The harbour, originally constructed and maintained by
the abbots, by an agreement between the burgesses and John
Gedy, the abbot in 1394, was replaced by one more com-
modious in 17 25, which in turn was enlarged and improved in
2844. The older portion was converted into a wet dock in 1877,
and the entrance and bar of the new harbour were deepened. A
signal tower, 50 ft. high, communicates with the Bell Rock (q.v.)
lighthouse on the Inchcape Rock, 12 m. south-east of Arbroath,
celebrated in Southey's ballad. The principal public buildings
are the town-hall, a somewhat ornate market house, the gildhall,
(he public hall, the infirmary, the antiquarian museum (including
some valuable fossil remains) and the public and mechanics'
libraries. The parish chu rch dates from 1 5 70, but has been much
altered, and the spire was added in 1831. The ruins of a mag-
nificent abbey, once one of the richest foundations in Scotland,
stand in High Street. It was founded by William the Lion in
1 178 for Tironesian Benedictines from Kelso, and consecrated in
xi 97, being dedicated to St Thomas Becket, whom the king had
met at the English court. It was William's only personal
foundation, and he was buried within its precincts in 1214. Its
style was mainly Early English, the western gable Norman.
The cruciform church measured 276 ft. long by 160 ft. wide, and
was a structure of singular beauty and splendour. The remains
include the vestry, the southern transept (the famous rose
window of which is still entire), part of the chancel, the southern
wall of the nave, part of the entrance towers and the western
doorway. It was here that the parliament met which on the
6th of April 1320 addressed to the pope the notable letter,
asserting the independence of their country and reciting in
eloquent terms the services which their " lord and sovereign "
Robert Bruce had rendered to Scotland.. The last of the abbots
was Cardinal Beaton, who succeeded his uncle James when the
latter became archbishop of St Andrews. At the Reformation
(he abbey was dismantled and afterwards allowed to go to ruin.
Part of the secular buildings still stand, and the abbot's house, or
Abbey House as it is now called, is inhabited. Arbroath was
created a royal burgh in 1 186, and its charier of 1599 is preserved.
Xing John exempted it from " toll and custom " in every part of
England excepting London. Arbroath is " Fairport " of Scott's
A ntiquory, and Auchmithie, 3 m. north-east (" Musselcrag " of the
same romance), is a quaint old-fashioned place, where the men
earn a precarious living by fishing. On each side of the village
the coast scenery is remarkably picturesque, the nigged cliffs-
teaching in the promontory of Red Head, the scene of a thrilling
incident In the Antiquary, a height of 267 ft. — containing many
curiously shaped caves and archways which attract large numbers
of visitors. At the 14th-century church of St Vigeans, 1 m. north
of Arbroath, stands one of the most interesting of the sculptured
stones of Scotland, with what is thought to be the only legible
inscription in the Pictish tongue. The parish— originally called
Aberbrothock and now incorporated with Arbroath for ad-
ministrative purposes— takes its name from a saint or hermit
whose chapel was situated at Grange of Conon, 3} m. north-west.
Two miles west by south are the quarries of CarmylKe, the ter-
minus of a branch line from Arbroath, which was the first light
railway in Scotland and was opened in 1900.
ARBUTHNOT. ALEXANDER (153S-1583), Scottish ecclesiastic
and poet, educated at St Andrews and Bourges, was in 1569
elected principal of King's College, Aberdeen, which office he
retained until his death. He played an active part in the stirring
church politics of the period, and was twice moderator of the kirk,
and a member of the commission of inquiry into the condition
of the university of St Andrews (1583). The " correctness "
of his attitude on all public questions won for him the com-
mendation of Catholic writers; he is not included in Nicol
Burne's list of " periurit apostatis "; but his policy and influence
were misliked by James VI., who, when the Assembly had elected
Arbuthnot to the charge of the church of St Andrews, ordered
him to return to his duties at King's College. He had been for
some time minister of Arbuthnott in Kincardineshire. His
extant works are (a) three poems, "The Praises of Wemen"
(224 lines), "On Luve" (10 lines), and "The Miseries of a Pure
Scholar" (189 lines), and (b) a Latin account of the Arbuthnot
family, Originis et Incrementi Arbuthnotieat Familiae Dt script to
Hisiorica (still in MS.), of which an English continuation, by the
father of Dr John Arbuthnot, is preserved in the Advocates'
Library, Edinburgh. The praise of the fair sex in the first
poem is exceptional in the literature of his age; and its geniality
may help us to understand the author's popularity with his
contemporaries. Arbuthnot must not be confused with his con*
temporary and namesake, the Edinburgh printer, who produced
the first edition of Buchanan's History of Scotland in 1582.
Some have discovered in the publication of this work a false clue
to James's resentment against the principal of King's College.
The particulars of Arbuthnot's life are found in Calderwood,
Spot tis wood, and other Church historians, and in Scott's Fasti
Ecclesiae Scoticanae. The poems are printed in Pinkerton's Ancient
Scottish Poems (1786), i. pp. 138-155.
ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735), British physician and
author, was born at Arbuthnott, Kincardineshire, and baptized
on the 29th of April 1667. His father, Alexander Arbuthnot,
was an episcopalian minister who was deprived of his living in
1689 by his patron, Viscount Arbuthnott, for refusing to con-
form to the Presbyterian system. After his death, in 1691,
John went to London, where he lived in the house of a learned
linen-draper, William Pate, and supported himself by teaching
mathematics. In 1692 he published Of the La ws of Chance ....
based on the Latin version, Dt Ratociniis in ludo aleae, of a Dutch
treatise by Christiaan Huygens. In 1692 he entered University
College, Oxford, as a fellow-commoner, acting as private tutor
to Edward Jefferys; and in 1696 he graduated M.D. at St
Andrews university. In An Examination of Dr Woodward's
Account of the Deluge (1697) he confuted an extraordinary
theory advanced by Dr William Woodward. An Essay on the
Usefulness of Mathematical Learning followed in 1 701 , and in x 704
he became a fellow of the Royal Society. He had the good fortune
to be called in at Epsom to prescribe for Prince George of Denmark,
and in 1 705 he was made physician extraordinary to Queen Anne.
Four years later he became royal physician in ordinary, and in
1 710 he was elected fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
Arbuthnot's ready wit and varied learning made him very
valuable to the Tory party. He was a close friend of Jonathan
Swift and of Alexander Pope, and Lord Chesterfield says that
even the generous acknowledgment they made of bis assistance
fell short of their real indebtedness. He had no jealousy of
his fame as an author, and his abundant imagination was always
34©
ARCACHON— ARCADE
at the service of his friends. In 1712 appeared " Law is a
Bottomless Pit, Exemplify 'd in the case of the Lord Strutt,
John Bull, Nicholas Frog and Lewis Baboon, who spent all they
had in a law-suit Printed from a Manuscript found in the
Cabinet of the famous Sir Humphrey Poles worth." This was
the first of a series of five pamphlets advocating the conclusion
of peace. Arbuthnot describes the confusion after the death
of the Lord Strutt (Charles II. of Spain), and the quarrels between
the greedy tradespeople (the allies). These put their cause into
the hands of the attorney, Humphrey Hocus (the duke of Marl-
borough), who does all he can to prolong the struggle. The
five tracts are printed in two parts as the " History of John Bull "
in the Miscellanies in Prose and Verse (1727, preface signed by
Pope and Swift). Arbuthnot fixed the popular conception of
John Bull, though it is not certain that he originated the character,
and the lively satire is still amusing reading. It was often
asserted at the time that Swift wrote these pamphlets, but
both he and Pope refer to Arbuthnot as the sole author. In
the autumn of the same year he published a second satire,
" Proposals for printing a very Curious Discourse in Two
Volumes in Quarto, entitled, VtvSoSoyia UoXituctj; or,
A Treatise of the Art of Political Lying," best known by its
sub-title. This ironical piece of work was r.ot so popular as
" John Bull." " Tis very pretty," says Swift, " but not so
obvious to be understood." Arbuthnot advises that a lie should
not be contradicted by the truth, but by another judicious lie.
" So there was not long ago a gentleman, who affirmed that the
treaty with France for bringing popery and slavery into England
was signed the 15th of September, to which another answered
very judiciously, not by opposing truth to his lie, that the
was no such treaty; but that, to his certain knowledge, there
were many things in that treaty not yet adjusted."
Arbuthnot was one of the leading spirits in the Scriblcrus Club,
the members of which were to collaborate in a universal satire
on the abuses of learning. The Memoirs of the extraordinary
Life, Works, and Discoveries of Martinus Scriblerus, of which only
the first book was finished, first printed in Pope's Works (1741),
was chiefly the work of Arbuthnot, who is at his best in the
whimsical account of the birth and education of Martin. Swift,
writing on the 3rd of July 1714 to Arbuthnot, says: — "To
talk of Martin in any hands but yours, is a folly. You every
day give better hints than all of us together could do in a twelve-
month: and to say the truth, Pope who first thought of the
hint has no genius at all to it, to my mind; Gay is too young:
Parnell has some ideas of it, but is idle; I could put together,
and lard, and strike out well enough, but all that relates to the
sciences must be from you."
The death of Queen Anne put an end to Arbuthnot's position
at court, but he still had an extensive practice, and in 1727 he
delivered the Harveian oration before the Royal College of
Physicians. Lord Chesterfield and William Pultcney were his
patients and friends; also Mrs Howard (Lady Suffolk) and
William Congreve. His friendship with Swift was constant and
intimate; he was friend and adviser to Gay; and Pope wrote (2nd
of August 1 734) that in a friendship of twenty years he had found
no one reason of complaint from him. Arbuthnot's youngest
son, who had just completed his education, died in December
1 73 1. He never quite recovered his former spirits and health
after this shock. On the 17th of July 1734 he wrote to Pope:
" A recovery in my case, and at my age, is impossible; the
kindest wish of my friends is Euthanasia." In January 1735
was published the " Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot," which forms the
prologue to Pope's satires. He died on the 27th of February
1735 at his house in Cork Street, London.
Among Arbuthnot's other works are:— An Argument for
Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observed
in the Births of both sexes (Phil. Trans, of the Royal Soc., 17 10);
" Virgilius Restauratus," printed in the second edition of Pope's
Dune iad ( 1 7 29) ; A n Essay concerning the Effects of A ir on Human
Bodies (1733); An Essay concerning the Nature of Ailments . . .
(1731); and a valuable Tabic of Ancient Coins, Weights and
Measure* (1727), which is an enlargement of an earlier treatise
( 1 705). He had a share in the unsuccessful farce of Three Hours
after Marriage, printed with Gay's name on the title-page
(171 7). Some pieces printed in A Supplement to Dr Swift's
and Mr Pope's Works . . . 1739) are there asserted to be Arbuth-
not's. The Miscellaneous Works of the late Dr Arbuthnot were
published at Glasgow in an unauthorized edition in 1751. This
includes many spurious pieces.
See The Life and Works of John Arbpthnot (1892), by George
A. Aitken.
ARCACHON, a coast town of south-western France, in the
department of Gironde, 37 m. W.S.W. of Bordeaux on the
Southern railway. Pop. (1006) 9006. Arcachon is situated on
the southern border of the lagoon of Arcachon at the foot of
dunes covered with splendid pine-woods. It comprises two
distinct parts, the summer town, extending for 2\ m. along the
shore, and bordered by a firm sandy beach, frequented by bathers,
and the winter town, farther inland, consisting of numerous
villas scattered amongst the pines.
Owing to the mildness of its climate the winter town is a
resort for consumptive patients.* The principal industries are
oyster-breeding, which is conducted on a very large scale, and
fishing. The port has trade with Spain and England.
ARCADE, in architecture, a range of arches, supported either
by columns or piers; isolated in the case of those separating the
nave of a church from the aisles, or forming the front of a covered
ambulatory, as in the cloisters in Italy and Sicily, round the
Ducal Palace or the Square of St Mark's, Venice, round the
courts of the palaces in Italy, or in Paris round the Palais- Royal
and the Place des Vosges. The earliest examples known are
those of the Tabularium, the theatre of Marcellus, and the
Colosseum, in Rome. In the palace of Diocletian at Spalato
the principal street had an arcade on either side, the arches of
which rested direct on the capital without any intervening
Fie. 1.— Arcade, Westminster Fie. 2.— Arcade, St John's,
Abbey. Devises,
entablature or impost block. The term is also applied to the
galleries, employed decora tively, on the facades of the Italian
churches, and carried round the apses where they are known as
eaves-galleries. Sometimes these arcades project from the wall
sufficiently to allow of a passage behind, and sometimes they are
From Rfckaun'»9jl«4 MrcUtaSwi. by permit** of Paifccr ft Co.
Fic. 3. — Triforium at Beverley,
built into and form part of the wall; in the latter case, they are
known as blind or wall arcades; and they were constantly
employed to decorate the lower part of the walls of the aisles and
the choir-aisles in English churches. Externally, blind arcades
are more often found in Italy and Sicily, but there are examples in
ARCADELT— ARCADIUS
34«
England at Canterbury, Ely, Peterborough, Norwich, St John's
(Chester), Colchester and elsewhere. Internally, the oldest
example is that of the old refectory in Westminster Abbey (fig. *).
Sometimes the design is varied with interlacing arches as in
St John's, Devices (fig. a), and Beverley Minster (fig, 3). In
Sicily and the south of Italy these interlacing arcades are the
special characteristic of the Saracenic work there found* and
their origin may be found in the interlaced arches of the Mosque of
Cordova in Spain. In the cathedral of Palermo and at Monreale
they are carried round the apses at the east end. At Caserta-
Vecchia, in South Italy, they decorate the lantern over the
crossing, and at Amain the turrets on the north-west campanile.
The term is also applied to the covered passages which form
thoroughfares from one street to another, as in the Burlington
Arcade, London; in Paris such an arcade is usually called
Passage, and in Italy galleria. (R. P. S.)
ARCADELT, or Archadelt, JACOB (c. 1514-c 1556), a
Netherlands composer, of the early part of the Golden Age. In
1530 he left a position at Florence to teach the choristers of
St Peter's, Rome, and became one of the papal singers in X540.
He waa * prolific church composer, but the work* published in
his Italian time consist entirely of madrigals, five books of which,
published at Venice, probably gave a great stimulus to the
beginnings of the Venetian school of composition. In 155s he
left Italy and entered the service of Cardinal Charles of Lorraine,
duke of Guise, and after this published three volumes of masses,
besides contributing motets to various collections. The Ave
Maria, ascribed to him and transcribed as a pianoforte piece by
Liszt, docs not seem to be traced to an earlier source than its
edition by Sir Henry Bishop, which has possibly the same kind of
origin in Arcadelt as the hymn tune " Palestrina " has in the
delicate and subtle Gloria of Palestrina's Magnificat Quinti Tout,
the fifth in his first Book of Magnificats.
ARCADIA, a district of Greece, forming the central plateau
of Peloponnesus. Shut off from the coast lands on all sides by
mountain barriers, which rise in the northern peaks of Erymanthus
(mod. Olonos) to 7400, of Cyllene (Ziria) to 7000, in the southern
comer buttresses of Parthenium and Lycaeum to more than
5000 ft., this inland plateau is again divided by numerous
subsidiary ranges. In eastern or "locked" Arcadia these
heights run in parallel courses intersected by cross-ridges,
enclosing a series of upland plains whose waters have no egress
save by underground channels or zerethra. The western cou ntry
b more open, with isolated mountain-groups and winding
valleys, where the Alpheus with its tributaries the Ladon and
Erymanthus drains off in a complex river-system the overflow
from all Arcadia. The ancient inhabitants were a nation of
shepherds and huntsmen, worshipping Pan, Hermes and Artemis,
primitive nature-deities. The difficulties of communication and
especially the lack of a seaboard seriously hindered intercourse
with the rest of Greece. Consequently the same population,
whose origins Greek tradition removed back into the world's
earliest days, held the land throughout historic times, without
even an admixture of Dorian immigrants. Their customs and
dialect persisted, the latter maintaining a peculiar resemblance
to that of the equally conservative Cypriotes. Thus Arcadia
lagged behind the general development of Greece, and its
political importance was small owing to chronic feuds between
the townships (notably between Mantineia and Tegca) and the
readiness of its youth for mercenary service abroad.
The importance of Arcadia in Greek history was due to Its
position between Sparta and the Isthmus. Unable to force
their way through Argolis, the Lacedaemonians early set them-
selves to secure the passage through the central plateau. The
resistance of single cities, and the temporary union of the
Arcadians during the second Messenian war, did not defer the
complete subjugation of the land beyond the 6th century. In
later times revolts were easily stirred up among individual cities,
but a united national movement was rarely concerted. Most
of these rebellions were easily quelled by Sparta, though in 469
and again in 420 the disaffected cities, backed by Argos, formed
a dangerous coalition and came near to establishing their inde-
Tozer, Geography of Greece (London. 1873), pp. 287-292; E. A.
ian. Federal Government (cd. 1 894, London), ch. iv. $ 3; B. V.
, Hutoria Numorum (Oxford, 1887), PP- 373-373; B. Nie« m
* - * ' (M. a a O
pendence. A more whole-hearted attempt at union in 37 1 after
the battle of Leuctra resulted in the formation of a political
league out of an old religious synod, and the foundation of a
federal capital in a commanding strategic position (see Megalo-
polis). But a severe defeat at the hands of Sparta in 368 (the
" tearless battle ") and the recrudescence of internal discord
soon paralysed this movement. The new fortress of Megalopolis,
Instead of supplying a centre of national life, merely accentuated
the mutual jealousy of the cities. During the Hellenistic age
Megalopolis stood staunchly by Macedonia; the rest of Arcadia
rebelled against Antipater (330, 523) and Antigonus Gonatas
(a66) . Similarly the various cities were divided in their allegiance
between the Achaean and the Aetolian leagues, with the result
that Arcadia became the battleground of these confederacies,
or fell a prey to Sparta and Macedonia. These conflicts seem to
have worn out the land, which already in Roman times had
fallen into decay. An influx of Slavonic settlers in the 8th
century a.d. checked the depopulation for a while, but Arcadia
suffered severely from the constant quarrels of its Frankish
barons (1205-1460). The succeeding centuries of Turkish rule,
combined with an Albanian immigration, raised the prosperity
of the land, but in the Wars of Independence the strategic
importance of Arcadia once more made it a Centre of conflict.
In modern times the population remains sparse, and pending
the complete restoration of the water conduits the soil is unpro-
ductive. The modern department of Arcadia extends to th<$
Gulf of Nauplia with a sea-coast of about 40 m -
Authorities.— Strabo pp. 388 sq.; Pausanias vul; W. M.
Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830). chs. iii„ iv., xi.-xviii.,
kxiii-xxvi..; E. Cartiua. Peloponncsos (Gotha, 185 0. i- 153-17?;
H7F.To*er,~ ' '" '* ' * "" *
Freeman
Head, if
Hermes (1899). PP- 5*> f-
ARCADIUS (378*408), Roman emperor, the elder son of
Theodosius the Great, was created Augustus in 383, and suc-
ceeded his father in 395 along with his brother Honorius. The
empire was divided between them, Honorius governing the two
western prefectures (Gaul and Italy), Arcadius the two eastern
(the Orient and Illyricum). Both were feeble, and, in Gibbon's
phrase, slumbered on their thrones, leaving the government to
others. Arcadius submitted at first to the guidance of the
praetorian prefect Rufinus, and, after his murder (end of 395)
by the troops, to the counsels of the eunuch Eutropius (executed
end of 399) . His consort Eudoxia (daughter of a Frank general,
Bauto), a woman of strong will, exercised great influence over
him; she died in 404. In the last year of his reign, Anthemius
(praetorian prefect) was the chief adviser and support of the
throne. The first years of the reign were marked by the rav-
aging of the Greek peninsula by the West Goths under Alarfc
iq.v,) in 395-396. The movement of the Goth Gainas (who held
the post of master of soldiers) in 399-400 is less famous but was
more dangerous: At that time there were two rival political
parties at Constantinople, the M Roman " party led by Aurelian
(son of Taurus), praetorian prefect, and supported by the em-
press and a Germanising and Arianizing party led by Aurelian's
brother (possibly Cacsarius, praetorian prefect in 400)- Gainas
entered into a close league with the latter; fomented a Gothic
rebellion in Phrygia; and forced the emperor to put Eutropius
to death. For some months he and the party which he supported
were supreme in Constantinople. He was, however, finally
forced to leave, and having plundered for some time in Thrace
was captured and killed by the loyal Goth Fravitta. The Roman
party recovered its power; Aurelian was again praetorian
prefect in 402; and the Gcrmanization which was to befall
the western world was averted from the east. Another import-
ant question was decided in this reign, theTelation of the patriarch
of Constantinople to the emperor. The struggle between the
court and the patriarch John Chrysostom (g.v.) t who assumed
an independent attitude and gravely offended the empress by
his sermons against the worldliness and frivolity of the court,
with open allusions to herself, resulted in his fall and exile (404).
This virtually determined the subordination of the patriarch
34«
ARCADIUS— ARCH
of Constantinople to the emperor. Hie rivalry of the see of
Alexandria with Constantinople was also displayed in the con-
test, Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, assisting the court
in bringing about the fall of Chrysostom. Throughout the reign
of Arcadius there was estrangement and jealousy between the
two brothers or their governments. The principal ground of
this hostility was probably dissatisfaction on both sides with
the territorial partition. The line had been drawn east of
Dalmatia. The ministers of Arcadius desired to annex Dalmatia
to his portion, while the general Stilicho, who was supreme in
the west, wished to wrest from the eastern realm the prefecture
of Illyricum or a considerable part of it. His designs were un-
successful, and during the reign of Thcodosius II., son of Arcadius
(who died in 408), Dalmatia was transferred to the dominion of
the eastern ruler.
Authorities.— Ancient: Fragments of Eunapius and Oiympio-
dprus (in Mailer's Frarjnenia Historicorum Craecomm, vol. iv.);
Bury; J. B. Bury,
9); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol. i. (edl a, 189a);
&aldeapeniung, Gtschichte its oslrdmuchen Racket utter den Kaisem
Arcadius und Thcodosius II. (1885).
ARCADIUS, of Antioch, Greek grammarian! flourished in
the and century A.p. According to Suidas, he wrote treatises
on orthography and syntax, and an onomaticon (vocabulary),
described as a wonderful production. An epitome of the great
work of Herodian on general prosody in twenty books, wrongly
attributed to Arcadius, is probably the work of Thcodosius of
Alexandria or a grammarian named Aristodemus. This epitome
(Htfil TApctfO only includes nineteen books of the original
work; the twentieth is the work of a forger of the 16th century.
Although meagre and carelessly put together, it is valuable,
since it preserves the order of the original and thus affords
a trustworthy foundation for its reconstruction.
Text by Barker, 1823; Schmidt, i860; see also Galland, De
Arcadii quifertur Ixbro de acuntibus (1882).
ARCELLA (C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda,
characterized by a chitinous plano-convex shell, the circular
aperture central on the flat ventral face, and more than one
nucleus and contractile vacuole. It can develop vacuoles, or
rather fine bubbles of carbonic add gas in its cytoplasm, to float
up to the surface of the water.
ARCESILAUS (316-241 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and founder
of the New, or Middle, Academy (see Academy, Greek). Born
at Pitane in Aeolis, he was trained by Autolycus, the mathe-
matician, and later at Athens by Theophrastus and Crantor,
by whom he was led to join the Academy. He subsequently
became intimate with Polemon and Crates, whom he succeeded
as head of the school. Diogenes Laertius says that he died of
excessive drinking, but the testimony of others (e.g. Cleanthes)
and his own precepts discredit the story, and he is known to
have been much respected by the Athenians. His doctrines,
which must be gathered from the writings of others (Cicero,
Acad. i. xa, iv. 34; De Oral. ill. 18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28;
Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math, vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 233),
represent an attack on the Stoic <t>ayracla xaraXiprruri) (Criterion)
and are based on the sceptical element (see Scepticism)
which was latent in the later writings of Plato. He held that
strength of intellectual conviction cannot be regarded as valid,
inasmuch as it is characteristic equally of contradictory con-
victions. The uncertainty of sensible data applies equally to the
conclusions of reason, and therefore man must be content with
probability which is sufficient as a practical guide. " We know
nothing, not even our ignorance "; therefore the wise man will
be content with an agnostic attitude. He made use of the
Socratic method of instruction and left no writings. His argu-
ments were marked by incisive humour and fertility of ideas.
See R. Brodeisen, De Arusila phUosopho (182 1); Aug. Getters,
De Arusila (184a); Ritter and Preller, Hist, philos. grace (1898);
Ed. Zeller, Phil. 0*. Criech. (iii. 1448); and general works' under
Scepticism.
ARCH, JOSEPH (1826- ), English politician, founder of
the National Agricultural Labourers' Union, was bom at B&rford,
a village in Warwickshire, on the xoth of November 1896. Hh
parents belonged to the labouring class. He inherited a strong
sentiment of independence from his mother; and his objections
to the social homage expected by those whom the catechism
boldly styled his " betters " made him an " agitator." Having
educated himself by unremitting exertions, and acquired fluency
of speech as a Methodist local preacher, he founded in 187a the
National Agricultural Labourers' Union, of which he was presi-
dent. A rise then came in the wages of agricultural labourers,
but this had the unforeseen effect of destroying the union; for
the labourers, deeming their object gained, ceased to " agitate."
Mr Arch nevertheless retained sufficient popularity to be re-
turned to parliament for north-west Norfolk in 1885; and
although defeated next year owing to his advocacy of Irish
Home Rule, he regained his seat in 1892, and held it in 1895,
retiring in 1000. He was deservedly respected in the House of
Commons; seldom has an agitator been so little of a demagogue.
A biography written by himself or under his direction, and edited
by Lady Warwick (1898), tells the story of his career.
ARCH, 1 in building, a constructional arrangement of blocks
of any hard material, so disposed on the lines of some curve that
they give mutual support one to the other.
The blocks, which are technically known as voussoirs, should be
Of a wedge shape, the centre or top block (see fig. x, A) being
the keystone A; the lower blocks B B which rest on the support-
ing pier are the springers, the upper surface of which is called the
skewback, C C; the side blocks, as D, are termed the haunches.
The lower surface or soffit of the arch is the intrados, E, and the
upper surface the extrados, F. The rise of the arch is the distance
from the springing to the soffit, G, the width between the
springers is called the span, H, and the radius I. The triangular
spaces between the arches ate termed spandrils, K.
The arch is employed for two purposes: — 0) to span an
opening in a wall and support the superstructure; (a) when
continuous to form a vault known as a barrel or waggon vault
The arch has been used from time immemorial by every
nation, but owing to the tendency of the upper portion to sink,
especially when bearing any superincumbent weight, it requires
strong lateral support, and it is for this reason that in the earliest
examples in unburnt brick at Nippur in Cbaldaea, c. 4000 B.C.,
and at Rakakna (Requaqna) and Dcndera in Egypt, 3500-3000
B.c, it was employed only below the level of the ground which
served as an abutment on either side.
In the building of an arch, the voussoirs have to be temporarily
1 The ultimate derivation of " arch " is the Latin arcus. a bow, or
arch, 'in origin meaning something bent, from which through the
French u also derived " arc,*' a curve. In French there are two
words arche, one meaning a chest or coffer, from Latin ana {areert,
to keep close), hence the English "ark"; the other meaning a
vaulted arch, such as that of a bridge, and derived from a Low Latin
corruption of arcus, into area (du Cange, Chssarxum, s,v.). The
word " arch," prefixed to names of offices, seen in " archbishop,"
" archdeacon." " archduke," ftc., means p rinci pal " or M chief,*'
and comes from the Greek prefix apxr or «>x*- from Imv* to
begin, lead, or rule; it is also prefixed to other words, and usually
with words implying hatred or detestation, such as " arch-fiend ,
" arch-aeoundrcl ; It is from an adaptation of this use, as seen in
such expressions as " arch-rogue," extended to " arch-look," " arch-
face," that the word comes to mean a a
of face or demeanour.
ARCH
343
supported, until the keystone .is inserted. This at the present
day is effected by means of centreing an assemblage of Umbers
framed together, with its upper surface of the same form as the
arch required; the voussoirs are laid on the centreing till the
ring of the arch is completed. In the case of arches of small
span, such as the early examples referred to, limited to about
6 ft., such centreing might be dispensed with in various ways,
but it is difficult to see how the arches of the great entrance
gateways, shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, could have been
built without temporary support of some kind. In those days,
when any amount of labour could be obtained, even the erection
of a temporary wall might have been less costly than the employ-
ment of timber, of which there was great scarcity.
The Assyrian tradition would seem to have descended first to
the Parthian builders, who in the palace of El Hadr built semi-
circular arches with regular voussoirs decoratrveiy treated. The
Ssssanians who followed them employed the elliptical or egg-
shaped arch, of which the lower part was built in horizontal
courses up to about one-third of the height, which lessened the
span of the arched portion.
In Europe the earliest arches were those built by the Etruscans,
either over canals (see article ARCHREcnras: Etruscan), or in
the entrance gateways of their towns. The skew-arch in the
gateway at Perugia shows great knowledge in its execution.
From the Etruscans the adoption of the arch passed to the
Romans, who certainly employed centreing of some kind, but
always economized its use, as is clearly shown by Choisy. Al-
though their walls from the Augustan age were built in concrete,
arches of brick were always turned over their entrance doorways,
sometimes in two or three rings. The Romans utilized the arch
in other ways, sometimes burying it in their conccete construc-
tion, as in their vaults, and sometimes introducing it as a veneer
only, as in the Pantheon. In their monumental structures in
stone, the arch was sometimes built with regular voussoirs, i.c
with a semicircular cxtrados, and sometimes with the joint
carried far beyond. The latter was not done in the early ex-
amples of the Tabularium and the Theatre of Marcellus, but in
the Colosseum and all the arches of triumph the joints run
through the spandrils. notwithstanding the recognition of the
arch proper by its moulded archivolt
Although the value of the pointed arch as a stronger con-
structional feature than the semicircular (owing to the tendency
to sink in the keystone of the latter) had been -recognised by the
Assyrian builders, who employed it in their drains, it was not used
systematically as an architectural feature till the otb century, in
the mosque of Tulun at Cairo; it seems to have been regarded
by the Mahommedans as an emblem of their faith, and its use
spread through Syria to Persia, was brought to Skily from Egypt,
and was taken back by the Sicilian masons to Palestine and em-
ployed throughout theCrusaden'churchesduringtbeislh century.
As the pointed arch had already, for constructional reasons, been
employed in Perigord from the commencement of the nth
century, it does not follow that the Crusaders brought it from
Palestine, but there is no doubt that its universal employment in
France early in the lath century may have been partly due to its
adoption in the Crusaders' churches. At first in Gothic work
both the semicircular and pointed arches were used simultane-
ously in the same building, the larger arches being pointed, the
smaller ones and windows being semicircular. The great value
of the pointed arch in vaulting is described in the article Vault.
We have suggested that the pointed arch became an emblem
of Mahommedan faith, and it was introduced in India but not as
a constructive feature, for the Hindus objected to the arch,
which they say never sktps, meaning that it is always exerting a
thrust which tends to its destruction. In India therefore it was
boUt in horizontal courses with vertical slabs leaning against one
another to form the apex. The Moors of north Africa, however,
never employed it, preferring the horseshoe arch which they
brought into Spain and developed in the mosque of Cordova.
In the additions made to this mosque the prayer chamber was
enriched by the caliph Mansur, who, to eke out the height, raised
arch upon arch. In the Alhambra it appears in the decorative
plaster work, and travels northwards into the south of France,
where at Le Puy and elsewhere it is found decorating doorways
and windows; in England it was employed towards the end of
the i ath century.
About the middle of the 14th century at Gloucester the four-
centred pointed arch was introduced, which became afterwards
the leading characteristic feature of the Tudor style. In France
they adopted the three-centred arch in the 15th century.
The ogee arch was the natural result of the development of
tracery in the commencement of the 14th century, and in
Gloucester (about 13x0) the foliations were run one into the
other without the enclosing circles. About the middle of the
14th century* in the arcade of the first storey of the ducal palace
in Venice, flowing tracery is found, from which the ogee arch
there was probably derived, as throughout Venice it becomes the
favourite feature in domestic architecture of that and the
succeeding century.
The arches are of various forms as follows.-—
a. Semicircular arch,
the centre of which is
in the tame line whh
Us springers.
3. Segmental arch,
where the centre is be-
low the springing.
4. • Horseshoe arch,
with the .centre above
the springing; em-
ployed • in Moorish
architecture.
5. Stilted arches,
where the centre is
below the ' springing,
but the sides are carried
down vertically.
6. Equilateral point-
ed arches, - described
.from two centres, the
radius being the whole
width of the arch.
7. Drop arches, with
centres within the arch.
8. Lancet arches,
with centres outside
the arch.
9* Three centre
arches, employed in
French Flamboyant.
10. Four centre
arches, employed in
the Perpendicular and
Tudor periods.
11. Ogee arches, with
curves of counter flex-
ure, found in English
Decorated and French
Flamboyant.
12. Pointed horse-
shoe arches, found in
the mosque of Tulun,
Cairo. Oth century.
13. Pointed foiled
arches, in the arcades
of Beverley Minster
1230) and Netley
febSr
\\\xui(
16
11. Cusped arch;
Christcburcn Priory,
Hants.
15. Multifoil cusped
arch, invented by the
Moors at Cordova in
the 10th century.
16. Flat arch, where
the soffit is horizontal
and sometimes slightly
. cambered (dotted une).
17. Upright elliptical
arch, sometimes called
the egg-shaped arch,
employed in Egyptian
and Sassanian archi-
tecture.
344
ARCHAEOLOGY
20
18. TheTuscanarch,
where the extrados
takes the form of a
pointed arch.
10. The joggled arch
used in medieval
chirancypieces and in
Mahommedaa archi-
tecture.
20. The discharging
or relieving arch, built
above the architrave or
lintel to take off the
weight of the super-
structure.
1 ai. The relieving
J arch as used in Egypt,
in the pyramid of
Cheops; and in Saxon
architecture, where it
was built with Roman
bricks or tiles, or con-
sisted of two doping
slabs of stone.
F^
19
(R.P.S.)
ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. dpx«ua, ancient things, and XAyot ,
theory or science), a general term for the study of antiquities.
The precise application of the term has varied from time to time
with the progress of knowledge, according to the character of
the subjects investigated and the purpose for which they were
studied. At one time it was thought improper to use it in
relation to any but the artistic remains of Greece and Rome,
i.e. the so-called classical archaeology (now dealt with in this
encyclopaedia under the headings of Greek Art and -Roman
Art); but of late years it has commonly been accepted as
including the whole range of ancient human activity, from the
first traceable appearance of man on the earth to the middle ages.
It may thus be conceived how vast a field archaeology embraces,
and how intimately it is connected with the sdences of geology
(q.v.) and anthropology (q.v.), while it naturally includes within its
borders the consideration of all the civilizations of ancient times.
In dealing with so vast a subject, it becomes necessary to
distinguish. The archaeology of zoological species constitutes
the sphere of palaeontology (q.v.), while that of botanical species
is dealt with as paleobotany (q.v.) ; and every different science
thus has its archaeological side. For practical purposes it is
now convenient to separate the sphere of archaeology in its
relation to the study of the purely artistic character of ancient
remains, from that of the investigation of these remains as an
instrument for arriving at conclusions as to the political and
social history of the nations of antiquity; and in this work the
former is regarded primarily as " art " and dealt with in the
articles devoted to the history of art or the separate arts, while
" archaeology " is particularly regarded as the study of the
evidences for the history of mankind, whether or not the remains
are themselves artistically and aesthetically valuable; In this
sense a knowledge of the archaeology is part of the materials
from which every historical article in this encyclopaedia is
constructed, and in recent years no subject has been more fertile
in yielding information than " archaeology," as representing the
work of trained excavators and students of antiquity in all parts
of the world, but notably in the countries round the Mediterranean.
It is for it* services in illuminating the days before those of
documentary history and for checking and reinforcing the
evidence of the raw material (the "unwritten history" of
architecture, tombs, art-products, &c), that recent archaeological
work has been so notable. The work of the literary critic and
historian has been amplified, by the spade-work of the expert
excavator and explorer to an extent undreamt of by former
generations; and ancient remains, instead of being treated
merely as- interesting objects of art, have been forced to give up
their secret to the historian, as evidence for the period, character
and affiliations of the peoples who produced and used them.
The increase of precise knowledge of the past, due to greater
opportunities of topographical research, more care and observa-
tion in dealing with andent remains and improved methods of
studying them in museums fry.) and collec t ions , has Jed to
more accurate reading of results by a comparison of views, under
the auspices of learned societies and institutions, thus raising
archaeology from among the more empirical branches of learning
into the region of the more exact sdences. This change has
improved not only the status of archaeology but also its material,
for the higher standard of work now demanded necessarily acts
as a deterrent on the poorly equipped worker, and the tendency
is for the general result to be of a higher quality.
The archaeological details concerning all subjects which have
thdr " unwritten history " are dealt with in the separate articles
in this work, induding the andent dviliaations of Assyria,
Egypt and other countries and peoples, while the articles on
separate sites where excavations have been particularly note-
worthy may" be referred to for their special interest; see also
Anthropology; Ethnology, &c. It remains here to deal
generally with the early conditions of the prehistoric ancient
world in their broader aspects, which constitute the starting-
place for the archaeologist in various parts of the world at
different times, and the foundations of our present understanding
of the primitive epochs in the history of man.
The beginning of archaeology, as the study of pie-documentary
history, may be broadly held to follow on the last of the geological
periods, viz., the Quaternary, though it is claimed, and
with some reason, that traces of man have been found
in deposits of the preceding or Tertiary period.
Although there is no valid reason against the existence
of Tertiary man, it must be confessed that the evidence in
favour of the belief is of a very incondusive and unconvincing
kind. The discussion has been mainly confined to the two
questions (i) whether the deposit containing the rdks was
without doubt of Tertiary times, and (a) whether the objects
found showed undoubted signs of human workmanship. Vast
quantities of material have been brought forward, and endless
discussions have taken place, but hitherto without carrying
entire conviction to the minds of the more serious and cautious
students of prehistoric archaeology. A chronic difficulty, and
one which can never be entirely removed, is our ignorance of the
precise methods of nature's working. It is an obvious fact,
that natural forces, such as giadal action, earthquakes, landslips
and the like, must crush and chip flints and break up animal
remains, grinding and scratching them in masses of gravel or
sand. If it were possible to determine with precision what were
the peculiarities of the flint or bone, thus altered by natural
agendes, it would be easy to separate them from others purposely
made by man to serve some useful end. Our present knowledge,
however, does not allow us to go so far in dealing with the ruder
early attempts of man to fabricate weapons or implements. Even
the one feature that is commonly held to determine human agency,
the " bulb of percussion," cannot be considered satisfactory, with-
out collateral evidence of some kind. Flint breaks with what is
called a conchoidal fracture, as do many other substances, such
as glass. Thus on the face of a flint flake, at the end where the
blow was delivered to detach it from the nodule, is seen a lump
or bulb, which is usually regarded as evidence of human work-
manship. To produce such a bulb it is necessary to deliver a
somewhat heavy blow of a peculiar kind at a particular point of a
flattened surface; and the operation requires a certain amount
of practice. The fulfilment of all the necessary conditions
might well be a rare occurrence in nature, and the bulb of
percussion has come to be regarded as the hall-mark of human
manufacture; but recent investigations have shown that the
intervention of man is not necessary and that natural forces
frequently produce a similar result. When, therefore, it is a
question whether or no a group of rude flints are of human
workmanship, evidence of design or purpose in their forms must
be established. If this be found, and in addition if a number of
flints, all having this character of design, be found together, then
and then only is it safe to admit them into the domain of archaeo-
logy. There can be no doubt that much time and energy have
been wasted, and a number of intelligent workers have been
fruitlessly occupied in following up archaeological will-o'-the-
wisps, through neglecting this elementary precaution.
ARCHAEOLOGY
345
Whether or no man produced flint implements before Quater-
nary times, it would seem to be a necessity that he should have
n «..**- passed through an earlier stage, before arriving at
the precision of workmanship and the fixed types
found in the old Stone Age deposits known as palaeolithic.
It is now claimed that this earlier and ruder stage has actually
been discovered in what arc known as the Plateau-gravels of
Kent, in Belgium, and even in Egypt, and the name of eolithic
0}<ta , dawn, Xidos, stone) has been bestowed upon them. The
controversy as to the human character has been very keen, some
alleging that the fractured edges and even the definite and fairly
constant types are entirely produced by natural forces. Sir
Joseph Prestwich in England, and Alfred Rutot in Belgium,
the latter arguing from his own discoveries in that country,
have strongly supported the artificial character of the relics.
On the other hand it is pointed out that the existence of these
implements on the high levels of Kent furnished confirmation of
Sir Joseph Prestwich's theory of the submergence of the district,
and that his support was thus somewhat biassed, while the
geological conditions in Belgium arc not quite comparable with
those of the Kent plateau; and the Belgian evidence^ whatever
it may "be worth in itself, is of no avail as corroboration of the
Kentish case. It is to be regretted that the conditions arc not
more convincing, for, as stated above, they agree fairly well
with the evolution theory of man's handiwork, and if they
could be accepted, would carry back the evidences to a more
remote time when the physical features of Kent were of a very
different character. The critics of eoliths have brought forward
some facts that at first sight would seem to be of a very damag-
ing nature. It was observed that in the process of cement
manufacture the flints that had passed through a rotary machine
in which they were violently struck by its teeth or knocked
against each other, possessed just those features that were
claimed as indisputable proof of man's handiwork, and that
even the forms were the same. These statemen ts have, of course,
been met by counter-statements equally forcible, and the
matter may still be considered to be in suspense. The great
struggle, therefore, is now more closely restricted to the nature
of the chipping than as to the quasi-geological question, and
if the solution is ever to be found, it will be by means of a
closer examination and a better understanding of the difference
between intentional and accidental flaking.
On reaching the Palaeolithic period we come to firmer ground
and to evidence that is more certain and generally accepted.
This evidence is fundamentally geological, inasmuch
as the age of the archaeological remains is dependent
upon that of the beds in which they are found. That
they were deposited at the same time is now no longer ques-
tioned. The flints are found to have the same colour and
surface characteristics as the unworked nodules among which
they lie, and are generally rolled and abraded in the same way.
This In itself suffices to show that the worked and unworked
flints were deposited in their present stratigraphical position
at the same time. The remote age of the beds themselves is
demonstrated by the presence of bones of animals either now
extinct or found only in far distant latitudes, such a* the
mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, &c, and in some cases these
bones are found in such relative positions as to prove they were
deposited with the flesh still adhering to them, and also that
the animal was contemporary with the makers of the flint
implements. Evidence of a somewhat different kind is pro-
vided for the palaeolithic period by certain caverns that have
been discovered in England and on the continent. In these
limestone caves palaeolithic man has lived, slept, eaten his
food and made his tools and weapons. Much of his handiwork
has been left, with the bones of animals on which he- lived,
scattered upon the floor of the cave, and has been sealed up by
the infiltration of lime-charged water, so that the deposit re-
mains, untouched to our own day, below an impermeable bed
of stalagmite. In such circumstances there can be no doubt
of the contemporaneous character of the remains, natural or
artificial, if found on the same level. Moreover, so far as type
is a criterion of age, the flint took found in the cave deposits
tend to confirm the date assigned to those of the river-gravels.
It is fairly certain that about the middle of the Tertiary period
the northern hemisphere possessed a temperate climate, such that
even the polar regions were habitable. But the physical aspect
of northern Europe was very different from that of Quaternary
times. North of a line drawn roughly from southern England
to St Petersburg all was sea. It was during the latter half of
the Tertiary period that the continent assumed its present
general form, though even in Pleistocene (Quaternary) times
England and Ireland formed part of it The great change of
climate from temperate to arctic conditions during the latter
half of the Tertiary period has been interpreted in various ways,
no one of which is yet universally accepted. There can be little
doubt, however, that no single cause was responsible for so com-
plete a change. There may have been some alteration in the'
relative positions of the earth and the sun, which would con-
ceivably have produced ft; but what is practically certain is
that the physical geography of northern Europe was affected
by considerable difference in level, and it is dear that the raising
of mountain ranges and the general elevation of the continent
must necessarily have reacted on the climatic conditions. If
in the later Tertiary time we find that the Alps, the Carpathians
and the Caucasus have come into existence, it is not surprising to
find that these huge condensers have brought about a humid con*
dition of the continent to such an extent that this phase has
been called the Pluvial Age. The humidity, however, was in some
ways only a secondary result of the protrusion of high mountain
ranges. The primary cause of the physical conditions that we
now find in the valleys and plains was the formation of glaciers.
These rivers of ice descending far into the lower levels during
the winter months, melted during the summer, causing enor-
mous volumes of water to rush through the valleys and over
the plains, carrying with it masses of mud and boulders which
were left stranded sometimes at immense distances. The in-
tensity and force of the rivers thus formed would depend upon
two factors, first the extent of the watershed, and secondly,
the height of the mountains from which the water was derived.
The result of increasing cold was that in course of time the
northern hemisphere was surmounted by a cap q( ice, of immense
thickness (about 6000 ft.) in the Scandinavian area and gradually
becoming thinner towards the south, but at no time does it seem
to have extended quite to the south of England. This is proved
by the absence of boulder-clay (glacial mud) in the districts
south of London. These arctic conditions were not, however,
continuous, but alternated with periods of a much less rigorous
temperature during what has been called the Ice Age. Remains
both of mammals and plants have been found, under conditions
that are held to prove this alternation.
Such being the natural forces at work remodelling the surface
of the earth, forces of such gigantic power as to be almost
inconceivable in these more placid times, it can easily be under-
stood how, in the course of the many thousands of years before
the Quaternary period, when the surface of the globe attained
its present aspect, the powerful river-systems of Europe wore
their beds deep into the solid rocks. In some cases in Europe
the erosive power of the river has worn through its bed to
such an extent that the present stream is some hundreds of
feet lower than its forerunner in palaeolithic times. From
various causes, however, the rivers did not always wear for
themselves a deep channel, but spread themselves over a wide
area. This seems to have been the case with the Thames near
London: the river-bed is not of any great depth, but at various
periods it has occupied the space between Clapton on the north-
east and Clapham on the south-west. It must not be assumed
that the whole of this area of 7 m. or more was filled by the
river at any one time, but rather that during the course of the
palaeolithic period the river had its bed somewhere between
these two limits. For instance, it is probable that at one period
the bank of the Thames was at a point nearly midway between
the northern and southern limits, where Gray's Inn Road now
stands. It was here that the earliest recorded palaeolithic
34*
ARCHAEOLOGY
implement (now In the British Museum) was found towards the
dose of the 17th century- in association with mammoth bones.
But it is safe to say that the Thames was a very much wider
and more imposing river in palaeolithic times than it is now,
when its average width at London is under 300 yds. As, in the
course of ages, it changed its bed and by degrees lessened in size
and volume, it would leave, on the terraces formed on its banks,
the deposits of brick-earth and gravel brought down by the
stream, and it is on these terraces that the relics of palaeolithic
man are found, sometimes in great quantities. It will be obvious
from the nature of the case that the highest terraces, and those
farthest apart, should contain the earliest implements; but it
is by no means easy in the present state of the land surface and
with our present knowledge, to place the remains in their relative
sequence. More accurate observation, and a better understand-
ing of the conditions under which these deposits were made,
should solve many such problems. Much light has been thrown
upon many points by Worthington Smith, who has excavated
with great care two palaeolithic floors at Clapton and at Cad-
dington near Dunstable, The latter discovery was of quite
exceptional interest as confirming the geological evidence by
that of archaeology. In this case the original level at which
palaeolithic man had worked was dearly defined, and was
prolific of dark-grey implements, which had evidently been
made on the spot, as Smith found that many of the flakes could
be replaced on the blocks or cores from which they had been
struck by palaeolithic man; there were also the flint hammers
that had been used in the operation. Above the floor was a
layer of brick-earth, again covered by contorted drift, in whkh
also implements occurred, but of a very different kind from those
found below. In place of being sharp and unabraded, and with
the refuse flakes accompanying them, they were rolled and
disfigured, of an ochreous tint, and evidently had been trans-
ported in the drift from a much higher level now no longer
existing, as the site where they occurred is the highest in the
vicinity, about 500-600 ft. above sea-level Here then we have
a dear case of palaeolithic man being compelled to abandon
his working place on the lower level by the descent of the waters
containing the products of his own forerunners, probably then
very remote. In this case the sequence of the various strata
may be considered certain, and the remains thus accurately
determined and correlated are naturally of extreme value and
importance. But even this does not enable us to diagnose
another discovery unless the internal evidence is equally dear
and condusive. One point of importance that may be noted is
that the older abraded implements were. mostly of the usual
drift type, while the more recent ones from the "floor" con-
tained forms more highly developed and elaborated, such as
occur in the French caves. Explorations of this kind, carefully
conducted in a strictly sdentific spirit by men of training and
intelligence, are the only means by which real progress will be
made in this puzzling branch of archaeology.
Although many problems yet remain to be solved in England,
its small area, and the relativdy large number of workers, have
together sufficed to put the main facts of the earlier stages of
man's existence on a fairly satisfactory basis. In France, owing
to the richness of the results, a great number of trained and
ardent workers have made equal, if not better, progress.
But unfortunately the real sdentific spirit is not invariably
found. Not so long ago an apparently serious writer in a
well-known sdentific magazine gave a detailed account of his
studies in primitive methods and explained at great length
his attempts at the manufacture of flint and stone implements.
He found by the processes he adopted that it was much more
easy for htm to produce a polished implement than one merely
flaked. From this fact he seriously argued that a great mistake
had been made in the relative ages of the neolithic and palaeo-
lithic periods, and that the former must necessarily be the older
of the two. The evidence of geological position and of the
mammalian remains accompanying the obviously older flints
was entirely disregarded, just as on the other hand it was for-
' tea that in regard to neolithic remains the proofs were in every
way in favour of a relatively modern origin. Such attempts not
only bring the serious study of early man into disrepute, but
tend to retard the progress of real knowledge and are therefore
to be deplored and when possible discouraged.
Caves (q.v.) have been at all periods regarded as something
uncanny and mysterious, with perhaps a tinge of the super-
natural. In classical times they were associated with
semi-divine beings, with oracles, and even with the
gods themselves, while half the legends of dwarfs and
gnomes that run through the folk-lore of medieval and modern
Europe are associated with caves. They have been used as
shelters or habitations at all times, and in examining them it is
fully as necessary to sift the evidence of age as it would be in
dealing with the river-gravels. Their exploration in the first
instance may well have been due to chance, but it is fairly
certain that during the 16th century the search for the horn of
the unicorn as an antidote to disease, was responsible for the
opening up of a certain number. Among the finds were no
doubt the fossil bones of Quaternary animals to which mythical
names and imaginary properties were attached, and the popular
belief in such amulets naturally gave a great impetus to the
search. It is, however, only a little more than a century ago
that these investigations took anything like a sdentific turn,
and even then they had only a palaeontologies! end in view.
The idea that archaeology entered into the matter was not at
all realized for some years. The remains of many extinct or
migrated animals, such as the hyena, grizzly bear, reindeer
and bison, were found in quantities in the now famous cave
at Gailenreuth in Franconia; and later, William Buck land
explored the equally well-known hyena-cave at Kirkdafe in
Yorkshire, where he demonstrated that these animals had lived
on the spot, feeding on the mammoth, rhinoceros and other
creatures that had been their prey. The remains of man,
however, had not been found, nor were they even looked for.
It was not until Kent's cavern, near Torquay, was examined
by the Rev. J. McEnery, that man was dearly proved to have
been contemporary with these extinct beasts. So contrary
was this contention to the ideas prevalent in the second quarter
of the roth century, that the pioneer in this work had died
(in 1841) before the immense importance of his discovery was
admitted. To Godwin Austen in the first place' and to W.
Pengelley in the second, with the aid of the British Association,
was due the vindication of McEnery's veradty and accuracy.
Several drcumstances conspire to give a special interest to
Kent's cavern, and not the least is the fact that the age and
appearance of the various strata indicate that it has been the
home or the refuge of human beings at all ages even up to
medieval times, and perhaps from a period even more remote
than is the case elsewhere. In the black mould that formed the
uppermost layer were found fragments of medieval pottery,
and relatively in dose proximity were ancient British and Roman
remains as well as relics of the earliest days of metallurgy, in
the shape of bronze fragments. The two thousand years or
more that may have separated the oldest from the most modern
of these later products, is as nothing in comparison with the
immense intervals that lie between the earliest of them and the
infinitely more remote period when gigantic mammals first
inhabited the cave. Attempts have been made from time to
time to express in years what the interval must have been:
but as the computations have differed by hundreds of thousands
of years, according to the method adopted, it is scarcely wise
to do more than speculate. Beneath the black mould, containing
what may be called the recent remains, was a layer of stalag-
mite, some feet in thickness; and under this at one place was
a great quantity of charcoal, which has been with good reason
assumed to show the site of fireplaces. . A quantity of implements
of palaeolithic type was found, but the main layer at this level
consisted of a reddish clay known as cave-earth, and in this
deposit were implements both of flint and horn, as well as bones
of extinct animals. The flint implements were mostly of the
usual river-drift type, but some were of types generally con-
fined to cave-deposits of this period; while the barbed harpoon
ARCHAEOLOGY
347
heads, and more especially a bone needle, were definitely of the
cave class, so weU represented in the caves of Dordogne. Again,
below the cave-earth was a breccia formed of limestone and sand-
none pebbles cemented together by a calcareous paste. In
this also were found implements and bones of bears.
The succession of strata indicated above may be taken
as typical of the caverns used by palaeolithic man, the
breccia and stalagmite flooring being in themselves proof of
a very considerable age, while the association in the former, or
under the latter, of remains of human handiwork, with bones of
extinct ■»»im1« j may be safely taken to show contemporaneous
existence.
Once the mind has fairly grasped the fact that man was living
at so remote a time, it is a simple and natural conclusion that he
should have provided himself with weapons and toofa more or
less rudely fashioned from the stones he found ready to his hand.
The analogy of the recently extinct Tasmanian is sufficient to
show that even the meanest savage is not without such aids..
But the caves of France, of the same palaeolithic period, and used
by men theoretically in the same stage of culture, bring before
us a race of artists of first-rate capacity, who for accuracy of
observation, and for skill in indicating the character and peculiar-
ities of the animals around them, have never been surpassed.
Such a statement sounds like a contradiction in terms. We are
dealing with human beings whose intellect, to judge by their
physical characters, should be on a level with that of the Fuegian
or the Australian black, and far below that of the Maori or the
Sandwich Islander. Yet none of these gentle and relatively
cultured brown races produced anything in the nature of art
that can in any sense be compared with the masterly drawings
or sculptures of the cave-men of France. The best-known of the
engravings, that of the mammoth on a piece of ivory, is in the
Jardin des Planted in Paris. 1 1 is evidently intended to be nothing
more than a sketch, the lines of the finely curved tusks being
repeated several times in the desire for accuracy. But the heavy
lumbering walk of the ponderous beast, his attitude, and even the
character of the hairy hide, are all shown or suggested with a
skili and freedom that not only denotes daily familiarity with the
thing represented, but a most complete mastery of the art of
translating the idea into simple line. This mammoth-drawing
is probably the most important and monumental of its class,
but there are many others that possess artistic qualities not less
remarkable, while they have in addition a grace and beauty of
line not less astonishing. One of these, in the British Museum,
the head of an ibex-like creature, is outlined with a decision and
refinement that can scarcely be surpassed, and many other
sketches in horn or stone in the same collection show a keen
appreciation of the characteristic features of the different
animals as well as a masterly deftness in the handling of the
graving-tooL If we are forced to marvel at the graphic skill
of the cave-men, their sculptures in the round are on a still
higher plane, as may be seen in the figures of reindeer in ivory
in the British Museum. While they are not highly finished,
they show a complete understanding of the animal's peculiar
forms and contours, which are rendered in a direct, unhesitating
way that should betoken a long period of artistic training and
an executive power uncommon at any time. . These drawings
and sculptures have always been appreciated and even regarded
as being of a much more advanced style than was to be expected
among men who are always classed in the lower grades of culture.
But enough stress has not hitherto been laid on the artistic
quality of the work, which would be considered fine at any time
in the world's history. This high artistic level was attained by
a race of men whom we cannot credit with any great Intellectual
equipment; men, moreover, who were engaged in a daily
struggle for the barest necessaries of life, in a trying climate and
surrounded by a fauna whose means of attack and defence were
infinitely superior to their own. There are many astonishing
problems in archaeology, but none so badly in need of solution.
Had the discovery been confined to a single drawing or even
to a single site, fraud or a misreading of the conditions might
have been alleged, but the case is wry different. The drawings
and sculptures have been found generally enough in France to
demonstrate that such artistic power was fairly common, while
the question of the authenticity and period of the discoveries
has long since been satisfactorily settled. It is true that the
climatic conditions in pleistocene France Were more favourable
jto man than was the case farther north, but even an agreeable
climate does not necessarily product an artistic race; if it
were so, the Polynesians would probably be the greatest artists
the world has ever seen. . The physical remains of palaeolithic
man, even when found under unquestionable conditions, are,
however, so scanty, that it is unlikely that the important ques-
tion of the race or races inhabiting central and northern
Europe will ever be settled by their means. The evidence
at present is in favour of two very different types, one dwarfish
and brutal (Canstadt), the other more advanced and noble in
physical character (Cro-Magnon). To the latter were due the
artistic productions, and until further physical evidence is forth-
coming recourse must be had to the most minute examination
of the objects themselves and to accurate observation of the
conditions under which they are found. So far as our present
materials go, these are the only means by which more light may be
thrown on the many problems of early man.
In spite of the unquestioned and unquestionable character of
palaeolithic discoveries in general, it must not be assumed that
there has been an absence of falsification, forgery, and what the
French call " mystification "; on the contrary, such attempts
to meet the demand have been common enough. Apart from
Edward Simpson, who was notorious as " Flint Jack " in the
middle of the xoth century, many others, both in England and on
the continent of Europe, have devoted themselves to this peculiar
industry. Boucher de Perthes tried to conquer the scepticism
of some of his friends who doubted the human origin of the
Abbeville flints, by unwisely offering his workmen a reward for
the discovery of human bones in the same beds. The Moulin
Quignon jaw was accordingly produced, and became the subject
of much controversy; but the evidence finally showed that it had
originally come from elsewhere. The cave drawings also have
found their imitators in modern times. One Meillct, a man of
education, took a special pleasure in the production of spurious
examples, and even published an account of his pretended
discoveries. But here, as in all the attempts at imitation of
the cave drawings, the modern efforts were betrayed by their
poor artistic quality, and a comparison of the new discoveries
with the old was generally enough to disclose the forgery. Two
drawings on bone of a wolf and a bear, declared to have been
found m a cave at Thayingen in Switzerland, were afterwards
shown to have been copied from a child's picture-book. In
Switxerland also a brisk trade was carried on some years ago in
false antiquities said to come from the Lake-dwellings; and
fantastic types of tools and implements were placed on the
market In Italy, too, a lively discussion has taken place
of late years over the authenticity of curiously shaped flint
implements from the neighbourhood of Verona; while America
has provided similar food for discussion in the well-known
Lenape stone and the Calaveras skulL The former bears
drawings of the French cave type, while the latter if genuine
would carry back the story of man in the American continent
before Pliocene times.
An apparent break in the continuity of man's history in
Europe occurs at the end of the palaeolithic period. Attempt*
have been made to bridge the gap by means of a
"mesolithfc" period (/jfcrof, middle); but it would
not seem probable that the missing links will occur at
all events so far north as Britain. We leave palaeolithic man in
a cold climate, surrounded by a somewhat mixed fauna that
formed his prey. We know him as a hunter and artist, but the
remains show that be had no knowledge of pottery till towards
the dose of the period. Among the humbler arts he practised at
least sewing, and lived in caves or took shelter at the base of
overhanging rocks; but like the Australian, he frequently
camped in the open. His successor of the later Stone Age
(neolithic) we find to be a very different character and with very
348
ARCHAEOLOGY
different surroundings. The configuration of the land in which
he lived is practically the same aa we now. see it. The severe
arctic conditions with the appropriate fauna had entirely dis-
appeared, and the introduction of new arts must have radically
changed his daily life. The most important of these are the
training of domestic animals, agriculture, and the development
of pottery. What were the burial rites of palaeolithic man we
have at present no means of knowing, but for his neolithic
successor we know that these were matters of great moment
The abundance of arrowheads of flint indicate the common use
of the bow and arrow as a weapon, while the art of weaving marks
an immense stride in the direction of comfort and civilization.
Of the form and construction of his dwelling we have only a
limited knowledge, derived with some uncertainty from the
analogy of the dwellings for the dead (barrows) and more cer-
tainly from the remains of the villages found erected on piles on
the snores of lakes.
A much-debated question arises here that cannot be passed
over. The changes just mentioned are not such as would be
produced by internal causes alone. Much of the evidence is in
favour of neolithic man being an immigrant, coming into northern
and central Europe long after palaeolithic man and his character-
istic fauna had disappeared. Where did the earlier race go and
who are its modern representatives, if any? The answers to
this question are many. W. Boyd Dawkins is of opinion that
the reindeer was followed by man in its journey to the north
after the retreating glaciers, and that the modern representative
of palaeolithic man is the Eskimo. His arguments are ingenious
but unconvincing*, they mainly consist in the similarity of the
habits of both races in using harpoons and implements of similar
form and make, their power of carving and drawing on bone, the
absence of pottery, disregard of the dead, &c. As to the positive
evidence, it is almost enough to say that the Eskimo, like the
cave-men, used the material nearest to hand that served their
purpose, and that nothing is more remarkable than the similarity
of primitive weapons used by widely separated peoples; while
the negative evidence as to the absence of pottery is of little
value; their conditions of life would allow them neither to make
it nor keep it. Till recently we had no evidence at all of the
treatment of the dead by palaeolithic man, but this is no longer
the case; the discoveries in the Grottes de Grimaldi, Monaco,
show several methods of burial, near a hearth, or in rude stone
cists (see Dr Verneau in U Anthropologic, xvii. 291). A stronger
argument would be furnished if it could be shown that by his
physical character the Eskimo is an intruder in his present
home, and is unrelated to his neighbours. But this has not yet
been done, and the skulls of the Eskimo do not resemble any of
those hitherto found in the caves. In fact, what evidence there
is on the subject is rather against than in favour of the wanderings
northward of the inhabitants of the caves. There are indications,
on the other hand, that in the south of France, in the Pyrenees,
the reindeer was in existence, with man, at a later period than
that of the caves, while the type of skull is that of Cro-Magnon.
Here, therefore, it may be that something like a bridging of the
gap between palaeolithic and neolithic times may be forthcoming.
But it still remains to be found, and for the present we must be
content with uncertainty.
The neolithic period has often been loosely called the age of
polished stone, from the fact that in no case has a polished or
rfc t ytft- ground stone implement been found in a palaeolithic
deposit. The term is not only loose but inaccurate.
In the first place, there is no reason why the cave-men should
not be found to have polished a stone implement on occasion,
for they habitually polished their weapons of bone. Secondly,
neolithic man was by no means uniform in his methods; he
polished or ground the surfaces of such tools or weapons as would
be improved by the process; but to lake a common instance, he
found that the efficacy of his arrow-point was sufficient when
chipped only, and polishing is only occasionally found, as in
Ireland. Many other implements also are found in neolithic
times with no trace of grinding and yet with every appearance of
being complete.
The most trustworthy evidence with regard to this and the
succeeding archaeological periods is to be found in the grave-
mounds. For the earlier part of the neolithic age, however,
these are by no means fruitful of relics. From their shape they
are called in England " long barrows " to distinguish them from
the round barrows which belong to a succeeding time, though
evidence is being accumulated to show that this division is not of
universal application. Long barrows are by no means of such
frequent occurrence in Britain as the round variety; they are
most common in Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and Dorset, and
occur as far north as Caithness. Some of them contain within
the mound a stone chamber, at times with a gallery leading to it,
and in the chamber the interment or interments took place.
Similar barrows have been found on the continent of Europe, and
both in Britain and abroad have one feature in common, vis.
that no metal, with possibly the exception of gold, has ever been
found in them. This similarity of burial custom, though it may
conceivably indicate intercourse, certainly does not prove
identity of race, as has been sometimes claimed. The type of
skulls found in the interment is clear evidence against such an
assumption.
In Britain, the burials were at times by inhumation only, and
occasionally a great number of bodies were interred in the same
barrow: at others, cremation had preceded burial. Another
remarkable feature is that in many instances it is certain from
the relative position of the bones of the unburnt burials that the
corpse had been allowed to decay before the burial took place.
This curious practice is known among many savage tribes of the
present day. Its occurrence in Britain has been adduced in
favour of the prevalence of cannibalism at this time, and not
altogether without reason. While metal is entirely absent in the
long barrows (and in fact relics of any kind are very rarely found),
it is significant that in the succeeding round barrows also metal
occurs but seldom, and then always of the types attributed to the
earliest part of the Bronze Age. When, therefore, the mound
pottery is of a class that may well be anterior to metal, and no
metal is found with the burial, it is not unreasonable to assign such
barrows to the Stone Age. A similar argument may be applied to
the stone implements, but in the opposite direction. Many stone
implements are found either isolated, or perhaps with no other
relics that serve to fix their period. The material alone is often
considered sufficient evidence of their being before the age of
metals; but it is at any rate quite certain that a large number of
stone axes, more particularly those with a socket for the handle,
belong really to the Bronze Age. This uncertainty makes any
account of the neolithic age difficult, unless the material is taken
as the main basis.
Neolithic man, like his forerunners, still recognized that flint
and allied stones provided the best material for his cutting
and piercing implements, though he made use to a great extent
of other hard stones that came ready to his hand. The mining
of flint was undertaken on a large scale, and great care was taken
to get down to the layer containing the best quality. In Norfolk,
at Grime's Graves, and in Sussex, at Cissbury near Worthing,
the flint shafts have been carefully explored by William Green-
well, General Pitt-Rivers and others. The system was to sink
two shafts some little distance apart and deep enough to reach
the desired flint-bed, and the two shafts were then joined by a
gallery at the bottom. At Grime's Graves large numbers of
deer's horns were found, which had evidently been used as picks,
as is proved by the marks found in the chalk walls; and the
horn had been trimmed for the purpose. Cups of chalk were
also found in the galleries and were believed to have been used as
lamps. At Cissbury great quantities of unfinished and defective
implements were found in the work, as weU as horn tools, as in
Norfolk. At such factories the primitive appliances correspond
very closely with those in use among existing savages. The
pebble was used as a hammer or an anvil, and the more delicate
flaking was done by pressure with a piece of horn rather than by
blows. Naturally enough the number of completed implements
found in these factories is small; the finished tools would be
bartered at once and carried away from the factory. All the
ARCHAEOLOGY
349
animal remains found in these pits belong to present geological
conditions, thus emphasizing what has been stated above, that
the absence of polished implements is no evidence for great
age. Many other factories have been found in Britain, in Ireland
and on the continent of Europe: at Grovchuret in Kent, at
Stourpaine near Blandford, at Whitepark Bay, county Antrim,
and in Belgium at Spicnnes. Among the North American
Indians the method would seem to have been somewhat different.
After journeying to the site of a suitable quality of stone, they
did not always complete the implements on the spot, but made
a number of oval chipped disks of good stone which they carried
away and worked up into the required implements at their
leisure. These disks bear a strong likeness to some of the
ovate implements from the Drift in Europe; in fact, but for
the difference of surface condition or patina, they would be
identical.
While the severe climatic conditions that preceded the neolithic
age restricted the presence of man to the more temperate parts
of the globe, it may be assumed that in neolithic times there was
nothing to prevent him from occupying the greater part of the
earth's surface, short of the neighbourhood of the two poles.
Thus it may be expected that an age of stone will be found,
if looked for, in every part of the globe. So far as our present
knowledge goes, all is in favour of the use of stone before metals,
in all countries. The one material requires no special treatment
before being adapted to man's use, while the other demands
considerable knowledge, even if reasoning power have but
little place in the process. Thus the probabilities are here borne
out by the facts. In the extensive " kitchen-middens " of Japan
are found great numbers of chert implements mixed with pottery
of a primitive type, recalling that of European early Bronze
Age barrows, while the succeeding periods of metal are equally
dear. Even in the Far East, therefore, the same sequence is to
be observed. In China, the conditions are more obscure. The
superstitious regard for ancestors has prevented the exploration
of ancient tombs in that country, and thus systematic search
has been impossible, while the precise details of the discovery
of such relics as have come to light are difficult to obtain. In
spite of the assertion that China had no Stone Age, it is surely
more probable, in the absence of exact knowledge, that she fol-
lowed the normal course. Modern territorial divisions, more
especially if they are independent of the natural physical con-
ditions of the land, such as mountain ranges, great rivers and the
like, have but little value in considering the race problems
of remote ages. If, therefore, we find that, In the countries
bordering on what is now the Chinese empire, the ancient
inhabitants followed the same broad lines of culture that are
evident elsewhere, it is easy to believe that China too was normal
in this respect. The negroes and Bantu races of Africa also were
thought to have passed direct to the use of iron, perhaps owing
to the existence on the Nile of a civilization of great antiquity,
which enabled them to pass over the intervening stages. In-
herently improbable, this is now known not to have been the
case. Stone implements, whether ground or merely chipped,
have been discovered on the Congo, and more recently on the
Zambezi It is quite true that in both cases they are found in
superficial deposits, and may be of any age. But here again the
probabilities are greatly in favour of their having been in use
before iron was known. While stone tools, such as knives or
arrow-heads, may possess qualities that render them superior to
bronze or copper, it is certain that once the working of iron was
understood, its superiority to stone would at once be perceived,
and the stone tools be discarded. There can be little doubt that
investigations in Central Africa will demonstrate that the same
course was followed there as elsewhere. In South Africa, in
Egypt and in Somaliland large quantities of stone implements
have been discovered, and of the great age of most of them these
can be no doubt. Some from the banks of the Nile have even
been claimed as " eolithic "; but here, as in Europe, we can
only say that the case is not proven: General Pitt-Rivers did
good service in Egypt by discovering among the stratified
gravels near Thebes a number of rude flints bearing unmastake-
able signs of human workmanship, but he described them
merely as of " palaeolithic type," and deplored the absence of
mammalian remains in the gravels. At the same time he pointed
out that the bulk of the implements claimed as palaeolithic (and,
it may be, correctly) are found on the surface, and therefore
cannot be dissociated from the surface types; hence form alone
cannot be trusted to determine age. ' Further, we are by no means
well informed as to the value of patination in flints found on
the surface in Egypt. The depth and intensity of the patina-
tion would no doubt have a direct relation to the age of the
implement, if only it could be proved that all of them had been
equally subjected to the conditions that produced the discolora-
tion. But this is clearly impossible. Some implements may
conceivably have been continuously on the surface of the desert
from the time they were made, and have been acted upon by the
sun and air for many thousands of years, while others, though
of equal age, may have been covered by sand or otherwise
protected for a large part of the intervening centuries. Patina-
tion, therefore, like form, can only claim a conditional value.
It is at the best an uncertain indication of age, as great age
may be possible without it. Similarly, in Somaliland, the
condition of the implements is very curious, and in some re-
spects puzzling, while their forms resemble 'those from the
Drift in Europe. But as to the climatic conditions we know
nothing, and it is therefore useless to speculate on. the condition
of the stones; as to the geology we know next to nothing, and
no mammalian remains give us a helping hand, while the form
alone is a dangerous foundation for argument.
Investigations in the more remote parts of the world, though
they may occasionally produce some startling novelty in the
history of mankind, can scarcely be expected to
furnish the same trustworthy continuous story as is to *****
be found in the European area. Here history provides Xmika,
us with a fairly truthful account of what has happened
for a period varying from two to three thousand years, or in
some places even longer, and we are thus able to judge whether
particular discoveries come into the historical stage or not. In
more primitive lands where history (if there be any) partakes
more of the character of mythical tradition, the task of defining
the period to which particular discoveries belong is rendered much
more difficult. In America, where history may be said to have
begun five hundred years ago, such a feat is of course impossible,
until a great deal of work on comparative lines has been accom-
plished The accounts of the civilization of Mexico and Peru at
the time of the Spanish conquest show a state of culture which in
some respects must have put the Spaniards to shame, while in
others it was primitive in the extreme. As regards internal
communications, the working of gold and copper, and the
manufacture and decoration of pottery, these American kingdoms
were on a level with all but the most advanced nations; but of
history in the true sense of the word they have none. In spite
of this, it is by no means a hopeless task to disentangle the
apparent confusion of their archaeology. It is now fairly well
known what were the races or tribes that inhabited particular
districts, and it is thus easy to make a corpus of the types adopted
by the various peoples. This is the first certain step in the
application of archaeological method. By degrees, as these
types become familiar to the trained eye, it will not be difficult
to arrange them in a progressive series, from the earliest in style
to the latest. That this will be done by the archaeologists of the
American continent, even with the present scanty materials,
there can be little doubt. Numbers of young and enthusiastic
workers have now had a good training in exploration in historical
lands, and will usefully employ their experience on the antiquities
of their own country. But if once a key be found to the ancient
Mexican inscriptions, so plentifully scattered through the
ancient monuments, it may be that enlightenment will come
even more suddenly and more surely. The one problem that is
of the greatest interest still awaits solution, viz. whether there
is any relation, in culture or more remotely in race, between the
inhabitants of ancient America and those of Europe or Asia.
One thing is certain, that if there be any connexion, it is of
35©
ARCHAEOLOGY
infinite remoteness. But it is at any rate noteworthy that the
same designs, patterns and even games are found in ancient
Mexico and in India or China; and whether these resemblances
arise from relations between the peoples using them or from
accident, is a problem well worth investigation.
In countries like Scandinavia or Switzerland, the story of the
early ages is clear and comparatively free from complications.
The one by its remoteness was left to develop with but little help
from the rest of Europe up to historical times; the other,
protected on so many sides by its mountain ranges, seems to
have enjoyed a peaceful existence during the Stone and Bronze
Ages. A community of fishermen and agriculturists, they led a
calm domestic life on the edges of their many lakes where they
constructed dwellings on piles with only a gangway to the shore,
to prevent the attacks of predatory animal*. The practice of
building houses in lakes was a common one notonly in Switzerland,
but also in Britain and in Ireland, as in modern times among
the natives of New Guinea. Besides securing the safety of the
inhabitants, it had the not unimportant advantage of being more
healthy; all refuse of food and other useless matter could at
once be thrown into the water where it would be harmless. A
similar form of dwelling is the Irish " crannog," constructed on
an island or shoal in a lake, in some cases artificially heightened
so as to bring it above water. These crannogs were probably
Inhabited in Ireland up to comparatively recent times, if one
may judge by the remains found on the sites.
It must not be forgotten that although the neolithic period had
many phases, yet it* duration is in no way comparable to the
incalculable length of the palaeolithic age. For a variety of
reasons it is thought that one of the earliest stages of neolithic
times is represented by the now well-known kitchen-middens
(refuse-heaps) of Denmark. These heaps are often of great size,
sometimes reaching 10 ft in height, and nearly 350 yds. in
length. Here along the coast line the natives of Denmark lived,
apparently building their huts upon the mounds and cooking
their food upon hearths of stone. The conditions of their daily
life would seem to have resembled those of the natives of Tierra
del Fuego. Their implements of flint seem to have been chipped
only, and it is conjectured that the few polished and more highly
finished implements that have been found in the middens are
importations from more cultured tribes living inland. Their
food was in very great part composed of shell-fish, though they
evidently caught and ate various kinds of deer, boor and a
variety of carnivorous animals. The race which made these
mounds is believed to have been akin to the Lapps, and their
dwellings can hardly have been anything more than the rudest
protection from the weather. The Swiss lake-dwellers were far
more advanced, even in the Stone Age; their dwellings were
elaborately planned and constructed, and remains of them have
been plentifully found in the various Swiss lakes. Various forms
of construction were adopted: in one the foundations consisted
of poles driven into the bed of the lake; in others a kind of
framework simply rested on the bottom, and in a third, the
substructure was formed of layers of sticks reaching from the
bottom of the lake up to the surface. The walls were of wattle,
closed up with clay to keep out the weather; the hearths were
of stone slabs, and the floors of clay well trodden down. Practi-
cally the same type of dwelling seems to have continued through
the Stone and Bronze Ages, though on some sates no metal
whatever is found and it is therefore assumed that these are of
the earlier period. These people cultivated the land, growing
wheat and barley; they were also hunters and fishermen,
capable of manufacturing pottery without the aid of the wheel,
which had not yet come into use so far north; and they wove
mats and garments, while ropes and netting are plentiful. Their
tools and weapons were made of stone, and to a great extent of
deer's horn. Human remains are hardly ever found on the sites
of the lake-dwellings, and it is therefore uncertain what were the
social affinities of the people; but the evidence of the sates is in
favour of the same race being continuous into the Bronze Age,
when their condition was more comfortable, as is shown by the
1 of domesticated
Among the most notable and obvious relics of pie-historic
times, both in Britain and in many other countries such as Spain,
Portugal, France and even India, are gigantic circles -^
and avenues of stone and dolmens (see Stoke Mono- J3JJ
mints). These enduring monuments have excited
the wonder of countless generations, and lent themselves to
superstitious practices down to modern times. But the precise
purpose for which they were erected and even the period to
which they belonged, had never been definitely settled. They
had been called burial places of great chiefs, and not unnaturally
had been thought by others to have been temples or places of
primitive worship used by the Druids, who moreover were often
credited with their erection. Obviously such a question called
for settlement, and the British Associati on in the year i8qS
appointed a committee to investigate these stone circles with a
view to ascertaining their age. Operations were begun at the
well-known circle of Arbor Low, south of Buxton in Derbyshire;
careful excavations were made through the ditch and the
encircling mound and also within the circle, and although the
evidence was not of the most complete kind, yet the committee
came to the conclusion that the circle belonged to the end of the
neolithic age. At Arbor Low all the stones are now lying on the
ground (although, to judge from the other circles in England,
they were certainly once upright), and the opportunities for
surveying were thereby much diminished. It is a fortunate
circumstance, therefore, that the fall of one of the stones at
Stonehenge (q.v.) at the end of the 19th century, and the increas-
ingly perilous state of some of the others, caused the owner, with
the advice of the Society of Antiquaries of London, to undertake
the raising of the great leaning stone in the interior of the circle.
The work was superintended by W. Gowland, F.S.A., who made
special investigations during the necessary digging, for the
purpose of recovering any remains of man's handiwork that had
been left by the builders of the monument. In this he was very
successful, finding in the course of the very limited excavation
at the base of the monolith, a great number of stone mauls or
hammers that corresponded so nearly with the bruised surfaces
of the monoliths, that there can be no doubt of their having been
used to dress the standing stones.
From a review of all the evidence of an archaeological nature
that was to be obtained, Gowland came to the conclusion that
the construction of Stonehenge belonged to the latter part of
the neolithic age. No trace of a metal implement occurred
in any of the debris. This would of itself be an interesting fact,
but it became infinitely more interesting from researches in quite
another direction, which brought corroborative evidence of a
curious kind. For many years Sir Norman Lockyer and Prof.
Penrose were engaged in examining the orientation of temples
in Egypt and Greece, with a view to determining on what
astronomical principle, if any, the plans had been laid down.
With a rectangular plan, and with portions of the interior still
well defined, they were able by elaborate calculation to deter-
mine that the temples had been definitely planned with relation
to the rising or setting of the sun or of a particular star. Having
been successful in these investigations they proceeded to apply
the test to Stonehenge. The experiment was made 00 the longest
day in the year x 001. Owing to a gradual change in the obliquity
of the earth's orbit, the point of sunrise on corresponding days
of each year is not constant; and though the difference is
hardly perceptible from year to year, in the course of centuries
it becomes great enough for use as a measure of time. Enough
remains of the monument to show the direction of sunrise at
the time that Stonehenge was erected, it being always assumed
that the coincidence of the main axis with the centra] line of
the Avenue was designed with reference to sunrise on the longest
day of the year. At the date of the experiment it was found
that the sun had shifted nearly two diameters in the interval,
and this variation gives a date of about 1680 B.C., which practi-
cally confirms the verdict of archaeology and seems to prove,
moreover, that Stonehenge was a temple of the sun.
Stonehenge therefore may be taken as marking for Britain
the close of the neolithic period and heralding the dawn of a new
ARCHAEOLOGY
351
era, fa which the inhabitants of the British Isles first acquired
the art of working metal.
There is reason to believe that the transition from the use of
stone to that of bronze was not due to the peaceful advance
.^^ of civilisation, but rather to the irruption of an Aryan
JJJJ^** race from the south-east of Europe into the countries
to the west and north. Of these people the Celts are to
some extent the representatives at a somewhat more recent period.
Here, however, we are dealing with terms the precise meaning
of which is not yet generally admitted, and which, moreover,
have too intimate a relation to the problems of philology to be
fully discussed here (see Indo-European). The term Aryan (q.v.)
itself is not free from objections. It was held by Max Mtlller
to relate to a language and a civilization that took its rise in
Central Asia, while others now contend that, although it is the
mother language of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Teutonic and
Celtic languages, it might equally well have originated in Europe.
However this may be, and even this brief statement shows
how wide a field the arguments would cover, there can be little
doubt that the Bronze Age Celts were of this stock, and that in
course of time they gradually spread their language and culture
over a large part of Europe. Whether or no the knowledge of
bronze started from one or more centres, it gradually spread
from the south-east of Europe until it reached Scandinavia;
the dates being roughly in Crete, 3000 B.C.; in Sicily, 2500 B.C.;
in central France, 2000 B.C.; in Britain and in Scandinavia
1800 B.C. The appearance of the Celts in Britain is indicated
by the presence of the round barrows. They were a fairly tall,
short-headed race, using cremation and also inhumation in their
burials, skilful in the manufacture of pottery and of the simpler
forms of bronze implements, and freely using bone, jet, and
at times amber, while gold was well known and evidently
greatly esteemed. In the early centuries of the Bronze Age,
swords, spears and shields were apparently quite unknown,
the principal metallic products being flat axes, simple knives
or daggers, and small tools or ornaments. In the burial places
the bodies, if unburnt, are nearly always found in a crouching
position, as if in the attitude of sleep; if cremated, the burnt
bones are generally enshrined in an urn under the tumulus, the
burial being sometimes in a cist formed of large stones. The
pottery vessels are remarkable in more ways than one. In
the first place they would seem to have been specially made
for the burial rites, for whenever domestic pottery has been
found, it is of quite a different character, unornamented and
simple in outline. It must be confessed, however, that this
latter is by no means common. The sepulchral vessels are at
times highly decorated, and sometimes of great size. They are
invariably hand made, and though they are by no means well
fired they are never sun-dried, as is often said to be the case.
A common kind of decoration is produced by impressing twisted
cords in the damp clay, and this is believed with some reason
to have had its origin in the practice of winding cords round
the unbaked vessel to prevent distortion before or during the
process of firing. That operation would of course burn away
the cord and leave only its impression on the urn. Other forms
of ornament are also used, incised lines in rudely geometrical
designs, impressions of the end of a stick, and at times rows
of hollows produced by the finger or thumb. The method of
the burial, beyond giving an insight into the art of the period,
also helps us to realize to some extent the ideas of primitive
man. The underlying reason for careful and ceremonial burial
is not always readily understood, apart from a knowledge of
the ritual, such as existed in ancient Egypt. But in the Bronze
Age in Britain it was the custom to bury with the dead not only
carefully made vessels which doubtless contained food for the
journey to the lower world, but also the ornaments and weapons
of the deceased. Often the bones of a pig have been found in
the grave, doubtless representing part of the provender which
could not conveniently be placed in the so-called food-vessel.
Such practices indicate with a fair amount of certainty a belief
m a future life in another world, where probably the conditions
were thought to be much the same as in this. The burial of
the weapons and other property of a dead man is, however, not
always due to the belief that he may need them in some future
state. The reason may well be that it would be thought un-
lucky for a survivor to use them.
Just as the neolithic age was immeasurably shorter than the
palaeolithic, but was notable for great Improvements in the
arts of life, so the Bronze Age in its turn was shorter than the
neolithic age, and again witnessed even more marked advance
in culture. It is in fact an illustration of the truism that each
step in knowledge renders all that follow less laborious; but it
is not easy to understand how the transition from stone to
metal came about, nor why bronze came to be the chosen metal
rather than iron. Bronze, in the first place, is a composite
metal, a mixture of copper and tin, while iron can be at once
reduced from its ores; indeed, in the form of meteoric iron, it
is already metallic, and needs but a hammer to produce what-
ever form may be wanted. From the archaeological point of
view, there is, however, good reason for believing that bronze
preceded iron. The forms of axes that are without doubt the
earliest, are in outline much the same as the stone prototype,
being only thinner in proportion. Then again, iron implements
are never found on the earlier sites, and if they had been in
existence some of them certainly would remain: further, at
the end of the Bronze Age it is found that the forms of weapons
in that metal are exactly copied in iron, as, for instance, at Hall-
statt (q.v.) in the Salzkammergut, the famous cemetery which
best illustrates the passage from the use of bronze to that of iron.
It has been claimed that bronze was preceded by copper, a
sequence which seems inherently probable; and whether or no
it was general enough or enduring enough to constitute a period,
there can be no reasonable doubt that in the Mediterranean
area, and in central Europe, as well as in Ireland, great numbers
of implements were made of copper alone without any appreci-
able admixture of tin. The casting of pure copper presents
certain difficulties, in that the metal is not adapted for anything
but a mould open to the air, and this would limit its utility,
until the discovery that tin in a certain proportion (roughly 1 : 9)
not only made the resulting metal much harder and better fitted
for cutting-tools and weapons, but at the same time rendered
possible the use of dosed moulds.
There are thus two problems in connexion with the history
of the Bronze Age. How was the metal discovered? And
by whom or where? As to the first, it must be remembered
that in some parts of the world, e.g. in China and in Cornwall,
copper and tin are found together, and it may well be that tin
was first accidentally included as an impurity, which, bad it
been noticed, would have been eliminated. Once it was found
to produce a more useful metal, the blend would be deliberately
made, and repeated trials would eventually demonstrate the
most suitable proportion of one metal to the other. The question
of where it was first discovered is one that is not likely to be
answered with certainty, but the one essential is the presence
of the two metals in one and the same locality. Tin does not
exist in either Egypt or Mesopotamia, although bronze articles
from the fourth and third millennium respectively B.C. have been
found in these countries. The tin to produce the mere metal
must have come from some foreign country, and the choice
seems to be very small. Spain at the other end of the Mediter-
ranean is unlikely, and Britain still more so; central Asia, Asia
Minor, or China again seem too remote; for the spread of
metallurgy from these centres would imply a trade connexion
nearly 4000 B.C. In later times, later perhaps by 3000 years,
Spain and Britain were undoubtedly among the chief sources
of the tin supply of Europe and of the Mediterranean generally;
but it will long remain a problem where bronze was first pro-
duced. There is indeed, no real necessity for confining its origin
to a single locality; it is easily conceivable that the invention
occurred independently in more places than one.
The history of early metallurgy has been carefully studied
by W. Gowland, who communicated the results of his researches
to the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1809. In his opinion
the ores from which copper was first obtained by smelting were
352
ARCHAEOLOGY
originally found as pebbles or boulders in the beds of streams,
where man in the Stone Age had been accustomed to search
for stones to convert into implements; and in the same way
the beds of rivers were for a long subsequent period the only
sources of tin. Actual mining belongs in his opinion to a Tar
later period, and naturally had its origin in the discovery of
outcrops of the metal on the surface. By the simple application
of fire, lumps of ore were reduced to a smaller size, and were
then prepared for smelting by further reduction to the condition
of a coarse powder. This latter process was carried out in the
same way that grain was crushed between two stones; and
stone-mills, doubtless used for the purpose, have been found
in ancient workings in Wales. The next stage would be the
furnace, and there can be little doubt that this would be of the
simplest kind, merely a hole in the ground with the fire covering
the metal, and with nothing but a natural draught. But Gow-
land holds that even with these singularly inadequate appliances,
copper could be smelted from the surface ores, though the output
would naturally be of the most uncertain and intermittent
character, depending, as it must have done, on the wind. And
until the discovery of bellows or some other method of increasing
the draught of air, no progress could be made in this direction.
With regard to the resulting metal, viz. copper, we have certain
knowledge. From time to time there are found in the earth
in Britain and elsewhere, hoards of fragmentary or imperfect
bronze implements, portions of axes, swords, rings, &c, all of
which have been failures in castings. These hoards are assumed
to have been gathered together by the bronze founders to be
recast into perfect and useful implements. Now, frequently
associated with these hoards are portions of cakes of pure
copper, originally circular in shape, flat on one face and convex
on the other, like a lens with one flat face. The form of these
cakes is in itself a fair proof of the prevalence of the method
of smelting described above, as it is quite clear that the convex
face of the cake followed the contour of the hole in the ground
above which the fire was placed. The cakes are generally found
broken up into small handy blocks. This can only be done in
one way, viz. by watching the cake, after the fire and slag has
been raked off it, until it is on the point of becoming solid, when
it is quickly pulled out of the hole and broken up. It will be
noted that while the implements in these founders' hoards are
invariably of bronze, the cakes are as invariably of copper.
This is at first sight puzzling, until it is realized that these
founders probably carried the tin necessary for forming bronze
in the form of ore, and that tin ore in its pure state is a snuff-
coloured powder very easily overlooked when lying on the earth,
which it might very nearly resemble in colour, though it would
be much heavier. Thus it is probable that in many such dis-
coveries the tin ore has accompanied the copper cakes and bronze
fragments, but has hitherto eluded the eyes of the finder. Not
only have we this conclusive evidence of the methods by which
Bronze Age man produced his raw material, but the discovery
of crucibles and moulds takes us a step further towards the
finished implements. The crucibles are generally simple bowls
of thick clay with an extension of the lip at one side to pour out
the molten metal. Several of these, with plentiful traces of
metal still remaining in them, were found by the brothers Siret
in the Bronze Age settlement at £1 Argar in Murcia. In the
same place also were found moulds of stone for the casting of
simple triangular axes. These were of the class known as open
moulds, one stone being hollowed to the desired form, the other
half being simply a flat cover, with no relation to the form
of the implement, to be produced. From the nature of the
metal, such a mould is the only kind in which the casting of
an efficient copper implement would be possible; and among
the objects discovered by the Sirets were articles in plenty of
pure copper.
Much has been written in support of the theory that the
bronze tools and implements found in this or that country must
have been importations from southern and more highly civilized
lands. More particularly has this been alleged with regard to
Britain, which, lying as it did on the extreme limit of the ancient
world, was regarded as being dependent on the continent for
the more complex weapons. The constant discovery, however,
of these hoards of rough metal, as well as of moulds of the highest
finish for casting swords, daggers, celts, and almost every kind
of ancient bronze implement and weapon known to us, provides
a conclusive proof of the contrary. The occurrence of a foreign
type of implement is so rare as to be a source of especial grati-
fication to the collector who secures it; and it may be taken
that, in general terms, all the bronze swords, daggers and spears
found in Britain were of home manufacture. Relations with the
continent, however, did exist, as is shown by the occurrence of
an Irish type of gold ornament in France and Scandinavia, and
by the similarity of ornamental motives in the British Isles and
elsewhere. Among the continental races it is natural to find
intercommunication more common, owing to the absence of
natural barriers. The weapons of the Bronze Age were swords,
spears, daggers and axes (celts), though the last would be
equally well adapted for more peaceful purposes. The swords
were usually of a narrow leaf shape, cast with the handle in one
piece, the mounting of the grip and the pommel being added.
For perfection of workmanship the weapons of this period have
never been surpassed, and the skill of adjustment in the moulds,
the fine and equal quality of the metal, and the flawless con-
dition of the surfaces still excite wonder among the roost expert
of modern founders. The cutting edges of swords and " celts "
were often, if not always, hammered to serve the double purpose
of hardening that part of the weapon and sharpening the edge.
In the case of the axe-heads (celts), this hammering had a dis-
tinct influence on the evolution of the form of the implement.
The earliest celts, whether of copper or bronze, were in form,
copies of their stone prototypes, and curiously enough exactly
like the ordinary woodman's axe of to-day, but of course without
the socket for the handle. Hammering rendered the cutting edge
both broader and thinner, giving it at the same time a curved
outline. This widened curve eventually became an ornamental
feature, the two ends of the cutting edge becoming curved
points and adding greatly to the elegance of the outline. Later,
the other edges were finished by hammering also, at times in a
simple ornamental fashion; and whether for greater rigidity
or for some other reason, flanges were produced in the same way
on those edges, which again affected the ultimate form of the
celt. The early flat celt was no doubt simply fixed in a per-
forated wooden handle, which would naturally tend to split if
wielded with any vigour. The side-flanges were in course of
time utilized to prevent this, by allowing the use of a different
form of handle. In place of the simple straight handle, a branch
was cut with an elbow-joint, and its shorter limb then divided
into two prongs, between which the metal passed, while the
flanges, beaten up from the edges, overlapped the two forks;
and no doubt a lashing of sinew was added to render the whole
secure. This made a good serviceable tool or weapon, and '
prevented the splitting of the handle; but still another step
was taken. The flanges on the edges met over the prong of the
handle on either side, while the upper end of the celt itself
eventually became a mere septum dividing the two openings.
This septum was finally judged to be useless, and done away
with; and the celt was cast with one hollow only for the re-
ception of the ends of the handle; thus the flat celt became,
by a natural process of evolution and improvement, a socketed
celt. It is a curious fact, however, that the modern form of
axe where the handle passes through a socket in the metal itself
does not seem to have been much in favour in the Bronze Age,
although it was a stone form that certainly survived into the
succeeding period.
This and other shortcomings in what must have been the
universal weapon and implement of the race, were remedied
from time to time by various improvements in the form of the
bronze axe-head and the method of halting; and the various
stages of development, from the flat blade of copper or bronze
to the socketed implement and even to a pattern now in use, can
still be traced in the Bronze Age specimens that have come down
toss.
ARCHAEOLOGY
Plate I.
r 2
Palaeolithic Period.
i. French Drift. 2. English Drift. 3. French transiti©n (Le Moustier).
5. English Cave Period.
4. French Cave Period.
Plate II.
ARCHAEOLOGY
Sculpture and Engravings of the Cave Period.
From Dordogne, France.
ARCHAEOLOGY
Plate III.
i
Engraving of the Cave Period. From Dordogne, France.
'5
ihM
I.
Outline of Wall-Paintings, Altamira, Length about 45K Ft. (c/. Painting, Plate I.)
By permission, from La Caver ne tt Altamira by Cartailhac and Breuil, Monaco, 1906.
Stages in the Evolution of the Celt or Implement of Chisel Form.
(i) From stone to metallic form. (2) Growth of the stop ridge to palstave.
(3) Growth of the wings to socket-celt.
By permission, from the British Museum Cwufr (9 (hi Bronx* A&,
Plate IV.
ARCHAEOLOGY
\
ARCHAEOLOGY PlateV .
Neolithic Period.
i. Flint and stone implements, England. 2. Flint arrow-heads, England.
3. Arrow-heads, Ireland. 4. Flint and stone implements, Denmark.
5. Flint implements, France. 6. Flint implements, Egypt.
Plate VL
ARCHAEOLOGY
Sepulchral Pottery, British Isles (Bronze Age).
1-3, Drinking cups or beakers. 4-9, Food vessels. 10-12, Cinerary urns.
ARCHAEOLOGY
Plate
Sepulchral Pottery from the Continent of Europe (Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages).
Plate IV.
ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCHAEOLOGY
353
With the discovery of iron as the ideal metal for cutting
implements and weapons, we enter into the millennium before
the Christian era; for roughly speaking, the develop-
***" orient of the civilization associated with the gradual
substitution of iron for bronze began about icoo B.C. Again we
look towards the south-east of Europe for the earliest evidence
of this great advance; from that quarter it gradually spread
over the whole continent, reaching the more northern parts
about five hundred years later. In Egypt, the home of a mar-
vefhms civilization at a very early time, the conditions were
different, and there is reason to suppose that iron was known
there long before it was in use on the northern side of the Medi-
terranean. Our knowledge of the dates at which iron was first
loiown m parts of Asia is still very limited, and further discoveries
must be awaited.
The archaeology of Ireland presents features in many respects
different from those of the rest of the British Islands in the Stone
m _ m __ jm and Bronze Ages. Such affinities in style as are
traceable connect it rather with Scotland than with
any part of the south, a fact doubtless due to proximity as well
as in part to race connexions. A special feature is the astonishing
quantity of gold that was produced in Ireland during the early
Bronze Age. The frequent discovery of gold ornaments of this
time has enriched to a surprising degree the museum of the
Royal Irish Academy in Dublin, while many private and public
collections both in Ireland and elsewhere contain a considerable
number of similar relics. If these represented the total wealth
of gold of the Bronze Age the amount would probably exceed
that of any ancient period in any country, except perhaps the
republic of Colombia in South America. But the known remains
can only be a small proportion of the original wealth. Vast
quantities must have been discovered from medieval times
onwards, nearly all of which would be melted down, owing to
the ignorance of the finders or to the uncertainty of ownership.
Further, it may be taken as certain that there still remains in the
earth a great mass of the metal which may or may not be dis-
covered at some future time. If it were by any means possible
to estimate what these united categories would amount to, the
result would scarcely be credited. It is well known that gold has
been, and still is, found in Ireland; but it is hard to believe that
there were no richer deposits than are now known. It is at any
rate certain that the rivers were worked as late as the opening
centuries of our era. In the Bronze Age the most characteristic
ornaments were penannular objects of all sizes from a small
finger ring up to an armlet, generally known as " ring money "
from the difficulty of assigning a definite use to the whole series;
and the flat, crescent-shaped, diadem-like objects called "lunulae,"
which are perhaps even more definitely characteristic of Ireland.
Such objects of gold, if ornamented at all, are, like some of the
flat axe-heads, engraved with simple geometrical patterns,
lozenge-shaped chequers and the like, a type of decoration in
itself easily determined as being of the Bronze Age, but bearing
at the same time an interesting and very curious analogy to
remains of the same period from the Iberian Peninsula, more
especially from Portugal. If any overland culture-relations
existed between the two countries, it would be only reasonable
to expect the occurrence of the objects in question in the inter-
vening districts. But so far nothing of the kind has been
discovered. Moreover, had it been an isolated instance of
resemblance it might be negligible, but an equally odd similarity
is found in the fact that the Irish were in the habit of grinding
the faces of their flint arrow-heads, an apparently useless refine-
ment, while the Portuguese of the early Bronze Age did the same.
Again, the dolmens of Ireland bear a distinct resemblance to
those of Spain and Portugal, while the French dolmens, with
few exceptions in the north, have a different character. These
curious points are in favour of the tradition that the original
inhabitants of Ireland were of Iberian origin, and further, that
they did not come overland but by sea, and there are indeed
signs of extensive navigation in the Bronze Age of northern
Europe. It was perhaps in the middle of our Bronze Age, say
about looo B.&, that this Iberian race was supplanted by the
Celts, who took a considerable time to emerge from their native
barbarism. It is, at any rate, fairly certain that for some
hundreds of years previous to this Celtic invasion, Ireland was an
enormously rich country, supplying not only herself, but also
Britain and part of the Atlantic seaboard with gold. The fact
became eventually an ingrained tradition in the history of the
country, subsisting in Irish literature for centuries after the
Christian era. Such natural wealth must have produced in these
early times a marked effect on the relations and culture of these
Iberian Irish, and one might reasonably expect a much higher
kvd of luxury and wealth than is indicated by the remains
commonly found. With the opportunities provided by communi-
cation with the continent, and the interchange of goods, with all
the chances of benefiting by ideas current among other races,
it is astonishing that Ireland did not play a more prominent part
in Europe, more than a thousand years before the Christian era.
While gold as a metal was known in Europe, even before
copper, it is a curious fact that silver was almost unknown, and
hardly ever used. One of the most interesting sites for
the metal, at about the same period of which we have ff*ffy
just been speaking in Ireland, was the Mediterranean mnM ^
coast of Spain. Here in the neighbourhood of Almeria
have been found remains of a large and apparently prosperous
population ranging from the Stone Age to the end of the Bronze
Age, with houses and tombs, besides the fortifications rendered
necessary, in the later period, by their possession of the rare and
precious metal, silver. Rare it certainly was, for the quantity
found was exceedingly small, tiny slender rings for the fingers
or the ears, and rivets to hold the axe-blade in its handle; but
nothing to compare with the lavish richness of the American
mines. The interesting race who occupied these dwellings and
finally were laid to rest in the adjoining graves were evidently
connected more or less closely with the peoples inhabiting the
eastern coasts of the Mediterranean.
Recent discoveries in the central Mediterranean area not only
furnish new and trustworthy (though none the less surprising)
dates in ancient history, but may also bridge the distance
between the Levant and the Pillars of Hercules. The results
achieved by Arthur Evans and other distinguished explorers in
Crete (g.v.) opened a new chapter in the history of European
civilization, and may fitly be compared with the excavation of
Troy, Mycenae and Tiryns by Schliemann some thirty years
before. The progress of archaeology in the interval can be well
tested by a comparison of the discussions to which the two series
of discoveries gave rise. The mistaken attributions and unfor-
tunate animosities in connexion with earlier excavations are
almost forgotten, while the brilliant discoveries in the island of
King Minos have not only themselves been made on scientific
principles, but are illumined by the splendid aevclation of the
civilizations of the Mycenaean and the prc-Mycenaean era.
A great change indeed took place in the methods of classical
study during the last decade of the 19th century, a change
which affected the entire character of future classical ^j,*^!
research. It was formerly the common habit among
students and professors of archaeology to confine their attention
and their interests entirely to classical texts and even to classical
sites, rejecting as outside the scope of their studies anything
that was not manifestly beautiful as art. Whatever was primi-
tive in its aspect, or wanting in the familiar characteristics that
had for centuries been associated with Greek art, was cither
rejected entirely or at any rate relegated to a second place, as
having but a poor claim to be classed with objects of the finer
periods. The result was necessarily misleading. The unin-
structed majority very naturally regarded the art of Pheidian
times as a thing of supernatural growth, which bad been be-
stowed by divine favour upon a chosen spot on the earth, without
a human parentage, and almost without leaving any descendants.
The evolutionary methods of other branches of science, however,
were by degrees brought to bear upon the sacred precincts of
pure Greek art. It was found that the crude products of the
second millennium B.C., the formless images evolved by the
uncultured dwellers in the Mediterranean area more than a
35+
ARCHAEOPTERYX
thousand years before the time of Pheidias, were in truth the
prototypes of the creations of himself and his contemporaries.
This step being taken, the rest became easy. The most common-
place and ordinary relics were collected with as much avidity
as they had formerly been rejected, in the belief that their simple
forms would aid in the elucidation of their more complex and
highly elaborated descendants. This minute attention, more-
over, was not only given to the works of man, but even the
remains of humanity received the attention they merited. It
has been rightly thought, during recent years, that the question
of race was a factor that deserved treatment in dealing with
works of art of early times; and that natural evolution due to
man's tendency to change with time, might not be sufficient
to account for the differences of type observed in human remains
from the same country. For this reason, not only the objects
associated with the burial have been preserved, but also the
skeleton itself. This has been examined, measurements taken
and recorded for comparison, and inferences made, sometimes
of a surprising character. For example, if a cemetery be found
with a preponderance of tall, long-headed skeletons in a district
where the prevailing type of skeleton is short and brachy-
cephalic (short-headed), the observer may reasonably expect
a different kind of burial-furniture, and suspect an intruding
race. In this particular respect, archaeology owes a signal
debt to physical anthropology and to anthropological methods
in general. The combination of the two is far more likely to
lead to a reasonable and satisfactory conclusion than would be
possible if the one branch of science had been pursued alone.
When once the existence of abundant remains of prehistoric
man had been admitted, and their study had received recog-
. nition as a branch of science, the evidence supplied
ttkoohgy. Dv tne re ^ cs themselves and by their relation to
extinct or existing animals would have sufficed to give
a considerable insight into the conditions of primitive life.
But, fortunately, corroborative evidence of the most useful
kind was at hand, and has been of the greatest service in solving
what might otherwise have been insoluble problems. Though
the progress of civilization, and more especially the ever in-
creasing rapidity of communication, are rapidly changing the
habits of life among the primitive peoples in various parts of the
world, yet till past the middle of the 19th century, a certain
number of tribes, if not races, were still In the Stone Age. Even
at the present day stone-using tribes still exist, although by
chance metal may be known to them. The importance of the
study of their conditions of life and their technical processes,
and of the collecting of their implements for the express purpose
of illustrating prehistoric man, was recognised by Henry Christy
(1810-1865), who had made extensive investigations and col-
lected relics in'conjunction with Edouard Lartct in the now
famous caverns of the Dordognc, at a time when such explora-
tions were somewhat of a novelty; and concurrently he formed
a large collection of the productions of existing savage peoples,
both collections after his death passing to the British Museum,
his intention being that the one should elucidate the other. (It
is only fair to his memory, however, to state here that, by his
express wish, the most important of the relics that he had
obtained from the Dordogne caves were returned to France
where they now are. Such instances of international courtesy
are rare enough to deserve mention.) The value and interest
of such a series can scarcely be over-rated. Almost till the
20th century, the Indians of North America, the Australian
and Tasmanian natives, as well as those of New Zealand and
the many archipelagoes of the Pacific, were, if not ignorant of
the use of metals, at least habitually using stone where civilized
man would use metal. The Maori made his war club of jade
and the pounders for preparing his food of stone. The Australian
had his stone axe-blade; and low as he stands in the culture
scale, his spear-heads are chipped with an exquisite precision.
The Papuan of inland New Guinea is still making his weapons
of stone and wood; while until quite recently the North
American Indian was making his delicate stone arrow-points,
and the Solomon islander his beautiful polished stone axc-blades. <
The knowledge gained by the study of a large series of such
objects enables us to fill up very many gaps in the story of early
man as told by his own remains. In fact, in this respect, the
value of the comparison is much greater than could reasonably
be expected; for, whatever may be the reason, nothing is more
marked than the extraordinary similarity of stone implements
at all times and over the whole world. An arrow-point made by
a Patagonian Indian, one from a Japanese shell mound, and a
third of the Stone Age from Ireland, are found to be practically
identical. Whether it is that the same material and the same
necessity naturally produce a like result, or whether there has
existed throughout a continuity of type, is a question that will
never be satisfactorily answered. The results, however, are of
eminently practical value. The arrow-heads of neolithic man
which are found by hundreds all over Europe, may be seen fixed
in their shafts in the hands of an American Indian; rude pieces
of quarts, which unmounted would escape notice as implements,
are seen to make excellent tools when mounted in a handle by
the Australian black, while flakes of slate find a use when
mounted as skinning-knives by the Eskimo.
Now that the narrower conception of archaeology as a minor
branch of classical studies has been given up, the new science
has gradually won its way to universal recognition;
and anthropology, a still wider subject but in many
points closely allied to the scientific study of ancient
remains, has still more recently found favour at all the leading
universities, and practical measures have been taken to establish
the study on a firm and scientific basis. Apart from this official
encouragement, much has been done towards the systcma-
tization and teaching of archaeology by practical excavators,
whose pupils have attained considerable numbers and celebrity.
Something has been done, too, in the national and provincial
museums, to present the relics of past ages in an intelligible
manner, so that the collections no longer consist of curiosities
but of documents rich in instruction and interest even to the
general visitor. The progress of photography, as well as the
improvement and cheapening of methods of illustration, have
also assisted enormously in the advance of archaeology; and
similarly, the antiquities exhibited in museums and private
collections to illustrate and amplify written records, have in
the last generation received much attention on their own account,
and have reacted in various ways on the leaching of ancient
history. In some countries a further step in general education
has been taken, and the lamentable waste of arcliacological
material arrested to some extent by the distribution of pictures
and diagrams among schools and institutions, to call attention
to the more ordinary local types, and to encourage those who are
likely to discover them in the soil to save them from destruction
and render them available for scientific study. A certain
familiarity on the part of the young with the mere appearance
of antiquities that come to light continually and arc almost as
often discarded or destroyed, would probably result in valuable
additions being made to the available data.
f phy. — Themostusefulgeneralworksarethefollow-ing: —
Sa lach, Epcque des alluvions et des cavcrnet (Music de
St Hocrncs, Der dituvialc Mensch in Euroba; Sir John
E> Implements of Great Britain, and Bronte implements of
Cr ; Boyd Dawkins. Cave-hunting, and Early Man ••
Br rnwefl. British Barrows; W. C. Smith, Man Uu
Pi nge; James Gcikie, Prehistoric Europe; Mortillet.
Lt iw, Robert Munro, Lake Dwllings of Europe: Ridge-
te of Greece; Jos. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times:
Oscar Montefius and Soph us Mullcr; L' Anthropologic.
\tr Vhistoire primitive dc I'homme; Christy and Lariet.
th<
M
Re .., , ilankat; A. Michaclis, A Century of Archaeological Dis-
covery (Eng. trans., 1908). See also Anthropology, and authori lies
mentioned there; Stone Ace; Bronze Age; Iron Age, Ac.;
Geology; and the articles on different countries and sites.
(C. H. Ro.)
ARCHAEOPTERYX. The name of A rchaeopteryx lithographic*
was based by Hermann von Mcyerupon a feather(Gr.«rapv(, wing)
found in 1861 in the lithographic slate quarries of Solcnhofen
in Bavaria, the geological horizon being that of the Kimmeridge
clay of the Upper Oolite or Jurassic system. In the same year
and at the same place was discovered the specimen (figs, t and j)
ARCHAEOPTERYX
355
now in the British Museum, named by Andreas Wagner Gripho-
saurus. Sir R. Owen has described it as A. macroura. Stimu-
lated by the high price paid by the British Museum, the quarry
owners diligently searched, and in 1872 another, much finer,
preserved specimen was found. This was bought by K. W.
Fig. 1. — The British Museum specimen.
t. Siemens, who presented it to the Berlin Museum. The late
W. Dames has written an excellent monograph on it
Arckaeopleryx was a bird, without any doubt, but still with so
many low, essentially reptilian characters that it forms a link
between these two classes. About the size of a rook, its most
m
H
Fig. 2. — The specimen in the Museum fflr Naturkunde, Berlin.
After a photograph taken from a cast.
obvious peculiarity is the long reptilian tail, composed of 20
vertebrae and not ending in a pygostyle. The last dozen verte-
brae each carry a pair of well-developed typical quills. Upon
these features of the tail E. Haeckel established the subclass
Saururae, containing solely Archoeopteryx, in opposition to the
Omithurae, comprising all the other birds. Herein he has been
followed by many zoologists. However, the fact that various
recent birds possess the same kind of caudal skeleton, likewise
without a pygostyle, although reduced to at least 13 vertebrae,
shows tha t the two terms do not express a fundamental difference.
The importance of Archoeopteryx justifies the following
descriptive detail. Vertebral column composed of about 50
vertebrae, viz. 10-ix cervical, 12-11 thoracic, a lumbar, 5-6
sacral, and 20 or 21 caudal, with a total caudal length of the
Berlin specimen of 7 in. The cervical and thoracic vertebrae
seem to be biconcave; the cervical ribs are much reduced
and were apparently still movable; the thoracic ribs are devoid
of uncinate processes. Paired abdominal ribs are doubtful.
Scarcely anything is known of the sternum, and little of the
shoulder-girdle, except the very stout furcula; scapula typically
bird-like. Humerus about 2} in. long, with a strong crista
lateralis, which indicates a strongly developed great pectoral
muscle and hence, by inference, the presence of a keel to the
sternum. Radius and ulna typically avine, 2*1 in. in length.
Carpus with two separate bones. The hand skeleton consists
of 3 completely separate metacarpals, each- carrying a com-
Fig. 3. — Tall of British Museum specimen.
plete, likewise free, finger; the shortened thumb with 2, the
index with 3, the third with 4 phalanges; each finger with a
curved claw. The whole wing is consequently, although
essentially avine, still reptilian in the unfused state of the
metacarpals and the numbers of the phalanges. The pelvis is
imperfectly known. The preacetabular portion of the ilium is
shorter than the posterior half. The hind-limb is typically
avine, with intertarsal joint, distally reduced fibula, and the
three elongated metatarsals which show already considerable
anchylosis; reduction of the toes to four, with 2, 3, 4 and 5
phalanges; the hallux b separate, and as usual in recent birds
posterior in position. Skull bird-like, except that the short
bill cannot have been enclosed in a horny rhamphotheca, since
the upper jaw shows a row of 13, the lower jaw 3 conical teeth,
all implanted in distinct sockets.
The remiges and rectrices indicate perfect feathers, with shaft
and complete vanes which were so neatly finished that they must
have possessed typical radii and hooklets. Some of the quills
measure fully 5 in. in length. Six or seven remiges were attached
to the hand, ten to the ulna.
It is idle to speculate on the habits of this earliest of known
birds. That it could fly is certain, and the feet show it to have
35&
ARCHAISM—ARCHBISHOP
been well adapted to arboreal life. The clawed slender fingera
did not make Archaeopteryx any more quadrupedal or bat-like
in its habits than is a kestrel hawk, with its equally large, or
even larger thumb-claw.
L'Archaeo-
ctranger, 1879,
Palaeonlol.
to the reptile," Qtol. Mag. i.. 1864. pp. 55-57; C. Vogt,
pteryx macrura," Revue scienl.de la France et de I'ii
pp. 241-248; W. Dames, " Uber Archacopteryx/
Abhandt. ii. (Berlin. 1884); Idem, " Uber Brustbcin Sehulter- und
BeckcngUrtel dcr Archacopteryx," Math, naiune. Mittk. Berlin.
viL(i897). PP476-49J. (H. F. G.)
ARCHAISM (adj. " archaic "; from Gr. dpx«u<w, old), an
old-fashioned usage, or the deliberate employment of an out-of-
date and ancient mode of expression.
ARCHANGEL (Ajlchangelsk), a government of European
Russia, bounded N. by the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, W.
by Finland and Olonets, S. by Vologda, and £. by the Ural
mountains. It comprehends the islands of Novaya-Zcmlya,
Vaygach and Kolgucv, and the peninsula of Kola. Its area is
33 I i5<>5 sq* m -» And its population in 1867 was 275,779 and in
*897. 349.943- The part which lies within the Arctic Circle is
very desolate and sterile, consisting chiefly of sand and reindeer
moss. The winter is long and severe, and even in summer the
soil is frozen. The rivers (Tuloma, Onega, Dvina, Mcxcn and
Pechora) are closed in September and scarcely thaw before July.
The Kola peninsula is, however, diversified by hills exceeding
3000 ft. in altitude and by large lakes (e.g. Imandra), and its
coast enjoys a much more genial climate. South of the Arctic
Circle the greater part of the country is covered with forests,
intermingled with lakes and morasses, though in places there is
excellent pasturage. Here the spring is moist, with cold, frosty
nights; the summer a succession of long foggy days; the
autumn again moist. The rivers are closed from October to
April. The inhabitants of the northern districts — nomad tribes
of Samoycdes, Zyryans, Lapps, and the Finnish tribes of Karelians
and Chudcs— support themselves by fishing and hunting. In the
southern districts hemp and flax are raised, but grain crops arc
little cultivated, so that the bark of trees has often to be ground
up to eke out the scanty supply of flour. Potatoes are grown as
far north as 65°. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the forests
yield timber, pitch and tar. Excellent cattle are raised in the
district of Kholmogory on the Dvina, veal being supplied to St
Petersburg. Gold is found in the districts of Kola, naphtha and
salt in those of Kem and Pinega, and lignite in Mezen. Sulphurous
springs exist in the districts of Kholmogory and Shenkursk.
The industry and commerce are noticed below in the article on
the town Archangel, which is the capital. The government is
divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which are —
Alexandrovsk or Kola (pop. 300), Archangel (q.v.), Kem (18*5),
Kholmogory (1465), Mesen (2040), Novaya-Zemlya (island),
Pechora, Pinega (1000) and Shenkursk (1308).
See A. P. EngelhardtM Russian Proving of the North (Eng. trans.,
by H. Cooke, 1899).
ARCHANGEL (Archangelsk), chief town of the government
of Archangel, Russia, at the head of the delta of the Dvina, on
the right bank of the river, in lat. 64 32' N. and long. 40*33' E.
Pop. (1867) 19,936; (1897) 20,933. As carry as the xoth century,
if not earlier, the Norsemen frequented this part of the world
(Bjarmeland) on trading expeditions; the best-known is that
made by Ottar or Othcre between 880 and 900 and described
(or translated) by Alfred the Great, king of England. The
modern town dates, however, from the visit of the English
voyager, Richard Chancellor, in 1553. An English factory was
erected on the lower Dvina soon after that date, and in 1584 a
fort was built, around which the town grew up. Archangel was
for long the only seaport of Russia (or Muscovy). The tsar
Boris Godunov (1 598-1605) threw the trade open to all nations;
and the chief participants in it were England, Holland and
Germany. In 1668-1684 the great bazaar and trading hall was
built, principally by Tatar prisoners. In 1691-1700 the exports
to England averaged £1 1 a.tio annually. After Peter the Great
made St Petersburg the capital of his dominions (170s), he
placed Archangel under vexatious commercial disabilities, and
consequently its trade declined. In 1762 it was granted the
same privileges as St Petersburg, and since then it has gradually
recovered its former prosperity. It is the seat of a bishop, and
has a cathedral (1709-1743), a museum, the monastery of the
Archangel Michael (whence the city gets its name), an ecclesi-
astical seminary, a school of navigation and a naval hospital.
Linen, leather, canvas, cordage, mats, tallow, potash and beer
arc manufactured. There is a lively trade with St Petersburg,
and the sea-borne exports, which consist chiefly of timber, flax,
linseed, oats, flour, pitch, tar, skins and mats, amount in value
to about 1 J millions sterling annually (82} % for timber), but
the imports (mostly fish) arc worth only about £200,000. A fish
fair is held every year on the 1st (1 5th) of September. Archangel
communicates with the interior of Russia by river and canal, and
has a railway line (522 m.) to Yaroslavl. The harbour, deepened
to 18J f L, is about a mile below the city, and is accessible from
May to October. About 12 m. lower down there are a government
dockyard and merchants' warehouses. A new military harbour,
Alexandrovsk or Port Catherine, has been made on Catherine
(Ekaterininsk) Bay, on the Murman coast of the Kola peninsula,
The shortest day at Archangel has only 3 hrs. 12 min., the
longest 21 hrs. 48 min. of daylight.
ARCHBALD.a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, 10 m. N.E. of Scranton.
Pop. (1890) 4032; (1900) 5396; (1869 foreign-born); (1910)
7194. It is served by the Delaware & Hudson, and the New
York, Ontario & Western railways, and by an intcrurban electric
line. It is about 000 ft. above sea-level; in the vicinity are
extensive deposits of anthracite coal, the mining and breaking
of which is the principal industry; silk throwing and weaving is
another industry of the borough. At Archibald is a large glacial
" pot hole," about 20 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. in depth. Arch*
bald, named in honour of James Archbald, formerly chief
engineer of the Delaware & Hudson railway, was a part of
Blakcly township (incorporated in 1818) until 1877, when it
became a borough.
ARCHBISHOP (Lat. orckit pise opus, from Gr. Apx»«W<n»T©t),
in the Christian Church, the title of a bishop of superior rank,
implying usually jurisdiction over other bishops, but no superi-
ority of order over them. The functions of the archbishop, as
at present exercised, developed out of those of the metropolitan
(q.v.); though the title of archbishop, when it first appeared,
implied no metropolitan jurisdiction. Nor are the terms inter-
changeable now; for not all metropolitans are archbishops, 1
nor all archbishops metropolitans. The title seems to have been
introduced first in the East, in the 4th century, as an honorary
distinction implying no superiority of jurisdiction. Its first
recorded use is by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, who applied
it to his predecessor Alexander as a mark of respect. In the
same way Gregory of Nazianzus bestowed it upon Athanasius
himself. In the next century its use would seem to have been
more common as the title of bishops of important sees; for
several archbishops arc stated to have been present at the council
ofChalccdonin4Si. Inthe Western Church the title was hardly
known before the 7th century, and did not become common
until the Carolingian emperors revived the right of the metro-
politans to summon provincial synods. The metropolitans now
commonly assumed the title of archbishop to mark their pre-
eminence over the other bishops; at the same time the obligation
imposed upon them, mainly at the instance of St Boniface, to
receive the pallium (q.v.) from Rome, definitely marked the
defeat of their claim to exercise metropolitan jurisdiction
independently of the pope.
At the present day, the title of archbishop Is retained in
the Roman Catholic Church, the various oriental churches,
the Anglican Church, and certain branches of the Lutheran
(Evangelical) Church.
1 In the Roman Church it is safe to say that all m
archbishops. In. e.g., the Scottish and American cpi___.
however, the metropolitan is the senior bishop pre Urn.
ARCHBISHOP
357
In the Roman Catholic Church the powers of the archbishop
are considerably less extensive than they were in the middle ages.
^_ According to the medieval canon law, based on the
j£ffS_ decretals, and codified in the 13th century in the
Cbanh. Corpus juris canonici, by which the earlier powers
of metropolitans had been greatly curtailed, the powers
of the archbishop consisted in the right (1) to confirm and
consecrate suffragan bishops; (2) to summon and preside over
provincial synods; (3) to superintend the suffragans and visit
their dioceses, as well as to censure and punish bishops in the
interests of discipline, the right of deprivation, however, being
reserved to the pope; (4) to act as a court of appeal from the
diocesan courts; (5) to exercise the jus devolution is, i.e. present
to benefices in the gift of bishops, if these neglect their duty
in this respect These rights were greatly curtailed by the
council of Trent. The confirmation and consecration of bishops
(q.v.) is now reserved to the Holy See. The summoning of
provincial synods, which was made obligatory every three years
by the council, was long neglected, but is now more common
wherever the political conditions, e.g. in the United States, Great
Britain and France, are favourable. The disciplinary powers of
the archbishop, on the other hand, can scarcely be said to
survive. The right to hold a visitation of a suffragan's diocese
or to issue censures against him was, by Sess. xxiv. c 3 de ref*,
of die council of Trent, made dependent upon the consent of the
provincial synod after cause shown (causa cognila el probata);
and the only two powers left to the archbishop in this respect
are to watch over the diocesan seminaries and to compel the
residence of the bishop in his diocese. The right of the arch*
bishop to exercise a certain disciplinary power over the regular
orders is possessed by him, not as archbishop, but as the delegate
ad hoc of the pope. Finally, the function of the archbishop
as judge in a court of appeal, though it still subsists, is of little
practical importance now that the clergy, in civil matters, are
universally subject to the secular courts.
Besides archbishops who are metropolitans there are in the
Roman Catholic Church others who have no metropolitan
jurisdiction. Such are the titular archbishops in parlibus,
and certain archbishops of Italian sees who have no bishops under
them. Archbishops rank immediately after patriarchs and have
the same precedence as primates. The right to wear the pallium
» confined to those archbishops who are not merely titular.
It must be applied for, either in person or by proxy, at Rome
by the archbishop within three months of his consecration or
enthronement, and, before receiving it, he must take the oaths of
fidelity and obedience to the Holy See. Until the pallium is
granted, the archbishop is known only as archbishop-elect,
and is not empowered to exercise his potestas or din is in the
archdiocese nor to summon the provincial synod and exercise
the jurisdiction dependent upon this. He may, however, exer-
cise his purely episcopal functions. The special ensign of his
office is the cross, crux eruta or gestatoria, carried before him on
solemn occasions (see Cross).
In the Orthodox and other churches of the East the title of
archbishop is of far jmore- common occurrence than in the West,
, and is less consistently associated with metropolitan
f££$f functions. Thus in Greece there are eleven archbishops
to thirteen bishops, the archbishop of Athens alone
being metropolitan; in Cyprus, where there are four bishops and
only one archbishop, all five are of metropolitan rank.
In the Protestant churches of continental Europe the title of
archbishop has fallen into almost complete disuse. It is, however,
still borne by the Lutheran bishop of Upsala, who is
metropolitan of Sweden, and by the Lutheran bishop
of Abo in Finland. In Prussia the title has occasionally
been bestowed by the king on general superintendents of the
Lutheran church, as in 1829, when Frederick William III. gave
it to his- friend and spiritual adviser, the celebrated preacher,
Ludwig Ernst Borowski (1 740-1831), general superintendent of
Prussia (1812) and bishop (18 16).
In the Church of England and its sister and daughter
Churches the position of the archbishop is defined by the medieval
canon law as confirmed or modified by statute since the
Reformation. ^ It is, therefore, as regards both the potestas
ordinis and jurisdiction, substantially the same as
in the Roman Catholic Church, save as modified on the < %S££
one hand by the substitution of the supremacy of the
crown for that of the Holy See, and on the other by the restric-
tions imposed by the council of Trent
The ecclesiastical government of the Church of England is
divided between two archbishops— the archbishop of Canterbury,
who is " primate of all England " and metropolitan of the pro-
vince of Canterbury, and the archbishop of York, who is " primate
of England " and metropolitan of the province of York. The
jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury as primate of aU
England extends in certain matters into the province of York.
He exercised the jurisdiction of kgatus nalus of the pope through*
out all England before the Reformation, and since that event
he has been empowered, by 25 Hen. VIII. c. si, to exercise
certain powers of dispensation in cases formerly sued for in the
court of Rome. Under this statute the archbishop continues
to grant special licences to marry, which are valid in both pro-
vinces; be appoints notaries public,, who may practise in both
provinces; and he grants dispensations to clerks to hold more
than one benefice, subject to certain restrictions which have
been imposed by later. statutes. The archbishop also continues
to grant degrees in the faculties of theology, music and law,
which are known as Lambeth degrees. His power to grant
degrees in medicine, qualifying the recipients to practise, was
practically restrained by the Medical Act 1858.
The archbishop of Canterbury exercises the twofold juris*
diction of a metropolitan and a diocesan bishop. As metro-
politan he is the guardian of the spiritualities of every vacant
see within the province, he presents to all benefices which fall
vacant during the vacancy of the see, and through his special
commissary exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop
within the vacant diocese. He exercises also an appellate juris-
diction over each bishop, which, in cases of licensed curates,
he exercises personally under the Pluralities Act 1838; but his
ordinary appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the judge of the
Arches court (see Arches, Court or). The archbishop had
formerly exclusive jurisdiction in all causes of wills and intes-*
tacies, where parties died having personal property in more than
one diocese of the province of Canterbury, and he had concurrent
jurisdiction in other cases. This jurisdiction, which he exercised
through the judge of the Prerogative court, was transferred
to the crown by the Court of Probate Act 1857. The Arches
court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts
of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matri-
monial causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred
tot the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. The court
of Audience, in which the archbishop presided personally,
attended by his vicar-general, and sometimes by episcopal
assessors, has fallen in to desuetude. The vicar-general, however,
exercises jurisdiction in matters of ordinary marriage licences
and of institutions to benefices. The master of the faculties
regulates the appointment of notaries public, and all dispen-
sations which fall under 25 Hen. VIII. c ax.
A right very rarely exercised by the archbishop of Canterbury,
but one of great importance, is that of the visitation and de-
privation of inferior bishops. Since there is no example of the
archbishop of York exercising or being reputed to have such
disciplinary jurisdiction over his suffragans, 1 and this right
could, according to the canon law cited above, in the middle ages
only be exercised normally in concert with the provincial synod,
it would seem to be a survival of the special jurisdiction enjoyed
by the pre -Re for mat ion archbishop as legatus natus of the pope.
It was somewhat freely exercised by Cranmer and his successors
immediately after the Reformation; but the main precedent
now relied upon is that of Dr Watson, bishop of St Davids, who
was deprived in 1695 by Archbishop Tennison for simony and
1 Unless the case of the claim of Maik, bishop of Carlisle, to be
tried by hU ordinary instead of by a temporal court, be a precedent
(Phillimore, EcclcS. Law, p. 74, ed. 1895).
35»
ARCHCHANCELLOR— ARCHDEACON
other offences, the legality of the sentence being finally confirmed
by the House of Lords on the 25th of January 170s. It was
proved in the course of the long argument in this case that the
archbishop of Canterbury had undoubtedly exercised such inde-
pendent power of visitation both before and after the Refor-
mation; and it was on this precedent that in 1888 the judicial
committee of the privy council mainly relied In deciding that
the archbishop had the right to dte before him the bishop of
Lincoln (Dr Edward King), who was accused of certain irregular
' ritual practices. The trial began on the tath of February 1889
before the archbishop and certain assessors, the protest of Dr
King, based on the claim that he could only be tried in a pro-
vincial synod, being overruled by Archbishop Benson on the
grounds above slated. The. main importance of the " Lincoln
Judgment," delivered on the 21st of November 1800, is that
it set a new precedent for the effective jurisdiction of the arch-
bishop, based on the ancient canon law, and so did something
towards the establishment of a purely " spiritual " court, the
absence of which had been one of the main grievances of a large
body of the clergy.
It is the privilege of the archbishop of Canterbury to crows
the kings and queens of England. He is entitled to consecrate
all the bishops within his province and was formerly entitled,
upon consecrating a bishop, to select a benefice within his
diocese at his option for one of his chaplains, but this practice
was indirectly abolished by 3 and 4 Vict, c nr, J 42. He is
entitled to nominate eight chaplains, who had formerly certain
statutory privileges, which are now abolished. He is ex officio
ah ecclesiastical commissioner for England, and has by statute
the right of nominating one of the salaried ecclesiastical com-
missioners.
The archbishop exercises the ordinary jurisdiction of a bishop
over his diocese through his consistory court at Canterbury, the
judge of which court is styled the commissary-general of the
dty and diocese of Canterbury. The archbishop holds a
visitation of his diocese personally every three years, and he
is the only diocesan who has kept up the triennial visitation
of the dean and chapter of his cathedral. 1 The archbishop
of Canterbury takes precedence immediately after princes of
the blood royal and over every peer of parliament, including the
lord chancellor.
The archbishop of York has immediate spiritual jurisdiction as
metropolitan in the case of all vacant sees within the province
of York, analogous to that which is exercised by the archbishop
of Canterbury within the province of Canterbury. He has also
an appellate jurisdiction of an analogous character, which he
exercises through his provincial court, whilst his diocesan
jurisdiction is exercised through his consistorial court, the
judges of both courts being nominated by the archbishop.
His ancient testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction was
transferred to the crown by the same statutes which divested
the see of Canterbury of its jurisdiction in similar matters. It
is the privilege of the archbishop of York to crown the queen
consort and to be her perpetual chaplain. The archbishop of
York takes precedence over all subjects of the crown not of royal,
blood, but after the lord high chancellor of England. He is
ex officio an ecclesiastical commissioner for England (see further
England, Chukch or).
The Church of Ireland had at the time of the Act of Union
four archbishops, who took their titles from Armagh, Dublin,
Cashel and Tuam. By acts of 1833 and 1834, the metropolitans
of Cashel and of Tuam were reduced to the status of diocesan
bishops. The two archbishoprics of Armagh and Dublin are
maintained In the disestablished Church of Ireland.
The title archbishop has been used in certain of the colonial
churches, e.g. Australia, South Africa, Canada, and the West
Indies, since 1893, when it was assumed by the metropolitans
of Canada and Rupert's Land (see Anglican Communion).
* The court of Peculiars is no longer held, inasmuch as the peculiars
have been placed by acts of parliament under the ordinary juris-
diction of the bishops of the respective dioceses in which they are
situated.
Archbishops have the title of His (or Your) Grace and Most
Reverend Father in God.
See Hinschius. System des kalkoliuhen Kirchenreckts (Berlin,
1869), also article " Erzbischof," in rUuclc. ReuIencyUopodu (1808) ;
Phillimorc. The Eedtsiastual Law of the Church of Endand.znd
authorities there cited. (W. A. P.)
ARCHCHANCELLOR (Lat. ArcMictnceUariut; Ger. Erf
ka rater), or chief chancellor, a title given to the highest
dignitary of the Holy Roman Empire, and also used occasion*
ally during the middle ages to denote an official who supervised
the work of chancellors or notaries.
In the 9th century Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, in his work,
Dt ordine pdatii ci regni, speaks of a summus canccUarhts,
evidently an official at the court of the Carolingian emperors
and kings. A charter of the emperor Lothair I dated 844 refers
to Agilmar, archbishop of Vienne, as archchancellor, and there
are several other references to archchanceliors in various
chronicles. This office existed in the German kingdom of Otto
the Great, and about this time it appears to have become an
appanage of the archbishopric of Mainz. When the Empire was
restored by Otto in 062, a separate chancery seems to have been
organized for Italian affairs, and early in the nth century the
office of archchancellor for the kingdom of Italy was in the hands
of the archbishop of Cologne. The theory was that all the imperial
business in Germany was supervised by the elector of Mainz,
and for Italy by the elector of Cologne. However, the duties
of archchancellor for Italy were generally discharged by deputy,
and after the virtual separation of Italy and Germany, the title
alone was retained by the elector. When the kingdom of
Burgundy or Aries was acquired by the emperor Conrad II. in
1032 it is possible that a separate chancery was established for
this kingdom. However this may be, during the 12th century
the elector of Trier took the title of archchancellor for the king-
dom of Aries, although it is doubtful if he ever performed any
duties in connexion with this office. This threefold division
of the office of imperial archchancellor was acknowledged in
1356 by the Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV., but the
duties of the office were performed by the elector of Mainz. The
office in this form was part of the constitution of the Empire
until 1803 when the archbishopric of Mainz was secularized.
The last elector, Karl Theodor von Dalberg, however, retained
the title of archchancellor until the dissolution of the Empire in
1 806. H. Reincke in Der alU Reichstag ttnd der neve Bundtsral
(Tubingen, 1006) points out a marked resemblance between the
medieval archchancellor and the German imperial chancellor of
the present day.
See du Cange, Ghssarium, a M Archicanceuarius*'; and Chan-
cellor.
ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. 4pxt4tAj«>w). * high
official of the Christian Church. The office of archdeacon is of
great antiquity. So early as the 4th century it is mentioned as
an established office, and it is probable that it was In existence
in the 3rd. Originally the archdeacon was, as the name implies,
the chief of the deacons attached to the bishop's cathedral, his
duty being, besides preaching, to supervise the deacons and their
work, fa. more especially the care of the sick and the arrangement
of the externals of divine worship. Even thus early their dose
relation to the bishop and their employment in matters of
episcopal administration gave them, though only in deacons'
orders, great importance, which continually developed. In the
East, in the 5th century, the archdeacons were already charged
with the proof of the qualifications of candidates for ordination;
they attended the bishops at ecclesiastical synods, and sometimes
acted as their representatives; they shared in the administration
of sees during a vacancy. In the West, in the 6th and 7th
centuries, besides the original functions of their office, arch-
deacons had certain well-defined rights of visitation and super-
vision, being responsible for the good order of the lower clergy •
the upkeep of ecclesiastical buildings and the safe-guarding of the
church furniture — functions which involved a considerable discip-
linary power. During the 8th and 9th centuries the office tended
to become more and more exclusively purely administrative,
ARCHDUKE
359
the archdeacon by hit visitations relieving the bishop of the
minutiae of government and keeping him informed in detail of
the condition of his diocese. The archdeacon had thus become;
on the one hand, the oculus episcopi, but on the other hand,
armed as he was with powers of imposing penance and, in case
of stubborn disobedience, of excommunicating offenders, his
power tended more and more to grow at the bishop's expense.
This process received a great impulse from the erection in the
nth and 12th centuries of defined territorial jurisdictions for the
archdeacons, who had hitherto been itinerant representatives
of the central power of the diocese. The dioceses were now
mapped out into several archdeaconries (archidiaconotus), which
corresponded with the political divisions of the countries; and
these defined spheres, in accordance with -the prevailing feudal
tendencies of the age, gradually came to be regarded as inde-
pendent centres of jurisdiction. 1 The bishops, now increasingly
absorbed in secular affairs, were content with a somewhat
theoretical power of control, while the archdeacons rigorously
asserted an independent position -which implied great power and
possibilities of wealth. The custom, moreover, had grown up of
bestowing the coveted office of archdeacon on the provosts,
deans and canons of the cathedral churches, and the archdeacons
were thus involved in the struggle of the chapters against the
episcopal authority. By the rath century the archdeacon had
become practically independent of the bishop, whose consent
was only required in certain specified cases.
The power of the archdeacon reached its zenith at the outset of
the 13th century. Innocent III. describes him as judex ordinorius,
and he possesses in his own right the powers of visitation, of
holding courts and imposing penalties, of deciding in matrimonial
causes and cases of disputed jurisdiction, of testing candidates
for orders, of inducting into benefices. He has the right to
certain procurations, and to appoint and depose archpriests and
rural deans. And these powers he may exercise through delegated
officiates. His jurisdiction has become, in fact, not subordinate
to, but co-ordinate with that of the bishop. Yet, so far as orders
were concerned, he remained a deacon; and if archdeacons were
often priests, this was because priests who were members of
chapters were appointed to the office.
From the 13th century onward a reaction set in. The power
of the archdeacons rested upon custom and prescription, not
upon the canon law; and though the bishops could not break,
they could circumvent it This they did by appointing new
officials to exercise in their name the rights still reserved to them,
or to which they laid claim. These were the officiates: the
officiate Joranei, whose jurisdiction was parallel with that of the
archdeacons, and the officiates principals and vicars-general,
who presided over the courts of appeal. The clergy having thus
another authority, and one moreover more canonical, to appeal to,
the power of the archdeacons gradually declined; and, so far
as the Roman Catholic Church is concerned, it received its
death-blow from the council of Trent (1564), which withdrew all
matrimonial and criminal causes from the competence of the
archdeacons, forbade them to pronounce excommunications,
and allowed them only to hold visitations in connexion with
those of the bishop and with his consent These decrees were
not, indeed, at once universally enforced; but the convulsions
of the Revolutionary epoch and the religious reorganization
that followed completed the work. In the Roman Church to-day
the office of archdeacon is merely titular, his sole function being
to present the candidates for ordination to the bishop. The
title, indeed, hardly exists save in Italy, where the archdeacon
is no more than a dignified member of a chapter, who takes rank
after the bishop. The ancient functions of the archdeacon are
exercised by the vicar-general. In the Lutheran church the
title Ardtidiakonus is given in some places to the senior assistant
pastor of a church.
1 Archdeaconries were, indeed, sometimes treated as ordinary fiefs
and were held as such by laymen. Thus Ordericus Vitalis says that
" (Fulk) granted to the monks the archdeaconry which he and his
predecessors held in fee of the archbishop of Rouen " {Hist. EccL
In the Church of England, on the other band, the office of
archdeacon, which was first introduced at the Norman conquest
survives, with many of its ancient duties and prerogatives.
Since 1S36 there have been at least two archdeaconries in each
diocese, and in some dioceses there are four archdeacons. The
archdeacons are appointed by their respective bishops, and they
are, by an act of 1840, required to have been six full years in
priest's orders. The functions of the archdeacon are in the
present day ancillary in a general way to those of the bishop of
the diocese. It is his especial duty to inspect the churches
within his archdeaconry, to see that the fabrics are kept m
repair, and to hojd annual, visitations of the clergy and church-
wardens of each parish, for the purpose of ascertaining that the
clergy are in residence, of admitting the newly elected church*
wardens into office, and of receiving the presentments of the
outgoing churchwardens. It is his privilege to present all
candidates for ordination to the bishop of the diocese. It is his
duty also to induct the clergy of his archdeaconry Into the
temporalities of their benefices after they have been instituted
into the spiritualities by the bishop or his vicar-general. Every
archdeacon is entitled to appoint an official to preside over his
archidiaconal court, from which there is an appeal to the con-
sistory court of the bishop. The archdeacons are ex officio
members of the convocations of their respective provinces.
It is" the privilege of the archdeacon of Canterbury to induct
the archbishop and all the bishops of the province of Canterbury
into their respective bishoprics, and this he does in the case of a
bishop under a mandate from the archbishopof Canterbury, direct-
ing him to induct the bishop into the real, actual, and corporal
possession of the bishopric, and to install and to enthrone him;
and in .the case of the archbishop, under an analogous mandate
from the dean and chapter of Canterbury, as being guardians of
the spiritualities during the vacancy of the archiepiscopal see.
In the colonies there are two or more archdeacons in each
diocese, and their functions correspond to those of English
archdeacons. In the Episcopal church of America the office of
archdeacon exists in only one or two dioceses.
See Hinschius, Kirckenrcckt, u., H 86, 87*. Schroder, DioEntwick-
htng its Arckdiakonats bis sum 11. Jahrkundcrt (Munich, 1890);
Wetzer and Welte, Kircketttexikon (Freiburg-im-Brcisgau, 188*-
1001); Herzog-Hauck, Realeneyklopddie (ed. 1896); Phillimore,
Ecclesiastical Law, part ii. chap. v. (London, 1895)* (W. A. P.)
ARCHDUKE (Lat. orckidux, Ger. Enkenog), a title peculiar
now to the Austrian royal family. According to Selden it
denotes " an excellency or preeminence only, not a superiority
or power over other dukes, as in archbishop it doth over other
bishops." Yet in this latter sense it would seem to have been'
assumed by Bruno of Saxony, archbishop of Cologne, and duke
of Lorraine (953*065), when he divided his duchy into the duke*
doms of Upper and Lower Lorraine. The designation was,
however, exceedingly rare during the middle ages. The title
of archduke of Lorraine ceased with the circumstances which
had produced it. The later dynasties of Brabant and Lorraine,
when these fiefs became hereditary, bore only the title of duke..
The house of Habsburg, therefore, did not acquire this title
with the inheritance of the dukes of Lorraine. Nor does it occur
in any of the charters granted to the dukes of Austria by the,
emperors; though in that creating the first duke of Austria the
archiduces palatii, i.e. the principal dukes of the court are men*
tioned. The "Archidux Austriae, seu Austriae inferior^"
is spoken of by Abbot Rudolph (d. 1138) in his chronicles of the
abbey of St Trond {fiesta Abba turn Trudonestsium) but this is no
more than a rhetorical flourish, and the title of " archduke
palatine" (Ffalz-Erzherzog) was, in fact, assumed first by
Duke Rudolph IV. (d. 1365), and was one of the rights and
privileges included in his famous forgery of the year 2358, the
primlegium maius, which purported to have been bestowed
by the emperor Frederick I. on the dukes of Austria in extension
of the genuine privilegium minus of 1 1 56, granted to the margrave
Henry II. Rudolph IV. used the title on his seals and charters
till he was compelled to desist by the emperor Charles IV. The
title was also assumed for a time, probably on the strength of the
primlepum maius, by Duke Ernest of Styria (d. 1424); but it
3&o
ARCHEAN SYSTEM
did not legally belong to the house of Habsburg until 1453,
when Duke Ernest's son, the emperor Frederick III. (Frederick
V., duke of Styria and Carinthia, 1424-1403, of Austria, 1463*
i493)i confirmed the pritnlegium maius and conferred the title of
archduke of Austria on his son Maximilian and his heirs. The
title archduke (or archduchess) is now borne by all members of
the Austrian imperial house.
ARCHEAN SYSTEM (from Lpxh, beginning), in geology.
Below the lowest distinctly fossiliferous strata, that is, below
those Cambrian rocks which bear the Oktuilus fauna, there
lies a great mass of stratified, metamorphic and igneous rock,
to which the non-committal epithet " pre-Cambrian " is often
applied; and indeed in not a few instances this general term
is sufficiently precise for the present state of our knowledge.
/? Distribution*
>* > Archean Rocks /
Nevertheless there are large tracts, both in the Old World and
in the New, in which a subdivision of this assemblage of ancient
rocks is not only possible but desirable. It is quite clear in
certain regions that there is a lowermost group with a prevailing
granitoid, gneissic and schistose fades, mainly of igneous origin,
above which there are one or several groups bearing a distinctly
sedimentary aspect. It is to this lowermost gneissic group that
the term " Archean "may be conveniently limited.
Thus, while the name "pre-Cambrian" may be used to
indicate all these very old rocks whenever there is still any
difficulty in subdividing them further, it is an advantage to
have a special appellation for the oldest group where this can
be distinguished.
It must be pointed out that the term " Archean " has been
used as a synonym for pre-Cambrian; and that the expressions
Azoic (from a-, privative*, fed}, life), Eotoic (from ifc&s, dawn),
and Fundamental Complex, have been employed in somewhat
the same sense, Arckectoic has been proposed by American
writers to apply to the lowest pre-Cambrian rocks with the same
significance as " Archean " in the restricted sense employed
here; but it is perhaps safer to avoid any reference to the
supposed stage of life development where all direct evidence
is non-existent. The so-called "Azoic" rocks have already
been made to yield evidence of life, and there is no reason to
presuppose the impossibility of finding other records of still
earlier organisms.
The prevailing rocks of the Archean system are igneous, with
metamorphosed varieties of the same; sedimentary rocks*
distinctly recognizable as such, are scarce, though highly meta-
morphosed rocks supposed to be sediments, in some regions, take
an important place.
There arc several features which are peculiarly characteristic
of the Archean rocks: — (1) the extraordinary complexity of the
assemblage of igneous materials; (2) the extreme metamorphhm
and deformation which nearly all the rocks have suffered; and
(3) the inextricable intermixture of igneous rocks with those
for which a sedimentary origin is postulated. Wherever the
Archean rocks have been closely examined two great groups
of rocks are distinguishable, an older, schistose group and a
younger, granitoid and gneissic group. For many years the
latter was supposed to be the older, hence the epithets " primi-
tive " or " fundamental " were apphed to it. Now, however,
it has been shown, both in Europe and in North America, that in
certain regions a schistose series is penetrated by a gneissose
scries and when this occurs the schists must be the older. But
bearing in mind the difficulties of interpretation, it is not at all
unreasonable to assume that there may yet be regions where
the gneissose rocks are the oldest; for where no schistose series
is present there may be no criterion for estimating the age of
the granites and gneisses. The exceedingly great difficulties
which lie in the way of every attempt to unravel the history
of an Archean rock-complex cannot be too forcibly emphasised;
for to be able to demonstrate the order of events and succession
of rocks we should at least know whether wc are dealing with
sediments, flows of volcanic material, or intrusions, yet in many
instances this cannot be done. In some areas the gradual passage
of highly foliated and metamorphosed schists may be traced
into comparatively unaltered arkoses, greywackes, conglomer-
ates; or into volcanic lava-fiows, pyro-clastic rocks or dikes;
or again through a gneissose rock into a granite or a gabbro;
but the districts wherein these relationships have been thoroughly
worked out are very few.
This much may be said, that wnere the Archean system has
been most carefully studied, there appears to be (1) a schistose
series, of itself by no means simple but containing the foliated
equivalents of sedimentary and igneous rocks; into this series
a gneissose group (2) has been intruded in the form of batholites,
great sheets and sills with accompanying intrusional prolonga-
tions into the schists; subsequently, into the gneisses and
schists, after they had been further deformed, sheared and
foliated, another set (3) of dikes or thin sheet-like intrusions
penetrated. All this, namely, the formation of sediments, the
outpouring of volcanic rocks, their repeated deformation by
powerful dynamic agencies and then their penetration by dikes
and sheets had been completed and erosion had been at work
upon the hardened and exposed rocks, before the earliest pre-
Cambrian sediment was deposited.
There has been much premature speculation as to the nature
and origin of these very ancient rocks. The prevalence of regular
foliation with layers of different mineral composition, producing
a close resemblance to bedding, has led some to imagine that the
gneisses and schists were themselves the product of the primeval
oceans, a supposition that is no longer worthy of further dis-
cussion. Others have supposed that the gneisses were largely
produced by the resorption and fusion of older sediments in the
molten interior of the earth; there is no evidence that this has
taken place upon an extended scale, though there is reason to
believe that something of this' kind has happened in places, and
there is in the hypothesis nothing radically untenable. In one
way the sedimentary schists have undoubtedly been incorporated
within the gneissose mass, namely, by the extremely thorough
and intimate penetration of the former by the latter along planes
of foliation; and when a complex mass such as this has been
further sheared and metamorphosed, a uniform gneiss appears
to result from the intermixture.
A not uncommon cause of the apparently bedded arrange-
ment of layers of different mineralogical composition may be
traced to the- original differentiation of the granitoid magma
into different mineral-sheets. When these minersJogkaUy
ARCHELAUS
3&x
different layers were forced into other rock*,
before the complete consolidation of the former and sometime*
subsequent to it, in the generally metamorphosed condition of
the whole, it is easy to see a superficial resemblance to
bedding.
The Archean rocks have frequently been spoken of as the
original crust of the earth; but even granting a cooling molten
globe with a first-formed stony surface, it is tolerably dear that
such a crust has nowhere yet been found, nor is it ever likely
to be discovered The very earliest recognizable sediments are
the result of the destruction of still earlier exposures of rock;
the oldest known volcanic rocks were poured upon a surface
we can no longer distinguish, and as for the great granitoid
masses, they could only have been formed under the pressure
of superincumbent masses of material. The earliest known
sediments must have been deep in the zones of shearing and
rock flowage before the first pre-Cambrian denudation. The
time required for these changes is difficult to conceive.
As regards the life of the Archean, or, as some caU it, the
" Archeozoic " period, we know nothing. The presence of car-
bonaceous shale and graphitic schists as well as of the altered sedi-
mentary iron ores has been taken as indicative of vegetable life.
Similarly, the occurrence of limestones suggests the existence
of organic activity, but direct evidence is wanting. Much interest
naturally attaches .to this remote period, and when Sir William
£. Logan in 1B54 found the foraminifera-like Eosoon Canodense,
high hopes of further discoveries were entertained, but the
inorganic nature of this structure has since been clearly proved.
Distribution.— It is generally assumed that the Archean
rocks underlie all the younger formations over the whole globe,
and presumably this is the only system that does so. Naturally,
the area of its outcrop is limited, for, directly or indirectly, all
the younger rock groups must rest upon it.
It has been estimated that Archean rocks appear at the
surface over one-fifth of the land area (omitting coverings of
superficial drifts). This estimate is no more than the roughest
approximation, and is liable at any time to revision as our
knowledge of little-known regions is increased. It must ever
be borne in mind that the presence of a gneissose or schistose
complex does not in itself imply the Archean age of such a set
of rocks. Local manifestations of a similar petrological fades
may and do appear which are of vastly inferior geological age;
and unless there is unequivocal evidence that such rocks lie
beneath the oldest fossil-bearing strata, there can be no absolute
certainty as to their antiquity. It is more than likely that
certain occurrences of gneiss and schist, at present regarded as
Archean, may prove on fuller examination to be metamorphosed
representatives of younger periods.
Britain.— -The most important exposure of Archean rocks in Britain
is in the north-west of Scotland, where they form the mainland in
Sutherland and Ross-shire, and appear also in the outer Hebrides.
Their great development in the isle of Lewis has given rise to the
term "Lewisian " (Hebridean), by which the gneisses of this region
ate now generally known. The Lewisian aeries comprises two great
groups of rocks, <i) the so-called " fundamental complex, an
assemblage of add, basic and intermediate irruptive rocks, associated
together in a complex of extraordinary intricacy, and (2) a series of
dikes, which like the rocks they traverse, show every gradation from
uhia-basie to ultra-acid types. But the above bald statement
conveys no idea of the complexity of the series, for before the " funda-
mental complex " had been pierced by the later dike system it had
been subjected to severe dynamo-metamorphism and many of the
massive rocks had been folded, thrust and sheared, and a very
general state of foliation had been produced. Nor was this all, for
after the intrusion of the dikes, great movements brought about
vertical dislocations, and thrust planes, which traversed the rocks
at all angles, accompanied by still further internal shearing and
superinduced foliation.
In the valley of Loch Maree and thence south-westward into
Glenelg, a scries of mica-schists, quarts-schists, saccharoid limestones
and graphitic schists has been regarded as a group of sedimentary
origin through which the Lewisian rocks have Decn irrupted.
In England several small masses of gneiss, notably at Primrose
Htll oh the Wrdrin, Shropshire, in the Malvern hills, and on the
island of Anglesey in North Wales, are supposed 10 correspond with
the Lewisian of Scotland.
North America. — In this continent there is a great development of
Archean rocks in Canada. Un the eastern aide it covets nearly the
whole of the Labrador peninsula, and extends into Baffin Bay and
possibly over much of Greenland; a broad tract unites the great
lake region with Labrador, and from the same region, by way of
the Mackenzie valley, a similar tract extends in a north-westerly
direction to the Arctic Ocean. This northern (Canadian) area of
Archean includes portions of the states of Minnesota, Michigan,
Wisconsin and the Adirondack region of New York. On the western
side of the continent a series of disconnected exposures of Archean
rocks runs downwards in a narrow belt from Alaska to New
Mexico; and on the eastern side a similar belt reaches from
Newfoundland to Alabama.
Much attention is now being given to the more scattered exposures
of Archean rocks, but the best-Known area is the classical ground in
the vicinity of Lake Superior and Lake Huron and in the Ottawa
gneiss region of Canada. Some of the more important districts are
the following: —
Rainy Lake district, Canada : The Archean rocks here consist of
altered diorites and diabases (the lower Kcewatin series) and black
hornblende schists (probably altered igneous rocks), with mica
gneisses which are perhaps of sedimentary origin.
The Mona and Kiticni schists; metamorphosed lava and tuffs,
with serpentine and dolomite, probably derived from peridotites;
there are also gneissic granites and syenites.
In the Menominee region of Michigan and Wisconsin, thcQuinnesec
schist series mainly consist of schistose quartz porphyry with
associated gneisses.
In the Mesaba district of Minnesota the Archean consists of a
complex of more or less foliated igneous rocks mostly basic in
character.
The Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota comprises the
Soudan formation, an altered sedimentary series with banded cherts,
jasper and magnetite schists; the iron ores are extensively mined.
At the base is a conglomerate containing pebbles from the formation
below, the Ely greenstone, which is made up of altered basalts and
andesites, generally in a schistose condition, but occasionally ea«
hibiting spherulitic structures. Into these two formations a series
of granites have been intruded.
Europe. — In Scandinavia, as in Scotland, the pre-Cambrian Is
represented by an earlier and a later series of rocks of which the
former (Grundfjcldet, Urbereet) may be taken to be the equivalent
of the Lewisian gneisses. This assemblage of coarse red and grey
banded gneisses, with associated granulites and many varieties of
acid, basic and intermediate rocks in a gneissose condition, is inti-
mately related to a highly metamorphosed sedimentary series
comprising limestones, quartadteiand schists, which, as in Scotland,
is apparently older than the gneisses. Similar rock* occur in Sweden
and Finland.
In Bavaria and Bohemia the Archean h divisible into a lower red
gneiss, a comparatively simple series, called by C. W. von Gtimbe)
the "gneiss of Bojan"; and an* upper, grey gneiss with other
schistose rocks, serpentine and graphitic limestone, termed by the
same author the " Hercynian gneiss."
In Brittany a gneissose and schistose igneous series lies at the
base of the pre-Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian cores of the eastern
and central Pyrenees, consisting of gneiss, schists and altered
limestones, are presumably of Archean age.
A ms, Austraha, eVc. — In northern China, mica-gneisses and granite
gneisses with associated schists may be regarded as Archean. la
India the system is represented by the Bundelkhand gneiss and the
central older gneisses of the Himalayas. In Japan, in the Abukuma
plateau, there is much granite, gneiss and schist which may be of
this age. In Australia, similar rocks are recognized as Archean in
South Australia and Westralia, and they are estimated to cover an
area of no less than 20,000 sq m.; in Tasmania they are well
developed on the western side. Although a great area is occupied
by crystalline rocks in New Zealand, the Archean age of any portion
of the series is not yet satisfactorily established; the lower granites
and gneisses may belong to this period. Africa contains enormous
tracts of crystalline gneisses, granites and schists, and some of these
are almost certainly of Archean age; but in the present state of our
knowledge it is impossible to. speak more exactly.
References. — A good general account of the Archean system
will be found in Sir A. Geilae's Text Book of Geology, vol. ii., 4th ed
(1903). and in T. C. Chambcrlin and R. D. Salisbury's Gtotogy. vol.
ii. (1006); these volumes contain references to all important
literature. (J. A. H.)
ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA (1st century B.C.), general of
Mithradates the Great in the war against Rome. In 87 B.C. he
was sent to Greece with a large army and fleet, and occupied
the Peiraeus after three days' fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect
of Macedonia, who in the previous year had defeated Mithra-
dates' fleet under Metrophancs and captured the island of
Sciathus. Here he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to with-
draw into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86).
A fresh army was sent by Mithradates, but Arcbelaus was again
defeated at Orchomenus. after a two days' battle (8s). On the
362
ARCHELAUS— ARCHERY
conclusion of peace, Archelaus, finding that he had Incurred
the suspicion of Mithradates, deserted to the Romans, by whom
he was well received. Nothing further is known of him.
AppUn, MiihruU 30, 49, 56. 64; Plutarch, Sulla. 11, 16-19, 20.
33; LucuUus, 8.
Archelaus, king of Egypt, was his son. In 56 B.C. he married
Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but his
reign only lasted six months. He was defeated by Aulus
Gabinius and slain (55).
See Strabo xii. p. 558, xvii. p. 796; Dio Cassius xxxix. 57-38;
Cicero, Pro Rabirio, 8; Hirtiu* (?), BeU. Alex 66; also Ptolsmibs.
Abchelaus, king of Cappadoda, was grandson of the last
named. In 41 b.c. (according to others, 34), he was made king
of Cappadoda by Mark Antony, whom, however, he deserted
after the battle of Actium. Octavian enlarged his kingdom by
the addition of part of Cilia* and Lesser Armenia. He was not
popular with his subjects, who even brought an accusation
against him in Rome, on which occasion he was defended by
Tiberius. Subsequently he was accused by Tiberius, when
emperor, of endeavouring to stir up a revolution, and died in
confinement at Rome (a.d. 17). Cappadoda was then made a
Roman province. Archelaus was said to have been the author
of a geographical work, and to have written treatises On Status
and Rivers.
Strabo xii. p. 540; Suetonius, Tiberius, 37, Caligula, 1; Dio
Cassius xlix. 32-31 ; Tacitus, Ann. ii. 43.
ARCHELAUS, king of Judaea, was the son of Herod the Great.
He received the kingdom of Judaea by the last will of his father,
though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas.
He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume
the title until he had submitted his claims to Augustus at Rome.
Before setting out, he quelled with the utmost cruelty a sedition
of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3000 of them. At Rome he was
opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his
cruelty; but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the
kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraca) with the title of ethnarch.
He married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander,
though his wife and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauri-
tania, were alive. This violation of the Mosaic law and his
continued cruelty roused the Jews, who complained to Augustus.
Archelaus was deposed (aj>. 7) and banished to Vienne. The
date of his death is unknown.
Archelaus is mentioned in Matt K. 22, and the parable of
Luke xix. 1 x f . probably refers to his journey to Rome.
See Schurer. Gcsch. desjudischen Volkes, i. 449-453.
(J. H. A. H.)
ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia (413*309 b.c), was the son
of Perdiccas and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by
murdering his uncle, his cousin and his half-brother, the legiti-
mate hdr, but proved a capable and beneficent ruler. He
fortified cities, constructed roads and organized the army.
He endeavoured to spread among his people the refinements of
Greek dvilisation, and invited to his court, which he removed
from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them
Zeuxis, Timotbeus, Euripides and Agathon. In 309 he was
killed by one of his favourites while hunting; according to
another account he was the victim of a conspiracy.
Dtodorus Sicolus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii. too. See
Macedonia.
ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS, Greek philosopher of the 5th
century B.C., was born probably at Athens, though Diogenes
Laertius (ii. 16) says at Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras,
and is said by Ion of Chios {ap. Diog. La* rt. ii. 33) to have been
the teacher of Socrates. Some argue that this is probably only
an attempt to connect Socrates with the Ionian school; others
(e.g. Gomperx, Greek Thinkers) uphold the story. There is simila r
difference of opinion as regards the statement that Archelaus
formulated certain ethical doctrines. In general, he followed
Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the earlier
Ionians. He postulated primitive Matter, identical with air and
mingled with Mind, thus avoiding the dualism of Anaxagoras.
Out of this conscious " air," by a process of thickening and
thinning, arose cold and warmth, or water and fire, the one passive,
the other active. The earth and the heavenly bodies are formed
from mud, the product of fire and water, from which springs also
man, at first in his lower forms. Man differs from *wim»u by
the possession of the moral and artistic faculty. No fragments of
Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted from
Diogenes Lagrtius, Simplidus, Plutarch and Hippolytus.
See Ionian School; for his ethical theories see T. Gompcrz,
Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 403.
ARCHBNHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELH VON (1743-1812).
German historian, was born at Langfuhr, a suburb of Danzig,
on the 3rd of September 1743. From the Berlin Cadet school
he passed into the Prussian army at the age of sixteen, and took
part in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' War. Retiring
from military service, on account of his wounds, with the rank
of captain in 1763, he travelled for sixteen years and visited
nearly all the countries of Europe, and resided in England for
ten years (1769-1779). Returning to Germany in 1780, he
obtained a lay canonry at the cathedral of Magdeburg, and
immediately entered upon a literary career by publishing the
periodical IMteratur- und Vdlkerkunde (Leipag, 1781-1791).
This was followed in 1785 by England und Italien (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1787), in which he gives a remarkably unprejudiced ap-
preciation of English political and social institutions. Between
1789 and 1798 he published his Annalen der brUiscken GeschichU
(20 vols). But the work by which he is best known to fame is
his brilliantly written history of the Seven Years' War, Ge-
schichU its siebenfdhrigen Krieges (first published in the Berliner
hislorisckes Taschenbuch of 1787, and later in 2 vols., Berlin,
1793; <3th ed., Leipzig, 2892). This work, though as regards
the main facts and details it only follows other writers, fa still
a useful source of information upon the epoch with which it
deals. In 1792 Archenholz removed to Hamburg, and there,
from 1792 to 181 2, edited the journal Minerva, which had a
great reputation for its literary, historical and political informa-
tion. Archenholz died at his country seat, Oyendorf, near
Hamburg, on the 28th of February 181 2.
ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856- ), English critic, was born
at Perth on the 23rd of September 1856, and was educated
at Edinburgh University. He became a leader-writer on the
Edinburgh Evening News in 1875, and after a year in Australia
returned to Edinburgh. In 1 879 he became dramatic critic of the
London Figaro, and in 1884 of the World. In London he soon
took a prominent literary place. Mr Archer had much to do
with introducing Ibsen to the English public by his translation
of The Pillars of Society, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London,
in 1880. He also translated, alone or in collaboration, other
productions of the Scandinavian stage: Ibsen's Doll's House
(1889), Master Builder (1893); Edvard Brandes's A Visit (1892);
Ibsen's Peer Gynl (1892); Little Eyolf (1895); and John Gabriel
Borkman (1897); and he edited Henrik Ibsen's Pros* Dramas
(5 vols., 1800-1891). Among his critical works are>— English
Dramatists of To-day (1882); Masks or Faces? (18S8); five
vols, of critical notices reprinted, The Theatrical World (1893-
1897); America To-day, Observations and Reflections; Poets
of the Younger Generation (1901); Real Conversations (1904).
ARCHERMUS, a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th
century B.C. His father Micciades, and his sons, Bupalus aad
Athenis, were all sculptors of marble, using doubtless the fine
marble of their native land. The school excelled in draped
female figures. Archcrmus is said by a scholiast (on Aristophanes'
Birds, v. 573) to have been the first to represent Victory and
Love with wings. This statement gives especial interest to a
discovery made at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and
Archcrmus which was connected with a winged female figure
in rapid motion (see Greek Art), a figure naturally at first
regarded as the Victory of Archcrmus. Unfortunately further
investigation has discredited the notion that the statue
belongs to the basis, which seems rather to have supported a
sphinx.
ARCHERY, the art and practice of shooting with the bow
(arcus) and arrow, or with crossbow and bolts. Though these
weapons are by no means widely used amongst savage tribes
of the present day, their origin is lost in the mists of antiquity.
ARGHERY
363
Amongst the great peoples of ancient history the Egyptians were
the first and the most famous of archers, relying on the bow
■ m -, u their principal weapon in war. Their bows were
U5J£t somewhat shorter than a man, and their arrows varied
bet ween 2 f t. and 2 ft. 8 in. in length. Here.aselsewhere,
flint heads for arrows were by no means rare, but bronze was the
usual material employed. The Biblical bow was of reed, wood
or horn, and the Israelites used it freely both in war (Gen. xlviii.
22) and in the chase (xxL 20), The Assyrians also were a
nation of archers. Amongst the Greeks of the historic period
archery was not much in evidence, in spite of the tradition of
Tencer, Ulysses and many other archers of the Iliad and Odyssey.
The Cretans, however, supplied Greek armies with the bowmen
required. In the " Ten Thousand " figured two hundred Cretan
bowmen of Sosias' corps. RUstow and Kochly {Gesekickte des
gruckiscJun Kriegwesens, p. 131) estimate the range of the
Cretan bow at eighty to one hundred paces, as compared with
the sling-bullet's forty or fifty, and the javelin's thirty to forty.
The Romans as a nation were, equally with the Greeluyndirlerent
to archery; in their legions the archer element was furnished
by Cretans and Asiatics. On the other hand nearly all Asiatic
and derived nations were famous bowmen, from the nations who
fought under Xerxes' banner onwards. The Persian, Scythian
and Parthian bow was far more efficient than the Cretan, though
the latter was not wanting in the heterogeneous armies of the
East. The sagiUarii, three thousand strong, who fought in the
Pharsaliaa campaign, were drawn from Crete, Pontus, Syria, &c.
But the Roman view of archery was radically altered when the
old legionary system perished at Adrianople (a.d. 378). After
this time the armies of the empire consisted in great part of
horse-archers. Their missiles, we are told, pierced cuirass and
shield with ease, and they shot equally well dismounted and at
the gaUop. These troops, combined with heavy cavalry and
themselves not unprovided with armour, played a decisive
part in the Roman victories of the age of Belisarius and Narses.
The destruction of the Franks at CasUinum (a.d. 554) was practi-
cally the work of the horse-archers.
In the main, the nations whose migrations altered the face
of Europe were not archers. Only with the Welsh, the Scandi-
navians, and the peoples in touch with the Eastern empire was the
bow a favourite weapon* The edicts of Charlemagne could not
succeed in making archery popular hi his dominions, and Abbot
Ebles, the defender of Paris in 886, is almost the only instance
of a skilled archer in the European records of the time. The
sagas, on the other hand, have much to say as to the feats
of northern heroes with the bow. With English, French and
Germans the bow was the weapon of the poorest military classes.
The Norman archers, who doubtless preserved the traditions of
their Danish ancestors, were in the forefront of William's line at
Hastings (1066), but contemporary evidence points conclusively
to the short bow, drawn to the chest, as the weapon used on
this occasion. The combat of Bourgtheroulde in 1x24 shows
that the Normans still combined heavy cavalry and archers as
at Hastings. Horse-archers too (contrary to the usual belief)
were here employed by the English.
Yet the " Assize of Arms " of 1 181 does not mention the bow,
and Richard I. was at great pains to procure crossbowmen for
the Crusades. The crossbow had from about the 10th century
gradually become the principal missile weapon in Europe, in
spite of the fact that it was condemned by the Lateran Council
of 1139. As early as 1270 in France, and rather later in Spain,
the master of the crossbowmen had become a great dignitary,
and in Spain the weapon was used by a carps d'Mle of men of
gentle birth, who, with their gay apparel, were a picturesque
feature of continental armies of the period. But the Genoese,
Pisans and Venetians were the peoples which employed the
crossbow most of all. Many thousand Genoese crossbowmen
were present at Crecy.
It was in the Crusades that the crossbow made its reputation,
opposing heavier weight and greater accuracy to the missiles
of the horse-archers, who invariably constituted the greatest and
most important part of the Asiatic armies. So little change in
warfare bad centuries brought about that a crusading force in
1 104 perished at Carrhae, on the same ground and before the
same mounted-archer tactics, as the army of Crassus in 55 B.C.
But individually the crusading crossbowman was infinitely
superior to the Turkish or Egyptian horse-archer.
England, which was to become the country of archers par
excellence, long retained the old short bow of Hastings, and the
far more efficient crossbow was only used as a rule by _ .
mercenaries, such as the celebrated Falkes de Breaut6 Jj
and his men in the reign of John. South Wales, it
seems certain, eventually produced the famous long-bow. In
Ireland, in Henry II. 's time, Strongbow made great use of Welsh
bowmen, whom he mounted for purposes of guerrilla warfare,
and eventually the prowess of Welsh archers taught Edward I.
the value of the hitherto discredited arm. At Falkirk (?.».), once
for all, the long-bow proved its worth, and thenceforward for
centuries it was the principal weapon of English soldiers. By
1339, archers had come to be half of the whole mass of foot-
men, and later the proportion was greatly increased. In 1360
Edward III. mounted his archers, as Strongbow had done.
The long-bow was about 5 ft,, and its shaft a cloth-yard long.
Shot by a Welsh archer, a shaft had penetrated an oak door
(at Abergavenny in 1182) 4 in. thick and the head stood out a
hand's breadth on the inner side. Drawn to the right ear, the
bow was naturally capable of long shooting, and in Henry VIII. 's
time practice at a less range than one furlong was forbidden.
In rapidity it was the equal of the short bow and the superior
of the crossbow, which weapon, indeed, it surpassed in all
respects. Falkirk, and still more Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt,
made the English archers the most celebrated infantry in Europe,
and the kings of England, in whatever else they differed from
each other, were, from Edward II. to Henry VIII., at one in
the matter of archery. In 1363 Edward III. commanded the
general practice of archery on Sundays and holidays, all other
sports being forbidden. The provisions of this act were from
time to time re-issued, particularly in the well-known act of
Henry VIII.. The price of bows and arrows was also regulated
in the reign of Edward III., and Richard III. ordained that for
every ton of certain goods imported ten yew-bows should be
imported also, while at the same time long-bows of unusual
size were admitted free of duty. In order to prevent the too
rapid consumption of yew for bow-staves, bowyers were ordered
to make four bows of wych-hazel, ash or elm to one of yew, and
only the best and most useful men were allowed to possess yew-
bows. Distant and exposed counties were provided for by
making bowyers, fietchers, &c, liable (unless freemen of the city
of London) to be ordered to any point where their services might
be required. In Scotland and Ireland also, considerable atten-
tion was paid to archery. In 1478 archery was encouraged in
Ireland by statute, and James I. and James IV. of Scotland,
in particular, did their best to stimulate the interest of their
subjects in the bow, whose powers they had felt in so many
battles from Falkirk to Homildon Hill
The introduction of band-firearms was naturally fatal to the
bow as a warlike weapon, but the conservatism of the English,
and the non-professional character of wars waged 6y
them, added to the technical deficiencies of early m
firearms, made the process of change in England wipam.
very gradual. The mercenary or professional element
was naturally the first to adopt the new weapons. At Pont
de 1'Arche in 1418 the English had " peiUs canons " (which seem to
have been hand guns), and during the latter part of the Hundred
Years' War their use became more and more frequent. The
crossbow soon disappeared from the more professional armies
of the continent. Charles the Bold had, before the battle of
Morat (1476), ten thousand coulevrines a main. But in the hands
of local forces the crossbow lingered on, at least in rural France,
until about 163a Its last appearance in war was in the hands
of the Chinese at Taku (i860). But the long-bow, an incom-
parably finer weapon, endured as one of the principal arms of
the English soldier until about 1590. Edward IV. entered
London after the battle of Barnet with 500 "smokie gunners"
3*4-
ARCHERY
(foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick's centre
consisted solely of bows and bills (1471)- The new weapons
gradually made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the
Armada, the local forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to
1600 " shot," and 800 bills to 800 pikes. But the Armada year
saw the last appearance of the English archer, and the same
county in 1508 provides neither archers nor billroen, while in
the professional army in Ireland these weapons had long given
way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared
in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred
" baskiers," horse-archers, dad in chain armour, fought against
Napoleon in Poland.
As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms
employed even more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport
in England was, of course, a consequence of its military value,
which caused it to be so heartily encouraged by all English
sovereigns.
The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers,
and the bow was the weapon par excellence of their soldiers.
f r The standard length of the bow (usually bamboo) waa
7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft. 9 in. Numerous
feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the " thirty-
three span " halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had
to shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long.
Wada Daihachi in the 17 th century shot 8133 arrows down the
corridor in twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shots
a minute, and in 1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful
shots in twenty hours, or over four a minute.
The Pastime of Archery.— -The use of the bow and arrow as
a pastime naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war,
.-hut when the gun began to supersede the bow the
JJJJir pastime lost its popularity. Charles II., however,
and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested
themselves in English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting
a silver badge or shield to the " Marshall of the Fraternity of
Archers," which badge, once the property of the Finsbury
Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the Royal Toxo-
philite Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The
Toxophflite Society was founded in 2781; for though in the
north archery had long been practised, its resuscitation in the
south really dates from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton
Lever. This society received the title of " Royal " in 1847,
though it had long been patronized by royalty. It is an error
to suppose that the Finsbury Archers were connected with the
Archers' division of the Hon. Artillery Company, but many
members of the Toxophflite Society joined that division, and
used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London ground
of their own m the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is.
When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably
took place at Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord's cricket
ground, the present ground in the Inner Circle of Regent's Park,
near the Botanical Gardens, not being acquired till 1833. The
society may be regarded as the most important body connected
with archery, most of the leading archers belonging to it, though
the Grand National Archery Society controls the public meetings.
Among its more important events is the shooting of 144 arrows
at 100 yds. for the Crundcr Cup and Bugle. In the early days
of the club targets of different sizes were used at the different
ranges, and the scores were recorded in money (e.g. " Mr Elwin,
86 hits, £5:5:6"). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost
equal antiquity, having been founded — some say " revived " —
In 1785. The number of members is limited to 80; at one time
there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been elected as a super-
numerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the
Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a
nominal authority over vert and venison, whence its officers
bear appropriate names— warden, master-forester and verderers;
and the annual meeting is called the Wardmote. The master-
forester, or captain for the year, is the maker of the first "gold "
at the annual target; he who makes the second is the senior
verderer. The club devotes itself to the old-fashioned clout-
shooting at long ranges, reckoned by "scores," nine score
meaning x8o yds., and so en. (Vide " Clout-ahootJng " imfrm.)
The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those
against the Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal
British Bowmen date back to the end of the 18th century. like
many others, during the Napoleonic war they suspended opera-
tions, revived when peace was made. The dub was finally
dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded
in 1785, but did not survive the war. John O'Gaunt's Bowmen,
who si ill meet at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the
same time, and still flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only
shoot at 60 yds., while the West Berks Society is limited to
twelve members, who meet at each other's houses, except for
their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophiltte Grounds—
216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the
chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body consti-
tuted in 1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time
of its foundation, several meetings being held in the first few
years of its existence. It devoted itself to " rovers," or long-
range shooting at the "clout," among its most interesting
trophies being the " Musselburgh Arrow," first shot for in 1603,
possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was then
open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland,
especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (q.v.)
shooting. Other prises are the " Peebles Silver Arrow," dating
back to 1626, the " Edinburgh Silver Arrow " (1709), the " Sel-
kirk Arrow," a very ancient prize, the " DaDiousie Sword," the
" Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize," and others, shot
for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is the " Goose
Medal." Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its
head visible, and this was the archers' mark; now a small glass
globe is substituted. The " Popingo (Popinjay) Medal," for
which a stuffed parrot was once used as the mark, is now con-
tested at the ordinary butts. The Kilwinning Society of Archers,
founded in 1688, did not disband till 1870; the Irvine Toxo-
philites flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But of all societies
the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the great
meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important.
Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a
few leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which
was held in York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subse-
quently in other places. But the society did not exist as such
till 1 861, after the meeting held at Liverpool, since when, not-
withstanding some financial troubles, it has been the legislative
and managing body of English archery. The chief meetings are
the " Championship," the "Leamington and Midland Counties,"
the "Crystal Palace," the "Grand Western" and the "Grand
Northern." For some years a "Scottish Grand National" was
held, but fell into abeyance. The " Scorton Arrow " is no longer
shot for in the Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting,
held regularly in the county, dates back to 1673 by record, and
is probably far older. The silver arrow and the captaincy are
awarded to the man who makes the first gold; the silver bugta
and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold medal to most hits,
and a horn spoon to the last white.
In the United States archery has had a limited popularity.
The only one of the early clubs that lasted long was the " United
Bowmen of Philadelphia," founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859.
There was a revival twenty years later, when a National
Association was formed ; and various meetings were held annually
and championships instituted, but there was never any popular
enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of increasing
favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges
are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some
meetings the regulation "York Round" (vide infra under
"Targets ") and the " National " are shot. Other rounds are the
"Potomac," 24 arrows at 80, 24 at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the
"Double American," 60 arrows each at 60, 50 and 40 yds.; and
the " Double Columbia," for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40 and 30
yds. In team matches ladies shoot 06 arrows at 50 yds., gentle-
men 96 at 60.
The Bow.— As used in the pastime of archery the length of the
bows does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length
ARCHERY
365
«f the anov nod the length of the arrow to the streagth of the
archer, to which the weight of the bow hat to be adapted. The
proper weight of a bow is the number of lb which, attached to the
string, will draw a full-length arrow to its head. For men's bows the
drawing-power varies from 40 to 60 lb, anything above this being
extreme; ladies' bows draw from 24 to 3a Kb. Estimating 50 *
as a fair average, such a bow would be 6 it. x in. long for a 30-io,,
6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft. 11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as
well as the strength ofthe archer have to be considered. Similarly a
lady's bow on the average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows
«S in* Modern bows are either made entirely of yew (occasionally
of other woods), when they are called " sell-bows," or of a com-
bination of woods, when they are called " backed-bows." Self-bows
are rarely or never made in a single stave, owing to the difficulty of
obtaining true and flawless wood of the necessary length ; hence two
staves joined by a double fish-joint, which forms the centre of the
bow, are uatd, tasted and adjusted so that they may be as equally
elastic as possible. The best yew is imported from Italy and Spain,
aad is allowed to season for three years before it is made into a bow,
which again is not used till it is two years older. In backed-bows
the belly, the rounded part nearest to the string, is generally but not
n ecessa rily made of yew, the back, or flat part, of yew (the best),
hickory, lance or other woods, glued together in strips. The centre
of the bow, for about 18 in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering
off gradually to the horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest
care being taken that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of self-
Er is generally considered more agreeable to handle and has a
ter cast," throwing the arrow more smoothly and with less jar,
and since no glued parts are exposed, it is less liable to injury from
wee On the other hand, " crysals " (tiny cracks, which are apt to
extend) are more frequent in this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost
ft or {to, where • good backed-bow can be bought tor about half
that. The self-bow is more sensitive than other bows, and its work
ii mostly done during the last few inches of the pull, where the
ked-bow " « - - - — 1--. •-
night in the back, 'but
_. t. getl. „
string-side, or by becoming " reflex " (bending the opposite way).
pulls evenly throughout. The backed-bow should be
* ten, but alter use often loses its shape
ting bent inwards on the
perfectly straight in the back,
either by " following the string," Ls.
Sett-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than backed-bows,
as there » no hard wood to counteract the natural grain. A bow
that ta strongly renened at the ends is known as a " Cupid's
bow.*' To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in
the centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to
give a better grip.
The Siring and Stringing. — The string is made of three strands of
hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly
round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a
broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the
man's bow; 5 In. in the lady's bow. The clenched fist with the
thumb upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as
M fist-ade. For a few inches above and below the nocking point the
string is lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying oy contact
with the arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of
filoselle silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow.
When a bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally
along the middle ofthe belly.
Arrows and Nocking.— The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the
** nock " or notch, the " pile " or point, and the feathers. The shaft
is made of seasoned red deal, and may be " self " or " footed."
Most arrows are " footed," i.e. a piece of hard wood to which the
pile is attached is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly
straight and stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most
archers prefer the " parallel " pattern— the shaft being the same size
from nock to pile; the next is the " barrelled," the shape being
thick in the centre and tapering towards the ends. The " bob-tail
diminishes from the pile to the nock; the " chested " tapers from
the middle to the pile. The pile should not be taper but cylindrical,
" broadshouldered " where the point begins. The nock is cut square.
There are three feathers, the body feathers of a turkey or peacock
being the best. They should all curve the same way, arc about I \ in.
long and f in. deep, with the ends near the nock either square, or
banoon-shaped. The weight of an arrow is its weight in new English
silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy for a man's bow. while four-
shillings is light. A 28-in. arrow for a 50- lb bow may weigh four-and-
ninepence; a 27-in. arrow four-and-sixpence. This may serve as
a rough standard.
Other Implements.— Tht archer uses finger-tips, or a M tab " of
leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather
** bracer " to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not
now used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and
arrows about ; a proper cupboard, known as an " ascham," in which
they may be kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot;
and a baize or leather case for use on the ground, are important
minor articles of equipment.
Targets, Scoring and Handtcapjnng. — The targets, 4 «• in diameter,
are made of straw * to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly
backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of Boor-cloth painted
with concentric rings, 4! in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white,
coasts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the
next, red. seven; and the next, gold— « complete circle of «f in.
The exact centre of the gold is called the pin-bole."
The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for
men bang loo, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for con-
venience, 5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance
in front ofeach target. The centre of the gold should be a f L from
the ground. Each archer -shoots three arrows— an " end —at one
target ; they then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts
two rings, the archer is credited with the value of the higher one.
In matches a " York Round " or a " St George's Round " is usually
shot by men, the former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at too yds.,
48 at So yds., and 24 at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of
these distances. One York Round only is shot on a day; a double
York Hound is shot, one on each day. at the more important meetings.
Ladies usually shoot the " National Round " of 48-arrows at 60 yds.
and 24 at 50 yds. At most meetings the prises are awarded on the
gross scores; at others, including the Championship meeting, on
points, two points for the highest score on the round and two for
most nits on the round, one point each for highest score and most
hits at each of the three ranges, ten points in all. Ladies' scores
are calculated similarly. To decide the Championship, the Grand
National Archery Society passed a rule in 1804 that " The Champion
prizes shall be awarded to the archer gaining the greatest number of
points, provided that those for gross hits or gross score are included;
any points won by other archers shall be redistributed among those
gaining the points for gross hits or gross
be done by ' rings," the winner of a fin
Handicapping may
ngs," the winner of a first price not being allowed to
count " whites at subsequent meetings, and " black* " and
" blues " being lost for further successes. Better methods are (t) to
deduct a percentage from the gross score of successful shooters,
(2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes, or (3) to rate a
shooter according to the average of his last year's performances,
re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the system being
to add his average of the current year to his average of hut year,
and divide the sum by two to form his new rating.
Chut and Long Distance Shooting.— This form of archery is chiefly
supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At
100 yds., the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an
inner white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only
18 in. from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve-
score shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a
black centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the
centre are each known as a " clout." Hits and misses arc signalled
by a marker stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt.
The target is sloped backwards to an angle of 60*, with rings marked
round it on the ground at distances of 1) ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a
bit in the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on,
the clout or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter
arrows are used. The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched
on a frame; the range 180 or 200 yds. ; all arrows counted one that
were within 24 ft. 01 the target, the clout counting two. Modern
archers have paid scant attention to mere distance-shooting, which
is an art of its own, but their experiments prove that with a fairly
heavy bow, say 60 lb or 63 lb, and a long light arrow, known as a
" flight arrow, a good archer should be able to reach 300 or 3 10 yds.
With a heavier bow, properly under control, 50 or 60 yds. might
be added to this by a strong man. These experiments seem to
be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare (Henry IV. Act Hi.
So 2) : " A' would have clapped i' the clout and twelve score, and
carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen and a half,"
i.e. 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen shooting
340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effcndi of the Turkish
embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Sclim 972.
The Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a
grooved rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to com-
pensate for the difference between the draw of the bow and the
shortness of the arrow. The diplomatist's shot is supported by
good evidence, but the sultan's is regarded as improbable at
least.
Championship and Scons. — The British championship meetings,
instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand
National Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge
prizes, are given in money, there being also a rule that any one who
makes three golds at one-end receives a shilling from all others of the
same sex who are shooting. The most notable champion was
Horace A. Ford (d. 1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive
rs, 1849 to 1859 inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a four-
ire score at four other championship meetings, his highest, 1231
(in 1857) for 245 hits being unapproached. To him the modern
scientific practice of archery must largely be attributed, together
with its improvement and its popularity. The names of G. Edwards,
Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H. rL Palairct, C. E. Nesham. and G. E. S.
Fryer, are also notable as champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow
was champion for eleven years between 1852 and 188 1, Miss Legh
for nineteen years between 1880 and 1008; Mrs Piers Legh, Mns
Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on four occasions. Mrs
Bowly's score of 823 (1894) was the highest made for the champion-
ship till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits— only one arrow missed
altogether— in 1898; beating her own record with a score of 841 (143
hits) In 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the champion-
ship b awarded by points, the highest score does not necessarily win.
366
ARCHES— ARCHIAC
See Roger Aseham, ToxpphUm (1545). edited by Edward After
(London. 1868); The Arte of Want, by William Garrard (London
1591); The Arte of Archerie, by Gervase Markham (London, 1634);
Ancient and Modem Methods of Arrow Release, by E, S. Morae
(1385): The Enrlisk Bowman, by T. Roberts (London. 1801); A
Treatuf on Archery, by Thomas Waring (London, oth ed.. 1833);
The Theory and Practice of Archery, by Horace A. Fon| (new «d. t
London, 1887); Archery, by C J. Longman and H. Walrond (Bad-
minton Library, London, 1894). (W. J. F.)
ARCHES, COURT OF, the English ecclesiastical court of appeal
of the archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province
of Canterbury, from all the consistory and commissary courts in
the province. It derives its name from its ancient place of
judicature, which was in the church of Beala Maria de Arcubus
^St Mary-le-Bow or St Mary of the Arches, u by reason of the
steeple thereof raised at the top with stone pillars in fashion
like a, bow bent archwise." This parish was the chief of thirteen
locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt from
the bishop's jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this
circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of
judicature for the archbishop's court. The proper designation of
the judge is official principal of the Arches court, but by custom
he came to be styled the dean of the Arches, a title belonging
formerly to the chief official of the subordinate court. Originally,
the official principal exercised metropolitan jurisdiction, while
the dean of the Arches exercised the " peculiar " jurisdiction.
The jurisdictions called "peculiars" at one time numbered
nearly 300 in England. They were originally introduced by the
pope for the purpose of curtailing the bishop's legitimate auth-
ority within his diocese; " an object which," says Phillimore,
" they certainly attained, to the great confusion of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction for many years." The dean of the Arches originally
had jurisdiction over the thirteen London parishes above men-
tioned, but as the official principal was often absent as ambassador
on the continent, he became his substitute, and gradually the
two offices were blended together. The original office of the
dean of the Arches may now be regarded as extinct, though the
title is still popularly used, for no dean of the Arches has been
appointed to nomine for several centuries, and by an act of 1838
bishops have jurisdiction over all peculiars within their diocese.
The judge of the Arches court was until 1874 appointed by the
archbishop of Canterbury by patent which, when confirmed by
the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred the office for the
life of the holder. He took the oaths of office required by the
137th canon. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874
the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval
of the sovereign by sign-manual, from time to time to appoint
a practising barrister of ten years' standing, or a person who
had been a judge of one of the superior courts (being a member
of the Church of England) to be, during good behaviour, a judge
for the purpose of exercising jurisdiction under that act, and it
was enacted (sec. 7) that on a vacancy occurring in the office of
official principal of the Arches court the judge should become
ex officio such official principal In this way the late Lord
Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir Robert Philli-
more in 1875. Lord Penzance received in 1878 a supplemental
patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise
fulfil the conditions observed on the appointment of his pre-
decessors. On Lord Penzance's retirement in x 809, his successor,
Sir Arthur Charles, received a patent from the archbishop of
Canterbury as official principal of the Arches court, and he took
the oaths of office according to the practice before the Public
Worship Regulation Act. He was subsequently and separately
appointed judge under that act Sir A. Charles resigned in x 003
and was succeeded by Sir L. T. Dibdin, who qualified in the same
way as his immediate predecessor. The official principal of
the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is em-
powered to pass a sentence of deprivation against a clerk in
holy orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court
were formerly made to the king in chancery, but they are now
by statute addressed to the king in council, and they are heard
before the judicial committee of the privy council. By an act
of Henry VTIL (Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1532) the Arches I
.court is empowered to hear, in the first instance, nidi suits as I
are sent up to it by letters of request from the consistorial cottfta
of the bishops of the province of Canterbury, and by the Church
Discipline Act 1840, this jurisdiction is continued to it, and it
is further empowered to accept letters of request from the bishops
of the province of Canterbury after they have issued oornxnassioiis
of inquiry under that statute, and the commissioners have made
their report.
The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the con-
sistory courts of the bishops of the province in all testamentary
and matrimonial causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was
transferred to the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857.
Under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 an appeal lies from the
judgment of a consistory court under that act, in respect of
fact by leave of the appellate court, and in respect of law
without leave, to either the Arches court or the judicial committee
of the privy council at the option of the appellant. .Under the
Benefices Act 1808 the official principal of the archbishop Ja
required to institute a presentee to a benefice if the tribunal
constituted under that act decides that there is no valid ground
for refusing institution and the bishop of the diocese notwith-
standing fails to institute him. After the College of Advocates
was incorporated and had established itself in Doctors' Commons,
the archbishop's court of appeal, as well as his prerogative court,
were usually held in the hall of the College of Advocates, but
after the destruction of the buildings of the college, the court
of appeal held its sittings, for the most part, in Westminster HalL
For many years past there has been but little business in the
Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number
of the clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to
be any longer a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the
bishops of their right of veto in the case of prosecutions under the
Public Worship Regulation Act. On the rare occasions when
a sitting of the court is necessary, it is held in the library of
Lambet h Pala ce, or at the Church House, Westminster.
ARCHESTRATUS, of Syracuse or GeU, a Greek poet, who
flourished about 330 bx. After travelling extensively in search
of foreign delicacies for the table, he embodied the result in a
humorous poem called 'HivraBaa, afterwards freely trans-
lated by Ennius under the title Heduphagelica. About 300 lines
of this gastronomical poem are preserved in Athenaeus. The
writer, who has been styled the Hesiod or Theognis of gluttons,
parodies the style of the old gnomic poets; chief attention is
paid to details concerning fish.
Ribbcck, Archestrati Reliquiae (1877); Brandt, Corpnscutnm
Ppesis Epicae Graecae ludihundae, I 1888; Schmid, De ArchestraH
Gelensis Fragmenlis (1896).
ARCHIAC, RTIENNE JULES ADOLPHB DRSMIER DB
SAINT SIMON, Vicoirrx d» (1802-1868), French geologist and
palaeontologist, was born at Reims on the 24th of September
x8oa. He was educated in the Military School of St Cyr, and
served for nine years as a cavalry officer until 1830, when he
retired from the service. Prior to this he had published an
historical romance; but now geology came to occupy his chief
attention. In his earlier scientific works, which date from 1S35,
he described the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of France,
Belgium and England, and dealt especially with the distribution
of fossils geographically and in sequence. Later on he investi-
gated the Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian formation*.
His great work, Histoirc des progrh de la geologie, 1834-1839,
was published in 8 volumes at Paris (1847-1860). In 1853 the
Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him.
In the same year, with Jules Haime (1824-1856), he published
a monograph on the Nummulitic formation of India. In 1857
he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, end in
1 80 1 he was appointed professor of palaeontology In the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Of later works his PalionletogU
strotigropkique, in 3 vols. (1864-1865); his CSalogie H paUon-
lologie (1866); and his palaeontological contributions to de
Tchihatcheff's A sic m incur c (1866), may be specially mentioned.
He died on the 24 th of December 1868.
See Notice sur leg travaux srientijiqnes du ticmnte oTArcUme, par
A. Gaudry (Meulan. 1874): Extrait dn BniL So* Coml de Assise,
ear. 3, t u. p. 930 (1874).
ARCHIAS— ARCHILOCMUS
367
ARCHIAS, AUM7S UC1NI0S, Greek poet, was born at Antioch
in Syria no B.C. In 102, bis reputation having been already
established, especially as an improvisatore, he came to Rome,
where he was well received amongst the highest and most
influential families. His chief patron was Lucullus, whose
gentile name he assumed. In 93 he visited Sicily with his patron,
on which occasion he received the citizenship of Heradeia, one
of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the
lex Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 61 he was accused by
a certain Gratius of having assumed the citizenship illegally;
and Cicero successfully defended him in his speech Pro Arckia.
This speech, which furnishes nearly all the information concern-
ing Archias, states that he had celebrated the deeds of Marius
and Lucullus in the Cimbrian and Mithradatic wars, and that
he was engaged upon a poem of which the events of Cicero's
consulship formed the subject. The Greek Anthology contains
thirty-five epigrams under the name of Archias, but it is doubtful
how many of these (if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch.
Cicero, Pro Arckia; T. Reinach, De Arckia Porta (1890).
ARCHIDAMTJ9, the name of five kings of Sparta, of the
Eurypontid house.
1. The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which
began soon after the close of the second Messenian War, is said
to have been quiet and uneventful (Pausanias Hi. 7. 6).
a. The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 B.C. (but see
Leottcbidzs). He succeeded his grandfather Leotychides
opon the banishment of the latter, his father having already
died. His coolness and presence of mind are said to have saved
the Spartan state from destruction on the occasion of the great
earthquake of 464 (Piodorus xi. 63; Plutarch, Cimon, 16), but
this story must be regarded as at least doubtful. He was a
friend of Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation.
During the negotiations which preceded the Peloponnesian
War be did his best to prevent, or at least to postpone, the
inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war party. He
invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the
rammers of 431, 430 and 428, and in 429 conducted operations
against Plataea. He died probably in 427, certainly before the
summer of 426, when we find his son Agis on the throne.
Herod, vi. 71 ; Thuc. L 79-111. I ; Plut. Perules % 29. 33; Diodorus
si 48-xii. 5a.
3. The ton and successor of AgesQaus II., reigned 360-338
B.C. During his father** later years he proved himself a brave
and capable officer. In 371 he led the relief force which was
sent to aid the survivors of the battle of Leuctra. Four years
later he captured Caryae, ravaged the territory of the Parrhasii
and defeated the Arcadians, Argives and Messenians in the
" tearless battle," so called because the victory did not cost the
Spartans a single life. In 3641 however, he sustained a severe
reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at
Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism
in the defence of Sparta against Epaminondas immediately
before the battle of Mantineia (362). He supported the Phocians
during the Sacred War (355-346), moved, no doubt, largely by
the hatred of Thebes which he had inherited from his father: he
also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the Thebans and
their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break up
the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary
army to Italy to protect the Taren tines against the attacks of
Lucanians or Messapians: he fell together with the greater part
of his force at Mandonion * on the same day as that on which
the battle of Chaeronea was fought.
Xen. Hett. v. 4, vi. 4, vii. 1. 4, $; Plut. Agis.X, CamUJus, 19,
Agtsilous, 75. 33, 34, 40; Pausanias iii. 10, vi. 4; Diodorus xv. 54,
72. xvi 74, 39, 59: 6a, 88.
4. The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus HI.
The dates of his accession and death are unknown. In 294 b.c
he was defeated at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who
invaded Laconia, gained a second victory close to Sparta, and
was on the point of taking the city itself when he was called
1 So Plot. Aru, 3 (all MSS.). Following Cellarius, some authori-
ties icad Maaduria or Mandyrium.
away by the news of the successes, of Lysimachus and Ptolemy
in Asia Minor and Cyprus.
Plut Agis, 3, Demetrius, 35; Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8. 5; Niese,
Gesth. far grtech. u. tnakedon. Slaalm, i. 363.
5. The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV.,
brother of Agis IV. On his brother's murder he fled to Messenia
(241 B.C.): In 227 he was recalled by Cleomenes HI., who was
then reigning without a colleague, but shortly after his return
he was assassinated. Polybius accuses Cleomenes of the murder,
but Plutarch is probably right in saying that it was the work
of those who had caused the death of Agis, and feared his
brother's vengeance.
Plutarch, Cleomenes, i. 5 ; Polybius v. 37, viii. 1 ; Niese, op. eit. u.
304.3". (*f. N.T.)
ARCHIL (a corruption of " orchil," Ital. oriceUo, the origin
of which is unknown), a purple dye obtained from various spedes
of lichens. Archil can be extracted from many species of the
genera Roeeetto, Lctanora, UmbUicaria, Parmelia and others,
but in practice two species of RocccUo — R. tinctoria and R.
fuciformis — are almost exclusively wed. These, under the name
of "orchella weed " or "dyer's moss," are obtained from
Angola, on the west coast -of Africa, where the most valuable
kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima,
on the west coast of South America; and from the Malabar
coast of India. The colouring properties of the lichens do not
exist in them ready formed, but are developed by the treatment
to which they are subjected. A small proportion of a colourless,
crystalline principle, termed orcinol (a dioxytoluene), is found
in some, and in all a series of acid substances, erythric, lecanoric
acids, &c. Orcinol in presence of oxygen and ammonia takes
up nitrogen and becomes changed into a purple substance,
orcein* (C 7 H»NOj), which is essentially the basis of all lichen
dyes. Two other colouring-matters, aaoerythin and erythro-
leinic add, are sometimes present. Archil is prepared for the
dyer's use in the form of a " liquor " (archil) and a " paste "
(penis), and the latter, when dried and finely powdered, forms
the "cudbear" of commerce, a dye formerly manufactured
in Scotland from a native lichen, Lctanora tartarea. The manu-
facturing process consists in washing the weeds, which are then
ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste is to be
made this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution,
and agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about
1 40° F. till the desired shade is developed— a process which
occupies several days. In the preparation of archil liquor the
principles which yield the dye are separated from the ligneous
tissue of the lichens, agitated with a hot ammoniacal solution,
and exposed to the action of air. When potassium or sodium
carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much used
as an " indicator," is produced. French purple or lime lake
is a lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process,
and is a more brilliant and durable colour than the other. The
dyeing of worsted and home-spun doth with lichen dyes was
formerly a very common domestic employment in Scotland;
and to this day, in some of the outer islands, worsted continues
to be dyed with " crottle," the name given to the lichens
employed.
ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons,
was born at Paros, one of the Cydades islands. The date of his
birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 B.C.;
according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not
before the reign of Gyges (687-652), whom he mentions in a
well-known fragment. His father, Telesides, who was of noble
family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the
command of the Delphic oracle. To this island Archilochus
himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another
reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment
and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes,
a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule
in marriage, but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archi-
lochus, taking advantage of the licence allowed at the feasts of
Demcter. poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire.
He accused Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of leading
368
ARCHIMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES
the most abandoned lives. Such was the effect produced by
his verses, that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have
hanged themselves. At Tbasos the poet passed some unhappy
years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him,
Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas.
The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their
neighbours, and in a war against the Saians— -a Thracian tribe— he
threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does
not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus
and Horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in which
he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he
can easily procure another shield. After leaving Thasos, he is
said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished
from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious
character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, externa 1). He
next visited Siris, in lower Italy, a dty of which he speaks very
favourably. He then returned to his native place, and was slain
in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Coras, who
was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses.
The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns— one
of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games
(Pindar, CHympia, ix. 1) — and of poems in the iambic and trochaic
measures. To him certainly we owe the invention of iambic
poetry and its application to the purposes of satire. The only
previous measures in Greek poetry had been the epic hexameter,
and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured
structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express
the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the
iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms
of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetra-
meter. The trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a
serious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first
to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode.
Horace in his metres to a great extent follows Archilochus
(Epistles, i. 19. 23*35). All ancient authorities unite in praising
the poems of Archilochus, in terms' which appear exaggerated
(Longinus xiii. 3; Dk> Chrysostom, Orationes, xxxiii.; Quintilian
x. i. 60; Cicero, Orator, i.). His verses seem certainly to have
possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond
everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy. Horace
(Ars Poetiea, 70) speaks of the " rage " of Archilochus, and
Hadrian calls his verses " raging iambics." By his countrymen
he was reverenced as the equal of Homer, and statues of these
two poets were dedicated on the same day.
His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in
Bergk, PoeUu Lyrici Craeci: Liebel, Archilocki Reliquiae (1818);
A. Hauvctte-Besnault, Archiloque, savieetses potties (1905).
ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. opx**". & ruler, and jiorfpa,
a fold or monastery), a title in the Greek Church applied to a
superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and
monasteries, or to the abbot of some specially great and im-
portant monastery, the title for an ordinary abbot being hegu-
menos. The title occurs for the first time in a letter to Epiphanius,
prefixed to his Panariwn (c. 375), but the Lausicc History of
Palladius may be evidence that It was in common use in the 4th
century as applied to Pachomius (?.t.). In Russia the bishops
are commonly selected from the archimandrites. The word
occurs in the Regula Columbani (c. 7), and du Cange gives
a few other cases of its use in Latin documents, but it never
came into vogue in the West. Owing to intercourse with Greek
and Slavonic Christianity, the title is sometimes to be met with
in southern Italy and Sicily, and in Hungary and Poland.
See the article in the Dtctionnaire d'arcklelori* chrMeune H de
liiurgie.
ARCHIMEDES (c. 387-2x3 B.C.), Greek mathematician and
inventor, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of
Pheidias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not
related to, Hiero, king of Syracuse, and Gelo his son. He studied
at Alexandria and doubtless met there Conon of Samoa, whom he
admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, and to
whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries
before publication. On his return to his native city he devoted
himself to mathematical research. He himself set no value on
the ingenious mechanical contrivances which made him famous,
regarding them as beneath the dignity of pure science and even
declining to leave any written record of them except in the case
of the ejxupoKOita (Sphere-making), as to which see below.
As, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination,
they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. Thus
he devised for Hiero engines of war which almost terrified the
Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse for three
years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror
which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bow-
shot of the wall. This has been discredited because it is not
mentioned by Polybius, Livy or Plutarch; but it is probable
that Archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument,
though the connexion of it with the destruction of the Roman
fleet is more than doubtful. More important, as being doubtless
connected with the discovery of the principle in hydrostatics
which bears his name and the foundation by him of that whole
science, is the story of Hiero's reference to him of the
question whether a crown made for him and purporting
to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver.
According to one story, Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as be
was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over,
it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the in-
troduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown
and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with
water, and observing the difference of overflow. He was so
overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran
home without his clothes, shouting eCpnca, cCpqxa, " I have
found it, I have found it." Similarly his pioneer work in
mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said Us
tux troO <n-<3 col kivu t^v yrfv (or as another version has it,
in his dialect, ra f& xal mpu top 7 ay), " Give me a place to
stand and I (will) move the earth." Hiero asked him to give
an illustration of his contention that a very great weight
could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have
fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical
device by which Hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but
accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed.
The water-screw which he invented (sec be-low) was probably
devised in Egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields.
Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus,
an B.C. In the general massacre which followed the fall of the
city, Archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical
figure on the sand, was run through the body by a Roman
soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, Marcellus,
since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and
person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented
the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable
burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives.
In accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his
tomb was marked by the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder,
the discovery of the relation between the volumes of a sphere
and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his
most valuable achievement. When Cicero was quaestor in
Sicily (75 B.C.), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the
Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. " Thus,"
says Cicero (Tusc. Disp. v. c. 23, \ 64), " would this most famous
and once most learned city of Greece have remained a stranger
to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been
discovered by a man of Arpinum."
Works. — The range and importance of the scientific labours of
Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those
writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added
that his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the
method of exhaustion as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by
Euclid, that it became in his hands, though purely geometrical io
form, actually equivalent in several cases to integration, as expounded
in the first chapters of our text -books on the integral calculus. This
remark applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment
(mechanical solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a
sphere and of a segment thereof, and the volume of any «cgment»
of the solids of revolution of the second degree.
The extant treatises are as follows:—
(1) On the Sphere and Cylinder {Utel e+mlpn sal «•*!»*-•).
This treatise is in two books, dedicated 60 Doaitheua, and oeaJa
ARCHIMEDES—ARCHITECTURE
369
with the dimension* of spheres, cones, "solid rhomb!*' and cy-
finders, all deaaonstsated in a strictly geometrical — *~ ~ ' The
first book contains forty-four propositions, and thoi the
most important results are finally obtained are: 13 (1 ght
cylinder), 14, 15 (surface of right cone), 33 (surface > 34
(volume of sphere and its relation to that of circumscr er),
42, 43 (surface of segment of sphere), 44 (volume of se re).
The second book is in nine propositions, eight of w rith
segments of spheres and include the problems of c ven
sphere by a plane so that (a) the surfaces, (6) the 1 the
segments are in a given ratio (Props. 3, 4), and of g a
segment of a sphere similar to one given segment am its
volume, (b) hs surface, equal to that of another (5,6;.
(a) The Measurement of the Circle (KfaXov nirpjns) is a short
book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in Prop. 3.
which shows that the circumference of a circle is less than 3 1 and
greater than 3H times its diameter. Inscribing in and circum-
scribing about a circle two polygons, each of ninety-six sides, and
; that the perimeter of the circle lay between those of the
polygons, r
starting frt
w _ . l he obtained the limits he has assigned by sheer calculation,
starting from two close approximations to the value of V3, which he
assumes as known (265/im< V3< 1351/780).
(3) On Conoid* and Spheroids (iW **>»tmttup ad ojxufxmiktp)
is a treatise in thirty-two propositions, on the solids generated by
the revolution of the conic sections about their axes, the main results
being the comparisons of the volume of any segment cut off by a
plane with that of a cone having the same base and axis (Props. 21,
23 for the paraboloid, 2$, 26 for the hyperboloid, and 27-33 for the
spheroid).
(4) On Spirals (Tltpl (\Uur) is a book of twenty-eight proposi-
tions. Propositions I-II are preliminary, 13-20 contain tangential
properties of the curve now known as the spiral of Archimedes, and
31-38 show how to express the area included between any portion
of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities.
iS) On the Equilibrium of Planes or Centres of Gravity of Planes
(TUfi IxtTi&i** looppcrtum 4 ***rp* 0*p&* hnrUu)*), This con-
sists of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical
mechanics, for the previous contributions of Aristotle were com-
paratively vague and unscientific. In the first book there are fifteen
propositions,. with seven postulates; and demonstrations are given,
much the same as those still employed, of the centres of gravity
(1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of anv triangle.
(4) of any trapezium. The second book in ten propositions is devoted
to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic segment, (2) of
the area included between any two parallel chords andthe portions
of the curve intercepted by (hem.
(6) The Quadrature of the Parabola (TerpaycmrM*? wapafiok^t) is
a book in twenty-four propositions, containing two demonstrations
that the area of any segment of a parabola is i of the triangle which
has the same base as the segment and equal height. The first (a
mechanical proof) begins, after some preliminary propositions on the
parabola, in Prop. 6, ending -with an integration in Prop. 16. The
second (a geometrical proof) is expounded in Props. 17-24.
(7) On Floating Bodies (n«pi hxovukimr) is a treatise in two
books, the first of which establishes the general principles of hydro-
statics, and the second discusses with the greatest completeness the
positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid of
revolution floating in a fluid.
(8) The Psammites (^om^It^, L^t. Arenarius, or sand reckoner),
a small treatise, addressed to Gelo, the eldest son of Hiero, expound-
ing, as applied to reckoning the number of grains of sand that could
be contained in a sphere of the sire of our " universe," a system
of naming large numbers according to " orders " and " periods "
which would enable any number to be expressed up to that which
we should write with 1 followed by 80,000 ciphers!
(9) A Collection of Lemmas, consisting of fifteen propositions in
plane geometry. This has come down to us through a Latin version
of an Arabic manuscript; it cannot, however, have been written by
Archimedes in its present form, as bis name is quoted in it more than
once.
Lastly, Archimedes is credited with the famous Cattle-Problem
enunciated in the epigram edited by G. E. Lessing in 1773. which
purports to have been sent by Archimedes to the mathematicians at
Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. Of lost works by Archimedes
we can identify the following: (1) investigations on polyhedra
mentioned by Pappus; (2) 'Ap*al, Principles, a book addressed to
Zeuxippus and dealing with the naming of numbers on the system
explained in the Sand Reckoner; (3) n «P* fT"*. On balances or
Inert; (4) Ktrrpdtyua, On centres 0) gravity; (5) Karmrrpui, an
optical work from which Tbeon of Alexandria Quotes a remark about
of the sun, the moon and the five planets in the heavens. Cicero
actually saw this contrivance and describes it (JDe Rtp, uc.14,
If 21-22).
BiBLioctAfHY. — The editio prince ps of the works of Archimedes,
with the commentary of Eutocius, is that printed at Basel, in 1544,
in Greek and Latin, by Hervagius. D. Rivault's edition (Paris,
1615) gave the enunciations in Greek and the proofs in Latin some*
»7
1 was published by Isaac
Tartaglia published in
on the Quadrature of the
and on Floating Bodies, i.
bed the two Doola on
s death; Frederic Com-
158, 4to, which contains
htadratura Paraboles, Do
Arenae; and in 1565 the
toks De iis quae vehuntur
1 of the works with the
Oxford in 1792, folio,
finitive text edited, with
>, &c, by J. L. Heiberg
Arenarius and Dimensio
h
o
n
E
(I
C te latter, were edited by
V 1 1678 (Oxford), and the
A renarius was also published in English by George Anderson (London,
1784), with useful notes and illustrations. The first modern transla-
tion of the works is the French edition published by F. Peyrard
(Paris, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.). A valuable German translation with
notes, by E. Nizze. was published at Stralsund in 1834. There is
a complete edition in modern notation by T. L. Heath (The Works
of Archimedes, Cambridge, 1897).. On Archimedes himself, see
Plutarch's Life of UarceUnu . (T. L. H.)
ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OP, a machine for raising water,
said to have been invented by Archimedes, for the purpose of
removing water from the hold of a large ship that had been
built by King Hiero II. of Syracuse. It consists of a water-tight
cylinder, enclosing a chamber walled off by spiral divisions
running from end to end, inclined to the horizon, with its lower
open end placed in the water to be raised. The water, while
occupying the lowest portion in each successive division of the
spiral chamber, is lifted mechanically by the turning of the
machine. Other forms have the spiral revolving free in a fixed
cylinder, or consist simply of a tube wound spirally about a
cylindrical axis. The same principle is sometimes used in
machines for handling wheat, &c. (see Conveyois).
ARCHIPELAGO, a name now applied to any island-studded
sea, but originally the distinctive designation of what is now
generally known as the Aegean Sea (Myaiov riXayoi), its
ancient name having been revived. Several etymologies have
been proposed: e.g. (1) it is a corruption of the ancient name,
Egcopdago; (2) it is from the modern Greek, 'A-yio rt\ayo, the
Holy Sea; (3) it arose at the time of the Latin empire, and
means the Sea of the Kingdom (Archl); (4) it is a translation
of the Turkish name, Ak Denghiz, Argon Pelagos, the White
Sea; (5) it is simply Archipclagus, Italian, orcipdogo, the chief
sea. For the Grecian Archipelago see Aegean Sea. Other
archipelagoes are described in their respective places.
ARCHIPPUS, an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who
flourished towards the end of the 5th century B.C. His most
famous play was the Fishes, in which he satirized the fondness
of the Athenian epicures for fish. The Alexandrian critics
attributed to bim the authorship of four plays previously
assigned to Aristophanes. Archippus was ridiculed by bis con-
temporaries for his fondness for playing upon words (Schol. on
Aristophanes, Wasps, 481).
Titles and fragments of six plays are preserved, for which see
T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum tragmenta, i. (1880); or A. Meincke,
Poetarum Comicorum Craecorum Fragmenla (1855).
ARCHITECTURE (Lat. archUcctura, from the Gr. dpYtrtKrwr,
a roaster-builder), the art of building in such a way as to accord
with principles determined, not merely by the ends the edifice
is intended to serve, but by high considerations of beauty and
harmony (sec Fine Arts). It cannot be defined as the art of
building simply, or even of building well. So far as mere ex-
cellence of construction is concerned, see Building and its
allied articles. The end of building as such is convenience, use,
irrespective of appearance; and the employment of materials
to this end is regulated by the mechanical principles of the
constructive art. The end of architecture as an art, on the other
hand, is so to arrange the plan, masses and enrichments of a
structure as to impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity,
power. Architecture thus necessitates the possession by the
builder of giits of imagination as well as of technical skill, and
\a
37©
ARCHITECTURE
in all works of architecture properly so called these elements
must exist, and be harmoniously combined.
Like the other arts, architecture did not spring into existence
at an early period of man's history. The ideas of symmetry and
proportion which are afterwards embodied in material structures
could not be evolved until at least a moderate degree of civiliza-
tion had been attained, while the efforts of primitive man in the
construction of dwellings must have been at first determined
solely by his physical wants. Only after these had been pro-
vided for, and materials amassed on which his imagination
might exercise itself, would he begin to plan and erect structures,
possessing not only utility, but also grandeur and beauty. It
may be well to enumerate briefly the elements which in com-
bination form the architectural perfection of a building. These
elements have been, very variously determined by different
authorities. Vitruvius, the only ancient writer on the art whose
works have come down to us, lays down three qualities as in-
dispensable in a fine building: Firmiias, UtilUas, Venustas,
stabflty, utility, beauty. From an architectural point of view
the last is the principal, though not the sole element; and,
accordingly, the theory of architecture is occupied for the most
part with aesthetic considerations, or the principles of beauty
in designing. Of such principles or qualities the following appear
to be the most important: size, harmony, proportion, symmetry,
ornament and colour. All other elements may be reduced under
one or other of these heads.
With regard to the first quality, it is clear that, as the feeling
of power is a source of the keenest pleasure, size, or vastness
of proportion, will not only excite in the mind of man the feelings
of awe with which he regards the sublime in nature, but will
impress him with a deep sense of the majesty of human power.
It is, therefore, a double source of pleasure. The feelings with
which we regard the Pyramids of Egypt, the great hall of columns
at Karnak, the Pantheon, or the Basilica of Maxentius at Rome,
the Trilithon at Baalbek, the choir of Bcauvais cathedral,
or the Arc de l'£toUe at Paris, sufficiently attest the truth of
this quality, size, which is even better appreciated when the
buildings are contemplated simply as masses, without being
disturbed by the consideration of the details.
Proportion itself depends essentially upon the employment
of mathematical ratios in the dimensions of a building. It is
a curious but significant fact that such proportions as those of
an exact cube, or of two cubes placed side by side— dimensions
increasing by one-half (e.g., ao ft. high, 30 wide and 45 long) —
or the ratios of the base, perpendicular and hypotenuse of a
right-angled triangle {e.g. 3, 4, 5, or their multiples) — please the
eye more than dimensions taken at random. No defect is more
glaring or more unpleasant than want of proportion. The
Gothic architects appear to have been guided in their designs
by proportions based on the equilateral triangle.
By harmony is meant th'e general balancing of the several
parts of the design. It is proportion applied to the mutual
relations of the details. Thus, supported parts should have
an adequate ratio to their supports, and the same should be
the case with solids and voids. Due attention to proportion
and harmony gives the appearance of stability and repose
which is indispensable to a really fine building. Symmetry
is uniformity in plan, and, when not carried to excess, is un-
doubtedly effective. But a building too rigorously symmetrical
is apt to appear cold and tasteless. Such symmetry of general
plan, with diversity of detail, as is presented to us in leaves,
animals, and other natural objects, is probably the just medium
between the excesses of two opposing schools.
Next to general beauty or grandeur of form in a building
comes architectural ornament. Ornament, of coarse, may
be used to excess, and as a general rule it should be confined
to the decoration of constructive parts of the fabric; but, on
the other hand, a total absence or a paucity of ornament betokens
an unpleasing poverty. Ornaments may be divided into two
classes— mouldings and the sculptured representation of natural
or fanciful objects. Mouldings, no doubt, originated, first, in
simply taking off the edge of anything that might be in the way,
as the edge of a square post, and then sinking the chamfer la
hollows of various forms; and thence were developed the
systems of mouldings we now find in all styles and periods.
Each- of these has its own system; and so well are their char-
acteristics understood, that from an examination of them a
skilful architect will not only tell the period in which any building
has been erected, but will even give an estimate of its probable
size, as professors of physiology will construct an animal from
the examination of a single bone. Mouldings require to be
carefully studied, for nothing offends an educated eye like a
confusion of mouldings, such as Roman forms in Greek work*
or Early English in that of the Tudor period. The same remark
applies to sculptured ornaments. They should be neither too
numerous nor too few, and above all, they should be consistent.
The carved ox skulls, for instance, which are appropriate in
a temple of Vesta or of Fortune would be very incongruous
on a Christian church.
Colour must be regarded as a subsidiary element in architec-
ture, and although it seems almost indispensable and has always
been extensively employed in interiors, it is doubtful how far
external colouring is desirable. Some contend that only local
colouring, i.e. the colour of the materials, should be admitted;
but there seems no reason why any colour should not be used,
provided it be employed with discretion and kept subordinate
to the form or outline.
Origin of the AH.— The origin of the art of architecture is to be
found in the endeavours of man to provide for his physics!
wants; in the earliest days the cave, the hut and the tent may
have given shelter to those who devoted themselves to hunting
and fishing, to agriculture and to a pastoral and nomadic life,
and in many cases still afford the only shelter from the weather.
There can be no doubt, however, that climate and the materials
at hand affect the forms of the primitive buildings; thus, in the
two earliest settlements of mankind, in Chaldaea and Egypt,
where wood was scarce, the heat in the day-time intense, and
the only material which could be obtained was the alluvial day,
brought down by the rivers in both those countries, they shaped
this into bricks, which, dried in the sun, enabled them to build
rude huts, giving them the required shelter. These may have
been circular or rectangular on plan, with the bricks laid in
horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, till the walls
met at the top. The next advance in Egypt was made by the
employment of the trunks of the palm tree as a lintel over the
doorway, to support the wall above, and to cover over the hut
and carry the flat roof of earth which is found down to the present
day in all hot countries. Evidence of this system of construction
is found in some of the earliest rock-cut tombs at Giza, where the
actual dwelling of the deceased was reproduced in the tomb,
and from these reproductions we gather that the corners, or
quoins of the hut were protected by stems of the douva plant,
bound together in rolls by the leaves, which, in the form of torus
rolls, were also carried across the top of the wall. Down to the
present day the huts of the fellahs are built in the same way,
and, surmounted as they are by pigeon-cots, bear so strong
a resemblance to the pylons and the walls of the temples as at
all events to suggest, if not to prove, that in their origin these
stone erections were copies of unburnt brick structures. From
long exposure in the sun, these bricks acquire a hardness and
compactness not much inferior to some of the softer qualities
of stone, but they are unable to sustain much pressure; conse-
quently it is necessary to make the walls thicker at the bottom
than at the top, and it is this which results in the batter or raking
sides of all the unburnt brick walls. The same raking sides are
found in all their mastabas, or tombs, sometimes built in un-
burnt brick and sometimes in stone, in the latter case being
simple reproductions of the former. In some of the early
mastabas, built in brick, eSlher to vary the monotony of the
mass and decorate the walls, or to ensure greater care in their
construction, vertical brick pilasters are provided, forming sunk
panels. These form the principal decoration, as reproduced in
stone, of an endless number of tombs, some of which are in the
British Museum. At the top of each panel they carve a portion
EGYPTIAN)
ARCHITECTURE
37»
of trunk necessary to rapport the wills of brick, and over the
doorway a similar feature. In Chaldaea the same decorative
features are found in the stage towers which constituted their
temples, and broad projecting buttresses, indented panels and
other features, originally constructive, form the decorations of
the Assyrian palaces. There also, built in the same material,
unburnt brick, the walls have a similar batter, though they were
faced with burnt bricks. In later times in Greece and Asia
Minor, where wood was plentiful, the stone architecture suggests
its timber origin, and though unburnt brick was still employed for
the mass of the walls, the remains in Crete and the representa-
tions in painting, &c, show that it was encased in timber
framing, so that the raking walls were no longer a necessary
element in their structure. The dearest proofs of original
timber construction arc shown in the rock-cut tombs of Lycia,
where the ground sill, vertical posts, cross beams, purlins and
roof joists are all direct imitations of structures originally
erected in wood.
The numerous relics of structures left by primeval man have
generally little or no architectural value; and the only interesting
problem regarding them — the determination of their date and
purpose and of the degree of civilization which they manifest-
falls within the province of archaeology (see Archaeology;
Barrow; Lake-Dwellings; Stone Monuments).
Technical terms in architecture will be found separately
explained under their own headings in this work, and m this
article a general acquaintance with them is assumed. A number
of architectural subjects are also considered in detail in separate
articles; see, for instance, Capital; Column; Design; Order;
and such headings as Abbey; Aqueduct; Arch; Basilica;
Baths; Bridges; Catacomb; Crypt; Dome; Mosque; Palace;
Pyramid; Temple; Theatre; &c., &c. Also such general articles
on national art as China: Art; Egypt: Art and Archaeology;
Greek Art; Roman Art; &c, and the sections on archi-
tecture and buildings under the headings of countries and towns.
In the remainder of this article the general history of the evolu-
tion of the art of architecture will be considered in various
sections, associated with the nations and periods from which
the leading historic styles are chronologically derived, in so far
as the dominant influences on the art, and not the purely local
characteristics of countries outside the main current of its
history, are concerned; but the opportunity is taken to treat
with some attempt at comprehensiveness the leading features
of the architectural history of those countries and peoples which
are intimately connected with the development of modern
architecture.
These consecutive sections are as follows:—
Egyptian
Assyrian
Persian
Greek
Parthian
Sassanian
Etruscan
Roman
Byzantine
Early Christian
Early Christian Work in Central Syria
Coptic Church in Egypt
Romanesque and Gothic in—
Italy
France
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Renaissance: Introduction
Italy
France
Spain
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Mahommedaa
Finally, a section on what can only be collectively termed Modem
architect wre deals with the main lines of the later developments
down to the present day in the architectural history of different
' *-*- (R. P. S.)
Egyptian Architecturi
Although structures discovered in Chaldaea, at Tello and Nippur,
seeming to date back to the fifth millennium B.C., suggest that the
earlier settlements of mankind were in the valley of the Tigris and
Euphrates, north of the Persian Gulf, it is to Egypt that we must
turn for the most ancient records of monumental architecture
(see also Egypt: Art and Archaeology). The proximity of the
ranges of hills (the Arabian and Libyan chains) to the Nile, and the
facilities which that river afforded for the transport of the material
quarried in tbcm, enabled the Egyptians at a very early period to
reproduce in stone those structures in unburnt brick to which we
have already referred.
Although the great founder of the first Egyptian monarchy is
reputed to be Menes, the Thinite who traditionally founded the
capital at Memphis, he was preceded, according to Flinders Petrie.
by an earlier invading race coming from the south, who established
a monarchy at This near Abydos, having entered the country by the
Kosscir road from the Red Sea; and this may account for the early
tradition that it was the Ethiopians who founded the earliest dynastic
race, " Ethiopians " being a wide term which may embrace several
races.
Egyptian architecture is usually described under the principal
periods in which it was developed. They are as follows ':— (A) the
Memphitc kingdom, whose capital was at Memphis, south-west of
Cairo, the Royal Domain extending south some 30 to 40 m.; (B)
the first Thcban kingdom with Thebes as the capital; this covers
three dynasties. Then follows an interregnum of five dynasties,
when the invasion of the Hyksos took place; this was architecturally
unproductive. On the expulsion of the Hyksos there followed (C)
the second Thcban kingdom, consisting of three dynasties, under
whose reign the finest temples were erected throughout the country.
After 1 1 02 followed six dynasties (1102-525 B.c.j, with capitals at
Sais. Tanis and Bubastis, when the decadence of art and power took
place. Then followed the Persian invasion, 525-331 b.c, which was
destructive instead of being reproductive. On the defeat of the
Persians by Alexander the Great, and after his death in 323 b.c,
was founded (D) the Ptolemaic kingdom, with Alexandria as the
capital. A great revival of art then took place, which to a certain
extent was carried on under the Roman occupation from -27 B.c,
and lasted about 300 years.
With the exception of a small temple, found by Petrie in front of
the temple of \Icdum, and the so-called " Temple of the Sphinx."
the only monuments remaining of the Mernphite kingdom are the
Pyramids, which were built by the kings as their tombs, and the
mastabas, in which the members of the royal family and of the priests
and chiefs were buried. The mastaha (Arabic for " bench ") was a
tomb, oblong in plan, with battering side and a flat roof, containing
various chambers, of which the principal were (1) the Chapel for
offerings, (2) the Serdab, in which the Ka or double of the deceased
was deposited, and (3) the well, always excavated in the rock, in
which the mummy was placed.
The three best-known pyramids are those situated about 7 m.
south-west of Cairo, which were built by the second, third and
fourth kings of the fourth dynasty, — Khufu (c. 3960-3006 B.C.),
Khafra (e. 3908-3845 B.C.), and Menkaura (c. 3845-37847B.C.), who
arc better known as Cheops, Ccphren and Myccnnus. The first of
these is the largest and most remarkable in its construction and
setting out. The pyramid of Ccphren was slightly smaller, and that
of Mycerinus still more so, compensated for by a casing in granite.
The dimensions and other details are given in the article Pyramids.
From the ourely architectural point of view they are the least im-
pressive of masses, and their immense size is not realised until on a
close approach.
The temple of the Sphinx, attributed to Cephren, is T-shaped
(n plan, with two rows of square piers down the vertical and one
row down the cross oortion. These carried a flat roof of stone.
T iish given to the granite
p the rock in which it had
b listory, I.).
red bulls were embalmed
ai courtier), and the tombs
ol no special architectural
h
he eighth king of which,
N lately discovered on the
wl ivhicn it is the prototype.
Il t on rising ground was
a] tre was a solid mass of
na rities, was crowned by a
p^iaunu. •!>» >a 9 9UHUUUUCU uy a uuuolc portico with square
piers in the outer range, and octagonal piers in the inner range,
there being a wall between the two ranges.
The earliest tombs in which the column (q.v.) appears, as an archi-
tectural feature, are those at Beni Hasan, attributed to the period
of Scnwosri (formerly read Uscrtescn) I., the second king of the
twelfth dynasty. These are carved in the solid rock. There are two
1 For the various chronological systems proposed see Egypt t
Chronology.
372
ARCHITECTURE
types, the Polygonal column, sometimes in error called the Proto-
doric, which was cut in the rock in imitation of a wooden column,
and a second variety known as the Lotus column, which is employed
inside, supporting the rock-cut roof, but having such slender pro-
portions as to suggest that it was copied from the posts of a porch,
round which the Lotus plant had been tied.
The culminating period of the Egyptian style begins with the
kings of the eighteenth dynasty, their principal capital being Thebes,
described by Herodotus as the " City with the Hundred Gates ";
and although the execution of the masonry is inferior to that of the
older dynasties, the grandeur of the conception of their temples,
and the wealth displayed in their realisation entitle Thebes to the
most important position in the history of the Egyptian style, especi-
ally as tne temples there grouped on both sides of the river exceed
in number and dimensions the whole of the other temples throughout
Egypt. This to a certain extent may possibly be due to the distance
of Thebes from the Mediterranean, which has contributed to their
preservation from invaders. We have already referred to the probable
origin of the peculiar batter or raking side given to the walls of the
pylons and temples, with the Torus moulding surrounding the same
and crowned with the cavetto cornice, what, however, is more
remarkable is the fact that, once accepted as an important and
characteristic feature, it should never nave been departed from,
and that down to and during the Roman occupation the same batter
is found in all the temples, though constructively there was no
necessity for it. The strict adherence to tradition may possibly
account for this, but it has resulted in a magnificent repose possessed
by these structures, which seem built to last till eternity.
An avenue with sphinxes on both sides forma the approach to
the temple. These avenues were sometimes of considerable length,
as in the case of that reaching from Karnak to Luxor, which is I J m.
long. The leading features of the
temple (see fig. i) were. — (A) The
pylon, consisting of two pyramidal
masses of masonry crowned with a
cavetto cornice, united in the cent re
by an immense doorway, in front of
which on either side were seated
figures of the king and obelisks.
(6) A great open court surrounded
by peristyles on two or three sides.
(C) A great hall with a range of
columns down the centre on either
side, forming what in European
architecture would be known as
nave and aisles, with additional
aisles on each side: these had
columns of less height than those
first mentioned, so as to allow of
a clerestory, lighting the central
avenue. (D) Smaller halls with
their flat roofs carried by columns.
And finally (E) the sanctuary, with
passage round giving access to the
halls occupied by the priest.
Broadly speaking, the temples
bear considerable resemblance to
one another (see Temple), except
in dimensions. There is one im-
■— "* -^ portant distinction, however, to be
drawn between the Theban temples
and those built under the Ptolemaic
rule. In these latter the halls are
not enclosed between pylons, but
left open on the side of the entrance
court with screens in between the
columns, the hall being lighted from
above the screens. The temples of
Edfu, Esna and Dendera are thus
arranged.
The great temple of Karnak (fig. 2) differs from the type just
described, in that it was the work of many successive monarch*.
Thus the sanctuary, built in granite, and the surrounding chambers,
were erected by Senwosri (Uscrtesen) I. of the twelfth dynasty. In
front of this, on the west side, pylons were added by Tcthmosis
(Thothmcs, Tahutmes) I. (1541-1516), enclosing a hall, in the walls
of which were Osirid figures. In front of this a third pylon was
added, which Seti (Sethos) I. utilized as one of the enclosures of the
Esat hall of columns (fig. 3), measuring 170 ft. deep by 339 ft. wide,
ving added a fourth pylon on the other side to enclose it. Again
In front of this was the great open court with porticoes on two sides,
and a great pylon, forming the entrance. In the rear of all these
buildings, and some distance beyond the sanctuary, Tethmosis III.
503- 1 449) built a great colonnaded hall with other halls round,
considered to have been a palace. All these structures form a part
only of the great temple, on the right and left of which (i.e. to the
north-east and south-west) were other temples preceded bypylona
and connected one with the other by avenues of sphinxes. Though
of small size comparatively, one of the best preserved is the temple
of Chons, built by Ramescs III. It was from this temple that an
o a
CD Fig. 1.— Planofthc C3
i—! Templeof Chons. q
A, Pylon*
B, Great court
C, Hall of columns.
D, Priest's hall.
E, Sanctuary.
[EGYPTIAN
avenue of sphinxes led to the temple of Luxor, which was begun by
Amcnophis 111. (1414-1379 B.c), and completed by Ra meats II.
(1300-1234).
On the opposite or west bank of the Nile are the temple of Medfoet
Abu, the Ramesseum, the temples of Kama and of Deir-el-Bahri ;
the last being a sepulchral temple, which, built on rising ground,
had flights 01 steps leading to the higher level (fig. 4), and porticoes
with square piers at the foot of each terrace. In the rear on the right-
hand aide was found an altar, the only example of its kind known in
& fur*/ Cbfe«M.
t. Mat if iiumtum.
&r
JHOMK
PLAN OF KARNAK
Fie. 2.
Egypt. The halls behind this and the portico of the right flank had
polygonal columns.
In the palace of Tell el-Amarna, built shortly before 1330 n.c by
the heretic king Akhenaton (whose name was originally Amenophis
IV.), and discovered by Petrie, there were no special architectural
developments, but the painted decoration of the walls and pavements
assumed a literal interpretation of natural forms of plants and
foliage and of birds and animals, recalling to some extent that
found at Cnossua in Crete.
Ascending the river from Cairo, the first temples of which im*
portant remains exist arc the two at Abydos. One of these has an
exceptional plan, with seven sanctuaries in the rear. It was built
by Seti I., and consists of an outer portico with square piers, a ball
EGYPTIAN]
with two rows of columns down to the centre, and a second hall with
three rows of columns. These halls are placed longitudinally to give
access to the seven sanctuaries. The second temple is of the ordinary
X, with pylon, court with portico on all four sides, two halls of
nns. ana three sanctuaries in the rear. The next temple is that
of Dcndera. commenced under the second Ptolemy but not completed
until the reign of Nero. It has been completely excavated, and
ARCHITECTURE
373
it > r H
_L j I 1 I
LLj 1 [
Fie. 3.— Section through Hall of Columns. Karnak.
a, Clerestory window.
retains the whole of its external walls. Above Thebes is the temple
of Esna. of which the hall of columns only has been cleared out.
The capitals of the front belong to the lotus-bud type, and those of
the interior are carved with many varieties of river plant. The
temple of Edfu is the best preserved in Egypt. Its plan (fig. 5)
would seem to have been determined from the first, and it is singular
to note that it presents the traditional type of plan, which in the
Theban examples was evolved from additions made by successive
monarch*. In dimensions it is but little inferior to these. Its pylon
(fig. 6) is 250 fc. wide and 150 ft. high; the first court has porticoes
on three sides. The great hall of columns, all of which here are of
the same height, is lighted from above (fig. 7), the screen facing the
court. Then follow the second hall of columns, two vestibules,
and the sanctuary, surrounded by a passage giving access to the
priest's rooms round. The temple of Kom Ombo, which comes next,
w*» dedicated to two deities, and had therefore two sanctuaries.
The temples of Philac owe much of their beauty and picturesque-
ness m the island on which they are situated; their plans, and that
of the long porticoes in front of the pylons of the great temple,
being fitted to the irregularity of the site. In the first court is a
well-preserved example of the Mammcisi temple (see Temple), the
sanctuary and other rooms in which are entirely enclosed in a
peristyle. It was built by Ptolemy Euergetcs (247-222 B.C.). A
second monarch of the same name (about 125 B.C.) built the pavilion
on the north side of the island, known as " Pharaoh's bed," the roof
Wadi cs-ScbO'a; and lastly Abfl Simbcf. Owing to the proximity
of the ranges of hills to the Nile, there was no room for the ordinary
type of temple at AbO Simbcl, so that those founded here by Rameses
the Great (c. 1300-123* B.C.) were
excavated in the rock. In the
place of the pylon the side of the
cliff was worked off, leaving in
relief four immense seated figures,
The first hall had
th , divided by four piers
or dc, in front of which
O res (18 ft. high) were
ca yond was a second hall,
vc and sanctuary. The
lo ingular chambers on
ca arc provided with
be Jt in the rock. The
dc the temple is 90 ft.
T a second temple of
sn i which faces the Nile.
e already referred to
th >lumns at Bcni Hasan;
th n employed const rue-
tit , ■> carry stone roofs,
assumed a far more solid appear-
ance, and the stems of the lotus
plant carved in thc^ earlier ex-
amples were omitted in the later,
in order to give more surface for
intaglio carving. _ The capital and
its neck still retain the lotus buds
and the bands which tied them,
round the column. In the central
avenues of the great halls the I
columns had bell capitals, the I
decoration of which was based on •
the flower of the papyrus. There
arc a few examples of the palm Fig. 5. — Plan of the Temple of
Edfu.
AA. Pylon.
B, Entrance door.
C, Great Court.
D, Hall of Columns.
E, Second Hall.
F, Hall of the Altar.
G, Hall of the Centre.
H. Sanctuary.
KK, Storerooms.
Fie. 4.— Temple of Deir-el-Bahri, conjectural restoration by Prof. E. Brune.
capital, often carved in granite,
which date from an early period.
Commencing with the Ptolemaic
revival the capitals assume a
much greater variety of form,
their decoration being based on
river plants; but here again the
lotus plant, which seems still to
be the favourite type, pre-
dominates, the buds in various
degrees of their growth alternat-
ing one with the other. All these varieties of form are described
in the article Capitai , but two or three may be mentioned here,
as they depart from the usual type. The Hathor-headcd capita),
with faces on all four sides, and sur-
mounted with a miniature shrine, is
found at Dcndera. Philae and other
temples of the Ptolemaic or Roman
periods; one of the earliest examples,
but without the shrine, dates back to
Tethmosis III. (1503-1449 ».c). As a
distinct type of pier decoration, the
Osirid figures at Medinct Abu, at
Karnak, Gcrf Huscn, Abu Simbcl and
other temples, constitute important
features: the figure is carved in front of
the pier and does not serve any con-
structive function.
With the exception of the great
building in the rear of the temple at
Karnak, built by Tethmosis III., and
the pavilion of Medinct AbQ on the
west bank of the Nile at Thebes, no
palatial residences of any importance
have yet been found, from which it
might be inferred that the king, being
the head of the Egyptian reliRion.
occupied with his family the sacred
precincts of the temple; but large as
these temple enclosures aie, there would
have been no room for the immense
army of attendants and servants re-
quired in an Oriental court. Moreover,
of which was covered with stone slabs, resting on timber beams.
In consequence of the building of the Assuan dam all these temples
are submerged for the greater part of the year. Thejprincipal temples
between Philae and the second catatact are:— Dabod, of which
tittle remains: Kartassi; Kalabsha, still preserving its pylon and
great hall of columns; the Bet el-Wali. in which are two ancient
polygonal columns; Gcrf Husen, partially cut in the rock; Dakka;
the darkness of the halls and the rigid
but
enclosures would have made a residence in them anything
cheerful. There are two instances where, in consequence of the
subsequent desertion of the site, remains have been found of ancient
towns. At Tell el-Amarna. built by the heretic king. Akhenaton.
portions of the houses remain, and at Kahun, in the Fayum. Petrie
discovered the walls of a town which, erected for the overseers and
workmen employed in the construction of the pyramid of Illahuo,
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ASSYRIAN]
At Nippur (the ancient Calneh) the research undertaken by the
university of Pennsylvania resulted in the discovery, under a
ziggurat dated from 4000-4500 B.C., of a barrel-vaulted tunnel, in
the floor of which were found terra-cot ta drain pipes with flanged
mouths. At a later date (3750 B.C.) Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon,
bad built over the older ziggurat a loftier and larger temple, above
which was a third built by Or Cur (2500 B.C.), which still retained
its burnt brick casing, 5 ft. thick. Crowning all these was the
Parthian palace mentioned in the section on Parthian architecture
below. The result of these researches has not only carried back the
date of the earlier settlements to a prehistoric period quite unknown,
but has suggested that if similar researches are carried out in other
well-known mounds, among which the great city of Babylon should
be counted as the most important, further revelations may still
be made.
But we have now to pass to the principal cities of the Assyrian
monarchy on the river Tigris* At Nineveh, the capital, which is
about 250 m. north of Babylon, the remains of three palaces have
been found, those of Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), Esarhaddon (681-
668 B.C.), and Assurbanipal (668-626 B.C.). At Nimrud (the ancient
ARCHITECTURE
375
ffff
Fran The Hittvy «/ Art in Chaldara and Atsyria, by permission of Gupmaa
t Hail. Lid.
Fig. 8.— Plan of the Palace at Khorsabad.
A, Principal courtyard. E, Official residences.
B, The harem. • F, The king's residence.
C, The offices. G, The ziggurat or temple.
DD. The halls of state.
Calah, founded by Assur), JO m. south of Nineveh, arc also three
palaces, one (the earliest known) built ty Assurnazirpal (885-860
a c.). the others by Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.) and Esarhaddon.
At Balawat, 10 m. east of Nineveh, was a second palace of Shal-
maneser II.. and at Khorsabad, 10 m. north-east of Nineveh, the
palace (fig. 8) built by Sargon 722-705 B.C.), which was situated on
the banks of the Khanscr, a tributary of the Tigris. As this palace
b one of the most extensive of those hitherto explored, its' descrip-
tion will best give the general idea of the plan and conception of an
The palace was built on an immense platform, made of sun-dried
bricks, enclosed in masonry, and covering- an area of nearly one
million square feet, raised 48 ft. above the town level. The principal
front of the palace measured 900 ft., there being a terrace in front.
The approach was probably by a double inclined ramp which chariots
and horses could mount. A central and two side portals (fig. 9).
Ranked with winged human-headed bulls (now in the British
Museum), led to the principal, court yard (A), measuring 300 ft. by
240 ft. The block (B) on the left of the court, containing smaller
courts and rooms, constituted the harem: that on the right the
offices (C) ; those in the rear the halls of state (DDD). the residences
of the officers of the court (E). the king's private apartments (F)
being on the left, facing the ziggurat or temple (G). In the extreme
rear were other state rooms with terraces probably laid out as
gardens and commanding a view of the river and country beyond.
As there must have been nearly 700 rooms in the palace, the
destination of the greater number of which it would be difficult to
determine, it will be sufficient to refer only to those state rooms
in which the principal sculptured slabs were found, and which
decorated the lower 9 ft. of the walls. The two chief factors to be
noted are (1) the great length of the halls compared with their
width, the chief hall being 150 ft. long and 30 ft. wide, and (2) the
immense thickness of the walls, which measured 28 ft. The only
Fie. 9. — Entrance gateway, Palace of Khorsabad.
reason for walls of this thickness would be to resist the thrust of a
vault, and as La Place, the French explorer, found many blocks of
earth of great size, the soffits of which were covered with stucco and
had apparently fallen from a height, he was led to the conclusion,
now generally accepted, that these halls were vaulted. These dis-
coveries, and the fact that in none of the palaces excavated has a
single foundation of the base of any column been found, quite dispose
of Tergusson's restoration, which was based on the palaces of
Pcrsepolis. Moreover, the two climates are entirely different. In
the mountainous country of Persia the breezes might be welcomed,
but in Mesopotamia the heat is so intense that every precaution
Fie. 10. — Bas-relief of group of buildings at Kuyunjik.
(After Layard.)
has to be taken to protect the inmates of the house or palace. Thick
walls and vaults were a necessity in Nineveh, and even the windows
or openings must have been of small dimension*. No windows have
been found, nor arc any shown on the bas-reliefs, except on the
upper parts of towers. It is possible therefore that the light was
admitted through tcrra-cotta pipes or cylinders, of which many were
found on the site, and this is the modern system of lighting the dome
in the East. Although no remains have ever been found of domes
in any of the Assyrian palaces, the representation of many domical
376
ARCHITECTURE
(PERSIAN
forms is given in a bas-relief found at Kuyunjik (fig. 10), suggesting
that the dome was often employed to roof over their halls.
Reference has already been made to the Ins-reliefs which decorated
the lower portion of the great halls; the lew important rooms had
their walls covered with stucco and painted. Externally the archi-
tectural dece ration was of the simplest kind; the lower portion of
the walls was faced with stone; and the monumental portals, in
addition to the winged bulls which flanked them, had deep archivolts
in coloured enamels on glazed brick, with figures and rosettes in
bright colours. A similar decoration would seem to have been
applied to the crenellated battlements, which crowned all the
exterior walls, as also those of the courts. The buttresses inside the
courts, and the towers which flanked the chief entrance, were
decorated with vertical semicircular mouldings of brick. This
system of decoration is also found in the ziggurats or observatories
behind the harem, where the three lower storeys still exist. A
winding ramp was carried round this tower, the storeys or which
were set back one behind the other, the burnt brick paving of the
human-headed bulls which flank the portals of the propylaea. From
Media it would seem to have derived the great halls of columns and
the porticoes of the palaces, so dearly described by Polybius (x. 34)
as existing at Ecbatana; the principal difference being that the
columns of the stoas and peristyle, which there consisted of cedar
and cypress covered with silver plates, were in the Persian palaces
built 01 stone. The ephemeral nature of the one material, and the
intrinsic value of the other, arc sufficient to account for their entire
disappearance; but as Ecbatana was occupied by Darius and
Xerxes as one of their principal cities, the stone column, bases and
capitals, which still exist there, may be regarded as part of the
restoration and rebuilding of the palace; and as they are similar to
those found at Perscpolis and Susa, it is fair to assume that the source
of the first inspiration of Persian architecture came from the Medians,
especially as Cyrus, the first king, was brought up at the court of
Astyages, the last Median monarch.
The earliest Persian palace, of which but scanty remains have
been found, was built at Pasargadac by Cyrus. There is r^- — *
Reference
A. The Great Staircase
fi. Propylon
C. TheGreat Palace of Xerxes
D. Palace of Dariu*
E. Palace of Xerxes.
F. Second Propylon
G. Palace of 100 column*
H. Small Palace
^
Scale of Pert
ramp and the crenellated battlements forming a parapet, portions
of which are still in sittt.
Although not unknown in cither Chaldaea or Assyria, the stone
column, according to Pcrrot ami Chipicz, found no place in thobc
structures of cru<tc brick of which the rcnl architecture of Mesopo-
tamia consisted. Only one example in stone, in which the shaft and
capital together are 3 ft. 4 in. in height, has been lound. Two ba&cs
of similar design to the capital arc supposed to have supported
wooden columns carrying an awning. There are representations in
the ba» reliefs of kiosks in a garden, the columns in which, with
volute capitals, are supposed to have been ol wood sheathed in
metal, and on the bronze band* of the Bjlawat gates in the British
Muwum are representations of the interior of a house with wood
columns and bracket capitals, and several awnings carried by posts.
Small windows are shown in some of the bavrvliefa, with
balustrades of small columns, which were doubtless copied from
the ivory plaques found at Nimrud and now in the British
Museum. (R.P.S.)
Persian Architecture
The origin of Persian architecture must be sought for in that of the
two earlier dynamics,— the Assyrian and Median, to whose empire
the Persian monarchy succeeded by conquest in 560 B.C. From the
former, it borrowed the raised platform on which their palaces were
built, the broad flights of steps leading up to them ana the winged
however, to show that it was of the simplest kind, and consisted of a
central hall, the roof of which was carried by two rows of stone
columns, 30 ft. high, and porticoes in anlit on two if not on three
sides.
The great platform, also at Pasargadae, known as the Takht-t-
Sulciman, or throne of Solomon, covered an area of about 40.000
sq. ft., and is remarkable for the beauty of its masonry and the large
stones of which it is built. These arc all sunk round the edge, being
the earliest example of what is known as "drafted masonry." which
at Jerusalem and Hebron gives so magnificent an effect to the great
walls of the temple enclosures. No remains have ever been traced
on this platform of the palace which it was probably built to support.
We pass on therefore to Perscpolis, the most important of the
Persian cities, if we may judge by the remains still existing there.
Here, as at Pasargadae. builders availed themselves of a natural
rocky platform, at the foot of a range of hills, which they raised in
parts and enclosed with a stone wall. Here the masonry is not
drafted, and the stones arc not always laid in horizontal courses,
but they are shaped and fitted to one another with the greatest
accuracy, and arc secured by metal clamps. The plan (tig. it)
shows the general configuration of the platform on which the palaces
of Perscpolis arc built, which covered an area of about 1,600,000
sq. ft. The principal approach to it was at the north-west end. up
a magnificent flight of steps (A) with a double ramp, the steps beina
1 22 ft. wide, with a tread of 15 in. and a rise of 4, so that they could hf
PERSIAN]
ARCHITECTURE
377
[ by horses. The first building opposite this staircase was
the entrance gateway or propylaea (B), a square haU, with four
columns carrying the roof and with portals in the front and rear
Banked by winged bulls. The earliest palace on the platform (D)
is that which was built by Darius, 521 b.c. It was rectangular on
plan, raised on a platform approached by two flights of steps, and
consisted of an entrance portico of eight columns, in two rows of
four placed in antis, between square chambers, in which were prob-
ably staircases leading to the roof . This portico led to the great hall,
square on jtlan, whose roof was carried by sixteen columns in four
rows. This hall was lighted by two windows on each side of the
central doorway, all of which, being in stone, still exist, the lintels
and jambs of both doors and windows being monolithic The walls
b e tween these features, having been built in unburnt brick, or in
rubble masonry, with clay mortar, have long since disappeared.
There were other rooms on each side of the hall and an open court in
the rear. The bases of the columns of the portico still remain in situ,
as also one of the antac in solid masonry; and as these in their
relative position and height are in exact accordance with those
Fig. 12.— The Tomb of Darius, cut in the cliff at Kakshi Rustam,
rep r es e nt ed on the tomb of Darius (fig. 12) and other tombs carved
in the rock near Persepolis (9.0*.), there is no difficulty in forming a
fairly accurate conjectural restoration of the same, fn the repre-
sentation of this palace, as shown on the tomb, and above the portico,
has been sculptured the great throne of Darius, on which he sat,
rendering adoration to the Sun god.
All the other palaces on the site, built or added to by various
nonarchs and at different periods, preserve very much the same
plan, consisting always of a great square hall, the roof of which was
earned by columns, with one or more porticoes round, and smaller
rooms and courts In the rear. In one of the palaces (G) the roof was
carried by 100 columns in ten rows of ten each. The most important
building, however, and one which from its extent, height and magnifi-
ers**, is one of the most stupendous works of antiquity, is the great
palace of Xerxes (C), which, though it consists only of a great central
hall and three porticoes, covered an area of over 100,000 sq. ft.,
greater than any European cathedral, those of Milan and St Peter's
at Rome alone excepted.
It was built on a platform raised 10 ft. above the terrace and
approached by four flights of steps on the north side, the principal
entrance The columns of the porticoes and of the great hall were
6$ ft- high, including base and capital. In the east and west porticoes
the capitals consist only of the double bull or griffin; the cross
corbels on their backs, similar to those shown on the tomb of Darius,
have disappeared, being probably in wood. In the north or entrance
portico, and in the great hall, the capitals are of a much more
elaborated nature, as under the double capital was a composition of
Ionic capitals set on end, and below that the calix and pendant leaves
of the lotus plant. It can only be supposed that Xerxes, thinking the
columns of the east portico required more decoration, instructed his
architects to add some to those of the entrance portico and hall, and
that they copied some of the spoils .brought from Branchidae and
others from 1 Egypt.
Fie. it shows the plan of the palace according to the researches
of Mr Weld Blundell. who found the traces of the walls surrounding
the great hall and of the square chambers at the angles, and also
proved that the lines of the drains as shown in Coste's and Texier's
plans were incorrect. M. Dieulafoy also traced the existence of
walls enclosing the Apadana at Susa from the paving of the hall and
the portico which stopped on the lines of the wall. The plan of
From R. P SnWi AnUkdmn. Eatt —d Wat.
Fie. 13.— Plan of the Hall of Xerxes.
the palace at Susa was similar to that of the palace of Xerxes,
except that on the side facing the garden facing south the apadana
or throne room was left open. M. Dieulafoy 'a discoveries at Susa
of the frieze of archers, the frieze of the lions, and other decorations
of the walls flanking the staircase, all executed in bright coloured
enamels on concrete blocks, revealed the exceptional beauty of the
decoration both externally and internally applied to the Persian
palaces.
The only other monumental works of Persian architecture are the
tombs; to those cut in the solid rock, of which there are some
examples, we have already referred. The most ancient tomb is that
erected to Cyrus the Elder at Pasargadae, and consists of a small
shrine or cella in masonry raised on a series of steps, inspired (accord-
ing to Fergusson) by the ziggurat or terrace-temples of Assyria,
but on a small scale. The tomb was surrounded on three sides by
porticoes of columns. There are two other tombs, one at Persepolis
and one at Pasargadae — small square towers with an entrance
opening high up on one side, sunk panels in the stone, and a dentil
co r n ic e , copied from early Ionian buildings. (R. P. S.)
GlBIC AlCHITECTUE*
Prehistoric Period. — We have now to retrace our steps and go
back to the prehistoric period of Greek architecture, to the origin
and early development of that style which sowed the seed and deter-
mined tne future form and growth of all subsequent European art.
The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek
architecture owes much less than was at one time supposed to
Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture; and although from very
early times there may have been a commercial exchange between the
several countries, tne objects imported suggested only new and
various schemes of decorative design, and exercised no influence on
the development of architectural style. The remains of the palace at
Cnossus in Crete, together with the representations in fresco painting
and other decorative objects, show that whilst the lower part of the
walls under the level of the ground and up to a height of 5 ft. above
were all built in well-worked masonry, the upper portions were con-
structed in unburnt brick with timber framing, which not only gave
strength and solidity to the walls, but carried the cross beams and
timbers of intermediate floors and the roof, and further, that the walls
were always vertical, which was not the case in Egypt or Chaldaea.
The principal remains discovered by Dr Arthur J. Evans (see
Crete) arc described by him as belonging to the later Minoan
age, from which it may be inferred they are the result of some
378
ARCHITECTURE
{GREEK
centuries of previous development. What, however, is most remark-
able is the admirable planning of the whole palace* the bringing
together, under one root and in proper and regular intercommunica-
tion, of the numerous services, which in a palace are somewhat
complicated. The palace measured about 400 ft. square, and was
built round an open court, nearly aoo ft. long by 90 ft. wide ; as the
same arrangement was found at Phaestus, excavated by the Italian
archaeologists, it may be assumed to have been the Cretan plan.
It was built on the crest of a hill, and in the western or highest portion
was the court entrance from the agora to the megaron or throne-
room, and the halls of the officers of the state. In the lower portion
facing the east (the rooms in which were two storeys below the level
of the court on account of the slope of the hill) was the private suite
of apartments of the king and queen. All the services of the palace
were at the north end of the palace, where the entrance gateway
to the central court was situated. This northern entrance, Dr
Evans points out, " represents the main point of intercourse
between the palace and the city on the one hand and the port on the
other." This is the only part of the palace in which there is evidence
of some land of fortification, as the road of access is dominated by a
tower or bastion. Other provisions also in the plan of the western
entrance suggest that its passage was guarded to some extent. In
this respect the palace of Tiryns, excavated by Dr Scbliemann,
presents an entirely different aspect; the whole stronghold bears a
singular resemblance to a fortified castle of the middle ages- *
high wall from 24 to 50 ft. thick surrounded the acropolis, and the
inclined paths of approach and the double gateways gave that
protection at Tiryns which at Cnossus was assured, as Dr Evans
remarks, by the bulwarks of the Minoan navy. The area on the spur
of the hill, on which the citadel of Tiryns was placed, was very much
smaller, but If we accept the forecourt at Tiryns as equivalent to
the great central court at Cnossus, there arc great similarities in
the plans of the two palaces. The propylaca, the altar court, the
portico, and the megaron arc found in both, and those details which
are missing in the one are found in the other. The discoveries at
Cnossus have enabled Dr Evans to reconstitute the timber columns,
of which the bases only were found at Tiryns, and the spur walls of
the portico of the megaron and the sills of the doorways at Tiryns
give some clue to the restoration of similar features at Cnossus;
and if in the latter palace we find the origin of the Doric column, at
Tiryns is found that of the antae and of the door linings, further
substantiated by the careful analysis made by Dr DorpfekJ of the
Heraeum at Olympia.
The reconstruction by Dr Evans of the timber columns at Cnossus,
which tapered from the top downwards, the lower diameter being
about six-sevenths of the upper, has little historical importance (see
Ordbr), so that we may now pass on to the next early monument
of importance, the tomb of Agamemnon, the principal and the best
preserved of the beehive tombs found at Mycenae and in other parts
of Greece. This tomb consists of three parts, the dromes or open
entrance passage, the tkohs or circular portion domed over, and a
smaller chamber excavated in the rock and entered from the larger
one. The tomb was subterranean, the masonry being concealed
beneath a large mound of earth. The domed part, 48 ft. 6 in. in
diameter and 45 ft. high, is built' in horizontal courses of stone,
which project one over the other till they meet at the top. Subsc-
aucntly the projecting edges were dressed down, so that the section
irough the dome is nearly that of an equilateral triangle. Notwith-
standing the great thickness of the lintel (3 ft.) over the entrance
doorway, the Myccnaeans left a triangular void over, to take off the
superincumbent weight, subsequently (it is supposed) filled with
sculpture, as in the Lions' Gate at Mycenae. The doorway was
flanked by semi-detached columns 30 ft. high, the shafts of which
tapered downwards like those reconstituted at Cnossus; the shafts
rested on a base of three steps, and carried a capital with echinus
and abacus. These shafts carried a lintel which has now dis-
appeared ; the wall above was set back, and was at one time faced
with stone slabs carved with spiral and other patterns, of which there
are fragments in various museums, the most important remains being
those of the shafts, of which the greater part, which was brought
over to England in the beginning of the 19th century by the 2nd
marquess of SI i go, was presented by the 5th marquess to the British
Museum in 1905. These shafts, as also the echinus moulding of the
capitals, are richly carved with the chevron and spirals, probably
copied from the brass sheathing, of wood columns and doorways
referred to by Homer.
Th* Archaic Period.— The buildings just referred to belong to
what is known as the prehistoric age in Greece ; the dispersion of the
tribes by invaders from the north about 1100 B.C. destroyed the
Mycenaean civilization, and some centuries have to pass before we
reach the results of the new development. Among the invaders the
Dorians would seem to have been the chief leaders, who eventually
became supreme. They brought with them from Olympus the
worship of Apollo, so that henceforth the sanctuary of the god takes
the place of the megaron of the king. From Greece the Dorians
spread their colonies through the Greek islands and southern Italy.
Later they passed on to Sicily and founded Syracuse, and subse-
quently Selinus and Agrigentum (Acragas). The prosperity of all
these colonies is shown in the splendid temples which they built in
stone, the remains of many of which have lasted to our day.
The earliest Greek temple of which remains have been discovered 1
is that of the Heraeum at Olympia, ascribed to about 1000 ».c.
Its plan (fig. 14) shows that the enclosure of the sanctuary and its
porticoes in a peristyle had already been found necessary, if only to
protect the walls of the cells, built in unburnt brick on a stone
plinth ; further, that the antae of the portico and the dressings of
the entrance were in wood; and, following Pausanias' statement
relative to the wood column in the opisthodomos, all the columns
of the peristyle were in that material, gradually replaced by stone
columns as they decayed, evidenced by the character of their capitals,
which in style date from the 6th century B.C. to Roman times. The
ephemeral nature of the
materials employed in this
and other early temples,
and the risk of fire, must
have naturally led to the
desire to render the Greek
sanctuaries more perman-
ent by the employment
of stone. But the Greeks
were always timid as
regards the bearing value
of that material, and would
seem to have imagined
that unless the blocks were
of megalithic dimensions
it was impossible to build
in stone. This may be
gathered from the remains
of the earliest example
found, the temple of Apollo
in the island of Ortygia,
Syracuse, where the mono-
lith columns had widely
projecting capitals, the
abaci of which were set
so close together that the
intercolumniation was less
than one diameter of the
column.
Following the temple of
Apollo at Syracuse is the
temple of Corinth, ascribed -
to 650 B.C., of which seven
columns remain in siiu, all
monoliths, and the Olym-
pieum at Syracuse. Ncarlye
contemporary with thief
latter is one of the temples!
at Selinus in Sicily, 6ao"
B.C., remarkable for the
archaic nature of its sculp-
tured metopes. Of later
date there are five or six
other temples in Selinus,
all overthrown by earth-
quakes; the temple of
Athena at Syracuse, which
having been converted Jfow Gmjm, pad Adkrt Qtys*. by »»■■■ 1 m
into a church is in fair pre- cIBesnodiiGa.
servation; an unfinished Fig. 14.— Plan of the Heraeum.
temple at Segesta, and A, Peristyle; B, Pronaos; C, Naos;
six at Agrigentum, built D, Opisthodomus; E, Base of statue
on the brow of a hill facing of Hermes,
the sea, one of which was
so large that it was necessary to build in walls between the columns.
In Magna Graecia, in the acropolis at Tarentum, are the remains
of a 7th century temple and three at Paestum about a century
later in date. In one of these, the temple of Poseidon (figs. 15 and to)
the columns which carried the ceiling and roof over the cells are still
standing; these are in two stages superimposed with an architrave
between them, and although there are no traces in this instance of a
gallery, they serve to render more intelligible Pausanias* description
of that which existed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia.
The temple of Assus in Asia Minor is an early example remarkable
for its sculptured architrave, the only one known, and in the temple
of Aphaea in Acgina fa.r.) we find the immediate predecessor of the
Parthenon, if we may judge by its sculpture and the proportions of
its columns.
So far we have only referred to the early temples of the Doric
order; of the origin and development of those of the Ionic order
far less b known. The earliest examples are those of the temple of
Apollo at Naucratis in Egypt, and of the archaic temple of Diana
at Ephesus, both about 560 B.C. The remains of the latter, dis-
covered by Wood, are now in the British Museum; they consist of
two capitals, one with a portion of a shaft in good preservation:
the sculptured drum and the base of one of the columns, inscribed
with the name of Croesus, who is known to have contributed to it:
1 T
/■»*»»»
* Except, possibly, the earliest of those at Sparta (g.e.).— Ed.
GREEK)
two other bam, and the cornice or cymatium. The treasury of the
Ciudians at Delphi was Ionic, judging by the carved ornament en-
riching the cornice and architraves, and in the Naxian votive column
we have another early example of an early volated capital.
The tombs of Tantalais, near Smyrna, and of Aryattes, near Sardis,
belong to the same date as those we shall find in Etruria. The
Harpy tomb, now in the British Museum, built after 547 B.C., is the
predecessor of many other Lycian tombs of the 5th and 4th centuries,
to which we return.
As already pointed out, in the temple of Hera at Olympia (roth
century b.c), we find the complete plan of an hexastyle peripteral
Creek temple, where columns originally in wood supported a wood
architrave and superstructure protected by terra-cotta plaques and
roofed over with tiles. The temple of Apollo at Syracuse, and the
temple at Corinth (7th century b.c.) represent the earliest examples
ia stone, and in the temple of Poseidon at Paestum (6th century)
are preserved the columns of the cella which carried the ceiling and
^_____ roof. The structural development
therefore of the temple was com-
pleted, and no great constructional
improvements reveal themselves
after 550 b.c. The next century
would seem to have been chiefly
directed to the beautifying and
refining of the features already
prescribed, and it was the tradi-
tional respect for, and the con-
ARCHITECTURE
379
a servative adherence to, the older
*] type, which led the architects to
the production of such master-
pieces as the Parthenon and the
<8 Ercchtheum, which would have
|L been impossible but for the careful
>• and logical progression of pre-
3g, ceding centuries.
J The Parthenon (q.v.) at Athens
0« represents the highest type of
g perfection, not only in its con-
ception but in its realization. It
2 is only necessary here to give a
general description. It was
^ designed by Ictinus in collabora-
tion with Callicrates, and built
on the south side of the Acropolis
on a foundation carried down to
the solid rock. The temple, com-
menced in 454 B.C. and completed
in 438 B.C., was of the Doric order
and raised on a stylobatc of three
steps; it had eight columns in
front and rear and was surrounded
Fia. 15. — Plan of the Temple of by a peristyle, there being twenty
Poseidon at Paestum. columns on the flanks. It con-
tained two divisions; the eastern
chamber was originally known as the Hekatompedos (temple
of 100 ft.), that being the dimension of the cella of the ancient
temple which it was built to replace. The chamber on the western
side was called the Parthenon (»-«. chamber of the virgin).
AD the principal liiws of the building had delicate curves. The
entablature rose about 3 in. in the middle to correct an .optical
illusion caused by the sloping lines of the pediment, which gave to
the horizontal cornice the appearance of having sunk in the centre.
The stylobate had therefore to be similarly curved so that the
columns should be all of the same height. The columns are not all
equidistant, those nearer the angle being closer together than the
others, which gave a greater appearance of strength to the temple;
this was increased by a slight inclination inwards of all the columns.
In order to correct another optical illusion, which causes the shaft of
a column, when it diminishes as it rises, and is formed with absolute
straight lines, to appear hollow or concave, an increment known as
the entasis was given to the column, about one-third up the shaft.
The columns were not monoliths, like those of the earliest stone
temples mentioned above; they were built in several drums, so
closely fitted together that the joint would be imperceptible but for
the aught discoloration of the marble. The setting of the lowest
dram of these columns on the curved stylobate, with the slight
inclination of the column, must have been a work of an extra-
ordinary nature, only possible with such a material as Pentelic
marble. The cells or naos was built to enshrine the chryselephantine
statue of Athena by Pheidias. In order to carry the ceiling and roof
there- was a range of columns on each side of the cella returning
round the end. These columns probably carried an upper range as
ia the temple of Poseidon at Paestum. The tympana of the two
pediment s and all the metopes were enriched with the finest sculpture,
and were realised, designed, and executed by Pheidias and his pupils.
On the upper part of the ceMa wall and under the peristyle was the
Panathenalc frieze, of which, as also of the other sculptures, the
British Museum possesses the finest examples.
The Pi o ci yla ea (•.».), designed by Mnesiclesand built 437-43* B c -'
was the only entrance to the Acropolis. It was of the Doric order,
and consisted of a portico of sue columns, the two centre ones being
wider apart, to allow of the road through, up which the chariots and
beasts for sacrifices ascended. The columns carrying the marble
ceiling of the vestibule were of the Ionic order; beyond them the
wall was pierced by three doorways, and on the other side and facing
east was another portico of six columns. The front entrance was
flanked on the left hand by a chamber known as the Pinacothcca,
and on the right by a chamber intended probably to be a replica
but subsequently curtailed in size in consequence of the proximity
of another temple.
( The Erechthcum on the north side of the Acropolis occupied the
site of three older shrines, which may account for its irregular plan*
The eastern portion was the temple of Athena Polias, with a portico
of six columns of the Ionic order. At a lower level on the north side
was a portico of six columns (four in front and two at the sides)
leading to the shrine of Erechtheus; the west front of this shrine
had originally a frontispiece of four columns in antis raised on a
podium; subsequently during the Roman occupation these columns
were taken down and reproduced as semi-detached columns with
windows between. On the west side was a court in which was the
olive tree and the shrine of Pandrosus (Pandroseion). At the south-
west angle was the well-known portico or tribune of the Caryatides.
There was a small entrance through the podium at the side, and
stairs leading down to the shrine of Erechtheus.
The only other building remaining on the Acropolis is the temple
of Nike Apteros, raised on a lofty substructure south-west of the
propylaea. It also was of the Ionic order, and belonged to the type
known as " amphiprostyle," with a portico of four columns in the
From a photo by BrogL
Fig. 16.— Temple of Poseidon at Paestum.
front and rear but no peristyle. The term " apteros " applied to the
temple and not to the goddess of victory.
In 430 B.C., shortly after the completion of the Parthenon, Ictinus
was employed to design the temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae,
in Arcadia. This temple externally was of the Doric order, but,
being built in local stone, no attempt was made to introduce those
refinements which are found in the Parthenon. In the rear of the
cella is a second sanctuary with a doorway facing east; it was
probably the site of an ancient temple which had to be preserved,
and this may account for the fact that the temple runs north and
south. The cella is flanked by five columns of the Ionic order
which are connected by spur walls to the cella walL These columns
carry an architrave, frieze richly sculptured with figure subjects,
cornice and wall above rising to the roof. There was no ceiling
therefore, and the interior was probably lighted through pierced
Parian marble tiles, of which three examples were found. The
Corinthian capital found on the site is supposed by Cockerell to have
belonged to the shaft between the two cellas.
The same architect, Ictinus,' was employed in 430 B.C. to rebuild
the hall of the mysteries at Eleusis on a larger scale. The hall was
185 ft. square, and its ceiling and roof were carried by seven rows
of columns with six in each row. The propylaea, which gave access
to the sacred enclosure at Eleusis, was copied from the propylaea
at Athens. The so-called lesser propylaea had some connexion with
the mysteries.
The temple of Zeus at Olympia had much in common with the
Parthenon, being nearly contemporaneous, built to enshrine a second
chryselephantine statue by Pheidias, and in plan having a similar
arrangement of columns inside the cella ; the lower range of columns
(according to Pausaalas) supported a gallery round, so that privileged
visitors could approach nearer to the statue. The temple, however,
was built in the local conglomerate stone covered with a thin coat of
stucco and painted.
Of circular temples there are two examples known, the Philippeion
at Olympia and the Tholos at Epidaurus. The latter had, inside
the cella, a peristyle of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which
are of great beauty and represent in their design the transition
38o
ARCHITECTURE
between those of the monument of Lysicrates and the temple of
Zeus Olympius at Athens.
■ In the sacred enclosures of the Greek sanctuaries were other
•mailer temples or shrines, altars, statues and treasuries, the latter
being built by the various cities, from which pilgrimages were made,
to contain their treasures. At Olympia there were ten or eleven,
the remains of some of which are of great interest. Of the treasury
of the Cnidians at Delphi, discovered by the French, so much has
been found that it has been possible to evolve a complete conjectural
restoration in plaster, now in the Louvre. Its sculpture and the rich
carving of its architectural features show that it was Ionian in
character. In front was a portico- in-antis, in which the caryatide
figures standing on pedestals took the place of columns. These are
the earliest examples known of caryatide figures, and they precede
those of the Erechtheum by about a century.
The most important temple in Asia Minor was the temple of Diana
(Artemis) at Ephesus (£56-334 B.c). The archaic temple was burnt
in 356, and was immediately rebuilt with greater splendour from the
designs of Paeonius. The site of the temple was discovered by Wood
in i860, and the remains brought over to the British Museum in
1875. There were 100 columns, 36 of which (according to Pliny)
were sculptured, and it was probably on account of the magnificence
of the sculpture that this temple was included among the seven
wonders of the world. The sculptured bases are of two kinds,
square and circular, in the latter case being the lower drums of the
columns. Examples of both are in the British Museum, and several
Fig. 17.— Lycian Tomb of Telmeuus.
conjectural restorations have been made, among which that of Dr
A. 5. Murray has been generally accepted, but recent researches
(1005) suggest that it remains still an unsolved problem.
The temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus, was the largest
temple in Asia Minor, and its erection followed that of the temple
at Ephesus, Paeonius and Daphnis of Miletus being the architects.
""- -....-*..... 1 y^buu
it remained
.- iaborately carved
with ornament, as if in rivalry with the temple of Diana. Both these
temples were of the Ionic order, as also wefe those of Athena Polias
at Priene (340 B.C.), many of the capitals of which are in the British
Museum, and the temples of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias and Cybele at
Sardis.
The mausoleum at Halicarnassus, also of the Ionic order, built by
Queen Artemisia in memory of her husband Mausolus, who died in
353 ".a, was, according to Pliny, recorded as one of the seven wonders
of the world, probably on account of the eminence of the sculptors
employed, Bryaxis, Leochares, Timotheus, Soopas and Pythius.
Pliny's description is somewhat vague, so that its actual design is
a problem not yet solved. Professor Cockerell's restoration is in
accord with the description, but does not quite agree with the actual
remains brought over by Newton and deposited in the British
Museum. If the Nereid monument and the tombs at Cnidus and
Mylasa be taken as suggesting the design, the peristyle (pteron) of
thirty-six columns of the Ionic order with entablature stood on a
lofty podium, richly decorated with bands of sculpture, and was
crowned by a pyramid which, according to Pliny, " contracted itself
by twenty-four steps into the summit of a meta." The steps found
art not high enough to constitute a meta. and it is possible therefore
that, according to Mr J. J. Stevenson, these steps were over the
peristyle only, and that the lofty ateps which constituted the meta
(PARTHIAN
were in the centre, carried by the inner row of columns. The
magnificent sculpture of the Macedonian period has in recent time*
been demonstrated by the discovery of the marble sarcophagi found
at Sidon by Hamdi Bey and now in the museum at Constantinople.
The Lycian tombs, of which there are many hundreds carved in
the rock in the south of Asia Minor, are copies of timber structures,
based on the stone architecture of the neighbouring Greek cities
(fig. 17). The Paiafaor Payava tomb (375-363 B.c.),foundatXanthus
and now in the British Museum, is apparently a copy, cut in the solid
rock, of a portable shrine, in which the wood construction is clearly
defined.
Capitals of the Greek Corinthian order have been found at Bassae.
Epidaurus, Olympia and Miletus, but the earliest example of the
complete order is represented in the Choragic monument of Lysicratcs
at Athens. .
The most important example of the Greek Corinthian order is
that of the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, begun in 174 B.C..
but not completed till the time of Hadrian, a.d. i 17. The temple
was 135 ft. wide and 354 ft. long, built entirely in Pentelic marble,
the columns being 56 ft. high. There were eight columns in front
and a double peristyle round.
The two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens (c 75 B.C.)
had Corinthian capitals. The upper part of the tower, which was
octagonal in plan, was sculptured with figures representing the winds.
The Greek houses discovered at Ddosand Priene were very simple
and unpretentious, but the palace near Palatitxa in Macedonia,
discovered by Messrs Heuzey and Da timet, would seem to have
been of a very sumptuous character. The front of the palace
measured 350 it. In the centre was a vestibule flanked with Ionic
columns on either side, leading to a throne room at one time richly
decorated with marble, and with numerous other halls on either side.
The date is ascribed to the middle of the 4th century B.C.
In selecting the sites for their theatres, the Greeks always utilized
the slope of a hill, in which they could cut out the cavea, and thus
save the expense of raising a structure to carry the seats, at the
same time obtaining a beautiful prospect for the background. The
theatre of Dionysus at Athens was discovered and excavated in
1864, and has fortunately preserved all the scats round the orchestra,
sixty-seven in number, all in Pentelic marble, with the names
inscribed thereon of the priests and dignitaries who occupied them.
The largest theatre was at Megalopolis, with an auditorium 474 ft.
in diameter. The most perfect, so far as the seats are concerned,
is the theatre at Epidaurus. with a diameter of 415 ft Other theatres
are known at Dodona in Greece, Pergamum and Tralles in Asia
Minor, and Syracuse and Scgesta in Sicdy. (R.P.S.)
Pabthian Abchitsctubk
The architecture of the Parthian dvnasty, who from 250 bc. to
A.D. 226 occupied the greater part of Mesopotamia, their empire in
160 B.C. extending over 480,000 sq. m., was quite unknown until
Sir A. H. La yard" following in the steps of Ross and Ainsworth.
visited and measured the plan of the palace at Hatra (el Hadr)
about 30 m. south of Mosul; the architecture of this palace shows
that, on the one hand, the Parthians carried on the traditions
of the barrel vault of the Assyrian palace, and on the other, from
their contact with Hellenistic methods of building, had acquired
considerable knowledge in the working of ashlar masonry.
El Hadr is first mentioned in history as having been unsuccessfully
besieged by Trajan in a.d. 116, and it is recorded to have been a
walled town containing a temple of the sun, celebrated for the value
of its offerings. The temple
referred to is probably the large «
square building at the back of
the palace, as above the door-
way is a rich frieze carved with __3»
griffins, similar to those found at =r
Warka by Loftus, together with "■
large quantities of Parthian -a
coins. The remains (fig. 18) b\
consist of a block of 380 ft. [;]
frontage, facing east, and 128 ft. • 4 J
deep, subdivided by walls of' **
great thickness, running at right
angles to the main front, and r
built in an immense court, f
divided down the centre by a FlG. 18.— Plan of Palace ot
walL separating that portion on el Hadr.
the south side, where the temple A( Throne w reception room.
was situated, from that on the 3 Large hall or
north side, which constituted C | En tJancc hall of temple,
the kings palace. The seven d Temple,
subdivisions of the different ' ^"
widths were all covered with semi-circular barrel vaults which,
being built side by side, mutually resisted the thrust, the outer walla
being of greater thickness, with the same object. In the centre of the
south block was an immense hall 49 ft. wide and 98 ft deep, which
formed the vestibule to the temple in the rear; this vestibule was
flanked by a scries of three smaller halls on either side, over which
there was probably a second floor. On the palace or north aide were
SASSANIAN)
ARCHITECTURE
381
two great aiwans or reception halts. The main front (fig. 19) was
built in finely jointed ashlar masonry with semicircular attached
shafts between the entrance doorways, which had semicircular heads,
every third voussoir of the three larger doors being decorated by
basts in strong relief with a headgear similar to that shown on
Parthian coins ; other carvings, with the acanthus leaf, belonged to
that type of Syrio-Greek work, of which Loftus found so many
y > 9 v v » * 9
Fig. 19.— Portion of front of Palace' of el Hadr.
examples at Warka (Loftus, Ckoldaea, Susiana, p. 22$). In the great
mosque of Diarbekr are two wings at the north and south ends
respectively, which are said to have been Parthian palaces built by
Tigrancs. 74 B.C. ; they have evidently been rearranged or rebuilt
at various times, the columns with their capitals and the entablature
having been utilized again. The shafts of the columns of the upper
storey are richly carved with geometrical patterns similar to those
found by Loftus at Warka.
The American researches at Nippur have resulted in the discovery
on the top of the mounds of the remains of a Parthian palace; and
the disposition of its plan (fig. 20), and the style of the columns of
Fran Trot. H. V. Hflnccki't Rsfbratim m BOU Umds, 1
A. J. Unlaw * Co. «xi T. & T. Clark.
Fig. 20.— Plan of the Parthian Palace at Nippur.
the peristylar court, show so strong a resemblance to Greek work
as to suggest the same Hellenistic influence as in the palace of el
Hadr. Having no stone, however, they were obliged to build up
these columns at Nippur with sections in brick, covered afterwards
with stucco. The columns diminished at the top to about one-fifth
of the lower diameter, and would seem to have had an entasis, as the
lower portion up to one-third of the height is nearly vertical. A
similar palace was discovered at Tello by the French archaeo-
logists, and -the bases of some of the brick columns are in the
Lome, (R. P. S.)
Sassanian Architecture
Although, on the overthrow of the Parthian dynasty in a.d. 226,
the monarchs of the Sassanian dynasty succeeded to the immense
Parthian empire, the earliest building found, according to Fergusson,
is that at Serbistan. to which he ascribes the date a.d. 380. The
palace (fig. 21), which measures 130 ft. frontage and 143 ft. deep,
with an internal court, shows so great an advance in the arrange-
saents of its plan as to suggest considerable acquaintance with
Roman work. The fine ashlar work of el-Hadr Is no longer adhered
to, and in its place we find rubble masonry with thick mortar joints,
the walls being covered afterwards, both externally and internally,
with stucco. While the barrel vault is still retained for the chief
entrance porches, it b of elliptical section, and the central hall is
covered with a dome, a feature probably handed down from the
Assyrians, such as is shown in the bas-relief (fig. 10) from Kuyunjik,
now in the British Museum. In order to carry a dome, circular on
plan, over a square hall, it was necessary to arch across the angles,
and hare to a certain extent the Sassaniant were at fault, as they
did not know how to build pendentives, and the construction of these
are of the most intfgular kind. As, however, their mortar had
excellent tenacious properties, these pendentives still remain in situ
(fig. 22), and their defects were probably hidden under the stucco.
In the halls which flank the building on either side, however, they
displayed considerable knowledge of construction. Instead of having
enormously thick walls to resist the thrust of their vaults, to which
we have already drawn attention in the Assyrian work and at el
Hadr, they built piers at intervals, covering over the spaces between
them, with semi-domes on which the walls carrying the vaults are
supported, so that they lessened the span of the vault and brought
the thrust well within the wall.
This, however, lessened the width
of the hall, so they replaced the
lower portions of the piers by the
columns, leaving a passage round.
It is possible that this idea was
partly derived from the great
Roman halls of the thermae
(baths), where the vault is
brought forward on columns;
but it was an improvement to
leave a passage behind. The
elliptical sections given to all the
barrel vaults' may nave been the
traditional method derived from
Assyria, of which, however, no
remains exist. In the article
Vault there will be f oundareason
Plan.
Section in lines BC, DE, FG of plan.
Fie. 21 and Fie. 22.— The Palace of Serbistan.
why these elliptical sections were adopted (see also below in the
description ol the great hall at Ctesiphon). In the palace of
Firuzabad, attributed by Fergusson to Perfiz (Firuz) (a.d. 459-
485), the plan (fig. 23) follows more closely the disposition 01 the
Assyrian palaces, and we return again to the thick walls, which
might incline us to give a later oate to Serbistan, except that
in the pendentives carrying the three great domes in the centre
of the palace at Firuzabad they show greater knowledge
in their construction. The angles of the square hall are vaulted,
with a series of concentric arches, each ring as it rises being brought
forward, the object being to save centreing, because each ring rested
on the ring beneath it. The plan is a rectangular parallelogram
with a frontage of 180 ft. and a depth of 333 ft-, more than double,
therefore, of the size of Serbistan.
An immense entrance hall in the
centre of the main front is flanked
on each side by two halls placed at
right angles to it, so as to resist the
thrust of the elliptical barrel vaults
of the entrance hall. This hall leads
to a series of three square halls, side
by side, each surmounted by a dome
carried on pendentives. Beyond is an
open court, the smaller rooms round
ail covered with barrel vaults. Here,
as in Serbistan, the material employed
is rubble masonry with thick joints of
mortar, and fortunately portions of
the stucco with which this Sassanian
masonry was covered remain both
externally and internally. As there arc
no windows of any sort, the wall „ . . _ ,
surface of the exterior has been FlC.23.— Planof thePalace
decorated with semi - circular at- At Firuzabad.
tached shafts and panelling between,
which recall the primitive decorations found in the early Chaldaean
temples, except that arches are carried at the top across the sunk
panels. Internally an attempt has been made to copy the decoration
of the Persian doorway, wnich represents a kind of renaissance of
the ancient style. But instead of the linttl the arch has been intro-
duced, and the ornament in stucco representing the Persian cavetto
cornice shows imperfect knowledge of the original and is clumsily
worked. The niches also, in the main front, have, been copied from
382
ARCHITECTURE
the windows which flank the doorway in the Persian palace.
But they are decorative only, and are too shallow to serve any
purpose.
If there has been some difficulty in determining the exact date of
Firuxabad, that of the third great palace, at Ctesiphon, on the borders
of the Tigris, is known to have been built by Chosrocs I. in a.d. 550.
Owing probably to its proximity to Bagdad, from which it lies about
25 m. distant, it is much better known than the other examples we
have quoted; but while they are constructed in rubble masonry,
Ctesiphon is built of brick, because we have now returned to the
alluvial plain where no stone could be procured. The only portion
of the palace which still exists is that which was built in burnt brick,
and this far exceeds in dimensions Serbia tan and Firuzabad.* Its
main front measured 312 ft.; its height was about 115 ft.; and its
depth 175 ft. The plan is very simple, and consisted of an aiwen
or immense ball, 86 ft. in width ana 163 ft. long, covered with an
elliptical barrel vault, the thrust of which is counteracted by five
long halls on each side, also covered with barrel vaults and probably
used as guard chambers or stores. The great hall was open in the
front, and constituted an immense portal, 83 ft. wide and 95 ft. to
the crown of the arch. The springing of the vault is 40 ft. from the
ground, but up to about 26 ft. above the springing the walls are
Built in horizontal courses projecting inwards as they rise, so that the
actual width of the vaulted portion (fig. 24) has been diminished
From Dkulaioy's L'Art Atdqmt, by permission of Morel et Cfe.
Fic. 24.— The Great Hall at Ctesiphon.
one-sixth and measures only about 71 ft. The crown of the vault is
9 ft. thick, the walls at the base being 23 ft. The bricks or tiles of
which the vault is built arc, like those at Thebes, laid flat-wise, and
there is also a similar inclination of the rings of brick-work, which
are about 10 s out of the vertical. This leads to the conclusion that
this immense vault was built without centreing, as the tenacious
quality of the mortar would probably be sufficient to hold each tile
in its position until the ring was complete. In the building of the
arch of the great oortal other precautions were taken; bond timbers
23 ft. long and in five rows, one above the other, were carried through
the wall from front to back. The lower portion of the arch (5 ft. in
height) was built with bricks placed flat-wise; the upper portion
(4 ft. in height) in the usual way, viz. right angles to the face. The
reason for this change was probably that the upper portions might
be carved, as they have been, with a series, of semi-circular
cusps.
The decoration of the flanks of this great central portal is of the
most bewildering description. There has evidently been a desire to
give a monumental character to the main front. With this idea in
view they would seem to have attempted to reproduce Roman
features, such as are found decorating the fronts of the various
amphitheatres of the Empire. But the semi-circular shafts which
form the decoration do not come one over the other on the several
IETRUSCAN
storeys, and there is a reckless employment of blank arcades
distributed over the surface.
There arc remains of two other palaces at Imamzade and Tag
Iran, and in Moab a small example, the Hall of Rabboth Amnion,
supposed to have been erected for Chosroes II. during the subjugation
of Palestine, which is richly decorated with carving, probably by
Syrio-Greek artists, with a mixture of Greek, Jewish and Sassanian
details. At Takibostan and Bchistun (Bisutun), some 200 m.
north-east of Ctesiphon, are some remarkable Sassanian capital*
and panels (published in Flandin and Coste's Voyage en Fene,
1851. Paris). (R. P. b.j
Etruscan Architecture
Although our acquaintance with Etruscan architecture is confined
chiefly to the entrance gateways and the walls o( towns, and to tombs,
it forms a very important link between the East and the YV'e*t.
Though little is known of the history of Etruria (q.v.), the influence
which her people exerted on Roman architecture, lasting down to the
period when Greece was overrun and plundered of her treasures,
was so great that it would be difficult to follow the origin of Roman
architecture without some inquiry into the work of its immediate
predecessor. The theory put forward by Fcrgusson, as to the migra-
tion of the Etruscans from Asia Minor in the 1 2th or 1 1 th century d.c.
is substantiated by the resemblance of the tumuli in the latter
country, such as those at Tantalais, on the northern shore of the
gulf of Smyrna, and that of Alyattes near Sardis, as compared with
the Regulini Galcassi tomb at Cervctri and the Cucumolla tomb at
Vulci, in all cases consisting of a sepulchral chamber buried under
an immense mound surrounded by a podium in stone. The chamber
was covered over with masonry, laid in horizontal courses, each stone
projecting slightly over the one below. The same system of con-
struction prevailed in the bee-hive tombs of Greece, except that the
latter were always circular on plan, whilst these cited above were
rectangular. Similar methods of construction are fonnd at Tusculum
and in a gateway at Arpino. In all these cases the projecting courses
were worked on on the completion of the tomb, in Greece and at
Tusculum and Arpino following a curve, and in the Regulini GaJeassi
tomb a raking line.
The earliest example known of the arched vault, with regular
voussoirs in stone, is found in the canal of the Marta near Graviscae,
ascribed to the 7th century. The vault is la ft. in span, with
voussoirs from 5 to 6 ft. in depth. In the tomb of Pythagoras near
Cortona, with a span of about 10 ft., only four voussoirs were em-
ployed. In the Cloaca Maxima at Rome the vault (now ascribed by
Commcndatore Boni to the 1st century B.C.) is built with three
concentric rings of voussoirs. In all these cases the thrust of the
arch was amply resisted as they were constructed under ground, and
in the entrance gateways at Voltcrra, Perugia and Falerii a similar
resistance was given by the immense walls in which they were built.
- We have already referred to one class of tomb in, which the sepul-
chral chamber, built above the ground, was covered over with a
mound of earth ; there is a second class, carved out of the solid rock,
in which we find the same treatment as that described in connexion
with Egypt. The tomb represents, in its internal arrangements and
in its decorations, the earthly dwelling of the defunct (compare the
Egyptian " soul-houses "). The ceilings arc carved in imitation of
the horizontal beams and slanting rafters of the roof, the former
carried by square piers with capitals; one well-known tomb at
Corncto (fig. 25) represents the atrium of an Etruscan house, which
corresponds with the description given by Vitruvius of the canudia
displuriala, in which there was a small opening at the top, known as
the compluvium, the roof sloping down on all four sides.
The paintings which decorate these tombs have very much the
same character as those which are found on what were thought to
have been Etruscan, but are now generally considered as Greek
vases, the principal difference being that instead of allegorical
subjects, domestic scenes recalling the life of the deceased are
represented. In a tomb at Cervctri the walls and piers were carved
with representations of the helmets, swords and other accoutrements
of a soldier, and also the mirrors and jewelry of his wife, even the
kitchen utensils being included, so as to give the complete fittings
of the house they occupied. In two examples at Castel D'Asso the
rock has been cut away on all sides* leaving a rectangular block,
crowned with reverse mouldings.
Scarcely any remains in situ of Etruscan temples have been found,
and the description given by Vitruvius is very scanty. Of late years,
however, in the British Museum and in the museums at Florence and
Rome, a large amount of material has been brought together, from
which it i» possible to make some kind of conjectural restoration.
This has been facilitated by the discoveries made at Olympia,
Delphi and elsewhere in Greece, showing the important function
which terra-cotta served in the protection and decoration of the
timber roofs of the Greek temples and treasuries. The cornices,
antefixae, pendant slabs and other decorative features in terra-
cotta, found on the sites of the Etruscan temples, show that the
timber construction of their roofs was protected in the same way ;
and although Vitruvius (bk. iii. ch. 2) considered the temple of Ceres
at Rome to be clumsy and heavy, and its roofs low and wide, in
comparison with the purer examples of Greek architecture, the
remains of terra-cot ta found at Civita Castcllaru (the ancient
ROMAN}
ARCHITECTURE
383
Faterii), at Luna Telamon and Lanuvtum (the latter in the British
Museum), show that in their modelling and colour they must have
possessed considerable decorative effect, and when raised on an
eminence, as in the case of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol,
formed striking features of Importance, enriched as they were with
gilding. There is one feature in the Etruscan examples which
seems to have been peculiar to their temples, viz. the pendant slabs
hung round the caves to protect the walls; these latter wcreprobably
covered with stucco and decorated with paintings. The lower
FiC. 25.— The Cometo Tomb.
portions of many of these slabs were decorated in relief and in colour
at the back, showing that they were exposed to view below the
soffit of the projecting caves.
Owing to the ephemeral nature of the materials employed in the
building of the walls of Etruscan temples, viz. unbumed brick or
rubble masonry with clay mortar, the roofs being in timber, little
is known of their general design; the terra-cotta decorations are,
however, fortunately in good preservation, and suggest that although
the Etruscan temple, architecturally speaking, was not of a very
monumental character, its external decoration and colour added
considerably to its affect. (R. P. S.)
Roman Architecture
The rebuilding of Rome, which began in the reign of Augustus,
and was carried on by his successors to a much greater extent, has
caused the destruction of nearly all those examples of early work to
which the student, working out the history of a style, would turn.
There are, however, a few early buildings still existing, and these
are of value as showing the extremely simple nature of their design.
The temple of Fortuha Virilis (so-called) in the Forum Boarium,
attributed to the beginning of the 1st century B.C., shows the great
difference between Greek and Roman temples. Like the Etruscan
temple, it is raised on a podium, and approached by a flight of
steps. The Etruscan cella is dispensed with; and what may be
looked upon as the semblance of a Greek peristyle is retained in the
semi-detached columns which are carried round the walls of the cella.
To the entrance portico, however, the Roman architect attached
E: importance, and we fidd here that one-third of the whole
h of the temple is given up to the portico. The Tabularium
by Lutatius Catulus (78 B.C.) is a second example of early work.
On a lofty substructure, built of peperino stone, was raised an arcade,
which formed a passage from one side of the capital to the other,
and here we find the earliest example of the use ot the Classic order,
as a decorative feature only, applied to the face of a wall. The arcade
consists of a series of arches with intermediate semi-detached Doric
columns carrying an entablature. The architectural design of the
substructure is of the simplest land, depending for its effect only on
the size of the stones employed and the finish given to the masonry.
The same remark applies to the few remains left of the Forum Julium
(47 B.c), where an additional decorative effect was produced by
the bevelled edge worked round all the stones, producing the effect
erf rusticated masonry.
If, however, the remains are few, the records of classical writers
show that already before the beginning of the 1st century B.C. the
influence of Greece had been shown in the transformation of the
Forum, the embanking of the river Tiber, the erection of numerous
porticoes throughout the Campus Martius, and of basilicas, one of
which, rebuilt by Paulus Aemilius in 50 B.C., was remarkable for its
monolithic columns of pavonazetto marble; and further that on the
Palatine hill were various mansions, the courts and peristyles of
which were richly decorated with marble.
The boast of Augustus that be found Rome built of brick and left
it in marble is true in a sense, but not in the way it is usually inter-
preted. He greatly encouraged the use of marble— the temple of
Venus in the forum of Julius Caesar is said to have been built
entirely of that material — but as a rule marble was only used as a
facing. This, however, led to the substitution of solid concrete for
the core of walls, in place of the unburnt brick which up to that
time had been employed. On this subject the writings of Vitruvius,
the Roman architect, are of the greatest value, as they describe
clearly not only the materials used at this time (about 30 B.C.), but
the different methods of building walls (see Rome). The material
which contributed more than any other to the magnificent concep-
tions of the Roman Imperial style was that known as pozzolana, a
volcanic earth which, mixed with lime, formed an hydraulic cement
of great cohesion and strength. Not only the walls but the vaults
were built in this pozzolana concrete, and formed one solid mass.
Bricks were employed in arches, on the quoins of walls, occasionally
in bond courses, and in the constructional vaults as ribs, in order to
relieve the centreing of the weight until the pozzolana concrete had
been poured in and had consolidated. The bricks employed in these
ribs, and for the voussoirs of arches, were of the kind we should
describe as tiles, being about 2 ft. square and 2 in. thick. Bricks
also of smaller size and triangular in shape were used for the facing
of walls, the triangular portions being embedded into the concrete
walls.
The Romans themselves do not seem to have realized the tenacious
properties of this pozzolana cement which, when employed for the
foundation of temples, formed a solid mass capable of bearing as
much weight as the rock itself. They feared also the thrust ofthe
immense vaults over their halls, and always provided crosswalk to
counteract the same, as shown in the plan of all the thermae;
when, however, they had discovered the secret of covering over large
spaces with a permanent casing indestructible by fire, it not only
gave an impetus to the great works in Rome, but led to a new type of
plan, which spread all through the Empire, varied only by the
difference in materials and in labour. In this respect the Romans
always availed themselves of the resources of the country, which they
turned to the best account. As pozzolana was not to be found in
North Africa or Syria, they had to trust to the excellent qualities of
the Roman mortar, but even in Syria, where stone was plentiful and
could be obtained in great dimensions, when they attempted to
erect vaults of great span similar to those in Rome, these probably
collapsed before the building was finished, and were replaced by
roofs in wood.
In the styles hitherto described the gradual development has been
traced to their primitive, culminating and decadent periods. This
is not called for in a description of the Roman style ot architecture,
which to a certain extent appeared phocnix-hke in its highest
development under Augustus. Roman orders in the Augustan age
had reached their culminating development. The capitals of the
portico of the Pantheon (27 B.C.), or of the temple of Mars Ultor
(2 B.C.), constitute the finest examples of the Corinthian order,
whilst those of later temples show a falling off in style. It was only
in the application of the orders that new combinations presented
themselves, and this can be better understood when we refer to the
monuments themselves. The description of the Roman orders,
with the subsequent modifications, is given in the article Order.
It b necessary, however, here to draw attention to two very important
developments which the Roman architect introduced as regards the
orders: firstly, their employment as decorative features in combina-
tion with the arcade, known as composite arcades, and secondly,
their superposition one above the other in storeys. The earliest
example of the first class is that found in the Tabularium as it now
exists; of the second class the Colosseum and the theatre of Mar-
ccll us are the best known examples. In principle the practice must
be condemned, for the employment of the column ana entablature,
which was designed by the Greek architect as an independent
constructive feature, in a purely decorative sense stuck on the face
of a wall, is contrary to good taste, but it is impossible not to recog-
nize in its application to the Colosseum the vafue of the scale which
it has given to the whole structure, a scale which would have been
entirely lost if the building had been treated as one storey. The
superposition of the orders as exemplified in the Roman theatres
and amphitheatres throughout the Empire constitutes the greatest
development made in the style, and it is one which, from the Italian
revivalists down to our time, hat had more influence in the design
of monumental work than any other Roman innovation.
In the preceding sections it has been necessary to confine our
descriptions, in the case of Egypt and Greece, more or less to temples
and tombs, and in that of Assyria to palaces, but in Roman archi-
tecture the monuments are not only of the most extensive and
varied kinds, but in some parts of the Empire they become modified
by the requirements of the country, so that a tabulated list alone
would occupy a considerable space. The following are the principal
subdivisions: The Roman forum (see Rome); the colonnaded
streets in Syria and elsewhere, and temple enclosures; temples (q.v.),
rectangular and circular; basilicas (q.v.)', theatres (q.v.) and amphi-
theatres (7. p.); thermae or baths (q.v.); entrance gateways and
triumph arches (see Triumphal Arch) ; memorial buildings and
tombs, aqueducts (q.v.) and bridges (q.v.), palatial architecture (see
Palace) ; domestic architecture (sec House)
3«+
ARCHITECTURE
(ROMAN
The Forum Romanum under the Republic would teem to have
served several purposes. The principal temples and important
public buildings occupied sites round it, and up to the time of Julius
Caesar there were shops on both sides: it was also used as a hippo-
drome and served for combats and other displays. Under the
Empire, however, these were relegated to the amphitheatre and the
theatre, markets were provided for elsewhere, and the forum became
the chief centre for the temples, basilicas,courts of law and exchange*.
But already in the time of Julius Caesar the Forum Romanum had
become too small, and others were built by succeeding emperors.
In order to find room for these, not only were numerous crowded
sites cleared, but vast portions of the Quirinal hill were cut away to
make place for them. The Fora added were those of Julius Caesar,
Augustus, Trajan ( Nerva and Vespasian. Outside Rome, in pro-
vincial towns and in Africa and Syria, the Forum was generally built
on the intersection of the two main streets, and was surrounded by
porticoes, temples and civic monuments.
Colonnaded Streets. — We gather from some Roman authors that
in early days the Campus Martius was laid out with porticoes. All
these features have disappeared, but there arc still some existing
in Syria, North Africa ana Asia Minor, which are known as colon-
naded streets. The most important of these arc found in Palmyra,
where the street was 70 ft. wide with a central avenue open to the
sky and side avenues roofed over with stone. The columns employed
were of the Corinthian order, 31 ft. high, and formed a peristyle on
each side of the street, which was nearly a mile in length. The triple
archway in this street U still one of the finest examples of Roman
architecture. At Gerasa, the colonnaded streets had columns of the
Ionic order, the street being 1 800 ft. long, with other streets at right
angles to it; similar streets are found at Amman. Bosra, Kanawat.
&c. At Pompeiopolis, in Asia Minor, arc still many streets of
columns, and in North Africa the French archaeologists have traced
numerous others.
Temple Enclosures. — In Rome the great cost, and the difficulty of
obtaining large sites, restricted the size of the enclosures of the
temples; this was to a certain extent compensated for by the
magnificence of the porticoes surrounding them. The most important
was that built by Hadrian, measuring 480 ft. by 330 ft., to enclose
the double temples of Venus and Rome. The portico of Octavia
measures 400 ft. by 370 ft., enclosing two temples, and the portico
of the Argonauts, which enclosed the temple of Neptune, was about
300 ft. square. These dimensions, however, are far exceeded by
those of the enclosures in Syria and Asia Minor. The court of the
temple of the Sun at Palmyra was raised on an artificial platform
16 ft. high, and measured 735 ft. by 725 ft., with an enclosure wall
A 74 ft. on the west and 67 ft. high on the other three sides.
At Baalbek the platform was raised 25 ft. above the ground, the
dimensions being 400 ft. wide and 900 ft. deep. At Damascus the
enclosure of the temple of the Sun has been traced, and it extended
to about 1000 ft. square. Similar enclosures are found at Gerasa,
Amman and other Syrian towns. In Asia Minor, at Aizani the plat-
form was 520 by 480 ft., raised about 20 ft, and in Africa the French
have found the remains of similar enclosures.
Roman Temples. — The Romans, following the Etruscan custom,
Invariably raised their temples on a podium with a flight of steps
on the main front. Their temples were not orientated, and being
regarded more as monuments than religious structures occupied
prominent sites facing the Forum or some great avenue. Much
importance was attached to the entrance portico, which was deeper
than those in Greek temples, and the peristyle when it existed was
rarely carried round the back. On the other hand the cella exceeded
in span those of the Greek temples, as the Roman, being acquainted
with the principle of trussing timbers, could roof over wider spaces.
The principal temples in Rome, of which remains still exist, are
those of Fortuna Virilis, Mars Ultor, Castor, Ncptunc { Antoninus
and Faustina, Concord, Vespasian, Saturn and portions of the
double temples of Venus and Rome, At Pompeii are the temples of
Jupiter and Apollo, at Cora the temple of Mercury, and in France,
the Maison Carree at Ntmes and the temple at Vienne. In Syria
are the temples of Jupiter at Baalbek, of the Sua at Palmyra and
Gerasa, and in Spalato the temple of Aesculapius.
Of circular temples the chief are the Pantheon at Rome, the
temple of Vesta on the Forum, of Mater Matuta, so-called, on the
Forum Boarium, the temple of Vesta, at Tivoli, of Jupiter at Spalato
and of Venus at Baalbek.
Of the rectangular temples the Maison Carree at Nlmes is the
most perfect example existing (fig. 26). It was built by Antoninus
Pius, and dedicated to his adopted sons Lucius and Martius, This
temple, 59 ft. by 117 ft., is of the Corinthian order, hexastyle,
pseudoperipteral, with a portico three columns deep, and is raised
on a podium 12 ft. high. The next best preserved example is the
temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, also of the Corinthian order, octastyle,
peripteral, with a deep portico, and a cella richly decorated with
three-quarter detached shafts of the Corinthian order.
Of the circular temples the Pantheon is the most remarkable. It
was built by Hadrian t and consists of an immense rotunda 142 ft. in
diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 140 ft. high. Its
walls are 20 ft. thick, and have alternately semicircular and rect-
angular rec esses in them. In the centre of the dome is a circular
opening 30 ft. in diameter open to the sky, the only source, from
which the light is obtained. The rotunda Is preceded by a portico,
originally built by Agrippa as the front of the rectangular temple
erected By him, taken down and re-erected after the completion of
the rotunda, with the omission of the two outer columns. In other
words Agrippa's portico was decastyle ; the actual portico is octastyle.
Basilicas. — The earliest example of which remains exist is that of
the Basilica Julia on the Forum, the complete plan of which is now
exposed to view. It consisted of a central hall measuring 25$ ft.
by 60 ft., surrounded by a double aisle of arches carried on piers,
which were covered with groined vaults. The Basilica Ulpia built
by Trajan was similar in plan, but in the place of the piers were
monolith columns, with Corinthian capitals carrying an entablature,
with an upper storey forming a gallery round.
The third great basilica, commenced by Maxentius and completed
by Cons(antine, differs entirely from the two above
Scale of Yards
y 1 f i 4 i
FIG. 26,— Elevation and plan of the Maison Carree, Nlmes*
followed the design and construction of the Tepidariun of the
Roman thermae, and consisted of a hall 275 ft. long by 8a f t. wide
and 1 14 ft. high, covered with an intersecting barrel vault with deep
recesses on each side which communicated one with the other by
arched openings and constituted the aisles.
Theatres.— The only example in Rome is the theatre of Marcel! os,
built by Augustus 13 B.C.. and one of the purest examples of Roman
architecture* Amongst the best preserved examples is the theatre
of Orange in the south of France, the stage of which was 203 ft. long.
In the theatre at Taormina in Sicily are still preserved some of the
columns which decorated the rear wall of the stage. The theatre
of Herodes Atticus at Athens (a.d. 160) retains portions of its
enclosure walls and some of the marble seats. There are two theatres
in Pompeii where the seats and the stage are in fair preservation.
Other examples in Asia Minor art at Aixani, Side, Tetmcssus, Alinda.
and in Syria at Amman. Gerasa, Shuhba and Beisan.
Amphitheatres. — The largest amphitheatre is that known as the
Colosseum, •commenced by Vespasian in a.d. 72, continued by Titus
and dedicated by the latter in a.d. 80. This refers to the t e — '
ROMAN1
marry, for tike topmost atony wh not erected until the first part
of the 3rd oentnry, when it was completed by Severn* Alexander
and Gordianus. The building is elliptical in plan and measures
620 ft. for the major axis and 5 13 ft. for the minor axis. There were
eighty entrances, two of which were reserved for the emperor and
hts suite. The Cavea (9.*.) was divided into four ranges of seats;
the whole of the exterior and the principal corridors were built in
travertine stone, and all other corridors, staircases and substructures
in co ncr ete. Externally the wall was divided into four storeys, the
three lower ones with arcades divided by semi-detached columns of
the Tuscan, r he Ionic and the Corinthian orders respectively. The
walls of the topmost storey were decorated with pilasters of the
Corinthian order, the only openings there being small windows, to
fight the corridors and the upper range of seats. Among other
amphitheatres the best preserved are those found at Capua. Verona,
ARCHITECTURE
385
i Pompeii in Italy, at Eljera in North Africa, at Pola in Istria,
and at Aries and Nfmes in France.
The Thermos or Imperial BaUu. — The term thermae is given to the
immense bathing establishments which were built by the emperors
to ingratiate themselves with the people. Of the ordinary baths
J Balnea*) there were numerous examples not only in Rome but at
'ompeii and throughout the Empire. The thermae were devoted
not only to baths out to gymnastic pursuits of every kind, and
being the resorts of the poets, philosophers and statesmen of the day,
contained numerous halls where discussions and orations could take
place. The plans of these thermae were measured by Palladio about
1560. at a time when they were in far better preservation and more
extensive than they arc to-day. They have, however, been measured
since by some of the French Grand Prix students; and Blouet's
work on the Thermae of CaracaUa (1828) and Paulin's on the Thermae
of D i ocle t ian (1800) give accurate drawings as well as conjectural
restorations which are of the greatest value. The earliest thermae
were those built by Agrippa (20 B.C.) in the Campus Martius, and of
others those of Titus ana Trajan are the best preserved; plans can
be found in Cameron's Baths (1775).
Entrance Gateways and Arches of Triumph. — As the entrance
gateways were sometimes erected to commemorate some important
event, we have grouped these together, the real difference being
that the arch of triumph was an isolated feature and served no
utilitarian purpose, whereas the entrance gateway constituted part
of the external walls of the city and could be opened and closed at
will. Of the latter those at Verona, Susa, Perugia and Aosta in
Italy, Autun in France, and the Porta Nigra at Treves (Trier) are
the best known, but there are also numerous examples throughout
Syria and North Africa. The arches of triumph offered a fine scope
for decoration with bas-reliefs setting forth the principal events of
the campaign; the representation on coins also suggests that they
were looked upon as pedestals to carry large groups of sculpture.
The best known examples are those of Titus, Septimius Severus
and Constantine at Rome, of Trajan at Ancona, and, in France,
at Orange, St Remi and Reims. There were numerous examples
throughout North Africa and Syria, of which the arch of Caracalla
at Tebesaa in the former and the great gateway of Palmyra in Syria
are the best preserved.
Memorial Buildinz* and Tombs.'- Columns of victory constituted
another type of memorial, and the shafts of the columns of Trajan
and Marcus Aurelius in Rome lent themselves to a better representa-
tion of the records of victory than those which could be obtained in
the panels of a triumphal arch. Other columns erected are those of
Antoninus PSus in Rome, a column at Alexandria, and others in
France and Italy.
If the Romans derived from the Etruscans a custom of erecting
tombs in memory of the dead, they did not follow on the same
lines, for whilst the Etruscans always excavated the tomb in the
solid rock, constituting a more lasting memorial, the Romans
regarded them as monumental features and lined the routes of the
na sacra of their towns with them. The earliest example remaining
is that of Caecilia Metclla (58 B.C.), of which the upper portion,
consisting of a circular drum 93 ft. in diameter, remains. Of the
tomb of Hadrian the core only exists in the castle of Sant' Angelo.
From the descriptions given it must have been a work of great
magnificence. The tombs known as Columbaria (qx.) were always
below ground, but in some cases an upper storey was built above
them consisting of a small temple, and these flanked the Via Appia
in large numbers. At Pompeii outside the Herculaneum Gate the
Via Appia was lined on both sides with tombs of varied design, and
with exedrae or circular seats in marble, provided for the use of
those visiting the tombs. The tombs in Syria form a very large and
important series, the earliest perhaps being those in Palmyra,
where they took the form of lofty towers, from 70 to 90 ft. high,
externally simple as regards their design, but in the several storeys
inside profusely decorated with Corinthian pilasters and coffered
ceilings in stone. The tombs in Jerusalem built in the 1st century
of our era are partly excavated in the rock and partly erected. The
most important were those known as the tomb of Absalom, the tomb
of St Tames, and the tombs of the judges and the kings, all cut in
the solid rock. In central Syria some of the tombs are excavated in
the rock, and over them are built a group of two or more columns
held together by their, entablatures. The most important scries
are the tombs at Petra, all cut in the side of cliffs and of elaborate
design. The sculptor, being f reef rom ttaicstrictieacfccmstracttoa,
realized his conception much in the same way as a scene-painter
produces a theatrical background.
Aqueducts and Bridies.— Although at the present day aqueducts
and bridges would be classed under the head of engineering works,
those built by the Romans arc so fine in their conception and design
that they take their place as monuments. The Pont-du-Gard near
Nlmes, and the aqueducts of Segovia, Tarragona and Merida in.
Spain, and some of those in or near Rome, are of the simplest design,
depending for their effect on their magnificent construction, their
dimensions both in length and height, and the scale given in the
ranges of arches one above the other. Few of the Roman bridges
have lasted to our day; the bridges of Augustus at Rimini and of
Alcantara in Spain may be taken as types of the design, in which we
note that there are no architectural superfluities; the quality of the
design depends on the graceful proportion of the arches and the fine
masonry in which they are built.
Palatial Architecture. — By far the most magnificent group of
palaces are those which were erected by the Caesars on the Palatine
bill at Rome. Commenced by Augustus and added to by his suc-
cessors down to the reign of Severus, they cover an area considerably
over 1.000,000 sq. ft., and comprise an immense series of great balls.
throne room, banqueting hall, basilicas, peristylar courts, temple,
libraries, schools, barracks, a stadium and separate suites for princes
and courtiers. The service of the palace would seem to have been
carried on in vaulted coiridors in several storeys, some of which
on the north side, overlooking the Circus Maximus, must have been
over 100 ft. in height. Except under the Villa Mills, the greater part
of the plan has been traced; and large remains of mosaic pavements
have been found t* situ, and in the approaches, vaulted nails, some
still retaining their stucco decoration.
A similar variety of groups of every description of structure is
found at Tivoli, but spread over a very much larger area. The villa
of Hadrian extended over 7 m.; the works there were probably
begun about a.d. 123, the first portion being his own residential
palace. In addition to the numerous balls, courts, libraries, Ac.,
Hadrian attempted to reproduce some of the most remarkable monu-
ments which he had seen during his long travels; the Stadium.
Palaestra, Odeum, the two theatres, the artificial lake, Canopus and
other features were, however, constructed in the Roman style*
Built on a ridge between two valleys, the several buildings occupied
various levels, so that immense terraces and flights of stairs existed
throughout the site and, combined with the natural scenery, must
have been of extraordinary beauty.
The palace of Diocletian at Spalato, to which he retired after
his abdication, constituted a fortress, three of its walls being
protected by towers, the fourth on the south by the sea. For an
account of its well-preserved remains see Spalato. The emperor's
own residence was on the south side, and had a gallery uo ft. long
overlooking the sea. The two main streets, with arcades on each
aid J * L "" Med the whole palace into four
sec d from gate to gate, the other
fm e into the palace of the emperor,
e of the remains of the private
ho rption of the house of Llvia on
th< 1 a very poor insight into their
do of Pompeii fa.vj and Hercu-
lar en by Pliny of the lavish ex-
tra id the employment of various
Gr >Hth columns and panelling of
wa ich are found in the Pantheon,
in in Hadrian's villa at Tivoli;
an< und at Pompeii show that the
Ut scond or third-rate importance,
wh ace of real marbles, and where
th< or to those which have been
dii (R. P. S.)
Byzantine Akchksctuxb
The term " Byzantine " is applied to the style of architecture
which was developed in Byzantium after Constantine had transferred
the capital of the Roman empire to that city in a.d. 324.
It is not possible, in the early ages of any style which is based on
preceding or contemporaneous styles, to draw any hard and fast line
of demarcation; and already before the Peace of the Church, a
gradual transformation in the Roman style had been taking place,
even in Rome itself. Thus the arch had gradually been taking the
place of the lintel, either frankly as a relieving arch above it (portico
of Pantheon), or introduced in the frieze just above the architrave
(San Lorenzo), or by the conversion of the architrave into a flat arch
by dividing it into voussoirs, as in the Forum Julium at Rome or
in the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek. In the Dalace built by Diocletian
at Spalato, the architrave or lintel of the Golden Gate ; is built with
several voussoirs, and the pressure is further relieved by an arch
thrown across above it. Long before this, however, and already m
the 2nd century a.d. in Syria, this relieving arch had been moulded
and decorated, with the result of emphasizing it as a new architec-
tural feature. In this same palace at Spalato. in order to obtain a
wider opening in the centre of the portico, leading to the throne
room, it was spanned by an arch, round which were earned the
386
ARCHITECTURE
[BYZANTINE
moulding! of the whole entablature, viz. architrave, frieze and
cornice. At a stiH earlier date in Syria the same had been done in
the Propylaea of the temple at Damascus (a.d. 151) and other
examples are found in North Africa.
Now when Constantine transferred the capital to Byzantium, he
is said to have imported immense quantities of monolith columns
from Rome, and also workmen to carry out the embellishments of
the new capital; for his work there was not confined to churches,
but included amphitheatres, palaces, thermae and other public
buildings. Owing to the haste with which these were built, and in
some cases probably to the ephemeral materials employed, for the
roofs of the churches were only in timber, all these early works have
been swept away; but there remain two structures at least, which
arc said to date from Constantino's time, viz. the Binbirderek or
cistern of a thousand columns, and the Yeri-Batan-Serai, both in
Constantinople. As one of the first tasks a Roman emperor set
himself to perform was the provision of an ample supply of water,
of which Byzantium was much in need, there is every reason to
suppose that they are correctly attributed to Constantine's time. If
so, as the construction of their vaults is quite different from that
employed by the Romans, it suggests that there already existed in
the East a traditional method of building vaults of which the emperor
availed himself; and, although it is not possible to trace all the earlier
developments, the traditional art of the East, found throughout
Syria and Asia Minor, must from the first have wrought great changes
in the architectural style, and in some measure this would account
for the comparatively shcrt period of two centuries which elapsed
between the foundation of the new empire and the culminating period
of the style under Justinian in ad. 532-558.
Constantine is said to have built three churches in Palestine, but
these have either disappeared or have been reconstructed since;
an early basilican church is that of St John Studius (the Baptist) in
Constantinople, dating from A.D. 463, and though it shows but little
deviation from classic examples, in the design and vigorous execution
of the carving in the capitals and the entablature we find the germ
of the new style. The next typical example is that found in the
church of -St Demetrius at Salonica, a basilican church with atrium
in front, a narthex, nave and double aisles, with capacious galleries
on the first floor for women, and an apsidal termination to the nave.
Instead of the classic entablature, the monolithic columns of the
nave carry arches both on the ground and upper storeys; above the
capitals, however, we find a new feature known as the dosseret,
already employed in the two cisterns referred to, a cubical block
protecting beyond the capital on each side and enabling it to carry
a thicker wall above. In later examples, when the aisles were
vaulted, the dosseret served a still more important purpose, in
carrying the springing of the vaults. The nave and aisles of this
church of St Demetrius were covered with timber roofs, as the
architects had neither the knowledge, the skill, nor perhaps
(he materials to build vaults, so as to render the whole church
indestructible by fire.
One of the first attempts at this (though the early date given* is
disputed) would seem to have been made at Hierapolis, on the
borders of Phrygia in Asia Minor, where there are two churches
covered with barrel vaults carried
on transverse ribs across the nave,
the thrust of which was met by
carrying up solid walls on each side,
these walls being pierced with open-
ings so as to form aisles on the
ground floor and galleries above.
1 The same system was carried out
a century earlier in central Syria,
where, in consequence of the absence
1 of timber, the buildings had to be
roofed with slabs of stone carried on
l| archesacrossthenave. It is probable
that in course of time other examples
will be found in Asia Minor, giving
I a more definite due to the next
development, which we find in the
work of Justinian, who would seem
to have recognized that the employ-
ment of timber or combustible
Seal* ©f F*cl .
♦ ,» «, y 40 50 *»
FlC. 27.— Plan of SS. Scrgius.
and Bacchus. '
materials was fatal to the long
duration of such buildings. Accord*
ingly in the first church which he
built (fig. 27), that of SS. Scrgius
and Bacchus (a.d. 527), the whole
building is vaulted; the church is about 100 ft square, with a
aarthex on one side. The central portion of the church is octagonal
(52 ft. wide), and is covered by a dome, carried on arches across the
eight sides, which are filled in with columns on two storeys. These
are recessed on the diagonal lines, forming apses. The vault is
divided into thirty-two zones, the zones being alternately flat and
concave.
We now pass to Justinian's greatest work, the church of St
Sophia (fig. 28), begun in 532 and dedicated in 537, which marks
the highest development of the Byzantine style and became the
model on which all Greek churches, and even the mosques built by
the Mahommedans in Constantinople, from the 15th century on-
wards, were based. The architects employed were Anthenuus off
Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, and the problem they had to solve
was that of carrying a dome 107 ft. in diameter on four arches. The
four arches formed a square on plan, and between them were built
spherical pendentives, which, overhanging the angles, reduced the
centre to a circle on which the dome was built. This dome fell down in
555, and when rebuilt was raised higher and pierced round its lower
part with forty circular-headed windows, which give an extraordinary
lightness to the structure. At the east and west ends are immense
apses, the full width of the dome, which are again subdivided into
three smaller apses. The north and south arches are filled with lofty
columns carrying arches opening into the aisle on the ground storey
and a gallerv on the upper storey, the walls above being pierced with
windows of immense size. The church was built in brick, and
internally the walls were encased with thin slabs of precious marble
up to a great height (fig. 29). The walls and -vault above were
covered with mosaics on a gold ground, which, as they repr es ented
Christian subjects, were all covered over with stucco by the Turks
Fig. 28.— Plan of St Sophia.
after the taking of Constantinople. During the restoration in the
middle of the 19th century, when it became necessary to strip off
the stucco, these mosaics were all drawn and ptlbltshed by Salsen-
burg, and they were covered again with plaster to prevent their
destruction by the Turks. The columns of the whole church on the
ground floor are of porphyry, and on the upper storey of verd
antique. The length of the church from entrance door to eastern
apse is 260 ft. ; in width, including the aisles, it measures 238 ft..
r _j :* .-. f t to t |, c apcx Qf t Yyt dome. The columns and
1 the small apses, the small apses to the larger
< to the dome, so that its immense size is grasped
i lighting is admirably distributed, and the rich
< arble slabs, the monolith columns, the elaborate
( als, the beautiful marble inlays of the spandrils
1 nd the glimpse here and there of some of the
1 1 through the stucco, give to this church an effect
cd by any other interior in the world. The
i i vestibule forms a magnificent hall 840 ft. in
1 ly decorated. Externally the building has little
] itectural beauty, but its dimensions and varied
roups of smaller and larger apses and domes,
live structure, to which the Turkish minarets,
t, , Id picturcsqueness.
In a.d. 536 a second important church was begun by Theodora,
the church of the Holy Apostles, which was destroyed in 1454 by
order of Mahommed fl. to build his mosque. The design of this
church known only from the dear description given by 1
BYZANTINE)
ARCHITECTURE
387
Flo. 29.— Cross section of the interior of St Sophia.
* mosaic mosque," on account of its splendid decoration in that
material, is of special interest, because in the five arches of its facade
we find the same design as that which originally constituted the front
of the lower part of St Mark's at Venice, before it was encrusted with
the marble casing and the plethora of marble columns and capitals
brought orer from Constantinople.
Sometimes an additional church was built adjoining the first
church and dedicated to the immaculate Virgin, as in the church of
St Mary Panachrantos, Constantinople, the church of St Luke of
Stiris, Phoris, and the church in the island of Paros. In the last-
named church the apse still retains its marble seats, rising one above
the other, with the bishop's throne in the centre. In addition to
the churches already mentioned in Constantinople, there are still
some which have been appropriated by the Turks and utilized as
mosques. At Mount Athos there are a large number of Greek
churches, ranging from the loth to the 16th centuries, which are
attached to the monasteries. At Athens one of the most beautiful
examples is preserved in the Catholicon or cathedraKthe materials
of which were taken from older classical buildings. This cathedral
measures only 40 ft. by 35 ft., and is now overpowered by the new
cathedral erected dose by.
The external design of the Byzantine churches, as a rule, is
extremely simple, but it owes its quality to the fact that its features
are those which arise out of the natural construction of the church.
The domes, the semi-domes over the apses, and the barrel vaults
over other parts of the church, appear externally as well as internally,
and as they are all covered with lead or with tiles, laid direct on the
vaults, they give character to the design and an extremely picturesque
effect. The same principle is observed in the doorways and windows,
to which importance is given by accentuating their constructive
conical roofs over them^There is alto a greater
admixture of styles, the Persian, Byzantine
and Romanesque phases entering into the design; the last
was probably derived from the churches of central Syria, as
the Armenians were the only race who seem to have penetrated
there, and the finest example, at Kalat Seman, was at one time in
their possession. The church at Dighur near Ani, of the 7th century,
also probably owes its classical details to the work in central Syria.
The most important example of the Armenian style is found in the
cathedral at Ani, the capital of Armenia, dating from a.d. 1010. In
this church pointed arches and coupled piers arc found, with all the
characteristics of a complete pointed-arch style, which, as Fergusson
remarks, "might be found in Italy or Sialy in. the I2th or 14th
century.'* Externally the walls are decorated with lofty blind
arcades similar to those in the cathedral at Pisa and other churches
in the same town, which arc probably fifty years later. The elaborate
fret carving of the window dressings and hood moulds are probably
borrowed from the tile decoration found in Persia.
Russia. — The architecture of Russia is only a somewhat degraded
version of the style of the Byzantine empire. The earliest buildings
of importance are the cathedrals of Kiev and Novgorod, 1010-1054.
The original church of Kiev consisted of nave, with triple aisles each
side, the piers in which are of enormous size, a transept and square
bays of the choir beyond, each with deep apsidal chapels. Externally
the chief features are the bulbous domes adopted from the Tatars,
which sometimes assume great dimensions. Internally, the chief
feature is the lconostasis. which corresponds to the English rood
screen, except that in Russia it forms a complete separation between
the church and the sanctuary with its altar.
One of the most remarkable churches is that of St Basil at Moscow
(1534-1584). which in plan looks like a central hall, surrounded by
eight other halls of smaller dimensions, all separated one from the
388
ARCHITECTURE
other by vaulted corridor*; this arrangement b not intelligible until
one tec* the exterior view, which accounts for the plan; each one
of theie halls is crowned by lofty towers with bulbous domes, the
centre one rising above all the others and terminated with an
octagonal roof, probably derived from the Armenian conical roof.
The, oldest and most interesting church in Moscow is the church of
the Assumption (1479)* where the tsars are always crowned ; but
as it measures only 74 ft by so ft., it is virtually little more than a
chapel;. the plan is that of a Greek cross with central dome and four
others over the angles. One other church deserves mention— at
Curtea de Argesh, in Rumania. It was built in 15 17-1526, and
though small (90 by 50 ft.), is built entirely of stone, instead of brick
covered with stucco, as is the case with the churches in Moscow.
The interior has been entirely sacrificed to the exterior, the domes
being raised to an extravagant height. The relative proportion of
width of nave to height of dome in St Sophia at Constantinople is
about one to two; in the church at Curtea de Argesh it is about
one to five: and yet there can be little doubt the design was made
by one of those Armenian architects who seem to have been always
employed at Constantinople, and who presumably based their
designs there on St Sophia as regards its principal features. Here,
however, he was working for Tatar employers who attached more
importance to display than to good proportion. In general design
the church is based on Armenian work. The elaborately carved
Knels and disks are copied from the inlays in the mosques in
imascus and of Sultan Hassan at Cairo, and the stalactite cornices
and capitals of the columns are transcripts of the Mahommedan style
of Constantinople, which was derived from the style developed by
the Seljuks.
We were only able to point to a single example of a tower in the
Byzantine style, but in Russia the towers not only constitute the
principal accessory to the church but were necessary adjuncts, in
order to provide accommodation for bells, the casting of which has
at all times formed one of the most important crafts in Russia. The
chief examples, all in Moscow, are the tower attached to the church
of the Assumption: the tower of Boris, inside the Kremlin; and
that erected over the sacred gate of the same. But they abound
throughout Russia, and in some cases form important features in
the principal elevations on either side of the narthex. (R. P. S.)
Early Christian AechitbCtur*
Of the earliest examples of the housing of the Christian church
few remains exist, owing partly to their destruction from time to
time by imperial edicts, and partly to the fact that in most cases
they were only oratories of a small and unpretending nature, which,
immediately after the Peace of the Church, were rebuilt of greater
size and with increased magnificence. In Rome itself, the principal
religious centre was that which was found in the catacombs (q.v.),
almost the only" resort in times of persecution. In the nouses of the
wealthy Romans who had been converted, rooms were set apart for
the reception of the faithful, and these may have been increased in
size by the addition of side aisles. At all events, either in Rome or
in the East, where greater freedom of worship was observed, the
requirements of the religious had already resulted in a traditional
type of plan, which may account for the similarity of all the great
churches built by Constantino It has often been assumed that the
great Roman basilicas, if not actually utilized by the Christians, were
copied so far as their design is concerned. This, however, is not
borne out by the facts, there being very little similarity between the
first churches built and the two great Roman basilicas, the Ulpian
basilica and that built by Constantine; the latter was roofed with
an immense vault, an imperishable covering, not attempted till two
centuries later in Byzantium, and the former had its entrance in the
centre of the longer side, and the tribunes at either end were divided
off from the basilica by a double aisle of columns. The basilica plan
was adopted because it was the simplest and most economical
building of large size which could be erected, having an immense
central area or nave well lighted by clerestory windows, and single or
double aisles to divide the two sexes, and further because the immense
supply of columns which could be taken from existing temples or
porticoes enabled the architect to provide at small cost the colonnades
or arcades between the nave and the aisles. On the other hand, there
is no doubt that the temples, for which there was no further use. were
Athens. There are some cases in which it is interesting to note the
changes which were made to convert the temple into a church. In
the temple of Athena at Syracuse, walls were built in between the
columns of the peristyle, the cella was appropriated for the nave, and
arcades were cut through the cella walls to communicate with the
peristyle, so as to constitute the aisles. In the temple of Aphrodisias,
la Asia Minor, a further development occurred. The walls of the
cella were taken down, a wall was built outside the columns of the
peristyle to form aisles, and the columns of the east and west end
were taken down and placed in line with the others, in order to
increase the length of the church.
The earliest Christian basilica built in Rome was the Latcran,
which has, however, been so completely transformed in subsequent
rebuilding* as to have lost its original character. The next in date
(EARLY CHRISTIAN
was that of the old St Peter's, which was taken dowa la 1906; la
consequence of Its ruinous condition, in order to make way for the
present cathedral, begun by Pope Julius 1 1. It was of considerable
size, covering an area of 73,000 ft. Its plan consisted of an atrium,
or open court, having a fountain in the centre, and arcades round;
a nave, 275 ft. long and 77 ft. wide, with double aisles on each aide;
a transept, 270 ft. long by $4 ft. wide : and a semi-circular apae or
tribune with a radios of 27 ft. : the high altar being in the centre of
its choir, and ranges of marble seats and the papal throne in the
middle, corresponding to the benches and the judge's seat of the
Roman tribune. The nave, therefore, with its double aisles, was
similar to that of the Ulpian basilica, but the aisles were not returned
across the east end, and at the west end. in their place, was the great
triumphal arch opening into the transept. The monolith columns of
the nave and their capitals (together 40 ft. high) were all taken from
ancient buildings, as also were those of the aisle arcades and in the
atrium.
The basilica of St Paul, outside the walls, was originally of com-
paratively small dimensions, with its apse at the west end; in
a.d. 386 the church was rebuilt on a plan similar to St Peter's, with
naveand double aisles, divided by columns carrying arches, transept
and apse. In the Lateran basilica, StPeter's, Santa Maria Maggiorr.
and St Lawrence (outside the walls), the columns of the nave were
close-set {i.e. with narrow intercohimniadons) and supported
architraves, but in Sf Paul (outside the walls) the columns of the
second church (a.d. 386) were wider apart and carried arches. The
same feature is found in the church of St Agnes, founded a.d. 324,
but rebuilt 620-040; here the arcade is carried across the west
end and there arc galleries above, the arches being carried on dosseret
blocks above the capitals; these are also found in the galleries over
the western end of St Lawrence, added by Honorius (a.d. 620-640) ;
the dosseret, a Byzantine feature, being derived either from Ravenna
or from the East. In the church of Santa Maria-in-Cosmedin (a.d.
772-795) another Byzantine feature appears in the triple apse at
the east end, the earliest example in Europe. In this church, as
also in those of San Clemente and San Praasede, piers are built at
intervals to carry the arcades separating the nave and aisles. Those
in the latter, however, were probably added when the great arches
were thrown across the nave. The church of San Clemente was
built in 1108, above a much older church dating from 585 and
restored later; it is almost the only church in Rome which has pre-
served its atrium intact; the internal arrangement of the church
also is different from that found elsewhere, the choir, enclosed with
marble piers and screens removed from the lower church and erected
in front of the tribune, dating from A.D. 514-523. The mosaics
executed in 11 12 are in fine preservation.
Other early churches in Rome are those of Santa Pudenziana
(335); San Pietro-in-Vincoli (44?). with Doric columns in the nave;
S5. Quattro Coronati (450); Santa Sabina (450), an interesting
church on account of the marble inlaid decoration in the arch
spandrils of the nave, which date from 824; San Prassede (8x7),
with arches thrown across the nave later; San Vincenxo ed Anastasio
alle Tre Fontane (626); and Santa Maria in Domnica, where there
are galleries over the aisles and across the east end as in St Agnes.
Hitherto we have said little about the architectural design, the
fact being that externally these churches had the appearance of
barns; it Is only in a few cases, notably in St Peters, that the
principal fronts were decorated with mosaics. The magnificent
materials employed internally, the monolith marble columns, the
enrichment of the apse and the triumphal arch with mosaics, and
probably the painting and gilding of the ceiling or roof, gave to
the early basilican churches in Rome that splendour which
characterizes those in Byzantium and in Ravenna.
With the exception of the baptistery attached to St John Lateran,
and the so-called tomb of Santa Constantia, both erected by Con-
stantine, the circular form of church was not adopted in Rome;
there is one remarkable circular building of great size, San Stcfano
Rotondo, at one time thought to have been a Roman market, but
now known to have been erected by Pope Simplicius (468-482).
It consisted of a central circular nave, 44 ft. in diameter, and double
aisles round. In the arcade dividing the aisles the arches are carried
on dosserets, the earliest known example of this feature in Rome.
Although inferior in size, the two churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo,
built by Theodoric (493-5*5) end Sant' Apollinare-in-Classe (538-
549), both in Ravenna, have the special advantage that they were
constructed in new materials, there being no ancient Roman temples
there to pull down. The ordinary basilican plan was adhered to,
but as the architects and workmen came from Constantinople, they
incorporated in the building various details of the Byzantine style,
with which they were best acquainted. Thus the contour of the
mouldings, the carrying of the capitals and imposts, the dosseret
above the capital, and the scheme of decoration of the interior with
marble casing on the lower portion of the walls and mosaic above,
are all Byzantine. Externally the churches are extremely plain,
the wall surfaces .of the nave and aisle walls being varied by blind
arcades.
The earliest building in Ravenna is the tomb of Gaila Plactdia,
built 450, a small cruciform structure with a dome on pendentivea
over the centre, perhaps the earliest example known. The bapt tstery
of St John, which was attached to the cathedral built by Archbishop
EARLY CHRISTIAN)
ARCHITECTURE
389
Ursus (380), now destroyed, w a plain octagonal building, 40 ft. in
diameter, originally with a timber roof; when in 451 it was deter-
mined to replace this by a vault, in order to resist the thrust, the
upper part of the walls was brought forward on arches and corbels,
and the interior richly decorated with paintings, stucco reliefs and
mosaics in the dome. The most interesting building in Ravenna,
however, from many points of view, is the church of San Vitale
(fig. 30), built 539-547. its plan and design being- based on the
church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople. The propor-
tions of the interior .of St Sergius are much finer than those in San
Vitale. where the dome is raised too high ; the timber roofs also of
San Vitale have deprived the church externally of that fine archi-
tectural effect found in Byzantine churches. In order to lighten the
dome, its shell was built with hollow pots, the end of one fitted into
the mouth of the other. The interior of the church is of 'great beauty,
owing to the alternating of the piers carrying the eight arches with
the columns set back in apsidal recesses. Unfortunately the church
has been much restored, but the magnificent mosaics in the choir
and the variety of design shown in the capitals and dosserets render
f y y
Fio. 30.— Plan of S, Vitale, Ravenna.
this church, though small, one of the most attractive in Italy.
One other Ravenna building must be mentioned, though it would
be difficult to know under what style to class it. The tomb of
Theodoric, having a decagonal plan in two storeys, the lower one
vaulted at the upper storey, set back to allow of a terrace " round,
once sheltered by a small arcade, and covered by a single stone
35 ft. in diameter, belongs to no definite style; the mouldings of the
upper portion have some resemblance to the mouldings of some of
the Etruscan tombs at Castel d'Asso, which was probably known to
Theodoric.
As Dalmatia and Istria both formed part of Theodoric's kingdom,
we find there the same Byzantine influence as that which was
asserted in Ravenna, in both cases the work being done by artists
and masons from Constantinople. There is not -much left in Dal-
matia. but in Istria are two important examples, — the churches at
Parenzo (535-543) and Crado (571-586). Like the two churches in
Ravenna, they are basiiican in plan, with apses, semi-circular
internally and polygonal externally, the latter being a characteristic
found in all the churches in Europe which were influenced directly
by Byzantine custom. Although the monolith columns were derived
from ancient Roman buildings, all the capitals were specially carved
for the two churches, and they have the same variety of design
and in many cases are identical with those in San vitale, Sant'
Apollinare Nuovo, Sant' Apollinarc-in-Classc, and those brought
over from Constantinople, which now decorate St Mark's at Venice
internally as well as externally. The decoration of the lower part
of the walls internally, with marble slabs, and the upper portion and
apsidal vaults with mosaic, follows on the same lines as those at
Ravenna and Constantinople, The church at Parenzo still retains
its baptistery and atrium, from which fragments of the mosaics
which originally decorated the west front can be seen. The
church at Aquileia was rebuilt in the llth century, and the
Duomo of Trieste has beep so altered as to lose its original Byzantine
character. (R. P. S.)
Early Christian Work itr Central Syria
Contemporaneously with the early developments of the Christian
churches just described, another line of treatment was being evolved
m central Syria, which would seem to have been quite independent
of the others, though at first sight it bears considerable resemblance
to the Byzantine style, and for that reason was probably classed
and described under that head by Fergusson. But the leading
characteristic of the Byzantine style is the dome over the centre of the
church round which all other features are grouped, whereas in central
Syria, with the exception of two examples— one a circular, the other
a polygonal church— there are no domes. There is considerable Greek
feeling* in the mouldings and carvings of the capitals, but that is
probably due to the fact that the masons were originally of Creek
extraction. A comparison, for instance, of the design and carving
of the largest church in central Syria, the famous building erected
round the column of St Simeon Stylitea at Kalat-Seman, dating
from the 6th century, with any Byzantine church of the same date,
shows very little resemblance, because the former was inspired more
or less directly by the Roman remains in the country. A similar
inspiration is found in the churches of St Trophime at Aries and St
Gines in the south of F ranee, and at Autun and Langres in Burgundy.
Both were founded on Roman work, and the mouldings of the
pediments and archivolts and the fluting of the pilasters at Kabt-
Seman, of the 6th century, are identical with what is found, quite
independently, in Provence and Burgundy in the nth and 12th
centuries. There is, however, another special characteristic found
in the masonry of the churches in central Syria, which is peculiar
to the whole of Palestine, and is found in the earliest remains there,
as also in Roman work, and to a certain extent in much of the
Mahommedan construction and in that of the Crusaders, viz. its
megalithic qualities. Instead of building an arch in several vous-
soirs, they preferred to do it in three or five only, and sometimes
would cut the whole arch out of a single vertical slab. If they
employed voussoirs, they were not content with ordinary depth,
shown by the archivolt mouldings, but made them three or four
times aa deep.
The masons, in fact, would seem to have retained the traditional
Phoenician custom of the country to employ the largest stones they
were able to quarry, transport and raise on the building. Subse-
quently, in working down the masonry, they reproduced the archi-
tectural features they found in Roman buildings; this was done,
however, without any knowledge as to their constructional origin or
meaning; thus, in copying a Roman pilaster, the capital ana part
of the shaft would be worked out of one stone, and the lower part
of the shaft and the base out of another. It is only from this point
of view that we can account for the peculiar development given to
the decoration of their later work, where archivolts, wood mould-
ings and window dressings are looked upon as simply surface
decoration to be applied round doorways and windows, without any
reference to the jointing of the masonry.
The immense series of monuments, civil as well as religious-
existing throughout central Syria, were almost entirely unknown
before the publication of the marquis of Vogue's work. La Syria
centrale, in 1865-1867.- This work, illustrated with measured plans,
sections and elevations, with perspective views, and accompanied
by detailed descriptions of the various buildings, forms an invaluable
record of an architectural style, more or less completely developed,
which flourished from the 3rd to the beginning of the 7th century.
An American archaeological expedition made further investigations
in 1899-1900, and its report, written by Mr H. C. Butler, contains
additional plans and a large number or photogravures, which bear
testimony to the truth and accuracy of the engraved plates of the
marquis de Vogfl6. The preservation of these central Syrian remains,
more or less intact, is considered to have been due either to the
desertion of all the towns in which they were situated by the in-
habitants at the time of the Mahommedan invasion, or, according
to Mr H. C. Butler, to the deforesting of the whole country about the
commencement of the 7th century.
The monuments and buildings illustrated may be divided into
three classes, — ecclesiastical, including monasteries; civil and
domestic; and tombs. It is in the two first that tne principal
interest is centred.
Churches.— The earliest of these date from the end of the 4th
century, and the latest inscription on a church is 609, so that a
little over 200 years includes the whole series. With one or two
small exceptions all the churches follow the basiiican plan, with
nave and aisles separated by arcades, the arches of which are carried
by columns, four arches on each side in the smaller churches, ten in
the largest. The churches are all orientated, and have generally a
semi-circular apse, and occasionally a square or rectangular sanctuary
at the east end, on either side of which are square chambers, — the
diaconicon, reserved for the priests, on the south side, and the
prothesis, on the north side, in which the offerings of the faithful
were deposited. Except in the earliest churches, the entrance waa
generally at the west end, and was sometimes preceded by a porch.
In addition to the west entrance, there were sometimes doorways
leading direct into the north and south aisles, with projecting
porticoes. About the middle of the 6th century a change was made
in the design of the arcades in the nave, and rectangular piers with
arches of wide span were substituted for the ordinary arcade with
columns. The effect as shown in the engravings and photogravures
is so fine that it is strange that the scheme was never adopted in
the earlier Romanesque churches of Europe. The two more
important examples are at Kalb-Lauzeh (fig. 31) and Ruweiha, but
three or four others are known, and this plan was adopted in the
basilica erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek. All
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ARCHITECTURE [early christian
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EARLY CHRISTIANJ
the whole being enclosed in a square ; in the apse-at the east end. the
seats of the tribune are still preserved.
Domestic Work. — The domestic work in central Syria is, in a way,
even more remarkable than the ecclesiastical. Broadly speaking,
there are two types of plan — those found in the towns and grouped
together, and those which, with increased area, constituted a villa.
At EH Barah the average house occupied a site of about 80 ft. by
60 ft., of which about 30 ft. in width was occupied by an open court ;
facing this court* which was enclosed with high walls, is an open
colonnade on two floors, which always faces south, occupies the
whole front (80 ft.) of the house, and is the only means of approach
to the rooms in the rear, three on each floor, Bide by side*. In the
centre of these rooms, 14 ft. wide each, an arch is thrown .across on
each floor, which carries slabs of stone covering the first floor and
the roof: the upper storey was reached probably by a timber
staircase, now gone, but in poorer dwellings an external flight of
steps in stone led to an upper floor. All the houses face the same way.
The colonnade of the house consisted of about fifteen columns on
each storey. Each column, including its capital and base, was cut
out of a single stone; on the upper storey, between the columns.
are stone vertical slabs forming a balustrade; the houses are all
built in fine ashlar masonry with architraves and cornices to doors
and windows, a luxury which in England could rarely be indulged
in for ordinary houses. At El Barah, In an area of about 250 ft. by
150 ft. as shown by de Vogue, there are about xoo monolith columns,
la ft. high, on the ground storey alone. In a villa at El Barah the-
open court is surrounded on three sides by buildings, those at the east
end of considerable extent and in three storeys. A smaller example
at Mujefeia has two courts, one of them being for stables and other
services; otherwise the residence of the proprietor Is similar to the
one above described. Here and there the fantasy of the artist has
been allowed to revel in the carving of the balustrades, door lintels,
ftc The capitals are of endless design, and show interpretations
of look and Corinthian capitals, in some cases not dissimilar to the
Byzantine versions in St Mark's at Venice.
Hostelries and public baths are, amongst other civil, buildings
which are recognisable, the hostelries in some cases being attached
to the monasteries.
Tombs. — The principal tombs are either excavated in the rock,,
with an open court in front and an entrance portico, like the tombs
of the kings at Jerusalem, and sometimes a superstructure of columns
or a podium raised above them ; or again they are built in masonry,
and take the form of sepulchral chapels; in the latter case, if many
sarcophagi have to be deposited, and the chapel is of great length, '
arches are thrown across, about 6 ft centre to centre, to support the
slabs of stone with which they are covered. This- carries on the
traditional custom of the Roman temples in Syria, the roofs of
which, in stone, were similarly supported,. Sometimes there will be
two storeys, the upper one covered with a dome. Those which are
peculiar to the country are square tombs, with a pyramidal stone roof
all built in horizontal courses, and either enclosed with a peristyle all
round, on one or two storeys, or having a portico in front with flat
stone roof. The cornices, string courses and lintels of the doors of
these tombs of the 4th and 5th centuries, are enriched with carving,
showing strong Byzantine influence, though probably due to the
employment of Greek artists. (R. P. S.)
The Comic Church in Egypt
The earliest places of Christian worship in Egypt were probably
only chapels or oratories of small dimensions attached to the
monasteries, which were spread throughout the country ; a wholesale
destruction of these took place at various times, more especially by
the order of Severus, about 200 B.C., so that no remains nave come
down to as. The most ancient examples known are those which are
attributed to the empress Helena, of which there are important
portions preserved in the churches of the White and Red monasteries
, basilican, i.e.
, „ , were not copied
from Roman examples, but were based on expansions of the first
oratories built, to which aisles had afterwards been added. There
are no long transepts, as in the early Christian basilicas of St Peter's
at Rome, and of St Paul outside the walls, and there is only one
example of a cruciform church with a dome in the centre following
the Byzantine plan. Even at an early period the nave and aisles
were covered sometimes with barrel vaults, either semicircular or
elliptical. The Coptic church was always orientated with the
sanctuaries at the east end. The aisles were returned round the west
end and had galleries above for women. Sometimes the western
a We has been walled up to form a narthex; in many cases a narthex
was built, but, in consequence of the persecution to which the Copts
were subject at the hands of the Moslems, its three doors have been
blocked up and a separate small entrance provided. The narthex
was the place for penitents, but was sometimes used for baptism by
total immersion, there being epiphany tanks sunk in the floor of the
churches at Old Cairo, known as Abu Scrga, Abu-s-Sifain (Abu
Sefen) and El Adra: these are now boarded over, as total immersion
b no longer practised.
There are a few exceptions to the basilican plan; and m four
examples (two in Cairo and two at Deir-Mar-Antonios in the eastern
ARCHITECTURE
39'
at the foot of the Libyan hills near Suhag.
Although the plan of the Coptic church is generally
consists of nave and aisles, it is probable that they we
desert by the* Gulf of Suez) there are three aisles of equal widths,
divided one from the other by two rows of columns with three in
each row, thus dividing the roof into twelve square compartments*
each of which is covered with a dome.
The sanctuaries at the east end, as developed in the Coptic church,
differ in some particulars from those of any other religious structures.
There are always three chapels or sanctuaries, with an altar in each,
the central chapel being known as the Haikal. The chapels are more
often square than apsidal, and are always surmounted by a complete
dome, a peculiarity not found out of Egypt. The seats of the tribune
arc still preserved in a large number of the sanctuaries, and there
arc probably more examples in Egypt than in all Europe, if Russia:
and Mount Athos be excepted. Those of Abu-Serga, El Adra and
Abu-s-Sifain. with three concentric rows of scats and a throne in the.
centre, are the most important; but even in the square sanctuaries
the tradition is retained, and seats are ranged against the east wall,
and in one case (at Anba-Bishfii) three steps are carried across, ana
behind them is a segmental tribune of three steps, with throne in the.
centre. ...
The most remarkable Coptic churches in Egypt are those of the
Deir-el-Abiad (the White monastery) and the Deir-el-Akhmar (the
Red monastery) at Suhag. These were of great size, measuring about
240 ft. by no ft. with vaulted narthex, nave and aisles separated by
two rows 01 monolith columns taken from ancient buildings, twelve
In each row and probably roofed over in timber, and three apses,
directed respectively towards the east, north and south. These
apses are unusually deep and have five niches in each, in two storeys
separated by superimposed columns. In the church of St John at
Antlnoe there are seven niches, A similar arrangement is found in
the three apses, placed side by side, in the more ancient portion of
St Mark's, .Venice, built A.D. 820, and said to have been copied from
St Mark's at Alexandria. There is no external architecture in the
Coptic churches; they are all masked with immense enclosure
walls, so as to escape attention. The walls of the interior still
preserve a great portion of the paintings of scriptural subjects;
the screens dividing off the Haikal and other chapels from the choir
are of great beauty, and evidently formed the models from which
the; panelled woodwork, doors and pulpits of the Mahommedan
mosques have been copied and reproduced by Copts.
Illustrations arc given In A. J. Butler's Ancient Coptic Churches of
Egypt (1884) ; Wladimir de Bock's Matiriaux archiohgiques de
V Egypt* chritienne (1901 ) ; and A. Gayet's L'arl coptique.
(R. P. S.)
Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in Italy
" Romanesque " is the broad generic term adopted about the
beginning of the 19th century by French archaeologists in order
to bring under one head all the various phases of the round-
arched Christian style, hitherto known as Lombard and Byzantine
Romanesque in. Italy, Rhenish in Germany, " Romane" and
Norman in France, Saxon and Norman in England, && In
character, as well as m time, the Romanesque lies between the
Roman and the Gothic or Pointed style, but its first manifesta-
tion in Italy has already been described in the section on " Early
Christian Architecture," and it only remains to deal with the
subsequent development from the age of Charlemagne, which
marks an epoch in the history of architecture, and from which
period examples are to be found in every country.
In consequence of the lack of homogeneousness in the Roman-
esque style as developed in Italy, owing to the mixture of styles,
and the difficulty of tracing the precise influence of any one race
in buildings frequently added to, restored or rebuilt, their
description will be more easily followed if a geographical sub-
division be made, the simplest being Northern or Lombard
Romanesque, Central Romanesque and Southern Romanesque;
after the latter would follow the Sicilian Romanesque, which,
owing to the Saracenic craftsman, constitutes a type by itself.
This leaves still one other phase to be noted, the influence
recognized in northern Italy of the architectural style of the
Eastern Empire at Byzantium, either direct or through Istria and
Dalmatia. In the churches at Ravenna, this influence has
already been referred to in the section on " Early Christian
Architecture," but it appears again in the church of St Mark
at Venice, and in much of its domestic architecture, so that it
is necessary to recognize another term, that of " Byzantine
Romanesque."
Northern or Lombard Romanesque.— Although the materials for
forming an adequate notion of the earlier work of the Lombards are
very scanty, after their conversion to the Catholic faith the Church
probably exercised a powerful influence in their architectural work.
Under Liutprand, towards the close of the 8th century, an order
39*
ARCHITECTURE
[ITALIAN ROMANESQUE
known as the Magistri Commacini was established, to whom were
8'ven the privileges of freemen in the Lombard State. These
>mmacini, so named from the island in the lake of Como whence
they sprang, were trained masons and builders, who in the 9th and
10th century would seem to have carried the Lombard style through
north and south Italy, Germany and portions of France. It was at
one time assumed that they had influenced the church architecture
throughout Europe, but this is not borne out by the evidence of the
buildings themselves, except in the Rhenish provinces and in the
districts on the slope of the Harz Mountains, where in sculpture a
strange mixture is found of monstrous animals with Scandinavian
interlaced patterns and Byzantine foliage, bearing a close resemblance
to the early sculpture in bant' Ambrogio at Milan and San Michele
at Pa via (Plate v.. fig. 72). Although the earliest Lombard buildings
in Italy (such as those of San Salvatore in Brescia, San Vincenzo-in-
Prato at Milan, the church of Agliateand Santa Maria dellc Caccie
at Pavia) were basilican in plan with nave and aisles, there are some
instances in. which the adoption of a transept has produced the
Latin cross plan (e.g. San Michele at Pavia, Sant' Antonino at
Piacenza. San Nazaro-Grandc at Milan, and the cathedrals of Parma
and Modena), though to what extent this is due to subsequent
rebuilding is not known. In the early basilicas above mentioned,
the columns, carrying the arcades between nave and aisles, were
taken from earlier buildings, while the capitals, where not Roman,
were either rude imitations of Roman, or Byzantine in style. The
roofs were always in wood, and the exteriors of the simplest descrip-
tion. In the external decoration, however, of the apses of the
churches of San Vuiccnzo- in- Prato, Santa Maria delle Caccie, the
church at Agliate and the ancient portion of S. Ambrogio at Milan,
we find the germ of that decorative feature which (afterwards
developed into the eaves-gallery) became throughout Italy and on
the Rhine the most beautiful and characteristic element of the
Lombard style. In order to lighten the wall above the hemispherical
vault of the apse, a series of niches was sunk within the arches of the
corbel table, which gave to the cornice that deep shadow where it
was most wanted for effect. In addition to the churches above
named, similar niches are found in the baptisteries of Novara and
Arsago, the Duomo Veccbio at Brescia and the church of San
Nazaro Grande at Milan. Towards the dose of the nth century,
the imposts of these niches take the form of isolated piers, with a
narrow gallery behind, and eventually small shafts with capitals are
substituted for the piers, producing the eaves-galleries of the apses,
which in Santa Maria Maggiore at Bergamo (1 137) and the cathedral
of Piacenza are the forerunners of numerous others in Italy, and in
the churches of Cologne, Bonn, Bacharach and other examples on the
Rhine, constitute their most important external decoration.
In the apses of San Vincenzo- in- Prato and of the church at Agliate
(both of the 9th century) there is another decorative feature, destined
afterwards to become one of the most
important methods of breaking up or
subdividing the wall surface, i.e. the thin
pilasterstnps, which, at regular intervals,
rise from the lower part of the wall to the
corbel table of the cornice.
The two most important churches of
the Lombard Romanesque style are
those of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan and S.
Michele at Pavia, their importance being
increased by the fact that they probably
represent the earliest examples of the
solution of the great problem which was
exercising the minds of the church
I builders towards the end of the nth
I century, the vaulting of the nave. In
I the original church* of the 9th century,
hsj the nave and aisles of Sant' Ambrogio
I were divided in the usual way with
■ arcades, and were covered with open
timber roofs. In the rebuilding of the
church (fig. 35) the nave (38 ft. wide)
was divided into four square bays, and
compound piers of large dimensions were
built, to carry the transverse and.
diagonal ribs of the new vault. To resist
the thrust, the walls across the aisles were
built up to the roof, and had external
buttresses; the diagonal ribs, instead of
following the elliptical curve which the
intersection of the Roman semicircular
barrel-vault gave to the groin, were made
semicircular, so that the web or vaulting
surface which rested on these ribs rose
Flo. 35 — Plan of upwards towards the centre of the bay,
S. Ambrogio. giving a distinct domical form to the
vault. The aisles, being half the.
width of the nave, were divided into eight compartments, two
to each bay of the nave, and were covered both in the ground
storey and the triforium with intersecting groin vaults. When this
rebuilding took place, the front of the church was brought forward*
bearing a narthex. and the arcades of the atrium were rebuilt in
the first years of the 12th century. The triple apse, to the external
decoration of which we have called attention, the crypt underneath,
and the south campanile, are the only remains of the 9th century
church. The campanile on the north side was built 1 125-1 149. and
the decoration with pilaster strips, semi-detached shafts, and arched
corbel table, is repeated on the facade of the church and on the arcade
round the atrium. In the rebuilding, portions of the sculptural
decoration of the 9th century church were utilized; this would
appear to have been a Lombard custom, as in the church of San
Michele the lower part of the main front is encrusted with sculptured
decoration taken from the earlier churches built on the site. These
ancient sculptures are of special interest, as they constitute the best
records of the rude Lombard work of the 8th and oth centuries, and
are intermingled with Bvzantine scroll work and interlaced patterns.
If the plan of Sant* Ambrogio, with its comparatively thin enclosure
walls, suggests its original construction as an ordinary basilica, this
is not the case with San Michele (fig. 36), where all the external
walls are of great thickness,showing that from the first it was intended
to vault the whole structure. The church is much smaller than
Sant' Ambrogio, there being originally only two square bays to the
nave (in the 15th century the vaults were rebuilt with four -bays);
the transept, however, projects widely beyond the aisles, and as
there is another bay given to the choir in front of the apse, the area
of the two churches is about the same. The existing church was
Fig. 36.— Plan of San Michele, Pavia.
probably begun shortly after the destructive earthquake of 1117,
and was consecrated in 1132. Jn Sant' Ambrogio L__
and diagonal arches spring from just above the triforium floor, so
that there was no room for clerestory windows, and c on se q u en tly
the interior is dark. In San Michele the ribs rise from the level of
the top of the triforium arcades, and two clerestory windows are
provided to each bay. The crossing of the nave and transept is
covered with a dome, carried on squinchcft, which dates from the
first building. The dome over the fourth bay of Sent' Ambrogio
replaced the original vault about the beginning of the 13th century.
The cathedral of Novara, originally of the ordinary basilica type
of the 1 oth century with timber roofs, was reconstructed in J he nth
century, compound piers being built to carry the transverse and
diagonal ribs-, and walls built across the outer aisles to resist the
thrust; on the other hand SS. Pietro and Paolo at Bologna is a 12th
century church, which was designed from the first to be vaulted.
To these, and still belonging to the basilican plan, mutt be added
San Pietro in Cielo d'oro (1136) and San Teodoro. both in Pavia;
S. Evasio at Casale-Monferrato. having a comparatively narrow
nave with double aisles on either side anda very remarkable narthex
or porch: S. Lorenzo at Verona (lately restored), which m the lath
century was rebuilt with compound piers to carry a vault (the apse
and the two remarkable circular towers in the west front belong to
the ancient church) ; and Sam* Abbondio at Como, often restored
and partly rebuilt, retaining, however, some of the original sculpture
of the early Lombard period.
Of churches built on the plan of the Latin cross, examples are
Sant* Antonino at Piacenza, with an octagonal lantern tower over
the crossing; Parma cathedral (c. 1 175). with an octagonal pointed
r the crossing; Modena cathedral, rebuilt ana com J
ITALIAN ROMANESQUg)
ARCHITECTURE
393
In 1 184 ; San Nazaro-Grande at Milan ; and San Lanfranco at Pavia,
the two latter without aisles.
Reference has already been made to the caves-galleries of the
apses of the Lombard churches. A similar gallery was carried across
the main front, rising with the slope of the roof, as in San Michele,
Pavia; also on the west fronts of San Pictro in Ctelo d'oro and San
Lanfranco, at Pavia; and in the cathedrals of Parma and Piacenza.
In all these cases the galleries are not quite continuous, vertical
buttresses or groups of shafts or single shafts being carried up through
them to the corbel tables. In S. Ambrogio at Milan the central
original lantern is surrounded with two tiers of galleries. The finest
example of their employment, however, is in the magnificent central
tower of the Cistercian church at Chiaravalle, near Milan, where the
two lower storeys form the drum of the internal dome, the two
storeys above are set back, and the upper storey consists of a lofty
octagonal tower with conical spire.
One of the serious defects in the front of the church of San Michele
at Pavia is that it forms a mask, and takes no cognizance of the aisle
roofs, which are at a lower level, and the same is found in San
Pietro-in-Cielo d'oro at Pavia. This mask is carried to an absurd
extent in the church of Santa Maria delta Pieve at Arezzo, in which,
above the ground storey of the arcades, are three galleries forming
strong horizontal lines, which suggest the numerous floors of a civic
building instead of the vertical subdivisions of a church. This
defect a not found in the church of San Zeno at Verona, which is one
of the finest of the Lombard churches; the church is basilican in
plan, the nave being divided into five bays with compound piers,
as in Sant' Ambrogio, as if it were intended to vault it ; this, however,
was never done, but stone arches arc thrown across the two western-
most bay» of the nave as if to carry the roof (now concealed by a
wooden ceiling). The facade is of marble and sandstone, with
ptLaster-strips rising from the base to the arched corbel table, and
the outline of the nave and aisle* is preserved in the front, in which
all the mouldings and carving are of the utmost delicacy. Both here
and in the cathedral are fine examples of those projecting porches,
the columns ol which are carried on the backs of lions or other beasts.
At Piacenza, Parma, Mantua, Bergamo and Modcna are porches of
a similar kind, and in the cathedral of Modena the columns which
support the balcony on the entrance to the crypt arc all carried on
the backs of lions. The cathedral of Verona has suffered so much
from rebuilding and restoration that little remains of the earlier
structure, but the apse of the choir, decorated with a close set range
of pilaster-strips, with bases and Corinthian capitals and cromncd
with a highly enriched entablature, is quite unique in its design.
Among circular buildings, the Rotonda at Brescia was at one
time considered to date from the 8th century, owing to its massive
construction and the simplicity and plainness of its external design,
Later discoveries, however, have shown that the early date can only
be given to the crypt of San Filasterio situated to the eastward of the
Rotonda. The church of Santo Scpolcro at Bologna, as its name
implies, is one of those reproductions of the church of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem which were built by the Templars during
the crusades. Of much earlier date is the circular church of San
Tommaso-in-Limine, an early Lombard work of the 9th century, to
which period belong also the baptisteries of Albenga. Arsago, Biella,
Galbano and Attn One of the most beautiful examples is the
baptistery of Santa Maria at Gravedona, at the northern end of the
lake of Corao, built in black and white marble. The plan is unusual,
and consists of a square with circular apses on three sides.
Bytantiu4 Romanesque— Although in the first basilica n church of
St Mark at Venice, erected in 929 to receive the relics of the saint
recovered from St Mark's in Alexandria, the capitals of the columns
and other decorative accessories showed Greek influence, its trans-
formation into a five-domed Byzantine structure was not begun till
about the middle of the nth century. The date given by Cattanco
is io63 P the same year in which the cathedral of Pisa was begun;
it is probable, however, that the scheme had already been in con-
templation for some years, as the problem was not an easy one to
solve, owing to the restrictions ot the site, and to the desire to
reproduce in some way the leading features of the church of the Holy
Apostles at Constantinople. This church was destroyed in 1464,
but its description by Procopius is so clear, and corresponds so closely
with St Mark's, completed towards the end of the nth century, as to
leave little doubt about the source of its inspiration. From what has
already been said with reference to the great changes made when it
was proposed to vault the early Lombard basilican churches, those
of equal importance which were carried out in St Mark's will be
better under st ood. The nave was divided into three square bays
(fig- 37)i *ith additional bays on the north and south to lorm tran-
septs; the five square bays thus obtained were covered with domes
carried on pendentives, as in St Sophia at Constantinople, and on
wide transverse barrel vaults; the domes over the north and south
transepts and the choir were of slightly less dimensions than those
over the nave and crossing, in consequence of the limitations in area
caused by the chapel of St Theodore on the north, the ducal palace
on the south, and the ancient apse of the original basilica which it
was desired to retain. In the reconstruction, many of the old columns,
capitals and parapets were utilized again in the arcades carrying the
galleries and in the balustrades over them. Externally the brick
walla were decorated with blind arcades and niches of Lombard
style, and all the roof vaults were covered with lead as in Constanti-
nople. The subsequent decoration of the exterior took two centuries
to carry out, not including the florid work of later date. There is no
precedent in the East for the superimposed columns and capitals
exported from Constantinople and Syria which now decorate the
north, south and west fronts (Plate I., fig. 63), though the materials
were all of the finest Byzantine type. Internally, the mosaic decora-
tion of the domes, vaults and the upper part of the walls, was carried
out by Greek artists from Constantinople, who probably also were
employed for the marble panelling of the lower part of the walls.
The marble casing of the front was certainly executed by Constanti-
nopolitan artists, since the moulded string known as the " Venetian
dentil " is a direct reproduction of that in St Sophia. At a later
date the domes were all surmounted by lanterns in wood, covered
with lead, and the roofs were all raised. So far, therefore, the build-
ing departs from its prototype, the church of the Apostles. A
similar transformation took place in the church of Santa Fosca at
B
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ScaU or F*et .
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Fio. 37.— Plan of St Mark's, Venice.
Torcelfo, where a single large dome was contemplated over the centre
of the original basil ican church, but was never built. The cathedral
of TorcelTo and the church at Murano are richly decorated with
carved panels, capitals, choir screens and other features, either
imported from the East or reproduced by Greek artists or Italians
trained in the style. The influence of St Mark's in this respect
extended far and wide on the east coast of Italy; and at Pomposa.
Ancona. and as far south as Brindisi, Byzantine details can be traced
everywhere. The designs of the churches of San Ciriaco at Ancona
and of Sant' Antonio at Padua were both based on St Mark's.
Sant' Antonio's had six domes, there being two over the nave;
and in all cases the domes were surmounted by domes in timber like
those of St Mark's.
In domestic work, Venice is richer in Byzantine architecture than
Constantinople, for with the exception of the Hebdomon palace the
continual fires there have destroyed all the earlier palaces and houses.
The Fondaco-dei-Turchi, built probably in the nth century, is one
of the most remarkable; the front on the great canal is 160 ft. long,
having a lofty arcade with ten stilted arches on the ground storey
and an arcade of eighteen arches above; the pavilion wings at the
cast end are in three storeys, with blind arcades and windows pierced
in the central arcade. The whole was built in brick encased with
marble, with panels or disks enriched with bas-reliefs or coloured
marbles. A second example is found in the Palazzo Loredan, having
39+
ARCHITECTURE
similar arcades, stilted arches and marble panelling; and there are
two others, one on the Grand Canal and the other on the Rio-Ca-
Foscari. Throughout Venice the decoration ot these Byzantine
palaces would seem to have influenced those of later date; for the
Venetian dentil, interlaced scroll-work and string courses, with the
Byzantine pendant leaf, arc found intermingled with Gothic work,
even down to the 15th century, and the same to a certain extent U
found at Padua, Verona and Vicenza.
Central Romanesque.— -The builders in the centre of Italy would
seem to have followed more closely the Roman basil ican plan, for
in two of the earliest churches, Santa Maria Fuorcivitas at Lucca
and San Paolo a Ripa d' Arno at Pisa, the T-shaped plan of St Peter's
and St Paul's, with widely projecting transepts, was adopted; the
difference also between the north and central developments is very
marked, as in the place of the massive stone walls, compound piers,
and internal and external buttresses deemed necessary to reust the
thrusts of the great vaults, and the low clerestory of the northern
churches, those in the south retain the light arcades with classic
columns, the wooden roofs, and the high clerestory of the Roman
basilicas. Instead of the vigorous sculpture of the Lombards in
the Tuscan churches, marbles of various colours take its place, the
carving being more refined in character and much quieter in effect.
The earliest church now existing is that of San Frediano at Lucca,
dating from the end of the 7th century. Originally it war a five-
aisled basilica, with an eastern apse, but when it was included
within the walls in the nth century the apse and the entrance
doorway changed places, and a fine eaves-gallery was carried round
the new apse ; the outer aisles were also transformed into chapels.
So many of the churches in Pisa and Lucca had new fronts given to
them in the nth or 12th century, that it is interesting to find, in
the church of San Pietro-in-Grado at Pisa, an example in which
the external decoration with pilaster strips and arched corbel tables
is retained, showing that in the 9th century, when that church was
built, the Lombard style prevailed there. Other early churches are
those of San Casdano (9th century), San Nicola and San Frediano
(1007), all in Pisa.
Of early foundation, but probably rebuilt in the 1 ith century,
are two interesting churches in Toscanella, Santa Maria and San
Pietro; they are both basilican on plan, but the easternmost bay is
twice the width of the other arches of the arcade, and is divided
from the nave by a triumphal arch. In both churches the floor of
the transept is raised some feet above the nave, and a crypt occupies
the whole space below it.
One of the earliest and most perfect examples of this subdivision
is the church of San Miniato, on a hill overlooking Florence. The
church was rebuilt in 1013, and some of the Roman capitals of the
earlier building are incorporated in the new one. It is divided into
nave and aisles by an arcade of nine arches, and every third support
consists of a compound pier with four semi-detached shafts, one of
which, on each side of tne nave, rises to the level of the summit of
the arcade and carries a massive transverse arch to support the roof.
The east end of the church, occupying the last three bays of the
arcade, is raised n ft. above the floor of the nave, over a vaulted
crypt extending the whole width of the church and carried under the
eastern apse. The interior of the church, which is covered over
with an open timber roof, painted in colour and gilded, is decorated
with inlaid patterns of black and white marble of conventional
design, and the same scheme is adopted in the main facade, enriching
the panels of the blind arcade on the lower storey, and above an
extremely classic design of Corinthian pilasters, entablature and
pediment.
As none of the facades of the Pisan churches was built before the
middle of the I ith century, it is possible that Buschctto, the architect
of the cathedral of Pisa, may have profited by the scheme suggested
in the lower storey of San Miniato; if so he departed from its classic
proportions. There are seven blind arcades in the lower storey of
the Pisan cathedral, the arcades are loftier and the position of the
side doors which open into the inner aisle on each side is of much
better effect. The cathedral was begun in 1063, the year following
the brilliant capture of Palermo by the Pisans, when they returned
in triumph with immense spoils. In plan it consists of a Latin cross,
with double aisles on either side of the nave extending to the east
end, a central apse, transepts with single aisles on each side, and
north and south transepted apses (fig. 38). The nave arcade, with
its Corinthian capitals and monolith stone columns, is of exceptional
boldness, and as it is carried across the transept up to the east end
(a length of 320 ft.) it forms a continuous line greater than that
in any other cathedral. The crossing is covered by a dome, elliptical
on plan, being from east to west the length of the transept and
aisles. The result is unfortunate, and detracts both externally and
internally from its beauty; otherwise the exterior decoration, which
must have been schemed out in its entirety from the beginning (with
the exception of the dome, which is of later design), has the most
satisfactory and pleasing effect. The lofty blind arcade of the lower
storey, and the open gallery above on the facade (the latter repre-
sented by a blind arcade), are carried round the whole building,
and the horizontal lines of the galleries of the upper storeys accora
with the roofs of the aisles and nave respectively and the blind arcade
of the clerestory. The walls are faced within and without with
white and erey marble, and the combination of sculpture and inlay
[ITALIAN ROMANESQUE
which enriches the arcades of the facades gives an additional attrac-
tion to the building. The cathedral is sometimes quoted as Byzantine
in style, but its plan and design are of widely different character
from those of any building found in the East, and the mosaics,
which constitute tne finest decorative element in that style, were not
added till the 14th century, and formed nd part of the architect
Buschctto's scheme.
The Baptistery, begun in 1 153, was not completed till towards the
close of the 13th century, when important alterations were made
in the design to bring it into accordance with the new Gothic style.
The crocketed gables, and the upper gallery, substituted for the
arcades, which followed on the lines of those in the cathedral, have
taken away the quiet repose found in the latter; the lower storey.
Fig. 38.
however, with its lofty blind arcades, similar to those of the cathedral,
and the principal doorway, are of great beauty. The central area
of the baptistery, which is surrounded by aisles and triforium
gallery, is covered by a conical dome; internally as well as ex-
ternally this can never have been a beautiful feature, and the
additions o f the 13th century have made it one of the ugliest roofs
in existence.
The Campanile or leaning tower was begun in 1x74. Owing,
however, to the treacherous nature of the ground, the piles driven
in to support the tower gave way on the south side, so that, when
only 35 ft. above the ground, a settlement was noticed, and slight
additions in height were made from time to time in order to obtain
a horizontal level for the stone courses; but this was without avail,
and on the completion of the third gallery above the ground storey
the work was suspended for many years. In 1350 it was re-
commenced, three more gallery storeys were added, and the upper
or belfry stage was set back in the inner wall. The tower is now 1 78 ft.
high, and overhangs nearly 14 ft. on the south side; ita design is
made to harmonize with the catnedral,but shows much leas l e fiu e u j e iit
and grace.
ITALIAN ROMANESQUE]
The Campo Santo, an immense rectangular court 350 ft. long by
70 it. wide, surrounded by a cloister 35 ft. wide, was begun in 1280;
the details are refined, but the poverty in the design of the tracery
with which the arcades were fitted in at a much later date detracts
from its interest, which is now mainly concerned with the beautiful
frescoes whkh decorate its walls.
As might have been expected, the cathedral of Pisa set the model
not only for the restoration of existing churches but also for new
ones, in Pisa itself and also at Lucca, Pistoia and Prato. In Pisa,
the church of San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno was rebuilt about 1060.
possibly by the architect of the cathedral; San Ptetro-in-Vincoh
and San Nicola date from the early years of the 12th century. At
Lucca the churches of Santa Giulia, San Giusto, San Martino, San
Mkhelc, and the restored front of Santa Maria Fuorcivitas, are the
principal examples in which the Pisan cathedral has suggested the
design; and at Pistoia we can point to the cathedral, Sant* Andrea,
San Pietro and San Giovanni Fuorcivitas, the latter with a south
wall decorated with three stages of blind arcades of great richness.
The cathedral of Lucca was cither restored or rebuilt at the beginning
of the 14th century, and has a distinctly Gothic effect. The lower
storey of the facade presents the unusual feature of an open porch
across the whole front with three great archways. This porch with
the three galleries above was added to the cathedral at the beginning
of the 13th century.
Southern Romaruscue.—Tht influences exerted in the early
development of the Romanesque style in the south of Italy are
much more complicated than in the north, since two new elements
come into the field, the Norman and Saracenic. Of early work very
little remains, owing to the general rebuilding in the nth century;
what u more remarkable, there is scarcely any trace of the result
of the Byranrine occupation for so many centuries; the only
exception being the church of San Gregorio at Bari, a small basil ican
structure in which the arches of the arcades separating the nave
from the aisles are stilted like those of the Fondaco-dci-Turchi at
Venice.
One of the chief characteristics noticeable in the plan is the
almost universal adoption of a transept projecting north and south
slightly beyond the aisle walls, and in some cases raised over a crypt,
as in the churches at Toscanella. Since, however, there is no
choir bay, and the central apse
opens direct into the transept, the
plan is not that of the Latin cross.
The most complete development of
this arrangement is found in the
cathedral and in the church of San
Nicola at Bari (fig. 39); both being
basilican churches with a triumphal
arch opening into the transept, — in
this respect similar to the churches
of St Peter and St Paul at Rome,
except that the transepts project
only slightly, beyond the aisles.
There is one peculiarity in both
these churches, as also in that of
the cathedral at Molfetta. East of
the transept, and at the north and
south sides, are towers, between
which is carried a wall which hides
the apse, the only indication of its
existence being the round arched
window which lights it. A similar
arrangement exists in the cathedrals
of Giovcnazzo, Bitetto and Bitonto.
The central bay of the transept
of the cathedral at Bari is sur-
mounted by an octagonal drum, the
dome within which is carried on
squ inches; a similar dome was
projected in San Nicola, but never built. In the cathedral at Bari,
as abo in San Nicola, the lofty nave is covered with a timber roof,
and has an arcade on the ground storey and a fine triforium and
clerestory windows above.
Externally these churches depend for their effect more on
their fine masonry than on any decorative treatment; the blind
arcades of the lower storey have very little projection, and the
pilaster strips which in the Lombard churches break up the wall
surface are not found herei the arched corbel tabic is freely employed
but rarely the open gallery. There is one remarkable example in
Bitonto cathedral : above the aisle chapels, and approached from
the triforium, is an open gallery, the arches of which rest on widely
projecting capitals sculptured with animals and foliage, half Lom-
bardic and half Byzantine in style. The small shafts supporting
these capitals are of infinite variety of design, with spirals, chevrons,
fluting and vertical mouldings of many kinds.
The cathedral at Molfetta is in plan quite different from those
already described, and consists of square bays with aisles, transept
and apse, having domes over the nave and crossing. The Byzantine
influence here comes in. but it is much more pronounced in La
Cattolica at Stilo, a small church square on plan with four columns
carrying the superstructure, which consists pf a central and four
ARCHITECTURE
395
f *»> 9 <? y . *y
Fig. 39. — Plan of S. Nicola
at BarL
domes on the angles. Other domed churches are those of the
Immaculata at Trani; San Sabino, Canosa; and San Marco,
Rossano. The lower part of the cathedral at Troja shows the direct
influence of the cathedral at Pisa. The cathedral at Trani has the
same plan as the churches at Bari, except that the earlier apses are
not enclosed. The cathedral of Salerno retains still the fine atrium
by Robert Guiscard in 1077. In the cathedrals of Acerenza, Aversa
and Venosa, the French chevet was introduced towards the end of
the 1 2th century.
In the magnificent octagonal tower which encloses the dome on the
crossing in the cathedral of Caserta-Vecchia, we find the interlacing
blind arcades of the Norman architecture in Sicily, as also in the
cathedral at Amalfi. The porches, entrance doorways and windows
being the chief decorative feature of the south Italian churches,
were enriched with splendid sculptures. So were the pulpits of the
cathedrals of Sessa, Ravello, Salerno and Troja, the nch mosaic
inlays at Sessa, Ravello and Salerno according in design with the
Cosmati work in Rome, though they possibly had an earlier origin
in Sicily.
* Sicilian Romanesque. — Although the earliest remains in Sicily date
from the Norman occupation of the island, they are so permeated
with Saracenic detail as to leave no doubt that the conqueror
employed the native workmen, who for two centuries at all events
had been building for the Mahommedans, and therefore, whether
Arab or Greek, had been reproducing the same style as that found
in Egypt or North Africa.
It is possible that, so far as the Norman palaces of the 12th century
are concerned, they were based on those built under the Saracenic
rule, but the requirements of a mosque and of a church are entirely
different, and therefore in the earliest church existing (San Giovanni-
dci-Lcprosi, at Palermo, built by Robert Guiscard tn a.d. 1071) we
find a completely developed Christian structure, having nave,
aisles and transepts, with a dome over the crossing and three apses.
The next church, at Troina (1078), was similar on plan, but had
three square wings at the east end instead of apses. The next two
churches, La Martorana and San Cataldo (1129), at Palermo,
followed the plan of the Greek church, with four columns carrying
the superstructure and three domes over the nave bays carried on
Saracenic squ inches, similar to those in San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi.
San Giovanni-degli-Eremiti (T-shaped on plan) has no aisles, but
carries domes overthe nave and three smaller domes on the transept.
The most important feature found in all these churches is the pointed
arch, of Saracenic origin imported from the East, which was employed
for the nave, arcades, the crossing, and in the squinches carrying
the domes. The blind arcades which decorate tne walls of San
Cataldo and of the Norman palaces — La Favara, the Torre della
Ninfa, La Ziza and La Cuba (all in or near Palermo), — in two or
three orders, and sometimes (as in the Favara palace) of great height,
have all pointed arches and no impost mouldings or capitals. The
distinguishing characteristic of these blind arcades (and the same irf
found in the open arcades) is the very slight projection of the outer
order of arch.
The finest early example of Norman architecture in SicHy is the
Cappclla Palatina, at Palermo, consecrated in 1140, and attached
to the palace. The plan consists of nave, aisles, transept and triple
apse, tne arches, all pointed and stilted, beingcarried on monolith
columns of granite and marble alternately. The nave is covered
over with a timber roof with stalactitic coves and coffered ceiling,
richly decorated in colour and gilded, the borders of the panels
bearing Arabic inscriptions in Cuftc characters. Similar inscriptions
exist on the upper part of the walls of the Cuba and Ziza palaces,
proving that tney were built by Saracenic workmen. The plans of
the cathedrals of Palermo, Messina (destroyed 1908), Cefalu and
Monreale are all similar, with nave and aisles separated by arcades,
in which the arches are all pointed and stilted, transepts projecting
north and south beyond the aisle walls, and square tmys beyond,
with apsidal terminations. That of Palermo nas much suffered
from restorations, but the cathedral of Monreale is in perfect condi-
tion. It was begun in 1176 and consecrated in 1182. The pro-
portions of the arcade are much finer than in the Cappella Palatina,
where the stilted arch was. of the same height as the shaft of the
columns, whereas here it is only half the height. The columns are
all of granite with extremely fine capitals, some of which were taken
from ancient buildings. All the roofs are in wood, with coffered
ceilings richly decorated in gold and colour. The walls to a height
of- 22 ft. are all lined with slabs of marble with mosaic friezes, and
all the surfaces of walls and arches are covered above with mosaics
representing scenes from the Old and New Testaments, while in tht
apse at the east end a gigantic figure of Christ dominates the whole
church. The same is found at Cefalu, where the mosaic decorations,
however, are confined to the apses. Externally the walls are com*
parativcly plain, the decoration being confined to the east end,
where the three apses are covered with a series of blind intersecting
arcades of pointed arches. This class of enrichment prevails through-
out the great Sicilian churches, and extends sometimes to the smaller
churches, as that of the Chiesa-dei-Vespri. Of the conventual build-
ings attached to the cathedral of Monreale, which occupied an
immense she, there remain only the cloisters, about 140 ft. square.
enclosed by an arcade with pointed arches carried on coupled
columns, the shafts of which are elaborately carved and inlaid with
396
ARCHITECTURE
(FRENCH ROMANESQUE
mosaic: the capitals are of the moat varied design and of exquisite
execution.
Italian Gothic.— Italy is poorer than any other country in examples
of the transition from round arched to pointed arched buildings.
The use of the pointed arch was accepted at last as a necessity,
and cannot be said ever to have been welcomed. The first buildings
in which it is seen worked out fully in detail are those of Niccou
Pisano and but few examples exist of good Gothic work earlier than
his time. The elaborately arcaded and sculptured west front of
Fcrrara cathedral is a screen to an early building. The cathedral
and other churches at Genoa are certainly exquisite works, but they
appear to owe their internal design rather to the influence of (perhaps)
Sicilian taste than north Italian, and the exquisite beauty of the
west front owes a good deal, at any rate, to French influence,
softened, refined and decorated by the extreme taste of an Italian
architect. The feature which most marks all Italian Gothic is the
indifference to the true use of the pointed arch. Everywhere arches
were constructed which could not have stood for a day had they
not been held together by iron rods. There was none of that sense
of the unities of art which made a northerner so jealous to maintain
the proper relations of all parts of his structure. In Niccola Pisano's
works the arch mould rarely fits the capital on which it rests. The
proportionsof buttresses to the apparent work to be done by them
are bad and clumsy. The. window traceries look like bad copies of
some northern tracery, only once seen in a hurry by an indifferent
workman. There is no life, or development or progress in the
work. If we look at the ground-plans of Italian uotmc churches,
we shall find nothing whatever to delight us. The columns are
widely spaced, so as to diminish the number of vaulting bays,
and to make the proportions of the oblong aisle vaulting bay Very
ungainly. Clustered shafts are almost unknown, the columns being
plain cylinders^ with poorly sculptured capitals. There are no
triforium galleries, and the clerestory is generally very insignificant.
In short, a comparison of the best Gothic works in Italy with the
most moderate French or English work would show at once how
vast its inferiority must be allowed to be. Still there were beauties
which ought not to be forgotten or passed over. Such were the
beautiful cloisters, whose arcades arc carried on delicate coupled
shafts,— e.f. in St John Latcran and St Paul's at Rome. Such also
were the porches and monuments at Verona and elsewhere ; and the
campaniles, — both those in Rome, divided by a number of string-
courses into a number of storeys, and those of the north, where there
are hardly any horizontal divisions, and the whole effort is to give
an unbroken vertical effect ; or that unequalled campanile, the tower
of the cathedral at Florence by Giotto, where one sees in ordered
proportion, accurately adjusted, line upon line, and storey upon
storey, perhaps the most carefully wrought-out work in all Europe.
The Italian architects were before all others devoted to the display
of colour in their works. St Mark's had led the way in this, but,
throughout the peninsula, the bountiful plenty of nature in the
provision of materials was seconded by the zcal.of the artist. They
were also distinguished for their use of brick. Just as in parts of
Germany, France, Spain and England, there were large districts
in which no stone could be had without the jgreatest labour and
trouble; and here the reality and readiness which always marked
the medieval workman led to his at once availing himself of the
natural material, and making a feature of his brickwork.
The Gothic of Italy has, it must be admitted, no such grand works
to show as more northern countries have. Allowance has to be made
at every turn for some incompleteness or awkwardness of plan,
design or construction. There is no attempt to emulate the beauties
of the best French plans. Milan cathedral, magnificent as its scale
and material make it, Ib clumsy and awkward both in plan and
section, though its vast size makes it impressive internally. San
Francesco, Assist, is only a moderately good early German Gothic
church, converted into splendour by its painted decorations. At
Orvieto a splendid west front is put, without any proper adjustment,
against a church whose merit is mainly that it is large and in parts
beautifully coloured.
.The finest Gothic interiors are of the class of which the Frari at
Venice and Sant' Anastasia at Verona are examples. They are
simple vaulted cruciform churches, with aisles and chapels on the
east side of the transepts. But even in these the designs of the
various parts in detail are poor and meagre, and only redeemed
from failure by the picturesque monuments built against their walls,
by the work of the painter, and by their furniture. In fine, Gothic
art was never really understood 10 Italy, and, consequently, never
reached to perfection.
Whilst the Pointed style was almost exclusively known and prac-
tised in northern Europe, the Italians were but slowly Improving in
their Gothic style; and the improvement was more evinced in their
secular than in their ecclesiastical structures. Florence, Bologna.
Vicenxa, Udine, Genoa, and, above all, Venice, contain palaces and
mansions of the lath, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, which for
simplicity, utility and beauty far excel most of those in the same
and other places of the three following centuries. The contemporary
churches do not exhibit the same degree of improvement in style
that is conspicuous in these domestic works, for there arc no works in
Europe more worthy of study and admiration than the Ducal Palace
at Venice* and some oi the older works of the same class, and even
of earlier date. The town halls of Perugia, Fiacenxa and Siena, and
many houses in these cities, and at Corneto, Amain, Asti, Orvieto
and Lucca, the fountains of Perugia and Viterbo, and the monuments
at Bologna, Verona and Arezzo, may be named as evidence of
the interest which the national art affords to the architectural
student even in Italy, as late as the end of the 14th century; but
after this it gradually gave way to the new style, though in
some instances its influence may be traced even when it had been
overborne by it (R. P. S.)
Romanesque and Gothic Axcrxtectuib in Fiamce
Most generally, Romanesque art is thought of as that period
of art which followed and partook of the nature of Roman
art and yet was too far removed from it to be classed as Roman*
The difference, however, was not merely one of decay; it is rather
in positive factors that we shall find the true characteristics of
the style. Its formation was parallel to the development of the
Romance languages, and like them it acquired barbaric elements.
In Rome itself hardly any, if any, contributions were made
to its growth, and there as late as the 12th century the early
Christian form of basilican church continued to be built. It
may, perhaps, best be conceived as a Germano-Roman product,
for even in Spain and north Italy, which became such strong
centres of the art, the Visigoths and Lombards provided the
Teutonic element Besides this change of " blood " in the style,
there is another element of change in the influences obtained from
the more rapidly developed art of the East This influence
indeed was so strong and constant that, having it in view, we
might almost describe the Romanesque style as Germano*
Byzantine.
In the 6th and 7th centuries we have, on the one hand, the
almost pure traditional early Christian art of Rome and indeed
of western Europe, and on the other the direct establishment of
matured Byzantine art at Ravenna, Parenzo, Naples and even
in Rome. Then followed the mixture of these and of barbaric
elements in the formation of several pre-Romanesqoe varieties,
one of which has been named Italo-Byzantine. It was not until
the age of Charlemagne that a centre was established strong
enough for the formation of a new western school which should
persist From this time a progressive style was developed which
led straight forward to the Gothic, and it is this movement which
is best called Romanesque. This art was a perfect ferment of
striving and experiment, of gathering and even of research;
Roman, Byzantine and Saxon elements entered into its com*
position.* It is probable also, as a result of Saracenic pressure
on Syria, Asia Minor, North Africa and Spain, that artists,
"bringing their crafts with them," drew together from still
remoter parts to gain the protection of the great ruler of the
West and to help in the formation of Carolingian art With the
disintegration of the empire of Charlemagne many local schools
arose in Germany, France and Lombardy, which — especially
after the year xooo, when there appears to have been a renewed
burst of building energy — resulted in considerable differentiation
of styles. The centre of energy seems to have been now here,
now there, yet with all the differences there was a general
resemblance over the -whole field. Until the exact date of a
very large number of monuments is more perfectly established,
it will be impossible to trace out exactly the intricate windings of
the line of advance. In fact there are two conflicting sides to the
question presented by Romanesque art In the first place we have
to consider the several schools in regard to a standard of absolute
attainment, and in the second as relative to the line of persistence
and to the formation of Gothic, which was so largely the culmina-
tion, and then the decay, of the forces present in Romanesque
art Some of the most beautiful and complete of the Romanesque
schools contributed least, some of the most inchoate gave the
most, to that which was to be.
The most important existing monument of the age of Charlemagne
is the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapcllc (see fig. 44) . which was being built
in the year 800. It has an octagonal central area, covered by a
dome and surrounded with two storeys of aisles both completely
vaulted The interior surface of the dome was encrusted with
mosaic. Another important work or about the same time is the
church of Germigny-des-Pres near Orleans, which also is of the
" central type," having a square tower above four piers surrounded
FRENCH GOTHIC]
by an aide with seraicireuUir apses In the centre of each external
wall, the apse to the east having a mosaic.
From the 9th to the nth century the great problem worked out
was that of perfecting the standard plans of large churches. In the
MS. plan of the monastic church of St Gall, drawn about 820. we
find a great nave with aisles, apsidal terminations both to the east
and the west, transepts and probably a central tower (cf. the abbey
church of Saint-Rjqu«r near Abbeville, built c 800, of which a slight
r epr ese ntation has been preserved). In St Martin at Tours was
probably evolved the most perfect type of plan, that with an ambu-
latory and radiating chapels surrounding the eastern apse. A
magnificent church of this form was built here at the beginning of
the 1 1 th century, but not for the first time. Excavations have shown
that the plan was probably suggested by a still earlier church in
which five tomb-niches surrounded the central apse and tomb of
St Martin. At Jumieges (begun 1040) it has recently been found
that the plan- terminated to the east with parallel apses, as at St
Albans in England ; this b a second important type. A third type
is that in which the transepts as well as the east end are finished
with apses, like St Mary-in-t he-Capitol at Cologne.
When we come to the developed Romanesque of the end of the
nth century, we find not only several French varieties, but strong
schools in Lombardy and on the Rhine. Without distinguishing too
minutely, four broad types representing schools of the east and west,
north and south (or rather north-east, north-west, south-east and
south-west) of France, may be spoken of, and all of these were
engaged in the task of completely covering with vaults large churches
of oasilican plan — the typical problem of this period. In the cast
of France we have a school represented by the monastic church of
Tournus, where the nave was vaulted tr * ' — its
placed transversely to the axis of the ct ch
has a plan of the type of St Martin's at T< tut
the nave vaults were not reached until of
vaulting persisted in Burgundy^ and fror in-
tains Abbey in England, where it is founc »t
beautiful class of buildings in eastern F he
church at Issoire is the most perfect exj ills
are here ornamented with patterns cc nd
dark stone. The wonderful church at I his
group, but here strong Moorish influence lys
were probably derived from a late Galk er-
charging of stones of two colours was a fa ing
in Romanesque churches erected between * * w .w tl0 v. i. c «nd
it at Vezclay, a magnificent abbey church of Burgundy, at Le Mans
cathedral, and as far north-west as Exeter and Worcester. In the
west (south-west) the most prominent school was that of Pcrigord,
of which the church of St Front, Perigueux, may be taken as the
example. St Front was rebuilt after a fire in n 20, but there are
many earlier specimens, two of the most important being at
Angouleme (1105-1128) and Fontevrault. This school applied a
series of domes of eastern fashion not only at the centre but over
the whole extent of the church. St Front so closely resembles St
Mark's, Venice, that it must be derived from it or from some similar
easrern church. The method largely influenced the Angevin school
of vaulting, but it does not seem to have been effective as a protec-
tion from the weather. Some examples were covered by external
roofs, as was St Front itself at a late time. St Ours at Loches,
originally a small church covered by domes, had spire-like pyramids
substituted for them when the church was enlarged about 1 168.
The third class of vaulting we may for symmetry's sake associate
with the south, though it is found widely distributed. The chapel
in the Tower of London is an example, and its true centre seems
to be the Auvergne. The vaults of thb type run along with the
axis of the space to be covered. In the case of large churches the
central span is frequently supported by quadrant vault* leaning
against it on either side. One of the most noble churches in which
the central span is covered by such a barrel vault is that of St
Savin near Poitiers, where very much has been preserved of the com-
plete series of paintings which once adorned it and the walls beneath.
The most characteristic buildings of the south are the churches
of Mobsac, St Trophime at Aries, St Gilles near Ntmes and St
James of Compostella, where there is much sculpture of a Lombardic
type. There was a great revival of sculpture, going together with a
study of the antique, in Lombardy at the end of the nth century.
Wiligelmus, who later worked at San Zeno, Verona, signed some
sculptures at Modcna in 1099.
Of the schools of the north, Normandy took the lead It was
adventurous, if somewhat barbaric It derived much from Germany
and gave much to the Gothic style. About the middle of the 1 ith
century the Normans began to experiment with cross-groined vaults
and their application to the church problem. This from the first
cootained an important possibility 01 future development, in that
h allowed of windows 01 considerable height being placed in the
lunettes of these vaults. Soon a very great step in advance was made
by the invention or application ot diagonal ribs under the inter-
section of the plain groined vault. This association of strengthening
ribs in a cross form to each bay of the structure forms the ogiwe, the
characteristic form from which the alternative name to Gothic,
"ogival," has been derived. The first instance we know of the use
of this system is at Durham cathedral, where the aisles of the east
ARCHITECTURE
397
end were so covered about 1093, and where the high vault erected
about 1 104 was almost certainly of the same kind. Another outcome
of the genius of Norman builders seems to have been the donjon or
keep type of castle.
The word " Gothic " was applied by Italian writers of the
Renaissance to buildings later than Roman, which in some cases
(e.g. Theodoric's works at Ravenna) might be properly so named.
What we now call Gothic the same writers called Modern.
Later the word came to mean the art which filled the whole
interval between the Roman period and the Renaissance, and
then last of all, when the Byzantine and Romanesque forms of
art were defined, Gothic became the art which intervened
between the Romanesque era and the Renaissance.
As remarked above, Gothic architecture is to a large extent
the crown of Romanesque. It is agreed that its chief element
of construction was the ogival vaulting which was being widely
used by Romanesque builders in the first half of the 1 2th century;
and pointed arches appeared as early.
The eminent architect, G. E. Street, writing 1 of what we have
called the standard plan of great 12th-century churches, says,
" In whatever way the early ekevets (as the French term them)
grew up there b no doubt that they contain the germ of the
magnificent ekevets in the complete Gothic churches of the north
of France." Architecture of the middle ages having been con-
tinuously developed, it b necessarily somewhat arbitrary to
mark off any given period; all are agreed, however, that about
the year n 50 there was a time of rapid change towards a slen-
derer and more energetic type of building, and the forms which
followed for about four centuries we now call Gothic. The
special character which the architecture of thb period took
was partially conditioned by the fact that the expanding power
of the French kingdom, with its centre at Pans, was situated
in a particular artistic environment. The body of ideas on which
it for the most part worked was furnished by the Romanesque
art of north France, the German borderland and Burgundy.
A great contributory cause was the immense monastic activity
of the time, and the need of accomplishing large results with
limited means resulted in a casting aside of old ornamental
commonplaces and in innovations of planning and structure.
Thb was especially the case with the Cistercian order, which
carried certain transitional Gothic forms of building into England,
Germany, Italy and Spain. If, however, we make the transition
to Gothic date from the first use of " ogival " vaults in north-
west Europe, then Durham cathedral b, so far as we now know,
the earliest example of the transitional style. The next step, the
appearance of Gothic itself, may best be held to date from
the systematic but not exclusive use of pointed arches in associa-
tion with ogival vaults about the middle of the 12th century.
At thb time was waged a war of domination amongst the
styles, a war which resulted not necessarily in the victory of the
most beautiful nor even of the strongest, but one in which
political and geographical considerations had much to do with
the decision. When the French kingdom took the lead in western
civilization, it was settled that a northern form of art, one which
had perforce to make a chief element of the window, should be
followed out. The consequent development of the window b,
after all, as the first observers thought, the great mark of the
mature style. As to the position of France in the movement,
Mr Street may again be quoted:—" When once the Gothic
style was well established, the zeal with which the work of
building was pursued in France was almost incredibly great.
A series of churches exists there within short distances of each
other, so superb in all their features that it is impossible to
contest their superiority to any corresponding group of buildings.
The old Domaine Royale b that in which French art b seen in
its perfection. Notre Dame, Paris, b a monument second to
nothing in the world; but for completeness in all its parts
it would be better to cite the cathedral of Chartres, a short
description of which must suffice as an explanation of what French
art at its zenith was. The plan has a nave with aisles, transepts
with aisles on each side, a choir with two aisles all round it,
and chapels beyond them. There arc two immense steeples
» Article '* Architecture," Ency. BriL, 9th td.
398
ARCHITECTURE
at the west end, two towers to each transept and two towers at
the junction of the choir with its apse. The doorways are triple
at the west end, whilst to each transept is a vast triple porch in
front of the three doorways. The whole of these doorways
are covered with sculpture, much of it refined, spirited and
interesting in the highest degree. You enter and find the interior
surpassing even the exterior. The order of the columns and
arches, and of all the details, is so noble and simple that no
fault can be found with it. The whole is admirably executed;
and, finally, every window throughout its vast interior is full of
the richest glass coeval with the fabric. As compared with
English churches of the same class, there are striking differences.
The French architects aimed at greater height, greater size,
but much less effect of length. Their roofs were so lofty that
it was almost impossible for them to build steeples which should
have the sort of effect that ours have. The turret on Amiens
cathedral is nearly as lofty as Salisbury spire, but is only a turret;
and so throughout. Few French churches afford the exquisite
complete views of the exterior which English churches do; but,
on the other hand, their interiors are more majestic, and man
feels himself smaller and more insignificant in them than in ours.
The palm must certainly be given to them above all others.
There is no country richer in examples of architecture than
France. The student who wishes to understand what it was
possible for a country to do in the way of creating monuments
of its grandeur, would find in almost every part of the country,
at every turn and in great profusion, works of the rarest interest
and beauty. The 19th century may be the consummation of all,
but the evidences of its existence to posterity will not be one-
tenth in number of those which such a reign as that of Philip
Augustus has left us, whilst none of them will come up to the
high standard which in his lime was invariably reached."
The remarks which have been made as to the variation in
style visible in various parts of the same country, apply with
more force, perhaps, in what we now call France than to any other
part of Europe. For the purposes of complete study it would
be necessary to keep distinct from each other in the mind the
following important divisions: — (1) Provence and Auvcrgne;
(2) Aquitaine; (3) Burgundy; (4) Anjou and Poitou; (5)
Brittany; (6) Normandy; (7) 4he tle-de-France and Picardy;
(0) Champagne; and, finally, (9) the eastern border-land (neither
quite German nor quite French in its character), the meeting-
point of the two very different developments of French and
German art. Speaking generally, it is safe to say that Gothic
architecture was never brought to its highest perfection in any
portion of the south of France. Aquitaine, Auvcrgne and
Provence were too wedded to classic traditions to excel in an art
which seems to have required for its perfection no sort of looking
back to such a past. Hence there is no Gothic work in the south
for which it is possible to feel the same admiration and enthusiasm
as must be felt by every artist in presence of the great works of
the north. In Anjou this is less the case; but even there the
art is extremely inferior to that which is seen in Normandy and
the Ilc-de- France. Brittany may be dismissed from considera-
tion, as being, like Cornwall, so provincial and so cut off from
neighbours, that its art could not fail to be very local, and
without much influence outside its own borders.
There are examples of true Gothic outside its proper habitat,
almost pure French works being found as far south as Laon and
Burgos, as far east as Strassburg and Lausanne and as far north
as Canterbury and Cologne. Westminister Abbey was pro-
foundly influenced by direct study of French work. Normandy,
Burgundy, and the land as far north as Tournay seem to have
shared in the work of transition; but the Gothic area proper is
the llc-de-France with Picardy and Champagne, then Burgundy,
Normandy and England.
Four remarkable buildings best represent the early phase of the
Gothic style, theabbey church of StDcnis, and thecatbed ralsof Noyon,
Sen lis and Sens, The first was begun in 1137, and the choir was
consecrated in 1 143. The few parts of this work which remain are
sufficient to show now stately and yet fresh the whole work must
have been. Noyon cathedral, tibgun after a fire whirh occurred in
1131, had its choir consecrated in 1 157. The cathedral of Senlis was
[FRENCH GOTHIC
begun in 1 155. Sens cathedral, begun about the same time, or even
earlier, is the first of the great cathedrals. Many other buildings
belong to the first years of the style; such are the abbey churches of
St Remi at Reims, Notre Dame at Chalons and St Germain-des-
Pres, Paris. The choir of this last was consecrated in 1163, and ia
the same year Notre Dame, Paris, was begun This mighty building,
although very complete, was altered as to it* effect by the substitu-
tion, early in the 13th century, of large two-light windows for the
earlier lancets of the clerestory. The sculptures of the west front
are exquisite. Laon cathedral, another of the great churches, is of
about the same age as Notre Dame. It also has beautiful sculpture
in its western porches, but its most marked characteristic b the group
of six great and romantic towers which flank the fronts to the west,
the north and the south. In the 13th century, the church was ex*
tended to the cast and the original chtvet was destroyed. From the
evidence furnished by fine double-staged chapels to the transepts,
it is most probable that three similar chapels were set about the
ambulatory of the apse, the upper chapels opening from the fine
vaulted t riforium. Such an arrangement existed at the noble church
of Valenciennes, now destroyed, but well recorded. At the end of
the 1 2th century Chartres cathedral was begun, perhaps its most
notable constructive feature being the high development that the
flying buttresses have here attained. It was followed in the early
years of the 13th century by Rouen cathedral, which derived much
from its prototype. St Omer, a fine early church, in turn followed
Rouen.
The second stage of Gothic, introducing the traceried window,
was opened by the ouilding of the cathedral of Reims, begun in 121 t.
This is in every way one of the most perfect of cathedrals, as well for
its sculpture and glass as for its structure. Reims was followed by
the still greater cathedral at
Amiens (fig. 40), which was
begun in 1220 at the west front,
so that the superb sculpture
(Plate II., fig. 64) of the porches
is earlier than that of Reims.
Dcauvais cathedral was begun
in on a still vaster scale,
ar h an ambition that
o'i d itself. Auxerre cathe-
dr d the very beautiful
co ; churches of St Quentin
ar ur, also followed Reims. '
Ti ter cathedrals of the
fir Ic which must be men- '
ti< e those of Bourges and
Le mans, each of these having '
double aisles about the apse,
with a large clerestory to the
inner one of the two, above 1
which rises the great clerestory.
This scheme is one of the great «
feats of Gothic construction.
Le Mans again furnished the
most highly developed form
of ckevft planning (fig. 41). On
this point Mr Street may again
be cited. " It was in the plan-
ning of the apse, with its
surrounding aisles and chapels,
that all their ingenuity and
science were displayed. A
simple apse is easy enough of
construction, but directly it is
surrounded by an aisle or
aisles, with chapels again beyond
them, the difficulties are great.
The bays of the circular aisle,
Fig. 40.— Plan of Cathedral
at/ '
instead of being square, are very much wider on one aide than
the other, and it is most difficult to fit the vaulting to the unequal
space. In order to get over this, various plans were tried. At Notre
Dame, Paris, the vaulting bays were all triangular on plan, so that
the points of support might be twice as many on the outside line of
the circle as on the inside. But this was rather an unsightly con-
trivance, and was not often repeated, though at Bourges there is
something of the same sort. At Le Mans the aisle vaulting bays are
alternately triangular and square; and this is, perhaps, the best
arrangement of all. as the latter are true and square, and none of
the lines of the vault are twisted or distorted in the slightest degree.
The arrangement of the chapels round the apse was equally varied.
Usually they are too crowded in effect; and, perhaps, the most
beautiful plan is that of Rouen cathedral, where there are only three
chapels with unoccupied bays between, affording much greater relief
and variety of lighting than the commoner plan which provided a
chapel to every bay. The planning and design of the chatl is the
great glory of the French medieval school. When the same thing
was attempted, as at Westminster, or by the Germans at Cologne,
it was evidently a copy, and usually an inferior copy, of French
work. No English works led up to Westminster Abbey, and no
German works to the cathedral at Cologne."
SPANISH GOTHIC)
The variety in the planning of theehevets taust be remarked.
There might be only one chapel opening from the semicircular
ambulatory, at at Langres, Sens, Auxerre, Bayeux and Lausanne.
Canterbury cathedra), designed by William of Sens, is perhaps the
most perfect example. There were three separated chapels, as at
Rouen, St Omer, Semur, &c, or there might be five filling the whole
•pace, which became the general later scheme. Chartres furnishes an
intermediate plan, in having the alternate chapels much shallower
than the others. The chapels might be circular or polygonal or
alternately square and round. Of the last the cathedral of Toledo
is a wonderful example. The plan with parallel apses also continued
in use, as at the beautiful abbey church at Dijon and St Urbain at
Troyes. Apsidal transepts were built at Noyon, Soissons and
Valenciennes.
Another stage of development was reached with the building of
the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, begun in 1244. With this work the
Gothic system reached complete maturity. Here for the first time
large traceried windows seem to have been perfected, and, moreover,
the structure was so organized into a series of wide window spaces,
only divided by strong tar-projecting buttress piers, that the stained
riasa ideal found full expression and the building became a lantern
tor its display.
During the next half-century the influence of the Sainte Chapelle
is to be traced everywhere, and its system of construction was
developed to the furthest possible point in St Urbain at Troyes,
begun in 1260. Exploration of the Gothic theory of structure
gould be carried no further. From this point the style turned in on
ARCHITECTURE
399
t
Fig. 41.— Cathedral of Le Mans. East end and Chcvet.
itself, becoming more unreasonably intricate, artificial and manner-
ized. One of the finest examples of the style of the early 1 4th century
is the eastern limb of St Oucn, Rouen ; Troyes cathedral is also an
important example of later work. As Mr Street says: " Later
French architecture ran a very similar course to that in England.
The 13th century was that in which it was seen at its best. In the
14th the same sort of change took place as elsewhere; and art was
beautiful, but it was too much an evidence of skilf ulness and adroit-
ness. It was harder and colder also than English work of the same
age; and when it fell, it did so before the inroads of a taste for what
has been called Flamboyant architecture, — a gay and meretricious
style which trusted to ornament for all Its effect, and, in spite of
many beauties, had none of the sturdy magnificence of much of our
English Perpendicular style."
M. Enlart has recently accepted the view that the germs of
namboyancy in the later French Gothic are to be found in the flowing
curvilinear forms of early 14th-century work in England.
Up to the middle of the 16th century, magnificent works in the
national style were still being executed. St-Vulfran at Abbeville,
St Maclou in Rouen, and the facade of the cathedral of Rouen,
may be mentioned; some of the last works were the immense
transepts of Beauvais cathedral and the facade of Tours.
We have necessarily spoken most of churches, but the palaces,
castles and civic buildings form another great class hardly less
interesting. The castles of Coucy and Chateau Gaillard may rival
any cathedral. Among civic buildings may be mentioned the palais
de justice at Rouen and the hotel de ville at Compicgne, both late
but beautiful and impressive types. The royal palace Of Paris is now
represented by the Sainte Chapelle, but accounts of its splendid hall
and general arrangements have been preserved. At Poitiers is still
extant the hall 01 the palace of the counts of Poitou ; at Laon the
episcopal palace is almost entire; there are considerable remains of
the bishops' palaces of Beauvais, Evreux. Rouen, Reims: and the
pope's palace at Avignon must also be mentioned in this connexion.
The most perfect existing great houses of the middle ages are those
of Jacques Cocur at Bourges and of the abbot of Cluny in Paris.
A large number of fine houses on a small scale, dating from the 12th
and 13th centuries, are still preserved at Beauvais, Auxerre. Chartres.
Cordes, &c The house of the musicians at Reims, c. 1280, is adorned
by a series of seated life-sized figures playing instruments, in sculpture
of a very high order. A good and concise account of the smaller houses
in France is given in Hudson Turner's Some Account of Domestic
Architecture, and in C. Enlart 's Manuel d'archiologie, the best and
most recent survey of the whole field of medieval antiquities in
France. (W. R. L.)
Romanesque and Gothic Arc hi tectu r e in Spain
What strikes the architectural. student most forcibly in Spain
is the concurrent existence of two schools of art during the best
part of the middle ages. The Moors invaded Spain in 711, and
were not finally expelled from Granada until 1492. During the
whole of this period they were engaged, with more or less success,
in contests for superiority with the Christian natives. In those
portions of the country which they held longest, and with the
firmest hand, they enforced their own customs and taste in art
almost to the exclusion of all other work. Where their rule was
not permanent their artistic influence was still felt, and even
beyond what were ever the boundaries of their dominion, there
are still to be seen in Gothic buildings some traces of acquaint-
ance with Arabic art not seen elsewhere in Europe, with the
exception, perhaps, of the southern part of the Italian peninsula,
and there differing much in its development. The mosque of
Cordova in the 9th century, the Alcazar and Giralda at Seville
in the 13th, the Court of Lions in the Alhambra in the 14th, several
houses in Toledo in the 15th century, are examples of what the
Moors were building during the period of the middle ages in
which the best Gothic buildings were being erected. Some
portions of Spain were never conquered by the Moors. These
were the greater part of Aragon, Navarre, Asturias, Biscay
and the northern portion of Galicia. Toledo was retaken by the
Christians in 1085, Tarragona in 1089, Saragossa in 11 18, Lerida
in Z149, Valencia in 1238 and Seville in 1248. In the districts
occupied by the Moors Gothic architecture had no natural
growth, whilst even in those which were not held by them
the arts of war were of necessity so much more thought of
than those of peace, that the services of foreign architects were
made use of to an extent unequalled in any other part of Europe.
Of early Christian buildings erected from the oth to the nth
century remains of some twenty to thirty are known, and there are
probably others which will be found when the communications in
the country become more extended. The most interesting of these
is Santa Maria de Naranco near Oviedo, originally built in 848 as
part of a palace. It consisted of a rectangular hall, 42 ft. long and
16 ft. wide, with entrance doorways in the centre of each side, and
at each end an arcade of three arches, carried on piers and coupled
columns, which led to an open loggia from which the hall was
lighted. Fifty to sixty years later it was converted into a church
by blocking up the end 01 the east loggia. The church is remarkable
for its barrel vault, built in fine masonry, and for the knowledge
that is displayed in meeting its thrust. Internally, in order to lessen
the span, the upper part of the walls is brought forward and carried
on a series of arches on each side, which are supported on piers
consisting of four coupled columns, virtually constituting an interior
abutment. Externally, the thrust is met by buttresses, features not
found in France until about a century and a half later. All the
columns arc spiral-fluted.and a twisted -cord torus-moulding decorates
the capitals and other features in the church. The transverse ribs
of the hall, which are of slight projection, are carried on broad
bands with disks in the spandrils of the arches, the disks having
badges in the centre, and being bordered, as well as the bands, with
twisted cords. Underneath the church is a spacious vaulted crypt,
which was built as a cellar or basement storey, to raise and give
more importance to the palace. The twisted cord seems to have
been a favourite device in all the early churches, and is extensively
employed in the decoration of San Miguel de Lino, a small church
about a quarter of a mile from Santa Maria de Naranco and coeval
with that church. Externally the church of San Miguel has all the
character of a Byzantine church; the windows in the front are
pierced with Moorish tracery, probably brought there by those
Christians who were flying to the sanctuaries of Asturias from
the incursions of the Moors. In another church, about 15 m. south
of Oviedo, Santa Christina de Leon, all the attached staffs are
decorated with spiral fluting. The choir is raised, and approached
by steps on either side through a screen of three arches, of the type
known as Transennae in the earlier Christian of Rome. Here, as
400
ARCHITECTURE
in Santa Maria de Naranco, the church is covered with a barrel
vault with similar constructive and decorative features. Externally
the buttresses are in great profusion, there being two to each bay.
The screen, the pierced marble slabs between the columns carrying
it, and the decoration of the capitals, all show Byzantine influence.
Other early churches are those of San Pablo del Campo (930) and
San Pedro de las Puellas, both in Barcelona, the fine church at the
village of Priesca near Villaviciosa (915)* the monastery of Valdedios
(893) and that of San Salvador (1218), in which, notwithstanding
its late date, there is a distinct Moorish influence. This influence
is also to be noticed in the north of Spain, although it was never
occupied by the Moors. Thus in the earliest church known, at
Bafios de Cerrato near Palencia (founded in 66a, but restored in
71 1 ), there is a horse-shoe barrel vault over the square apse. Again
in San Miguel de Escalada (913) near Leon, there are horse-shoe
arches in the nave, and the three apses are horse-shoe on plan.
San Pedro at Zamora is a vaulted church with horse-shoe arches in
the nave, but otherwise Byzantine in style. In the church of Corpus
Christi at Segovia the nave is Moorish in style, and the octagonal
columns of the nave have capitals with fir cones, as in the well-known
Santa Maria la Blanca at Toledo, originally a synagogue. The most
remarkable church of all, so far as Moorish style is concerned, is the
church of the monastery of Santiago de Peftalva, near Villafranca
del Vierzo, built between 931 and 951, and therefore coeval with
Cordova. The church is 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, covered by a
barrel vault with transverse horse-shoe arch in the centre carrying
the same. At each end is an apse with horse-shoe arches carried on
marble shafts with Byzantine capitals. Though of later date, there
is another interesting Romanesque example in the Templars' church
of La Vera Cruz at Segovia (1204), which is twelve-sided with three
apses, and in the centre hat a chapel built in imitation of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
The buildings which come next in point of "date are all evidently
derived from or erected by the architects of those which were at
the time being built in the south of France. These churches are
uniform in plan, with central lanterns and three eastern apses. The
nave has usually a waggon or barrel vault, supported by quadrant
vaults in the aisles, and the steeples are frequently polygonal in
plan. If these churches are compared with examples like that of the
cathedral at Carcassonne on the other aide of the Pyrenees, their
identity in style will at once be seen. A still more remarkable
evidence of similarity has been pointed out between the church of
St Sernin, Toulouse, and the cathedral of Santiago. The plan,
proportions and general design of the two churches are identical.
Here we see a noble ground-plan, consisting of nave with aisles,
transepts, central lantern and ehevet, consisting of an apsidal choir,
with a surrounding aisle and chapels opening into it at intervals.
This example is the more remarkable, inasmuch as the early Spanish
architects very rarely built a regular ehevet, and almost always pre-
ferred the simpler plan of apsidal chapels on cither side of the choir.
And its magnificent scale and perfect preservation to the present day
combine to make it one of the most interesting architectural relics
in the country.
Among the more remarkable buildings of the 12th and the begin-
ning of the 13th century are San Isidoro, Leon; San Vicente, Avtla;
several churches in Segovia; and the old cathedral at Lerida.
They arc much more uniform in character than are the churches
of the same period in the various provinces of France, and the
developments in style, where they are seen at all, seldom have much
appearance of being natural local developments. This, indeed, is
the most marked feature of Spanish architecture in all periods of its
history. In such a country it might have been expected that many
interesting local developments would have been seen ; but of these
there are out one or two that deserve notice. One of them is illus-
trated admirably in the church of San MiUan, Segovia, where
beyond the aisles of the nave are open cloisters or aisles arcaded
on the outside, and opening by doors into the aisles of the nave. A
similar external south portico exists in San Miguel de Escalada,
already referred to, Santo Domingo, Burgos, and San Esteban at
Segovia. It would be difficult to devise a more charming arrange-
ment for buildings in a hot country, whilst at the same time the
architectural effect is in the highest degree beautiful. The uni-
versality of the central tower and lantern has been already men-
tioned. This was often polygonal, and its use led to the erection of
some lanterns or domes of almost unique beauty and interest. The
old cathedra] at Salamanca, the church at Toro and the cathedral
of Zamora, all deserve most careful study on this score. Their
lanterns are almost too lofty in proportion to be properly called
domes, and yet their treatment inside and outside suggests a very
beautiful form of raised dome. They are carried on pointed arches,
and are circular in plan internally and octagonal on the exterior,
the angles of the octagon being filled with large turrets, which add
much to the beauty of the design, and greatly also to its strength.
Between the supporting arches and the vault there arc, at Salamanca,
two tiers of arcades continued all round the lantern, the lower one
pierced with four, and the upper with twelve lights, and the vault or
dome is decorated with ribs radiating from the centre. On the
exterior the effect is rather that of a low steeple covered with a stone
roof with spherical sides than of a dome, but the design is so novel
and so suggestive, that it is well worth detailed description. Nothing
(SPANISH GOTHIC
can be more happy than the way in which the light is admitted,
whilst it is also to be noted that the whole work is oif stone, and that
there is nothing in the design but what is essentially permanent
and monumental in construction. The only other Spanish develop-
ment is the introduction, to a very moderate extent, of features
derived from the practice of the Moorish architects. This is, how-
ever, much less seen than might have been expected, and is usually
confined to some small feature of detail, such, e.g. as the carving of a
boss, or the filling in of small tracery in circular windows, where
it would in no way clash with the generally Christian character of
the art.
Thedebateable period of transition which is usually so interesting
is very sterile in Spain. A good model once adopted from the French
was adhered to with but little modification, and it was not till the
13th-century style was well established in France and England that
any introduction of its features is seen here; and then, again, it is
the work of foreign architects imported for the work and occasion,
bringing with them a fully developed style to which nothing whatever
in Spain itself led up by a natural or evident development. The
three great Spanish churches of this period are the cathedrals of
Toledo, Leon and Burgos (Plate II., ng.-6«). Those of Stguenaa,
Lerida and Tarragona, fine as they arc, illustrate the art of the
12th rather than of the 13th century, but these three great churches
are perfect Early Pointed works, and most complete in all their parts.
The cathedral of Toledo is one of the most nobly designed churches in
Europe. In dimensions it is surpassed only by the cathedrals of
Milan and Seville, whilst in beauty of plan it leaves both those great
churches far behind. The ehevet, in which two broad aisles a re carried
round the apse with chapels alternately square and apsidal opening
out of them, is perhaps the most perfect of all the schemes we know.
It is as if the French chevets, all of which were more or less tentative
in their plan, had culminated in this grand work to which they had
led the way. The architectural detail of this great church is generally
on a par with the beauty and grandeur of its plan, but is perhaps
surpassed by the somewhat later church at Leon. Here we have a
church built by architects whose sole idea was the erection 0/ a
building with as few and small points of support as possible, and
with the largest possible amount of window opening. It was the
work of men whose art had been formed in a country where as much
sun and light as possible were necessary, and is quite unsuited for
such a country as Spain. Nevertheless it is a building of rare beauty
and delicacy of design. Burgos, better known than either of the
others, is inferior in scale and interest, and its character has been
much altered by added works more or less Rococo in character, so
that it is only by analysis and investigation that the 13th-century
church is still seen under and behind the more modern excrescences.
The next period is again marked by work which seems to be that
of foreigners. The fully developed Middle Pointed or Geometrical
Gothic is indeed very uniform all over Europe. Here, however, its
efforts were neither grand in scale nor interesting. Some of the
church furniture, as, e.g. the choir screens at Toledo, and some of
the cloisters, are among the best features. The work is alt correct,
tame and academical, and has none of the dignity, power and
interest which marked the earlier Spanish buildings. Towards the
end of the 14th century the work of Spanish architects becomes
infinitely more interesting. The country was free from trouble with
the Moors; it was rich and prosperous, and certainly its buildings
at this period were so numerous, so grand and so original, that they
cannot be too much praised. Moreover, they were carefully designed
to suit the requirements of the climate, and also with a sole view to
the accommodation conveniently of enormous congregations, all
within sight of the preacher or the altar. This last development
seems to have been very much the work of a great architect of
Majorca, Jayme Fabre by name. The grandest works of his school
are still to be seen in Catalonia. Their churches are so vast in their
dimensions that the largest French and English buildings seem to
be small by comparison, and being invariably covered with stone
vaults, they cannot be compared to the great wooden-roofed churches
of the preaching orders in Italy and elsewhere, in which the only
approach is made to their magnificent dimensions. The cathedral of
Gcrona is the most remarkable example. Here the choir is planned
like the French ehevet with an aisle and chapels round it, and opens
with three lofty arches into the cast wall of a nave which measures
no less than 73 ft. in the clear, and is covered with a stone vaulted
ceiling. In Barcelona there are several churches of very similar
description; at Manrcsa another, but with aisles to its nave: and
at Pafma in Majorca one of the same plan as the last, but of even
much larger dimensions. Perhaps there is no effort of any local
school of architects more worthy of study and respect than this
Catalonian work of the 14th and 15th centuries. Such a happy
combination of noble design and proportions with entirely practical
objects places its author among the very greatest architects of any
time. It is one thing to develop patiently step by step from the
work of one's fathers in art, quite another to strike out an entirely
new form by a new combination of the old elements. In comparison
with the works just mentioned the other great Spanish churches of
the 15th century are uninteresting. But still their scale is grand
' though their detail is over-elaborated and not beautiful, it is
and 1
impossible to deny the superb effect of the interior of such churches
as those of Seville, Segovia and Salamanca (new cathedral). They
ARCHITECTURE Plate l
Photo, Brogi. Baptistery. Campo Santo. Cathedral. Campanile.
Fig. 62. — Pisa,
Photo, AmUrson. Fig. 63.— St Mark's, Venice.
Plate II. ARCHITECTURE
Photo, Neurdein. Photo, F. Frith 6r Co,
Fig. 64.— Amiens Cathedral. Fig. 65.— Burgos Cathedral.
Photo, F. Frith cr Co. Photo, F. Frith cr Co.
Fig. 66.— St Paul's, London. Fig. 67. — Ely Cathedral.
ARCHITECTURE Plate III
Photo, Brogi.
Fig. 68.— St Peter's, Rome.
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 69. — Interior of St Peter s, Rome.
Plate IV. ARCHITECTURE
Photo, Koch.
Fig. 70. — Town Hall, Bremen.
Photo, Brogi.
Fig. 71.— Vendramini Palace, Venice*
ARCHITECTURE Plate V.
Photo, Alinari. Photo, LacosU.
Fig. 72. — Door of San Michele, Pavia. Fig. 73. — University, Salamanca.
Photo, LacosU.
Fig. 74.— Town Hall, Seville.
Plate VI. ARCHITECTURE
Photo, F. Frith fir Co.
Fig. 75. — Banqueting House, Whitehall.
Photo. P. Frith Sr Co.
Fig. 76— Woilaton Hall.
Photo, Stuart.
Fig. 77. — Hampton Court.
ARCHITECTURE Plate VII.
Photo, L. L. Paris. Photo, L. L. Paris.
Fig. 78. — Heidelberg Castle, Friedrichsbau. Fig. 79. — Heidelberg Castle, Otto-Heinrichsbau.
Photo, L. L. Paris.
Fig. 80.— Heidelberg Castle, Otto-Heinrichsbau,
Plate VIII.
ARCHITECTURE
Photo, J. Valentine, Ltd.
Fig. 8 1. —Porch, Peterboro' Cathedral.
Photo, G. W. Wilson &• Co.
Fig. 82.— Ely Cathedral.
"«
Photo, Xeurdein.
Fig. 83. — The Louvre — Pavilion Henri H.
(Portion of Lescot's work on left.) •
Phofo, Xeurdein.
Fig. 84. — Grand Staircase, Chateau of Blois.
MODERN ARCHITECTURE Plate IX.
Photo, Bter.
Fig. 115. — Parliament Buildings, Budapest. (Steindl.)
Photo L9wy.
Fig. 116. — Parliament Buildings, Vienna. (Hansen.)
Photo, Lindc
Fig. 1 1 7 .—Parliament B uildings, Berlin. (Wallot.)
Plate X. ARCHITECTURE MODERN
Pkolo, F. G. 0. Stuart.
Fig. 1 18 .— Houses of Parliament, London. (Barry.)
Fig. 119.— Scotland Yard, London. (Shaw.)
MODERN ARCHITECTURE Plate XL
Photo, Valentin* & Sons, Dundee.
Fig. 1 20. — Natural History Museum, South Kensington. (Waterhouse.)
Photo, M. Cerbtault,
Fig. 121.— Law Courts, Brussels, (Poelaert.)
Plate XII.
ARCHITECTURE
MODERN
Photo, Neurdein.
Fig. 122. — Church of St Augustin, Paris.
(Baltard.)
Photo, Neurdein.
Fig. 123.— Church of La Trinittf,
Paris. (Ballu.)
Photo, A. Lhy.
"•4. — Church of St Pierre De
iuge, Paris. (Vaudremer.)
Photo, Neurdein.
Fig. 125. — Church of St Vincent De Paul, Paris.
(Hittorff.)
MODERN
ARCHITECTURE
Plate XIII.
Photo, Neurdcin.
Fig. 126. — Cathedral, Marseilles.
Esperandieu.)
Photo, Neurdcin.
(Vaudoyer and Fig. 127. — Mairie, Xth Arrondissement,
Paris. (Rouyer.)
Photo, A. Levy.
Fig. 128.— Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve, Paris. (Labrouste.)
Plate XIV. ARCHITECTURE MODERN
-— ; ... WJtMimj : V.« •\V*K**.>^ ,
Photo, L. L. Paris.
Fig. 129. — Pavilion Richelieu, The Louvre, Paris. (Visconti.)
Photo, Seurdcm.
Fig. 130. — Petit Palais, Paris. (Girault.)
MODERN
ARCHITECTURE
Plate XV.
Copyright 1899 by Detroit Photographic Co.
Fig. 132— A Newport, R. I., "Cottage":
' The Breakers."
Fig- 133.— The Metropolitan Club, New York.
Copyright 1903 by Detroit Photographic Co,
Fig. 131. — "Flat-Iron" Building, New York.
(For method of construction, see Steel
Construction, and Plate II., Fig. 4,
of that article.)
Copyright 1905 by Detroit Publishing Co.
Pig- 134— The University Club, New York.
Plate XVI.
ARCHITECTURE
MODERN
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ENGLISH ROMANESQUE)
ARCHITECTURE
401
are very similar in their character, their columns are formed by the
prolongation of the reedy mouldings of the arches, their window
traceries are poorly designed, and their roofs are covered with a
complex multitude of lierne ribs. Yet the scale is fine, the admission
of light, generally high up and in sparing quantity, is artistic, and
much of the furniture is either picturesque or interesting. The lout
ensemble is generally very striking, even where the architectural
purist b apt to grumble at the shortcomings of most of the detail.
The remarks which have been made so tar have been confined to
the fabrics of the churches of Spain. It would be easy to add
largely to them by reference to the furniture which still so often
adorns them, unaltered even if uneared for; to the monuments of
the mighty dead; to the sculpture which frequently adorns the
doorways and screens; and to the cloisters, chapter-houses and
other dependent buildings, which add so much charm in every way
to them. Besides this, there are very numerous castles, often planned
on the grandest scale, and some, if not very many, interesting remains
of domestic houses and palaces; and most of these, being to some
extent flavoured by the neighbourhood of Moorish architects, have
snore character of their own than has been accorded to the churches.
Finally, there are considerable tracts of country in which brick was
the only material used; and it is curious that this is almost always
more or less Moorish in the character of its detail. The Moors were
great brickmakers. Their elaborate reticulated enrichments were
easily executed in it, and the example set by them was, of course,
more likely to be followed by Spaniards than that of the nearest
French bnck building district in the region of Toulouse. The brick
towers are often very picturesque; several are to be seen at Toledo,
others at Saragossa, and, perhaps the most graceful of all, in the old
city of Tarazona in Aragon, where the proportions are extremely
lofty, the face of the wails everywhere adorned with sunk panels,
arcading, or ornamental brickwork, and at the base there is a bold
battered slope which gives a great air of strength and stability to
the whole. On the whole, it must be concluded that the medieval
architecture of Spain from the 12th century is of less interest than
that of most other countries, because its development was hardly
ever a national one. The architects were imported at one time
from France, at another from the Low Countries, and they brought
with them all their own local fashions, and carried them into
execution in the strictest manner; and it was not till the end of
the 14th century, and even then only in Catalonia, that any build-
ings which could be called really Spanish in their character were
erected. (R. P. S.)
Romanesque and Gothic Architecture m England
Pre-Conquest, — The history of English architecture before the
Norman Conquest is still only imperfectly known. Its parentage
is triple: Roman, Celtic and Teutonic. To the first belongs the
general building tradition of the Romanised West, and the influ-
ence of the mission of Augustine at the end of the 6th century,
and of such men as Wilfrid in the 7th. The Celtic element is
due to the Scottish (Irish) church, which never gained much
hold on the south of England, while the Teutonic influence
shows itself in the later developments, which are allied to the
early buildings of kindred peoples in Germany. Fragments of
existing early churches have been attributed to the time of the
Roman occupation, but all are doubtful, with the exception of the
remains of what is believed to have been a Christian church
excavated at Silchester in 1892. This was a basilica of ordinary
form, comprising an apse with western orientation, nave and
aisles, transepts of slight projection, and narthcx. Augustine's
cathedral church of Canterbury, which he had learned was
originally constructed by the labours of Roman believers (Bede),
was also a basilica with western apse; its eastern apse and
tonfessio beneath were probably a later addition. Remains of
early churches are found on several sites where churches are
recorded to have been built during the missionary period. Of
these, Reculver (c. 670) and Brixworth (c. 680) have aisled
naves and eastern apses. At Brixworth a square bay intervenes
between the apse and the nave. St Pancras, Canterbury, of
the tine of Augustine, Rochester (604), and Lyminge (founded
033). *no* unsisled naves of relatively wide proportion, with
eastern apses of stilted curve. In some of these churches there
was a triple arcade in front of the sanctuary, in place of the usual
" triumphal arch." The technique shows Roman influence, and
Roman materials are largely used. The existing crypts of
Hexham and Ripon were built by Wilfrid, c. 675. The descrip-
tion of Wilfrid's church at Hexham gives the impression of an
elaborate structure (columnis writs el portkibus muitis suffuUam).
Wilfrid also built at Hexham a church of central plan, with
projections (Portkus) on the four sides, a type of which no
example has survived in England. Escomb (Durham) and parts
of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, which are attributed to the
same period, have plans of an entirely different ty pe a relatively
long and narrow nave, with small square-ended chancel— a plan,
usually attributed to Celtic influence, which is most extensively
represented in churches recognised as Saxon.
The evolution of the characteristic features of pre-Conquest
architecture was slow, and was doubtless greatly hindered by the
invasions of the Northmen from the end of the 8th century onward,
but germs of the fqlly developed style are to be found in the earliest
buildings. The western tower, usually of tall and slender proportion,
was developed from the western porch found at St Pancras, Canter-
bury, and Monkwearmouth: sometimes, as in the latter church,
actually raised over the older porch. The lateral chapels of St
Pancras, which existed also in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury,
were developed into a transept, culminating in the crucUorm plan
with central tower. The characteristic " long-and-short " work,
which consists of tall upright stones alternating with stones bedded
flat bonding into the rubble work of the wall, has its prototype in
the western arch of the porch of Monkwearmouth, and in the jambs
of the chancel arch at Escomb.. Sometimes the flat stones are cut
back on the face, so that the plaster which covered the rubble
extended up to the line of the upright stones, thus giving the quota
the appearance of a narrow pilaster. The repetition of these pilasters
on the face of the walling constitutes rib-work, and these ribs are
frequently connected by semicircular or so-called "triangular"
arches, forming a kind of rude arcading (Earls Barton, Barton-on-
Humber.) Windows in the earliest Saxon work are generally wide
in proportion, and splayed on the inside only ; in the later work they
commonly have splays both on the inside and outside. Doorways
have square jambs, without splay or rebate; sometimes the jambs
of doorways and windows are inclined, as in early buildings in Ireland.
Imposts to doorways, tower arches or chancel arches are often square
projecting blocks, sometimes chamfered on the tower edge. The
mid-wall shaft is a characteristic feature in the belfry openings of
Saxon towers; it supports an impost or through-stone, of the full
thickness of the wall, which receives the semicircular arches over the
openings. The method is analogous to that commonly found in
northern Italy and the RhineUnd. Sometimes the mid-wall shaft
is a baluster, turned in a lathe. In some of the later belfry openings,
a capital intervenes between the mid-wall shaft and the impost.
The dating of buildings of this style is at present a matter of con-
siderabte difficulty, but certain points, such as the development of
the cruciform plan, are useful lor comparison. A fully developed
cross church was built at Rorosey in 969, having also a single axial
western tower, and this seems to have been the normal type of a
large church in the later years of the style. Cruciform plans, not
yet fully developed, are found at Deerhurst, Breamore and St Mary
in the castle at Dover, and fully developed at Norton (Durham)
and Stow (Lincolnshire). The most advanced detail which occurs
in pre-Conquest buildings u the recessing; of arches in orders. But
for the Conquest, English architecture might have developed some*
what on the lines of contemporary work in Germany. It must be
remembered, however, that, although the Norman Conquest marks
the beginning of a new epoch in English architecture, the Norman
manner had already been introduced into England under Edward
the Confessor, as is proved by the considerable remains of that king's
work at Westminster Abbey.
The succeeding periods of English architecture have been
divided into so-called "styles" or "periods," though it should
be recognised that all such hard and fast divisions are purely
artificial, and that, apart from the objection that they exaggerate
the importance of mere details, they tend to obscure the fact
that the history of Gothic architecture is a history of continuous
development. The following classifications, those of Thomas
Rickman and Edmund Sharpe, are in most general use for the
present by such students as are not content with a nomenclature
based on simple chronology: —
Sharpe.
N01
Rickman.
1066-1 189 Norman. 1 066-1 145
1 145-1 190 Transitional
1 189-1307 Early English. 1 190-1245 Lancet.
1245-1315 Geometrical
I307-1377 Decorated. 1315-1360 Curvilinear.
'377-1546 Perpendicular. 1360-1550 Rectilinear.
Norman Conquest to c. 1/50.— At the time of the Conquest of
England, the Norman school was already one of the most ad-
vanced Romanesque schools of western Europe. Its marked
individuality and logical character are clearly expressed in the
abbey churches of Jumieges and St £tienne and Saintc-Trinite 1
at Caen, and it quickly supplanted the less advanced Romanesque
402
ARCHITECTURE
[ENGLISH GOTHIC
manner of the conquered English. As soon is the conqueror had
made himself master in his new kingdom, cathedral and abbey
churches were rebuilt on a scale hitherto unknown either in
Normandy or England. As the effect of the Norman Conquest
was to incorporate the church in England more closely with
western Christendom, so its effect on architecture was to bring it
into line with the best continental achievement of its time.
The immense energy of the Norman bishops and abbots gave such
a stimulus to architecture that by the close of the i ith century,
England, rather than Normandy, had become the real /oyer of
the Norman school.
The plans of the larger churches show greater development in
the length of choir, transept and nave than was usual in Normandy.
Many follow the type of choir plan generally represented in the
contemporary churches of Normandy which have survived — a
central apse, flanked by an apse terminating each aisle, but the two
bays usual in the Norman churches frequently became four in
England. The Confessor's church of Westminster seems to have
ad an ambulatory with radiating chapels, a plan which, although
rare
of
re in the surviving churches of Normandy, was adopted in several
the more important English churches (St Augustine's, Canterbury ;
Winchester: Worcester; Gloucester; Bury St Edmunds; Norwich;
Tewkesbury). Some of these have great vaulted crypts extending
under the choir and its aisles. The transept, generally of consider-
able length, has one or more apsidal chapels on the east side of each
arm, or an eastern aisle, or even (as at Winchester and Ely) both
eastern and western aisles. The lantern-tower over the crossing
was a characteristic feature in England, as in Normandy. Frequently
the nave was of great length, extending to twelve bays at Winchester,
thirteen at Ely, and fourteen at Norwich. Some churches, as Ely,
Bury St Edmunds, and later Peterborough (Plate VIII.. fig. 8l),
show a western transept, with corresponding development of the
west front. Two western towers are most usual, but Ely (Plate II.,
fig* 67), and originally Winchester, had the single western tower,
a survival from pre-Conquest times, which is found also in number-
Jess parish churches. In their general design, the Norman churches
show great skill in composition, and in the logical expression of
structure, and sure grasp of the problems to be solved. The sub-
ordination of arches (arches built in rings, or orders, rece ss ed one
within the other) was carried further than in other Romanesque
schools, and with this went the subordination of the pier, planned
with a shaft to receive each order of the semicircular arch. Some-
times the shafted piers of the great arcades alternate with cylindrical
for later with octagonal) pillars; sometimes, as at Gloucester and
Tewkesbury, all the pillars are cylindrical. The triforium usually
has a single wide semicircular arched opening, enclosing two or more
minor semicircular arches springing from detached shafts. Usually
the able wall is carried up to form a complete triforium storey,
unvaulted, and lighted by windows in the outer wall. The clerestory
has a single window in each bay, with a wall passage between the
window and an internal arcade, usually of three semicircular arches
on shafts, the centra) arch being wider than the side arches. Most
frequently naves and transepts were unvaulted, and finished with
wood ceilings, while the aisles were covered with groined vaults of
rubble, on transverse arches. The general design of the greater
churches indicates, however, that the Norman builders were aiming
at a completely vaulted structure. The half-barrel vault over the
triforium of Gloucester, and the transverse arches over the triforium
of Chichester, seem to be constructed to afford the necessary abut-
ment to vaults over the choir, such indeed as still exist over some
choirs in Normandy built before the end of the nth century. The
problem was only successfully solved by the introduction of the
diagonal rib, which completed the structural memberingof the vault.
Durham, begun in 1093 (fig. 42), is the earliest example in England
of this important innovation, and it precedes by some quarter of a
century the earliest ribbed vaults of the Ile-dc-France. The abutting
arches under the roof of its triforium are actually rudimentary flying-
buttresses, and we have here all the essential elements of Gothic
architecture, except the pointed arch, which is only systematically
used in English vaulted construction from about the middle of the
1 2th century. The decorative forms of the earlier buildings of the
Norman school are severely simple. Arches, which at first were
usually unmoulded, soon received effective mouldings of rolls and
hollows, continuing a tradition of the latest pre-Conquest architec-
ture. Two types of capitals are found in the earlier buildings after
the Conquest ; the volute capital, descended from the Corinthian,
which was the normal type in Normandy; and the cubic or cushion
capital, formed by the penetration of a segment of a sphere, or
segments of cones, with a cube, a type which, appearing earlier in
England than in Normandy, was doubtless derived from pre-Conquest
models, and in the 12th century developed into the scalloped capital.
The decoration of wall-surfaces by arcades, frequently of inter-
secting semicircular arches, is characteristic of the Norman school.
Windows are splayed in the interior, and in the more important
buildings are enriched with shafts and moulded arches. Ornamenta-
tion is frequently concentrated on the doorways, which are often of
many orders, with a shaft under each order. Based chiefly on
geometric forms, such as the chevron or zigzag, star, fret and cable,
the decoration becomes richer and more refined as the 12th century
advances, though in sculpture the Norman was less advanced than
some other Romanesque schools.
The foregoing generalization applies more particularly to the
greater churches, hut numberless parish churches present similar
characteristics. Chancels are sometimes apsidal, but oy far the most
prevalent type of plan is the aisleless oblong nave and square-ended
From Kick in
o'i Styles 0/ ArchUtclmt, by pmnUon of Fftrictr ft Ca.
Fig. 42.— Plan of Durham Cathedral
chancel, with or without a western tower. Other types of aisleless
plans are the cruciform church with central tower, or simply nave and
chancel with central tower. Even where subsequent alterations and
rebuilding* have destroyed almost everything, the influence of these
plans on the later work is the key to a right understanding of the
history of the greater number of English medieval churches.
j2tk Century (second half), — The second half of the 1 2th century
is the period of transition par excellence — of transition from
Romanesque to Gothic. The school of the tle-de-France, which
up to c. 1 120 was one of the most backward of the Romanesque
schools, had made enormous progress when the ambulatory of
Sugcr's church of Saint-Denis was built ( 1 140-1 144), and thence-
forth it continued to lead the way. There is no doubt that,
from the middle of the 12th century, English architecture was
continuously influenced by the tle-de-France, for the most part
through Normandy, but it must be considered to be a develop
ment on parallel lines, with strongly marked characteristics of
its own, and not merely as an importation of forms already
developed elsewhere. At the same time, the influence of the
Cistercian revival was considerable, not so much in the introduc-
tion of foreign forms as in the direction of simplicity and severity,
which acted as a valuable check to the prevalent tendency to
•exaggerate the importance of surface decoration.
The substitution of the square east-end for the apse in the plans of
the greater churches, already effected at Rorasey, was furthered by
the simple plans of the Cistercian churches. The altar spaces pro-
vided by the radiating chapels of the French chevet were in England
obtained by returning the aisles across the square east-end 01 the
choir, or by an eastern transept. The latter occurs first hate sn
ENGLISH GOTHIC)
" the glorious choir of Conrad " of the beginning of the 12th century
at Canterbury, which affords also the first example of the eastward
extension of the choir, which became so characteristic a feature of
English planning. The reconstruction of Conrad's choir after the
fire of 1 174 led to a further extension eastward, with the eastern
chapel, which was adopted in many of the greater churches, either
in the form of a lower building, sometimes of three spans, eastward
of the east gable, or of an extension of the choir itself to its full height.
The work of William of Sens at Canterbury (1 1 75-11 78) was naturally
more French in character than other contemporary works in England,
but the work of his successor, William the Englishman (1179-1184),
shows the beginnings of what became the characteristically English
manner of the 13th century.
The second half of the lath century was a period of rapid develop-
ment of architectural forms in the direction of increased elegance and
refinement. The pointed arch, employed at first for the arches of
construction, entirely superseded the semicircular arch in doorways,
windows and arcades by the end of the century, and its adoption
finally solved the problem of vaulted construction. The abutting
arches under the triforium roofs of the earlier churches were developed
ARCHITECTURE
4<>3
into flying buttresses above the roofs, springing from buttresses of
unnacjes
„ r prohl
volute type, transformed and refined,
increased projection, and weighted by pinna
1 and subtle in their 1
Mouldings became
onlcs. Capitals reverted to the
«d. The massive Romanesque
pier was gradually developed into the lighter Gothic pier, in which
detached shafts were extensively adopted. The use of Purbeck
marble for these shafts must be considered in relation to the painted
decoration of the wall-surfaces, which, although now almost entirely
lost, was an important factor in the internal effect.
zj*A Century (first half).— The last decade of the 12th century
marks the achievement of a fully developed Gothic style, with
strongly marked national individuality. During the 13th
century, English Gothic follows the same general course of
evolution as that of northern France, but the parallelism is
kss dose than in the preceding century.
St Hugh's choir at Lincoln (begun 1192) had indeed an apse, with
ambulatory and radiating chapels, though its plan does not appear
to have been controlled by the vaulting as in the French chevets, and
what there is of French influence seems to have come rather through
Canterbury than by a more d trect route. This choir has the eastern
transept which characterizes several of the greater churches of
the first half of the 13th century— Salisbury (fig. 43), Beverley,
Worcester, Rochester, Southwell. The square eastern termination,
the less ambitious height, and the comparatively simple buttress-
system, combine to give the English Gothic cathedral an air of
greater repose than is found in the magnificent triumphs of French
Gothic art. In its structural system, too, English Gothic retained
something of the Romanesque treatment of wall-surface; the sup-
pression of the wall, and the concentration of the masonry in the
pier, was never carried so far as in the complete Gothic of France.
The general tendency during the 13th century, as in the 12th, was
in the direction of increased lightness and elegance. The employ-
ment of detached shafts, and the extensive use of marble (generally
Purbeck) for these shafts, is a distinguishing feature of the first half
of the century. The vaulting system is fully developed; the most
usual form is the simple quadripartite, but the tendency to introduce
additional ribs (ticrcerons) ana ridge-ribs already makes its appear-
ance in the nave of Lincoln and the presbytery of Ely (Plate VIII.,
fig. 82). to be yet further developed in the second half of the century.
Capitals are cither simply moulded, an elaboration of the plain bell
capitals of the latter part of the 12th century, or finely sculptured,
with conventional, or "stiff-leaved," foliage of the crocket type.
The use of the circular abacus, begun in the preceding, century,
entirely supersedes the square abacus, which was retained in Frcnce.
Mouldings are profiled with great refinement, the alternation of rounds
and hollows producing effective contrasts of light and shade, and
the far more complicated profiles of arch mouldings provide another
feature which distinguishes English work of this period from French.
Windows of single pointed lights, the so-called " lancet," though
frequently by no means sharply pointed, are the prevalent type,
grouped in pairs, triplets, &c, and arranged in tiers in the large
gables, or sometimes with only a single group of tall lights, like the
five sisters " of the north transept of York. Few works are more
admirably designed than some of the towers of this period. Probably
the greatest excellence ever attained in English art of the 13th
century was reached in the great Yorkshire abbeys; for purity of
general design, excellence of construction, and beauty of detail, they
arc unsurpassed by the work of any other period.
ijth Century (second half). —Tht grouping together of " lancet"
windows, the piercing of the wall above them with foiled circles,
and the combination of the whole under an enclosing arch,
soon led to the introduction of tracery, for which the design of
earlier triforium arcades had also afforded a suggestion.
Bar-tracery appears just before the middle of the 13th century,
and the great tracery window filling the whole width of a bay, or
the entire gable-end. soon becomes a most characteristic feature.
The earlier tracery windows show only simple geometrical forms;
foiled arches to the heads of the lights, and foiled circles above, of
which the abbey-church and the chapter-houses of Westminster
and Salisbury afford most beautiful examples. In some particulars,
such as its cbevet plan and its comparatively great height, West-
minster approaches more nearly to the French type than other
English churches of the 13th century, but its details are character-
istically English and of great beauty. In the last quarter of the
century, pointed trefoils or quatrefotls are largely used in tracery,
and the foliations frequently form the lines of the tracery, without
enclosing circles. Contemporary with this change is the gradual
Fig. 43. — Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.
absorption of the triforium into the clerestory, of which Southwell
and Pershore arc precocious examples. Contemporary also was the
adoption of an excessively naturalistic type of foliage. The art of
masonry and stone-cutting was rapidly developed. The detached
shaft, always structurally weak, was abandoned for the pier with
engaged shafts separated by mouldings. The mouldings of arches
become less deeply undercut, and the greater use of the fillet tends
to give a more Itney effect. The whole practice of art was growing
more scholarly, perhaps, but at thf same time it was more conscious,
and the cleverness of the mason was almost as often suggested as
the noble character of his work.
14th Century (first half).— The juxtaposition of the foliations
without enclosing circles in tracery windows produced curves
of contraflexure, which led insensibly to the complete substitu-
tion of flowing lines for geometrical forms in tracery.
Flowing tracery makes its appearance in England about 1310,
and lasts some fifty years. Up to the end of the 13th century,
window tracery had developed in France and England on parallel
lines, though the English work was always slightly behind France
in point of date. All this is changed with the adoption of flowing
tracery in England; its development was purely national, and owed
nothing to France. Indeed, the French flamboyant only makes its
appearance at the time when flowing tracery was being abandoned
in England. Not only window traceries, but mouldings, carvings
and other details are changed in character. The ogee form is used
in arches, in wall-arcades of great beauty and elaboration, as in the
Lady-chapel at Ely, and in the canopies of tombs, such as the
magnificent Percy tomb at Beverley. Niches and arcades arc richly
ornamented, and small decorative buttresses are used in the iambs
of doorways, windows and niches. The moulded capital is still used,
along with the capital with a continuous convex band of wavy foliage.
Many of the most beautiful English towers and spires date from this
period, the work of which is perhaps seen at its best in the parish
churches of south Lincolnshire.
4©4
ARCHITECTURE
From Middle «/ 141k Cestfary.— The over-elaboration of flowing
tracery inevitably led to a reaction. The beauty of the lines
of the tracery had controlled everything, and the resulting forms
of the openings, which presented serious difficulties for the glass
painter, had been a secondary consideration. Hence an endeav-
our to return to a simpler and more dignified, if more mechanical,
style of building. The splendid exuberance of the earlier 14th
century style gave way to the introduction of vigorous, straight,
vertical and horizontal lines.
The beginning* of the new manner are to be seen in the south
transept of Gloucester before 1337. After the great interruption of
building works caused by the Black Death of 1340 and its recurrence
in following years, the so-called " Perpendicular " style became
general all over the country. The preference for straight in place of
flowing lines became more and more developed. Doorways and
arches were enclosed within well-defined square outlines; walls
were decorated by panelling in rectangular divisions; vertical lines
were emphasized by the addition of pinnacles, and buttresses were
used as mere decorations, while horizontal lines were multiplied in
string-courses, parapets and window transoms. Capitals were fre-
quently omitted, and the mouldings of arches were continued down
the piers. The use of the depressed " four-centred " arch became
common. Vaulting, which had already been enriched by the
multiplication of ribs, was further complicated by cross-ribs (hemes),
subdividing the simple spaces naturally produced by the inter-
section of necessary ribs into panels; these, again, were filled with
tracery. The fan-vault was developed by giving to all the ribs the
same curvature; the outline of the fan is bounded by a horizontal
circular rib, and its effect is that of a solid of revolution upon whose
surface panels are sunk. The cloister of Gloucester presents the
earliest and perhaps the most beautiful example. Finally, the builders
displayed their mechanical skill by introducing pendants, as in
Henry VI I. 's chapd at Westminster. This latest period of English
Gothic was a purely national development of which it has been too
much the fashion to speak disparagingly; for it is futile to call such
works as the nave of Winchester or the choir and Lady-chapel of
Gloucester "debased." Perhaps the worst that can be said of this
period is that there was too great a love of display, and too much
mechanical repetition, but it is none the less true that it is to the
15th century that a very large number of English parish churches
owe their fine effect. East Anglia and Somersetshire possess some
of the choicest examples, and few things can be more beautiful than
the central towers of Gloucester and Canterbury, and the towers of
the Somersetshire churches. The open timber roofs, as, for instance,
those of the East Anglian churches, are superb, while many of the
churches of this period are still full of interesting furniture and
decoration. Finally, a word must be said of the wealth of interesting
examples of domestic architecture, which yet count among the
ornaments of the country.
After the middle of the 1 6th century the practice of Gothic archi-
tecture virtually died out, though traces of its influence, especially
in rami districts, were hardly lost until the end of the I7th century.
Good, sound, solid and simple forms, well constructed by men who
respected themselves and their work, and did not build only for the
passing hour, were still popular and general, so that the vernacular
architecture to a late period was often good and never absolutely
uninteresting.
Scotland.— A few words will suffice for Scottish and Irish archi-
tecture, since the development in these countries followed much the
same course of change as in England.
The earliest ecclesiastical structures which still survive in Scotland
follow the same general type as those of Ireland. The monastic
foundations of Queen Margaret and her sons introduced into Scotland
the Norman manner then universal in England. The best examples,
such as the nave of Dunfermline, which is an obvious inspiration
from Durham, Kelso of the later lath century, and the parish
churches of Dalmeny and Leuchars, present the same characteristics
as are found in English churches of somewhat earlier dates than the
buildings in question, and some Romanesque forms survive to a later
period than in England. In the 13th century, too, the style of the
Scottish churches corresponds very closely with that of England,
though the details are generally simpler, and the structures are
smaller. It is naturally allied most closely with the north of England,
where Cistercian influence in the direction of simplicity and severity
had been exercised with the best results. The transept of Dryburgh.
the choir and crypt of Glasgow cathedral, the nave of Dunblane,
the choir of Brechin, and later Elgin cathedral, exhibit the style at
its purest and best. The disturbed condition of the country during
the 14th century was unfavourable to architecture, and when
building revived at the beginning of the ijth century its style became
more national. During the first half of the 15th century, it shows a
certain borrowing from English architecture of the flowing-tracery
period. Later, many features are borrowed both from England and
France, and architecture develops in picturesque and interesting
fashion. Melrose is one of the most characteristic, as it certainly »
one of the most charming of Scottish buildings; its earlier parts
bear a close resemblance to the earlier 14th-century work at York,
[SCOTTISH AND HUSH
while its later parts show more similarity to English " Perpendicular
than is common in Scotland. One of the most characteristic features
of Scottish architecture in the 15th century is the pointed barrel
vault, which directly supports the stone flagged roof. French in-
fluence is seen in the employment of the polygonal apse for the
termination of choirs, and in some approaches to Flamboyant
tracery. The details of the later Gothic churches have but afight
connexion either with France or England, and show a curious
revival of earlier motives. The semicircular arch is in frequent use,
and the " nail-head " and " dog-tooth " ornament, as wet! as the use
of detached shafts, are revived. One of the most remarkable build-
ings of the 15th century in Scotland is the collegiate church of
Roslin. which has a pointed barrel vault over its choir, with trans-
verse barrel vaults over the aisles, and b distinguished by the
extreme richness of its decoration.
The domestic remains in Scotlan r — -— „,
and magnificence. They are a distinctly national class of oofldii
The domestic remains in Scotland are full of picturesque beauty
id magnificence. They are a distinctly national class of balding*
of great solidity, and much was sacrificed by their builders to the
genius of the picturesque. They can only be classed with the latest
Gothic buildings of other countries, but the mode of design shown in
them lasted much later than the late Gothic style did in England.
The vast height to which their wails were earned, the picturesque
use made of circular towers, the freedom with which buildings were
planned at various angles of contact to each other, and the general
simplicity of the ordinary wall, are their most distinct characteristics.
Irdand.—Tbt chief interest of the medieval architecture of
Ireland belongs to the buildings which were erected before the
English conquest of the I2th century. The early monastic settle-
ments seem to have resembled the primitive Celtic fortresses, and
consisted of a scries of huts or cells, surrounded by an enclosing wad.
The so-called " bee-hive " cell, which goes back to pre-Christian
times, was built of rough stone rubble without mortar, and roofed m
the same manner by corbelling over the courses of masonry. Some
pf these were certainly dwellings, but others were oratories. The
largest of those in Skcllig Michael is four-sided, and from this type
the stone-roofed church of oblong plan was developed. The later
type, with oblong nave and small square-ended chancel, retained
much of the character of these primitive structures, and their barrel
vaults were sometimes independent of the stone roof-covering, a
system which lasted into the 12th and 13th centuries. A certain
megalithic character, and the inclined jambs of doorway openings,
are marked features of these early churches. The round towers so
frequently associated with them are believed to be not earlier than
the 9th century. Before the introduction of Norman forms. Ireland
possessed a Romanesque style of her own, characterized by the
survival of horizontal forms and their incorporation into the round-
arched style, the retention of the inclined Jambs of doorways, rich
surface decoration, and the use of certain ornamental motives of
earlier Celtic origin. King Cormac's chapel at Cashd is one of the
best examples 01 the imported Norman manner of the lath century,
and here we find much of the influence of the earlier native style.
The English conquest may be said to have been the introduction to
Ireland of Gothic art, and it was the local variety of western England
and south Wales which the conquerors introduced. Among the
buildings erected by the English in Ireland, Kilkenny cathedral
and the two 13th-century cathedrals of Dublin— Christ Church and
St Patrick's— are the most remarkable, but there are many others.
Their style is most plainly that of the English conqueror, with no
concession to, or consideration of, earlier Irish forms of art. The
result of the conquest was that the native style of construction was
never applied to large buildings, though it did not at once disappear,
as is witnessed by the church St Doulough near Malahide, which
appears to be a 14th-century building. The characteristic features
of later medieval Irish buildings, such as the stepped battlements,
the retention of flowing lines in the tracery, and the peculiar treat-
ment of crockets, are matters of no great importance in the history
of architecture, and indeed it is hardly to be expected that a country
with so stormy a history could have given rue to any systematic
developments. Of the monastic remains those of the friaries are
the most numerous. Ireland having many more friars' churches to
show than England, but such peculiarities as they possess belong
rather to the order than to any local influences. (J. Bn.)
Romanesque and Gothic Axchitectuib in Germany
With the exception of the church built at Treves (Trier) by the
empress Helena, of which small portions can still be traced in the
cathedral, there are no remains of earlier date than the tomb-bouse
built by Charlemagne at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), which, though
much restored in the 19th century, is still in good preservation. It
consists (fig. 44) of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by aisles in
two storeys, both vaulted; externally the structure is a polygon of
sixteen sides, about 105 ft. in diameter, and it was preceded by a
rrch flanked by turrets. It is thought to have been copied from
Vitale at Ravenna, but there are many essential differences. The
same design was repeated at Ottmarsheim and Essen, and a simpler
version exists at Nijmwcgen in the Netherlands, also built by
Charlemagne. Although no remains exist of the monastery of St
Gall in Switzerland (see Abbey), built in the beginning of the oth
century, a valuable manuscript plan was found in the 17th century,
in its library, which would seem to have been a design foracompktsj
GBKMAN ROMANESQUE]
It
ARCHITECTURE
405
1 are peculiar to the early
elsewhere, and it therefore
German churches and are rarely found
of considerable interest, suggesting that some of the accessories of a
monastery, s upp osed to have been the result of subsequent develop-
ment, were all clearly set forth at this early period. The plan shows
an eastern apse with a crypt, and a choir in front; a w e s tern apse,
nave and aisles, with a series of altars down the latter; and on the
west side, but detached from the apse, two circular towers with
staircases in them. Unfortunately there are no churches remaining
of the same date from which we might judge how far these arrange-
ments were followed ; but there are three early churches in the island
of Reichenau on the Lake of Constance, in one of which, Mittcbeell,
is a western apse with staircases (here
built up into a central tower), nave, and
aisles with altars at the side between
every window. The eastern portion has
been rebuilt. At Oberaell, at the south
end of the island, is a vaulted crypt,
which dates from the end of the 10th
century. In the third and much
I smaller church, UnterzcU, there was no
crypt, but three eastern apses and a
western apse, which was destroyed
when the present nave was built. At
Gcrnrode in the Harz is a church with
western and eastern apses with vaulted
crypts underneath (one of which dates
from 960 when the church was founded),
and circular towers with staircases in
them on either side of the western apse.
The church was completed about a
century later. In the arcade between
the nave and aisles piers alternate
Fig. 44-— Plan of Cathedral with . **« < ? >,u . m "f;_ J A1 ? rnat / in .K P*^*
a.Aix-U-Ch.pcUe. ff,W& , SS».i£ffiS
above about 1030) and many other early churches. Western apses
exist at Drubeck, Ilbcnstadt, Treves, Huyseberg, St Michael and St
Godehard at Hildesheim, Mainz, the Obermunster at Regensburg,
Laach.WormSfandatalaterdateatNaumbcrgandBamberg.showing
that it was a feature generally accepted in early and late periods.
It has, however, one great defect, that of depriving the west end of
the church of those magnificent porches which are the glory of the
churches of France; the cathedral of Spires (Speycr), the church at
Limburg near DOrkhcim, the cathedrals of Erfurt and Regensburg,
being the few examples where a dignified entrance is given ; and
further, that on entering the church from the side, one is distracted
by the rivalry of the two apses, and it is only when turning the back
on one or the other that one is able to judge of the monumental effect
of the interior.
The greater number of the churches above mentioned were
covered over with open timber roofs or flat ceilings ; but the problem
Sola of Foe*
Fjc 45,— Plan of Cathedral
at Mainz.
Flo. 46.— Plan of Cathedral
at Worms.
to be solved in Germany, as well as in Italy, was that of vaulting
ever .the nave, and the cathedrals of Spires, Worms and Mains
(fig. 45) are she three most important churches in which this was
"shed. The dates of their vaults have never been quite
that of Spires would seem to have been the earliest built.
probably after I iw, when the church was seriously damaged by a
conflagration, and the vault is groined only. In Worms (fig. 46)
and Mains there are diagonal moulded ribs, which suggest a later date.
Although of great height and width, the absence of a triforium
gallery in these cathedrals is a serious defect, as it deprives the
interior of that scale which the smaller arcades in such a gallery
give to the nave arcade below and the cl er e st o r y above, and 01 those
horizontal lines given by string courses which are entirely wanting
in these churches. Seeing that in some of the earlier churches, as
at Gernrode, St Ursula (Cologne), and Nieder-Lahnstein, the tri-
forium had already been introduced, and that it was repeated in the
later examples at Limburgon the Lahn, •_
Bacharach, Andernach, Bonn, Sinzig,
and St Gereon (Cologne), it is difficult
to understand why, in the three great
typical German Romanesque churches,
they should have been omitted. Exter- 1
nalfy the design is extremely fine r
owing to the grouping of the many
towers at the west and on either side
of the transept or choir. In this '
respect the cathedral of Mainz is the
most superb structure in Germany, and
to the cathedral of Spires with its fine
entrance porch (fig. 47) must be given
the second place.
One of the most perfect examples of
the Rhcnish-Romancsque styles is the
church of the abbey of Laach, completed
shortly after the middle of the 12 th
century. The eastern part of the
church resembles the ordinary type,
but at the west end there is a narrow
transept flanked by circular towers,
and a western apse enclosed in an
atrium with cloistcts round, which
forms the entrance to the church. The
sculptures in the capitals of the atrium
are of the finest description and repre-
sent the perfected type of the German pjc. *j t — Plan of Cathedral
Romanesque style. In addition to the a t Spires,
two circular towers flanking the west
transept, a square tower rises in the centre of the west front, two
square towers flank the choir and a crystal lantern crowns the
crossing of the main transept, and the grouping of all these features
is very fine and picturesque in effect. A small church at Roshcim in
Alsace is quite Lombardic in its exterior design, the pilaster strips
and arched corbel tables being almost identical. The same applies
to the church at Marmouticr, but the towers flanking the main front
ar j ^u * *u : r »u — -Kern transept produce
a the greater number of
forth Italy, reference
hs he eaves-gallery, best
Tl
1 Magsiore, Bergamo.
; the Rhine churches,
it Cologne receives its
fu 1 eastern apse carried
ro >ts. which in these two
ck in Cologne, constitute
a , where round towers
ar he effect is extremely
{>) ipse is flanked by two
he east front.
laractcr of their own.
T n, arcaded or pierced
w spires rising out of the
gables.
One peculiarity found in some of the German churches, and
specially those in the north-east, is that the nave and aisles are of
the same height. To these the term HalUnkirchen is given. This
type of design is very grand internally, owing to the vast height of
the piers and arches. It also dispenses with the necessity for flying
buttresses, as the aisles, which are only half the width of the nave,
carry the thrust of the vault direct to the external buttresses. The
nave, however, is not so well lighted, though the aisle windows are
sometimes of stupendous height. The principal examples are those
of the church of St Stephen, Vienna, where both nave and aisles are
carried over with one vast roof; at MOnster, the Wiesenkireke at
Soest; St Lawrence, Nuremberg; St Martin's, Landshut;. Munich
cathedral, and others. . _ .
St Gereon (1200-1327) and St Cunibert (1203-1248), in Cologne,
besides churches at Naumburg, Limburg and Gelnhausen, in which
the pointed arch is employed, are almost the only transitional
examples in Germany, and respond to work of a century earlier in
France. Toward the end of the 13th century the Romanesque style
was supplanted by a style .which in no way grew out of it, but m
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NETHERLANDS GOTHIQ
4ft. in diameter, carry the vault over an area 160 ft. long by 66ft.
wide. Right up in the north of Germany, in Pomcrania, are many
fine examples in brick and sometimes of great size, such as those at
Strabund, Stettin, Stargard, Pasewalk, and m the island of Rogen.
The Matitnkirtk* at Stralsund, owing to its massive construction
and picturesque grouping, is an interesting example. Its western
transept or narthex with tower in centre is a common type or the
churches in Pomcrania, and though very inferior in design is a
version of those which in England are seen in Ely and Peterborough
cathedrals.
la the entrance gateways to the towns and in domestic archi-
tecture north Germany is very rich ; the palace of the grand master
of the Teutonic Order at Marienburg is a vast and imposing
structure in brick (1276-1335). in which the chapter house of the
grand master, with its fan-vaulted roof, resting on a single pillar
of granite in the centre, and the entrance porch of the church nchly
carved in brick, are among the finest examples executed in that
material. (R. P. S.)
Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium and Holland
Of early Romanesque work neither Belgium nor Holland retains
any examples: for with the exception of the small building at
Nijmwegen built by Charlemagne, there are no churches prior to the
nth century, and at first the influence in Belgium would seem to
have come From Lombardy, through the Rhine Provinces. As all
her large churches are built in the centres of her most important
towns, it is probable that the older examples were pulled down to
make way for others more in accordance with the increasing wealth
and population. In the 13th
century they came under the
influence of the great Gothic
movement in France, and two
or three of their cathedrals
compare favourably with the
French cathedrals. The finest
example of earlier date is that
of the cathedral of Tournai
(fig. 49), the nave of which
was built in the second half of
the nth century, to which a
transept with north and south
apses and aisles round them
was added about the, middle
of the 1 2th century. These
latter features are contem-
I poraneous with similar cx-
-f amples at Cologne, and the
w idea of the plan may have
r been taken from them ; exter-
nally, however, they differ so
widely that the design may be
looked upon as an original
conception, though the nave
arcades, triforium storey, and
clerestory resemble the con-
temporaneous work in Nor-
mandy. The original choir
was pulled down sn the 14th
century, and a magnificent
chevet of the French type
erected in Its place. The
grouping of the towers which
flank the transept, with the
central lantern, the apses, and
lofty choir, is extremely fine
(fig. 5<>). The sculptures on
the west front, dating from
the iath to the 16th century, protected by a portico of the late 15th
century, are of remarkable interest and in good preservation. They
are in three tiers, the two lowest consisting of bas-reliefs, the uprcr
tier with ^life-size figures in niches, resting on corbels. The
Romanesque tower of the church of St Jacques in the same town,
with angle turrets, is a picturesque and well-designed structure.
Other early examples are those of St Bartholomew at Liege (a.d.
101 5) and the churches at Roermondc and St Scrvais at Maastricht,
both belonging to Holland. The latter is an extremely fine example,
which recalls the work at Cologne, and in its great western narthex
follows on the lines of the German churches at Gernrode, Corvey and
Brunswick.
Among other churches of later date are St Gudule at Brussels,
with Gothic 13th century choir and a 14th century nave with great
circular pillars, the west front of later date, approached by a lofty
flight of steps, having a very fine effect : Stc Croix at Liege, with a
western apse; St Martin at Ypres and St Bavon at Ghent, both
with 13th-century choir and 14th-century nave; Tongres, 13th
century with great circularpfllars and an early Romanesque cloister;
Notre Dame do Pamcle at Oudcnarde; and Notre Dame at Bruges,
14th century. Of 15th and 16th century work (for the Gothic style
lasted without any trace of the Renaissance till the middle of the
16th century) are St Gommaire at Licrre (1425-1557); St Martin,
Alost (1498); St Jacques, Antwerp; and St Martin and St Jacques,
ARCHITECTURE
407
both at Liege. The largest in area* and in that sense the most im-
portant church in Belgium, is Notre Dame at Antwerp (misnamed the
cathedral). It was begun in 135a, but not completed till the 16th
century, so that it poss esses many transitional features. It is one
of the few churches with three aisles on each side of the nave, the
outer aisle being nearly as wide as the nave, which is too narrow
to have a fine effect. Only one of the two spires of the west front
is built, perhaps to its advantage; the upper portion presents in its
pierced stone spires one of those remarkable tours-de-joru of which
masons are so proud, and having a simple substructure it gains by
contrast with and is much superior to the spires of Cologne, Vienna
and Ulm.
Among the most remarkable features in these Belgian churches
are the rood screens, the earliest of which is in the church of St
Fig. 50.— Tournai Cathedral
Peter at Louvain, dating from 1400. in rich Flamboyant Gothic,
retaining all its statues. In the church at Dixmuidcn, St Gommaire
at Lierre (1534), and In Notre Dame, Walcourt (153O, are other
examples all in perfect preservation; the last is said to have been
given by the emperor Charles V., and in the same church is a lofty
tabernacle in Flamboyant Gothic.
Owing to the comparatively late date of many of the Belgian
churches, they are all more or less unfinished, as the religious fervour
of the citizens who built them would seem to have changed in favour
of their town halls and civic buildings immediately connected with
trade. The Cloth Hall at Ypres (1200-1334) with a frontage of
460 ft., three storeys high with a lofty central tower and a hall on
the upper storey A35 ft. long, one of the finest buildings of the period
in Europe; Les Hallcs at Bruges, originally built as a cloth hall,
also with a lofty central tower; and a simple example at Malines,
are the earliest buildings of this type.
There follow a series of magnificent town halls, of which that at
Brussels is the largest, but the tower not being quite in the centre
of its facade gives it a lopsided appearance. There is no tower to the
town hall at Louvain (1448-1469), but this is compensated for by
the angle turrets, and the design is far bolder. In both these examples
the vertical lines are too strongly accentuated, and seeing that they
are in two or three storeys, the latter should have been maintained
in the design of the facades. In this respect the town hall of
Oudenarde (1527-1535) is more truthful, and as a result is far superior
to them; the tower also is in the centre of the principal front,
which at all events is better than at Brussels, though as a matter of
composition it would have been more effective ana picturesque if it
408
ARCHITECTURE
(RENAISSANCE
had been placed at one end of the facade. In the town hall at Mons
there t» no tower, but a fine upper storey with ten windows filled
with good tracery. Of the town hall at Ghent only one half is Gothic
(1480-1482), as it was not completed till a century later, and though
overladen with Flamboyant ornament it has fine qualities in its design.
Although but few examples still exist of the Gothic structures
belonging to the various gilds, owing to their having been rebuilt
in the Renaissance style, those of the Bateliers at Ghent (1531), and
of the Fishmongers at Malines (1519), bear witness in the rich
decoration to the wealth of these corporations.
Holland is extremely poor in church architecture, but there are
two examples which should be noted, at Utrecht and Bois-le-Duc
fs Hertogenbosch). Of the former only the choir exists. It is of
great height (115 ft.), and belongs to the finest period of Gothic
architecture (1251-1267). The nave was destroyed by a hurricane
in 1674, and so seriously damaged that it was all taken down (a wall
being built to enclose the choir) and an open square left between
it and the lofty west tower. The cathedral of St John at Bois-le-
Duc, though founded in 1300, was rebuilt in the Flamboyant period
(1419-1497)- It is of great length (400 ft.) with a fine chevet, and
possessed originally a magnificent rood screen in the early Renais-
sance style (1625) ; this seemed to the burghers to be out of keeping
with the Gothic church, so it was taken down and sold to the South
Kensington Museum, being replaced by a very poor example in
Modern Gothic.
There is only one Gothic town hall of importance in Holland,
that at Middleburg (1468), a fine example, and quite equal to those
in Belgium. The ground and upper floors are kept distinct, and as
the wall surface of these lower storeys is in plain masonry, the
traceried windows and the canopied niches (all of which retain their
statues) gain by the contrast, There is a small picturesque specimen
at Gouda, and at Lecuwarden in the house of correction (Kanselary)
a rich example in brick and stone, with a remarkable stepped gable
in the centre having statues on its steps.
Both in Belgium and Holland there are numerous examples of
domestic architecture in brick with quoins and tracery in stone, in
both cases alternating with brick courses and arch voussoirs and with
infinite variety of design. (R. P. S.)
The Renaissance Style: Introduction
The causes which led to the evolution of the Renaissance
style in Italy in the 15th century were many and diverse. The
principal impulse was that derived from the revival of classical
literature. Already in the 14th century the coming movement
was showing itself in the works of the painters and sculptors,
especially the latter, owing to the influence of the classic sculpture
which abounded throughout Italy. Thus in the tomb of St
Dominic (1221) at Bologna, the pulpits of Pisa (1260) and
Siena (1268), and in the fountain of Perugia (1277-1280) by
Niccola Pisano and his son Giovanni, all the figures would seem
to have been inspired in their character by those found in Roman
sarcophagi. A classic treatment is noticeable in the doorway
of the Baptistery of Florence by Andrea Pisano (1330), probably
influenced by Giotto, in whose paintings are found the representa-
tion of imaginary buildings in which Gothic and Classic details
are mixed up together. The time for its full development, how-
ever, did not come till the following century, when, .with the
papal throne again firmly established under Martin V., the
amelioration of the city of Rome was commenced, and discoveries
were made which awakened an archaeological interest fostered
by the Medici at Florence, who not only became enthusiastic
collectors of ancient works of art, but promoted the study of
the antique figure. In addition to the acquisition of marbles
and bronzes, ancient manuscripts of classic writers were sought
for and supplied by Greek exiles who seemed to have foreseen
the breaking up of the eastern empire; everything, therefore,
at the beginning of the 15th century fostered the spread of the
new movement Accordingly, when a great architect like
Brunellcschi, who for fifteen years had been making a special
study of the ancient monuments in Rome and who possessed
in addition great scientific knowledge, brought forward his
proposals for the completion of the cathedral built by Arnolfo di
Lapo, and showed how the existing substructure could be
covered over with a dome like the Pantheon at Rome, his designs
were accepted by the town council of Florence, and in 14 20 he was
entrusted with the work. Subsequently he carried out other
works, in which pure classic architectural forms are the chief
characteristics. There were, however, other causes which not
only promoted the encouragement of the revival, but extended
it to other countries, though at a later period; the most im-
portant of these was the invention of printing (i453)» which in a
sense revolutionized art, not so much in its enabling clashes!
literature to be more extensively studied and known, as in its
taking away to a certain extent from the painter and sculptor
and indirectly the architect one of their principal missions, so
far as ecclesiastical architecture is •concerned. Henceforth
these who had hitherto taught their lessons in sculpture, painting,
stained glass and fresco, could, through the printed book, bring
them more immediately before and directly to mankind. Victor
Hugo's pithy saying, " ceci tutra tda\ le Xmt tucra Vigliu"
expressed not only the fall of architecture from the position it
occupied as the principal teacher, but to a certain extent the
change in the channel by which religious teachers and the writers
of the day, the poets and philosophers, could best make their
works known.
With the invention of printing came the partial cessation of
fresco painting, stained glass and sculpture, which subsequently
came to be regarded more as decorative adjuncts than as having
educational functions. But this transfer from the Church to
the Book, the extinction of the one by the other, led to another
important change, Henceforth the architect or master-mason,
as he was then known, could no longer count on the co-operation
of the various craftsmen, men of ten of greater culture than himself;
and the individuality of the man, which has sometimes been put
forward as a gain to humanity, was a loss so far as architecture
is concerned, since it was scarcely possible that the imagination
and conceptions of a single individual, however brilliant they
might be, could ever reach to the high level of the joint product
of many minds, or that there could be the same natural expression
in what had hitherto been the traditional work of centuries.
In France the introduction of the Revival resulted at first in a
transitional period during which classic details gradually crept
in, displacing the Gothic In Italy this does not seem to have
been the ca?» to the same extent. It is true that in Florence and
Venice, where an independent style existed, the new buildings
in their general principles of design were copied from the old,
but with no mixture of details as in France; in Brunelleschi'a
church, Santo Spirito at Florence, the capitals and details are
all pure Italian, as pure as if they had been carried out in the 3rd
or 4th century, the fact being that already before the 15th
century the craftsman's work was approaching the new move-
ment, and this was facilitated by the numerous remains still
existing of Roman architecture. In the four or five yeara
BruncUeschi spent in Rome, he had the opportunity of studying
a far larger number of Roman buildings than are preserved at the
present day, so that the purity of style in the work which he
carried out in Florence was due to his previous training; the
same is found in Alberti's work, and with these two great men
leading the way it is not surprising that throughout the earlier
Renaissance period in Italy we find a classic perfection of detail
which it took half a century to develop in other countries.
It is difficult to say what might have been its ultimate develop-
ment if another discovery had not. been made about 1452*
that of the manuscript of Vitruvius, a Roman architect who
lived in the time of the emperor Augustus; his work on architec-
ture gives an admirable description of the building materials
employed in his day (c. 25 B.C.), and among other subjects, a
series of rules regulating the employment of the various orders
and their correct proportions. These rules were based on the
descriptions which Vitruvius had studied of Greek temples,
but as he was not acquainted with the examples quoted, never
having been in Greece or even in south Italy at Paestum, his
knowledge was confined to the architectural monuments then
existing in Rome. Vitruvius's manuscript, entitled Dt re aedi-
Jicotoria, was illustrated by drawings, none of which have
however been preserved; when therefore in subsequent years
translations of the architectural portion of the manuscript were
printed and published by various Italian architects, among
whom Vignola and Palladio were the more important, they were
accompanied by woodcuts representing their interpretation of
the lost illustrations, and thus copybooks of the orders wen
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE)
published, with more or less fidelity to those of existing Roman
monuments, in which attempts were made to adhere to the rules
laid down by Vitruvius. In Rome and other parts of Italy,
where ancient monuments or portions of them still remained
in situ, architects could study their details and base their designs
on them, but in other countries they were bound to follow the
copybook, and thus they lost that originality and freedom of
design which characterizes the earlier work of the Renaissance.
On the other hand, there is no doubt that the publications of
Vignola and Palladio, based as they were on the remains of
ancient Rome, then much better preserved than at the present
day, tended to maintain a high standard in the employment of
the Classic orders, with correct proportions and details; so
much so, that in referring to the influence which those works
exerted from the middle of the x6th century in France and
Spain, and during the 17th and 18th centuries in England
and to a certain extent in Spain, Germany and the Netherlands,
it is generally spoken of as the introduction of the pure Italian
style. The tendency, however, of such hard and fast rules leads
eventually to an excess in the opposite direction, and the works
of Borromini in Italy and Churriguera in Spain in the middle of
the 17th century resulted in the production of what is generally
referred to as the Rococo style. This style was fostered in
France by the attempts to reproduce, externally and in stone,
ornamental decoration of a type which is only fitted for internal
work in stucco, and in Germany and the Netherlands by repro-
ductions of fantastic designs published in copybooks, which led
to the bastard style of the Zwinger palace in Dresden and the
Dutch architecture of the 18th century. Vignola's work on the
five orders was published in 1563, and Palladio's in 1570; they
were preceded by a publication of Serlio's in 1 540, giving examples
of various architectural compositions, and to him is probably
due the introduction of the pure Italian style in the Louvre in
1546. They were followed by other authors, as Scamozzi in
Italy, Philibert de l'Orme in France, and, at a later date,
Sir William Chambers in England.
The term given to the earlier Renaissance or transition work
in Italy is the Cinque-cento style, though sometimes that title
b given to buildings erected in the 16th century; in France it
is known as the Francois I. style, in Spain as the Platercsque
or Silversmiths' style, and in England as the Elizabethan and
Jacobean styles. -
There is still another and very important difference to be noted
between the styles of the middle ages and those of the Renaissance.
Although the names of the designers in the former are occasion-
ally known and have been handed down to us, they were only
partially responsible, as the works were carried out by other crafts-
men working on traditional lines, whereas in the latter they are
of much more importance because of the independent thought and
study of the individual; and though to a certain extent the
development of each man's work may have been influenced by
others working in the same direction, his special object was to
acquire personal fame and by his own fancy or predilection
to produce what he conceived to be an original work peculiar
to himself. Consequently in our description the name of the
architect who designed a particular building, as well as the date
of its erection, are necessarily given to show the progress made
in his studies or otherwise. (R. P. S.)
Renaissance Akchitectuke in Italy
In the styles hitherto described a chronological order has been
followed, as far as possible, in order to show the gradual develop-
ment of the style; that course is adopted here to a certain extent,
when dealing with the Renaissance, though the introduction of
the personal element, to which reference has been made, brings
in a change of some importance. Henceforth the career of the
individual has to be taken into consideration, and at times it
may be an advantage when describing a building by an architect
of eminence to mention other works by hira, and so depart from
the chronological sequence.
Ecclesiastical. — The classic revival in Italy, though foreshadowed
in other branches of art, as in painting and sculpture, and also to
ARCHITECTURE
409
a marked degree in literature, was virtually introduced by one
great man, Filippo Brunelleschi of Florence, who, trained as a
sculptor, and disappointed with his want of success in the competi-
tion held in 1403 for the bronze gates of the baptistery at Florence,
determined to devote himself to architecture, possibly in the hope
that he might some day be able to solve the great problem of erecting
over the crossing of ArnoK" Ai l »««'• «»_»*. M »k~i.-..i .1.- a
projected by the latter bi
years in Rome, Brunellesch
with a profound knowledg
construction, as shown in
and other remains, then u
present day. Some years pa
and in deliberations with tl
1420 the completion of the
undertook to construct the
on a drum so as to give i
contemplated, as shown in
Maria Novella, Florence.
was of considerable size, be
the cornice to the eye of th
was raised ; it was octagon
outer casing partly in brie]
on each face, which were in 1
completed in 1434; but the
he had made, was not carrie
Brunelleschi'* other works i
Lorenzo, which he rebuilt
Santo Spirito (1433). a very
was based on the medieval
tions in plan and section a
suggested. This church cc
aisles all round, the centre
on pendentives, which henceforth became the chief characteristic in
all the Renaissance churches. Brunelleschi's earliest work was the
Pazzi chapel, an original conception which is more remarkable for
the pure classic feeling and refinement in all its details than for the
design. The weakness of the archivolt round the central archway,
and the mass of panelled wall carried on columns (far too slight in
their dimensions), detract seriously from the effect of the facade;
internally the structural function of the pilasters is not sufficiently
maintained, and instead of a simple hemispherical dome, as in the
cathedral, a quasi-Gothic type was built, with twelve ribs and
scalloped cells, which destroys its dignity.
Brunelleschi was followed by another great Florentine architect,
Leon Battista Alberti, who was also a great mathematician and a
scholar, and further promoted the study of classic architecture by
writing a treatise in Latin, Opus prarstantissimum <U re aedificaloria,
which was based partly on that of Vitruvius and was published in
1485, after his death, accompanied by illustrations. The first
building with which he was connected was the church of San Fran-
cesco at Rimini, to which in 1440 he added the front. In this he
was evidently inspired by the Roman triumphal arch in that city,
and his interpretation of it, to meet the requirements in its facade
which were imposed upon him by the existing nave, was admirable.
Unfortunately the principal front was never completed, but on the
south side he designed a series of recesses to hold the sarcophagi
containing the remains of the friends of his client. SigismondO
Malatesta, the effect of which is simple and grand. Alberti s largest
work, the church of Sant' Andrea at Mantua (1472). in which the
nave, transept and choir are all covered with barrel vaults, recalls
the vaulted corridors of the Colosseum. There are no aisles, but a
series of rectangular chapels on each side, the division walls of which
act as buttresses to resist the thrust of the great vault. The lofty
arched openings to the chapels, separated by Corinthian pilasters
with entablature supporting the coffered vault and a central dome
(since rebuilt), complete the structure, which has served since as the
model for all the Renaissance churches of the same type. The
principal front is not satisfactory, as it take* no cognizance of
the width of the nave, and the side doors have no use or meaning;
here Alberti seems to have been led astray in his triumphal arch
treatment, which is inferior to his scheme for the church at Rimini.
In 1463 Michelozzo, another Florentine architect, built the chapel
of St Peter at the east end of the church of Sant' Eustorgio, Milan.
Externally it has little attraction, but internally the dome, with its
magnificent frieze of winged angels in relief with a painted back-
ground of arcades and other accessories, is the most beautiful
composition of the Renaissance. Michelozzo's first work was the
Dominican monastery and church of San Marco at Florence (1439- '
145a), but he is better known for his secular work, to which we shall
return.
The next great architect chronologically is Bramante d' Urbino,
to whom was entrusted the commencement of the church of St Peter
at Rome. His first important work was the church of Santa Maria
della Consolazione at Todi (1472), which consists of a square nave
with immense semicircular apses, one on each side. The nave is
covered with a dome raised on a drum, and carried on pendentives,
and the apses with hemispherical vaults butt against the nave walls
and form externally a very fine group. Bramante was the architect
of the chapel in the cloisters of San Pietro-in-Montorio, Rome (1472),
4io
ARCHITECTURE
a small circular building covered with a dome and surrounded with a
peristyle of columns of the Doric order; and of the dome of the
church of Santa Maria dclle Grazie in Milan, as also of the three
apses, which are decorated with pilasters and baluster shafts with
circular medallions enclosing busts, all in terra cotta. Before passing
to his work at St Peter's there are some other early churches we must
notice. The Certosa, near Pavia, was begun in 1396, and in one sense
suggests the revival of classic architecture, in that all its arches
have semicircular heads. The magnificent facade of the church was
commenced in 1473 from the designs of Borgognone, a Milanese
architect: it is one of the few examples in Italy of large size in
which the transition is noticeable, for although there arc no Gothic
details the design follows that of the middle ages, and instead of
great pilasters of the Corinthian order, buttresses with niches
containing statues divide the facade and accentuate the internal
divisions of the church; the open galleries above the entrance
doorway crossing the upper storey of the central portion are all
derived from well-known Lombardic features. The upper part of
the facade is inferior to the lower, Borgognone's design having been
departed from. The enrichment of the whole front, from the lower
plinth to the string course under the first gallery, with bas-reliefs,
panelled pilasters, niches, medallions and other decorative acces-
sories, all in white marble, so completely covers the whole surface
that scarcely any portion is left plain, which to a certain extent
detracts from its effect as a whole; but there is an endless variety of
design, and the baluster or candelabrum shafts dividing the windows
and the friezes and cresting above their cornices, are 01 great beauty.
The circular rose window above, with its enclosing frontispiece of
later date, shows the coming influence of the later Italian style.
The cloisters adjoining are surrounded with a light arcade, with
enrichments in the spandrils and frieze, all in terra cotta.
The cathedral of Como is also a transitional example, where
buttresses are employed all round the church, and it is only in the
finials which surmount them, the great projecting cornice which
crowns the structure, and the doorways and windows; that we find
classical details; the doorways recall the porches of the Lombard
churches, and are of great beauty in design, the south doorway
being said to be by Bramante. Another example, remarkable for
its elaborately carved front and porch, is the church of Santa Maria
dei Miracoli at Brescia (1 487-1490) by Ludovici Bcretta, which
both externally and internally is one of the richest specimens of
the early Italian Renaissance. The church dedicated to Santa
Maria dei Miracoli in Venice {1481-1489), by Pietro Lombardo, is
another transitional example in which the Byzantine influence of
St Mark's is recognizable in the semicircular pediments of its facade
and of the exterior of the chancel, and Lombardic influence in its
external decorations with pilaster strips and blind arcades. The
interior is one of the gems of the Renaissance, on account of its
splendid decoration with marble linings and fine cinque-cento carv-
ing. Similar semicircular pediments are found in the facade of the
church of San Zaccharia at Venice (1515), but are purely decorative
because the roof behind is not semicircular like that of the Miracoli.
The decoration of the main front, here all in marble, is of an entirely
different design, and is subdivided into a series of storeys, the lower
panelled, the first storey with arcades and the upper ones with
pilasters. An earlier example (1461) in San Bernardino at Perugia
is of a far higher standard, and its enrichment with bas-relief s by
the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio (c. 1418-*. 1490) gives
it the first place for its conception and execution. Among others,
the church of Spirito Santo, Bologna, in terra cotta; the church of
Santa Giustina, Padua (1532) : the sacristy of San Satiro, Milan
(147?), by Bramante; and the sacristy of the church of Santo
Spirito. Florence (1489-1496), by Sangallo, are all interesting
examples of the early Renaissance in Italy. *
In 1505, on the advice of Michelangelo, Bramante was instructed
to prepare designs for a new church in Rome dedicated to St Peter
to take the place of the early basilica, which, built in haste, began*
to show serious signs of failure. Already, fifty years earlier, Pone
Nicholas V. had commenced a new building, the erection of which
iwas stooped by his death in 1454. The scheme was revived by
ulius II., and the foundation stone of the new structure was laid
1 1506. On Bramantcs death in 1514, Raphael, Peruazi and
Sangallo were successively appointed, and the last named Dreoared
a new design, which, however, was not carried out, as he found
it necessary first to strengthen the piers of the dome provided bv
Bramante and to remedy the defects of his successors. In i**6
Michelangelo, then seventy-two years of age, was entrusted with
the continuance of the work, and he made radical changes chiefly
in the design of the dome. Comparison of the plans of Bramante
and Sangallo with that actually carried out by Michclancelo
•hows that he not only increased the size of the piers to camrhis
dome, but the outer walls of the north, south andwest apses, and
omitted the aisles which surrounded the latter (fig. 51). He would
teem to have availed himself of the foundation walk already built
?,n £ ,? raman ^ 8 r r » to . <**& th « *"»«. wW <* had been raised
SJu k'-iS?" 1 ' 06 ' but S therw S« thc architectural features of the
SfelPn"^ 1 "* extCT ^}y and internally were carried but from
USt^TE&SJ™ designs. Sangalb had suggested for the «-
tenor a scries of superimposed orders with three storeys; MichcJ-
flTALIAN RENAISSANCE
angelo elected to have one order only with an attic storey. The
building gained thereby in dignity, but it lost in scale, for the huge
pilasters of the Corinthian order (87 ft. high) look considerably
smaller, in spite of the two storeys of windows between them.
These windows also, which from their design are apparently about
10 to 12 ft. high, actually measure 20 ft. in height. The same defect
exists in the interior, where thc Corinthian order, over 100 ft. in
height to the top of the cornice (Plate III., fig. 69), calls for a similar
increase in thc dimensions of all thc sculptured decorations; the
figures in the spandrils being 20 ft. high, and the cherubs support-
ing the holy water spouts 10 ft. Otherwise the scheme realizes the
conception which Bramante proposed from the first, viz. to raise
the dome of the Pantheon on the top of the basilica of Conttantine;
Fig. 51.— Plan of St Peter's at Rome.
the latter being represented by the magnificent barrel vault (75 ft.
in span) of the nave, transepts and choir; the former by the great
hemispherical dome, 140 ft. in diameter, which, including the drum*
is 162 ft. from thc top of thc cornice above thc pendentives to the
soffit of the dome. The dome is built in two shells with connecting
ribs on thc same principle as BrundleschTs dome in Florence, and
was nearly completed before Michelangelo's death- in 1565, and the
lantern in 1500 from the model which he had made. In 1605 the
east end of the old basilica was taken down, and three more bays
were added, thus converting the Greek cross of Michelangelo's
design into the Latin cross originally conceived by Bramante. The
nave and the eastern vestibule were completed in 1620, and the gieat
semicircular portico was added by Bernini in 1667. The immense
height of the east facade, and its prolongation in front of Michel-
angelo s chief feature, the dome, hides the design of a great 1 *—
of the latter, so that it can only be seen either from a great <
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE)
ARCHITECTURE
411
(Plate til., fig. 68), or from behind the western apse, where the
relative grouping with the greet apses car L
A second well-known work by Mkrhelai
western apse, where tbc
t apses can be properly appreciated.
. ; Michelangelo is the new sacristy
of the church of San Lorenzo, Florence (1523-1530), designed to
contain the monuments of Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici, the
architectural design of which is poor.
, Antonio di SangaJb was the architect of the church of San Biagio
at Montepulciano (1518), with a cruciform plan, and dome in the
centre, and a campanile at the south-west angle somewhat similar
to those of Wren in London.
The church of Santa Maria -di • Carignano (1552) at Genoa, by
Galeazzo Alessi, is finely situated but unsatisfactory in its design,
the lower part being stunted in its proportions ana its order to a
different scale from that in the campanile towers and the dome.
The most beautiful interior is that of the Annunziata in the same
town, by Giacomo della Porta (1587); the arches of its nave arcade
ace carried on Corinthian columns of marble, of fine proportion,
and the nave is covered with a barrel vault with penetrations
admitting the light from clerestory windows. The churches of San
Giorgio Maggiore (i$5°-i579). San Fn ""
and II Redentore (1577), all in Venice,
(1556-1579), San Francesco della Vigna (1562),
.„..,. _ j designed by Palhulio,
the interior of the latter being the finest; the facade of the first
named is the best-proportioned, but whether its design is due to
Palbdio, or to Scamozzi, who built it in 1610, is not known. A far
finer church in its picturesque grouping and the originality of its
design is that of Santa Maria della Salute on the Grand Canal (1631),
by Baldassare Longhena; the church to octagonal on plan, with
aisles round, giving access to six recesses with altars and to an
important eastern chapel with central dome. The central octagon is
covered with a lofty dome with immense corbel buttresses of vigorous
and fine design. The entrance portal of the west front is perhaps
the best example of the period in Italy. Longhena also designed the
Santa Maria degti Scahri (1680), completed by Sardi in 1689, the
latter being responsible for the heavy front of San Salvatore (1663),
as also of the rich but somewhat debased church, in the Jesuit style,
Santa Maria Zobenigo (1680- 1683).
Stcitlar ArtkiUcturt.—ln the application of the leading features of
classical architectural design to palaces and mansions, the Italians
had a much easier field on which to exercise their originality, as the
" *i were very different from those which obtained in the
Moreover, the classic style lent itself more readily to
the horizontal lines given by string courses, cornices and ranges of
windows, which naturally exist in dwelling-houses on account of the
various storeys. As in ecclesiastical, so in secular architecture, the
first introduction of the Revival takes place in Florence, which was
then the principal art centre of Italy, and the earliest examples are
in a sense transitional, in that they are based on the earlier medieval
work. As in the Palazzo Vecchio (1298) in Florence, and the
Ricciarefli palace at Volterra (c. 1320), the rusticated masonry which
gives them so fine a character forms the chief characteristic of the
Kiccardi and Strozzi palaces, the only changes being the substitution
of a classic cornice of considerable projection in the place of the machi-
colations of the Palazzo Vecchio, and the employment of circular
arches in the windows in the place of the pointed and curved arches.
The earliest example, the Kiccardi palace (1430). by Micheiozzo
(fig. 52), built for Coshno de* Medici, is certainly the finest, owing
partly to its size but more especially to the magnificent bossed and
rusticated masonry of the ground storey and the bold projecting
cornice, which crowns so admirably the whole structure. The lower
two storeys of the main front of the Pitri palace were built by
Brundleschi in 143]$, the return wings and court not being carried
out till after 1550 from the designs of Ammanati; compared with
the other Tuscan palaces the cornice is extremely poor and the whole
front too monotonous. The beautiful court of the Palazzo Vecchio
was reconstructed and decorated by Micheiozzo in 1431. The
Strozzi palace (1489), by Benedetto da Maiano and S. Pollajuolo,
{Cronaca), comes next to the Riccardi as regards general design, but
in comparison with it the windows are too small, and the want of a
much bolder rustication, as provided in the latter, is much felt.
Other examples of the same type are the Gondi (1481) and the
Antinori palaces, by G. di Sangallo, and the Casa Lardercl, all in
Florence; the Spanochi (1470) and the Piccolomini (1460) palaces
in Siena, and the Piccolomini palace (1490) in Pienza. In the
Guadagni palace at Florence, by S. Pollajuolo, there is a third storey,
consisting of an open gallery, which gives the depth of shadow
otherwise afforded by the projecting cornice. In the Ruccellai
„ > (1460), by Alberti, the design is spoilt by the introduction
of the classic pilasters at regular intervals on each storey, which
suggest no structural object and have too little projection to give
any effect of light and shade, so that it is only on account of the
purity of their details that they are worth notice. The Pandolphini
palace, the design of which is attributed to Raphael, carried out after
his death by Sangallo, is a simple and unpretentious building of fine
proportions: the Pall Mall facade of Sir Charles Barry's Travellers'
Club in London is a reproduction of this palace. The Bartotini
palace (1520), by Baccio d' Agnolo, is said to have been the first
astylar example in which the Classic orders were employed only to
decorate the entrance door and windows, but this had already been
done in 1488 in the Scuola di San Marco in Venice.
Throughout the greater part of the 15th century, the Venetian
Gothic style still held its own in the palaces of Venice, so that it is
only towards the close of the century we find the first actual results
of the Classic Revival The earlier palaces may be looked upon as
transitional work, in which Gothic principles rule the design while the
details are borrowed from classic sources. The intimate acquaintance
with the proportions of the Classic orders and their ornamental
detail shows that the designers of the earliest Renaissance palaces
must have acquired their knowledge outside Venice. Among these
designers we find the names of members of the Lombard! family
(which, as the name suggests, come from Lombardy), who for three
or four generations, either as architects or sculptors, would seem
to have been the chief founders of the Renaissance style in Venice.
One of these. Pictro Lombardo, has already been referred to as the
designer of the church of the Miracoli, and to him is due the Vend-
ramini-Calerghi palace on the Grand Canal (Plate IV.. fig. 71), built
Frocn • photo by Al atari.
Fic. 52.— Riccardi Palace, Florence.
in 1481. which in some respects is the finest example In Venice.
It should be observed that all these palaces on the Grand Canal
have an architectural frontage only, the flanks being built in plain
masonry or brick stuccoed over, and with very poor, it any, dressings
to the windows. This is well exemplified in the Vendraroini palace,
where there are gardens on each side, showing the total want of
correlation between the rich architectural front and the poverty of
the flanks.
In a still earlier example, the Dario palace, one of the flanks
borders on a side canal, so that its brick construction, partly covered
with stucco, contrasts strangely- with the rich marbles encrusting
the main front. In the Darto palace the transition from Gothic to
Renaissance is more clearly seen, as the only changes made are the
substitution of circular window-heads for tnc Ogee Venetian archi
the projecting cornice with moditlions, and more or less pure classic
details. In the Vendramini palace the employment of the orders,
to break up or subdivide the wall surface, has become a recognized
treatment, based on the theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum at
Rome. On the ground storey there are panelled pilasters only, but
on the first and second storeys three-quarter detached columns of
the Corinthian order are employed, and the entablature is doubled
in height with a bold projecting cornice, so as to crown properly the
whole building.
4-12
ARCHITECTURE
The semicircular-headed window* of the police are filled with
moulded tracery carried on columns in the centre of each, which must
be looked upon as the classic version of the arcade of the Ducal
palace. This feature is found in other early Renaissance work in
Venice, as in the Scuola de San Rocco (1517). and the Cornaro
SpineUi palace (1480). In the latter, probably also by Pietro
Lombardo, there are pilasters only on the groins of the main front,
and the window-heads are enclosed in square-headed frames. In the
Scuola de San Marco (1488), by Lombardo, we find another type of
window, single and lofty, with pilaster strips each side carrying an
entablature with pediment. The same window decoration is found
on the south and west fronts of the court of the Ducal palace and
the external south front, and also in the Camerlenghi palace (1525),
by Bergamasco and in other examples of early 16th-century work.
In the Scuola de San Rocco the columnar decoration assumes much
greater importance, and, in imitation of the triumphal arches ol
Septimus Scverus and Constantine in Rome, the column is completely
detached, with a wall-respond behind. Among other examples to be
noted are the Cornaro-oella-Grande palace (imj), by Sansovino,
which is very inferior to his other work in Venice; the Grimani
palace (i554/> by San Michele (who also designed the fortifications
of the Lido); the Zecca or mint (1537). the small loggetu (1540) at
the foot of the campanile of St Mark s and now destroyed, and the
Procuratie Nuove (completed by Scamozzi in 1584), all by Sansovino;
the Balbi palace (1582). by Vittoria; and the Ponte Rialto (1588).
by Antonio da Ponte. Sansovino's greatest work in Venice was the
library of St Mark's, which was commenced in 1531 ; in this he has
shown not only remarkable powers of design but great boldness in
the projection of his columns, cornices and other architectural
features. The upper frieze has been increased in height, so as to
admit of the introduction of small windows to light an upper storey,
and this gives much greater importance and dignity to the entabla-
ture crowning the whole structure. Two of the most imposing
palaces on the Grand Canal, but of later date, arc the Pesaro (1670)
and the Rezzonico O680), both by Longhcna, the architect of the
Salute church. The former is too much overcharged with ornament,
but it has one advantage, the classic superimposed orders of the main
front being repeated on the flank overlooking the side canal, with
pilasters substituted for the detached columns of the main front.
The Rezzonico palace is much quieter in design, and finer in its
proportions, but even there the cherubs in the spandrils are too
pronounced in their relief.
In Rome there are no important examples of the 15th century,
with the exception of the so-called " Venetian palace, which still
retains externally the features of the feudal castle, such as machico-
lations, small windows and rusticated masonry. This was owing
probably to the comparative poverty of the city, which had to
recover from the disasters of the 1 4th century. The earliest example
of the Renaissance is that of the Canccllariapalace ^1495-1505). by
Bramante, the architect of the church at Todi; this was followed
by a second and less important example, the Giraud or Torlonia
palace (1506). The former is an immense block, 300 ft. long and
76 ft. high, in three storeys, with coursed masonry and slightly
bevelled joints, the upper two storeys decorated with Corinthian
pilasters of slight projection and crowned with a poor cornice, so
that its general effect is very monotonous, and the design is only
relieved by the purity of its details, such as those of the window
and balcony on the return flank. In 1506 Bramante was instructed
to carry out the court of the Vatican, of which the great hemkycle
at one end, designed in imitation of similar features in the Roman
thermae, is an extremely fine example; to what extent he was
responsible for the court of the Loggie, decorated by Raphael, is
not known. The Villa Farncsina (1506), best known for its fresco
decorations by Raphael and his pupils; the Ossoli palace (1525);
and the Massimi palace (1532-1536), with magnificent interiors,
were ail built by Baldassarc Penizzi. The finest example in Rome
is the Farnese palace, commenced in 1530 from the designs of
Antonio di Sangallo; the design is astylar, as the employment of the
orders is confined to the window dressings, the angles of the front
having rusticated quoins; the upper storey, with the magnificent
cornice which crowns the whole building, was designed by Michel-
angelo, and in the upper storey he introduced a feature borrowed
from the Roman thermae, bracket* supporting the three-quarter
detached columns flanking the windows. The brilliance of the design
is not confined to the exterior, and the entrance vestibule and the
great central court are the finest examples in Rome. Here the upper
storey added by Michelangelo is inferior to the two lower storeys
by Sangallo.
The museum in the Capitol at Rome, by Michelangelo (1546), is
one of those examples in which the principles of design are violated
by the suppression of the horizontal divisions of the storeys which
it should nave been an object to emphasize. By carrying immense
Corinthian pilasters through the ground and first storeys, Michel-
angelo, it is true, obtained the entablature of the order as the chief
crowning feature, and so far the result is a success, but in other hands
it led to the decadence of the style. Among other examples in Rome
»hich should be mentioned are the Villa Madama by Giulio Romano
(1524); the Nicolini palace (1526) by Giaromo Sansovino; the
Villa Mctfici (1540) by Annibale Lippi; the Chigi palace (1562) by
G. de la Poita; the Spada palace (1564) by Mazzoni; the Quirinal
PTALIAK RENAISSANCE
palace (1574) by Fontana (the architect who raised the obelisk in
the Piazza di San Pietro); and the Borghese palace (1590) by
Martino LunghL
We now return to about the middle of the 16th century, to the
period when the great architects Barozzi da Vignota and Andrea
Palladio of Vicenza commenced their career, and by their works and
publications exercised a great and important influence on European
architecture.
The villa of Pope Julius (1550), and the Costa palace, Rome, are
good examples 01 Vignola's style, always very pure and of good
proportions, but his principal work was that of the Caprarola
palace 0555-1559), about 30 m. from Rome, which he built for the
cardinal Aiessandro Farnese. The plan is pentagonal with a central
circui**- court, and it is raised on a lofty terrace; the palace is in
two storeys with rusticated quoins to the angle wings, and the Doric
and Ionic orders, superimposed, separating arcades on the lower
storeys and windows on the upper. The arcade of the central court
is of admirable proportions and detail, second only to that of the
Farnese palace.
Palladio in his earlier career measured and drew many of the
remains of ancient Rome, and more particularly the thermae (the
drawings of which are in the Burlington-Devonshire ColIectionX bat
he does not seem to have carried cut any buildings there. His moat
important work, and the one which established his reputation, is
that known as the basilica at Vicenza (1545-1549), which he enclosed
with an arcaded loggia in two storeys of fine design and proportion,
and extremely vigorous in its detaUs. He built a large number of
palaces in his native town, among which the Tiene (1550) and the
CoUeone Porto are the simplest and best, the latter being the model
on which the front of Old Burlington House (London) was rebuilt
in 17 16. I n the Valmarana, the Consiglio and the Casa del Diavolo
be departed from his principles, in carrying the Corinthian pilasters
through two floors, and by returning the cornice round the order he
destroyed its value as a crowning feature. Among other works of
his are the Chiericate (1560), Trissino (1582) and Barbaras* (1570)
palaces; the Olympic theatre (1580), which was completed alter
his death; and the Rotonda Capra near Vicenza, reproduced by
Lord Burlington at Chiswick.
Though he laid down no rules for the guidance of others, the works
of San Michele are superior to those of Palladio, with the exception,
perhaps, of the basilica at Vicenza and the library at Venice. I n the
Bcvilacq.ua palace (1527). at Verona, there is far greater variety of
design than in Palladio s work, and the Pompei palace (1530) and
the two gateways at Verona (1533 and 1552) are all bold and simple
designs. In the same town is an extremely beautiful example of the
early Renaissance, the Loggia del Consiglio (1476) by Fim Ciocondo;
a similar example with open gallery on the ground storey exists at
Padua, where there n also the Ginstiniani palace (1524) by FaJcon-
ctto, an interesting example of a master not much known. The
town hall of Brescia (1492) was built from the designs of Tommaao
Formeatone, who employed for the carving of the medallions on the
lower storey, and the pilasters with their capitals and the friezes*
various artists of high merit, so that the building take* its tank as
one of the finest in north Italy, but independently of their collabora-
tion the design of the first floor is in design and execution equal to
Greek work. The upper storey and its circular windows are said
to have been added by Palladio, and they are so commonplace and
out of scale that by contrast they increase the artistic value ol
Formentone's work.
The so-called Palazzo de* Diamanti at Ferrara, built in 1493 for
Sigismondo d* Este, is decorated externally with a peculiar kind of
rustication, in which the square face of the stones is bevelled towards
the centre in imitation of diamond facets: the quoins of the palace
have panelled pilasters richly carved, and similar pilasters flank the
entrance door; the windows, with simple architrave mouldings and
cornices on ground storey and pediments on the first storey, constitute
the only architectural features of a novel treatment.
At Bologna there arc two or three palaces of interest, — the Bevil-
acqua by Nardi (1484), chiefly remarkable for its central court
surrounded with arcades, there being two arches on the upper storey
to one on the lower, which presents a pleasant contrast and give*
scale to the latter; the Fava palace (1484), in which on one aide of
the court arc elaborately carved corbels carrying arches supporting
an upper wall; and the Albcrgati palace (1521). by Perusal, in
which the architectural decoration is confined to the entrance door-
way windows flanked with pilasters and cornices in pediments and
the entablatures of the ground and upper storeys, all the features
being in stone on a background of simple brick construction. The
Casa Tacconi is similarly treated. Many of the streets in Bologna
have arcades on which the upper part of tne house is built, and there
is an endless variety in the capitals of these arcades.
If the palaces of Genoa are disappointing as regards their external
design, this is in some measure compensated for by the magnificence
of their entrance vestibules, which (with the staircases and the arcades
in the courts beyond) arc built in while marble, and have probably
suggested the tit lc of the " marble palaces of Ccnoa." Many of these
palaces are situated in narrow streets, so that no general view can be
obtained of them, which may account for their exterior being erected
in inferior materials with stucco facing. The ground storey of the
palaces is almost always raised about 6 to 8 ft. above the street kvcL
FRENCH RENAISSANCEI
to that tbe first flight of step* leading ufrto the court forms a
prominent feature in every palace; the ceilings of the entrance
vestibule are also mostly decorated with arabesque work in stucco,
or with painted devices, &c. The palaces in the town are lofty,
and as a rule crowned with fine cornices, and there are no examples
of pilasters being carried through the floors, the palaces and villas
in the vicinity of Genoa are of less height, and owe much of their
magnificence to the terraces on which they are erected. They have
no special qualities except in slight variations of the externa] wall
surface decoration, consisting of the applied orders on the several
storeys. Among the best examples are the Palaszo Cataldi, formerly
Palazzo Carega (1560). in which there are no pilasters, but rusticated
quoins at the angles and windows with moulded dressings and
pediments. The tee vestibules of the Durazzo-Pallavicini,
Rosso (1558) and (1610) palaces are in each case their finest
features. The F ini palace, and the Pallavicini, Spinola,
Giustiniani and I » villas, are all fairly well designed and in
good proportions, h no original treatment Two of the palaces
are flanked by op ia* with arcades, from which fine views are
obtained, giving 1 special character; that of the Durazzo
palace being on tl floor, and of the Doria Tursi on tbe ground
storey. The Uni (1623) and the Ducal palaces have very
magnificent entrance vestibules, the former with lions on the lower
ramp of the staircase.
Many of the finest palaces at Genoa are by Galeazzo Alessl, bat in
none of them has he approached the design of the Marino or municipal
palace at Milan, in which he produced a remarkable work; the
internal courtyard surrounded with arcades carried on coupled
columns it an original combination which is not excelled in any
other court in Italy, and the exterior facades are very fine.
The internal courtyard of the hospital at Milan (243 ft. by 220 ft ),
with an arcade in two storeys, was designed by Bramante and begun
in 1457; only one side was completed by him. but in 162 1, in conse-
quence of a large benefaction, the remainder was completed by
Ricchtni according to the original design; the proportions of the
arcade are extremely pleasing, and it forms now one of the chief
monuments of the town. Ricchini was the architect of the Litta
palace, one of the largest in Milan.
There still remains to be mentioned one of the early examples of
the Renaissance, the triumphal arch which was erected ia 1470 at
Naples to commemorate the entry of Alphonso of Aragon into the
town. It is built against the walls of the old castle in four storeys,
and connected with bas-reliefs and statues. The largest palace in
Italy, that of the Caserta at Naples, with a frontage of 766 ft.,
built in 1752 by Vanvitelli, is one of the most monotonous designs,
rivalled in that respect only by the Escurial in Spain. (R. P. S!)
Renaissance Akchztectt/re in France
Tbe classical revival of the 15th century in Italy was too
important a movement to have remained long without its
Influence extending to other countries. In France this was
accelerated by the campaigns of Charles VIIL. Louis XII. and
Francis I., which led to the revelation of the artistic treasures
in Italy; the result being the importation of great numbers of
Italian craftsmen, who would seem to have been employed in the
carving of decorative architectural accessories, such as the panels
and capitals of pilasters, niches and canopies, corbels, friezes, &c,
either in tombs, as for instance in those of Charles of Anjou at
Le Mans (1472) and at Solesmes (1498), of Frauds, duke of
Brittany (1501), and of the children of Charles VIIL (1506)
at Tours, and of Cardinal d'Amboise in Rouen cathedral, the
figures in all these eases being carved by French sculptors. They
were also employed in architectural buildings, where the design
and execution were by French master-masons, and the Italians
were called in to carve the details, as in the choir screens of
Chartres, Albi and Limoges cathedrals, the portal of St Michel
at Dijon, the eastern chapels of St Pierre at Caen, and numerous
other churches throughout France, or for mansions like the
HAtel d'Alluye at Blois, the Hotel d'AUemand at Bourges, and
the chateaux of Meillant (1503), Chateaudun and Nantouillet
(1519). The great centre of the artistic regeneration was at
first at Tours, so that in Touraine, and generally on the borders
of the Loire and the Cher at Amboise, Blois, Gaillon, Cbenon-
ceaux, Axay-le-Rideau and Chambord, are found the principal
examples; later, Francis I. transferred the court to Paris, and
the chateau of Madrid, and the palaces of Fontalnebleau, St
Germain-en-Laye, and the Louvre, follow the change. In all
these chateaux the Italian craftsman would seem to have been
under the direction of the master-mason or architect, because the
whole scheme of the design and its execution is French, and only
the decoration. Italian. In cases where the Italian was not called
ARCHITECTURE
4*3
in, the Gothic flamboyant style flourishes in full vigour with no
suggestion of foreign influence, as in the palais de justice at
Rouen, the church of Brou (Ain), 1505*1532, the HAtel de Cluny,
Paris, and the rood-screen of the church of the Madeleine at
Troyes (1531).
Between the last phase of Flamboyant Gothic and the intro-
duction of the pure Italian Revival there existed a transitional
period, known generally as the " Francis L style," which may be
subdivided under three heads: — the Valois period, comprising
the reigns of Charles VIIL and Louis XXL (1483-1515); the
Francis L period (1515-1547); and the Henry II. and Catherine
dc' Medici period (1547-1580). The first two are characterized
by the lofty "roofs, dormers and chimneys, by circular or square
towers at the angles of the main building with decorative machi-
colations and hourds, by buttresses set anglewise, which run up
into the cornice, and square-headed windows with mullions and
transoms. In the second period the machicolations are con-
verted into corbels carrying semicircular arcaded niches in
which shells are carved; the buttresses become pilasters with
Renaissance capitals; and the Gothic detail, which in the first
period is mixed up with the Renaissance, disappears altogether.
In the third period Italian design begins to 'exert its influence
in the regular interspacing of the pilasters or columns with due
proportion of height to diameter, in the completion of the order
with the regular entablature, and its employment generally in
a more structural manner than in the earlier work.
The two first periods are well represented in the chateau of Blois,
where, in the east wing built by Louis XII., square-headed windows
alternate with three central arches, the buttresses are set anglewise
running into the cornice, and pillars and angle shafts are carved with
chevrons, spiral fluting*, or cinque-cento arabesque; the cornices
of the towers containing staircases project and are carried on arched
niches supported on corbels (the new interpretation of the machicola-
tions of the feudal castle) ; above the cornice is a balustrade with
pierced flamboyant tracery, and the dormer windows retain their
Gothic detail. In the north wing of Francis I. all these Gothic
ornamental details disappear, and are replaced by the Renaissance.
Panels and pilasters take the place of the buttresses— the panels
sometimes enriched with dnque-ccnto arabesque; shells are carved
in the arched niches of the cornice, and modilhons and dentil courses
are introduced; the balustrade is pierced with flowing Renaissance
foliage interspersed with the salamanders and coronets; the same
high roofs are maintained, but the dormer windows and chimneys*
still Gothic in design, are entirely clothed with Renaissance detail.
The finest feature of the facade of this north wing, facing the court,
is the magnificent polygonal staircase tower in its centre (Plate VIII.,
fig. 84): four great piers rise from ground to cornice, between
which the rising balustrade is fitted; the whole feature Gothic in
design, but Renaissance in all its details. The splendid carving of
the panels of the piers and the niches with their canopies was prob-
ably done by Italian artists. The figures in these ruches are said
to be by Jean Gouion. The great dormers and chimneys have not
the refinement in their design which characterizes the lower portion,
and may be of later date. The north front of the chateau is raised
on the foundation walls of the old castle, part of which is encased
in it, and this may account for the slight irregularities in the widths
of the bays. The design differs from that of the south front { the
windows all being recessed behind three-centre arched openings;
the open lc^^ at u>e top, which U admirable in effect, isasubsequent
alteration.
Before passing to the Louvre and Tuileries, representing the
third period, we must refer to some other important early chateaux
and buildings. Some of these, such as the chateaux of Madrid and
Gaillon, are known chiefly from du Cerccau's work, as they were
destroyed at the Revolution. Of the latter building, the entrance
gateway is still in situ; there are some portions in the court of
the Ecolc des Beaux-Arts at Paris, consistingof a second entrance
""-0 and some large panels. The gateway shows a
of Gothic and Renaissance; the centre portion,
and great niche over, is debased classic, the side
; the buttresses, mouldings, panels and other
[a to the latest phase of Flamboyant Gothic.
ill existing, the h6tcl de ville of Orleans (1497)
is s of early transition work, in which Gothic and
R< is intermingled, and it is interesting to compare
it le ville at Beaugency, built by the same architect,
Vi y-five years later. There is the same principle in
de troved in the later example, but all the Gothic
dc pcared.
if Cbenonceaux (151 5" IS* 4) we find a compromise
be styles; Gothic corbels, piers and three-centre
ar ed, varied with debased classic mouldings, shells
as t, as at Axay-le-Ridcau (1520), the chateau was
8?
IS
4'4
ARCHITECTURE
not transformed like those at Langeais and Rochefoucauld, where
what was externally a 14th-century castle developed internally into
a 16th-century mansion; both Chenonccaux and Azay-le-Rideau
were built aa residences, and yet in both are displayed those features
which belong to the fortified castle; at the angles of the main
structure in both cases are circular towers, in the latter case crowned
with machicolations and hourda, which, however, are purely decora-
tive, pierced with windows, and broken at intervals with dormer
windows a feature which gives it the aspect of an attic storey.
The lofty roofs and conical terminations to these angle towers,
with dormer and chimney, give the same picturesque aspect to the
K>uping as that which was afforded in the fortified castle, where,
wever, they originated in the necessity for defence. The entrance
portals of both chateaux arc beautiful features, absolutely Gothic in
design, and only transformed by cinque-cento detail.
In tne chateau of Chambora (1526) we find the same defensive
features introduced, in the shape of great circular towers at the angles,
but here with more reason, as the chateau was intended more for
display than habitation. The chateau itself, about 200 ft. square,
has circular towers at the angles, and in the centre a spiral staircase
with double flight, leading to great halls on each side, which give
access to the comparatively small rooms in the angles of the square
and the towers beyond, and to the roof, which would seem to nave
been the chief attraction, aa there is a fine view therefrom; and the
elaborate octagonal lantern over the staircase, the dormer windows,
chimneys and lanterns on the conical roofs of the towers, are all
elaborately carved. There are three storeys to the building, sub-
divided horizontally by string courses, and terminated with a fine
cornice carrying a balustrade, and vertically by a series of pilasters
of the Corinthian order. The varied outline of this building, with
the alternation of blank panels and windows between the pilasters,
relieves what might otherwise have been its monotony. The chateau
is situated on the east side of a great court measuring about 500 ft.
by 370 ft., with a moat all round. To the right and left of the central
block the walls are carved up three storeys, and an attic, with open
arcades inside, leading to the angle towers of the enclosure. At a
later period Louis XIV. continued the unfinished structure by a one-
storey buildi ng round. The carving of the capitals, corbels and other
decorative work was all done by Italian artists, under the direction
of some architect whose name is not known.
One of the gems of Francis I.'s work is the small hunting lodge
originally built at Moret near Fontaincblcau, to which at one time
the king thought of adding, before he began his great palace there.
This was taken down in 1826, and re-erected in the Cours-b-Reine
at Paris. Though small, it is the purest example of the first Renais-
sance. Other examples are the h6tel de ville of Paray-Ie-Monial
(1526); the Hdtel d'Anjou at Angers (1530), built by Pierre de
Pince; the Hotel Bernuy at Toulouse (1530); the Hdtel d'Eco ville
at Caen (1532). the Manoir of Francis I. at Orleans; the Hotel
Bourgtheroulde at Rouen (1520-1432) and other buildings opposite
Rouen cathedral, and what remains of the chateau known as the
Manoir d' Ango (1525) at Varengeville, near Dieppe. The chateau of
St Germain-en-Laye (i539-*544). the upper half of which is built
in brick, belongs also to the early period, as also the hdtel de ville at
Paris, built in 1533 by Domenico da Cortona, an Italian, who after
spending some thirty years in France would seem to have caught
the spirit of the French Renaissance so well as to be able to produce
one of the most remarkable examples of the Francis I. style. In
the existing building the original design has been copied from the
building burnt down by the Communists in 1 871.
From this we pass to the palace at Fontainebleau, begun by
Francis I. in 1526, to which there have been so many subsequent
additions and alterations that it is difficult to differentiate between
them. The building owes its picturesque effect more to its irregular
plan (as portions of an earlier structure were enclosed in it) than to
any brilliant conceptions on the part of its architect. There is an
endless variety of charming detail in the capitals, corbels and other
decorative features, but the employment of pilaster strips purely
as decorative features (without any such structural property as that
in the Porte Doree at the Cour Ovale) suggests that the Italian
architect Serlio, to whom sometimes the work is ascribed, certainly
had nothing to do with it.
On the other hand, there !s every reason to believe that the
designs made by Pierre Lescot for the Louvre, begun in 1546, were,
aa regards their style, largely based on the principles set forth in
Serlio s work on architecture, published in 1540. The south-west
angle of the court of the Louvre is the earliest example of the third
period of the Renaissance, in which the orders are employed in
correct proportions with columns or pedestals carrying entablatures
with mouldings based on classic precedent. The portion built from
Lescot 's designs (Plate VIII., fig. 83) consists of the nine bays on
the east and north sides, the latter not being completed till 1*74,
aa the workmen would seem to have been transferred to the building
of the Tuileries, begun in 1564.
The Corinthian order is employed for the ground and first storeys
and an attic storey above, in which the pilaster capitals run into the
bedmold of the upper cornice. Of the nine bays, the central and
side bays arc twice the width of the others, and project slightly with
the cornices breaking round them ; this feature, and the crowning
of the western bays with a segmental pediment, give a variety to
[FRENCH RENAISSANCE
the design, which otherwise might have become monotonous by its
repetition of similar features. The balustrade also is replaced by
the chtneau, a creating in stone, which hereafter is found in nearly
all French buildings. The sculptor, Jean Goujon, would seem to
what will always be considered aa one of the duf-4'<mvrcs of Frendt
architecture.
The architect employed by Catherine de' Medici for the Tuileries
was Philibert de I'Orme, who combined the taste of the architect
with the scientific knowledge of the engineer. Only a portion of his
design was carried out, and of that much disappeared in the 17th
century, when his dormer windowa were taken down and replaced
by a second storey and an attic Bullantand du Cerceau also added
buildings on each side.
The Tuileries were built about 500 yds. from the Louvre, and
Catherine de' Medici conceived the idea of connecting the two.
The work, which began with the " Petite Galerie," with the south
wing, aa far aa the Pavilion Lesdiguieres, was started in 1566, being
of one storey only. The mezzanine and upper storey were not
completed till the beginning of the J 7th century. In 1603 the
remainder of the south front and the Pavillon-de-FIore were
completed by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau.
Of Philibert de rOrme's work at Anet (1549). oa\y the entrance
gateway, the left-hand side of court, and the chapel remain, suffi-
cient, however, to show that he had already at that early date
mastered the principles of the Italian Revivalists. The chapel is in
its way a remarkable design, but the hemispherical dome,pierced by
elliptical winding arches inside, is not happy in its effect. The
frontispjece which he created opposite the entrance, now in the court
of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, shows great refinement in its
details, but proportionally errs in many points. De 1'Onne built
also the bridge and gallery on the river Cher, forming an additioo
to the chateau of Chenonccaux.'
Amongst other work of this period are the additions made by
Bullant to the chiteau de Chantilly, where he traversed the principle*
of classic design by running Corinthian pilasters through two storeys
and cutting through the cornice of his dormer windows. At Ecouea
(1550) he destroyed the scale of the earlier buildings of 153a by
raising in front 01 the left wing of the court four lofty Corinthian
columns with entablature complete, which be copied from the temple
of Castor in Rome.
Among the early Renaissance work are the chateau of Ancy le
Franc (Yonne), Italian in character, which may be by Serlio (1546) ;
the Hdtel d'Aasezat at Toulouse (1555), in which there is a strong
resemblance to the court of the Louvre; the houses at Orleans,
known as those of Agnes Sorel, Jeanne d'Arc and Diane de Poitiers
(1553) ; and there is other work at Caen, Rouen, Toulouse, Dijon,
Chinon. Pertgueux, Cahors, Rodez, Beauvais and Amiens, dating
up to the close of the X6th century. In this list might also be in-
cluded the fine town hall of La Rochelle. the Hotel Lamoignon in
the rue des Francs-Bourgeois, Paris (1580), and the Hdtel de Vogue
at Dijon, which retained the Renaissance character, though built in
the first year of the 17th century.
In the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. the first work of
importance in Paris is that of the Place Royale, now the Place des
Vosges; in this brick was largely employed, and the conjunction
of brick and stone gave a decorative effect which dispensed with
the necessity of employing the Classic orders. At Fontainebleau,
where Henry IV. made large additions, the same mixture of brick
and stone is found in the Galerie des Cerfs, and in the great service
court [cour des cuisines). The example set was followed largely
through the country, and numerous mansions and private houses
in brick and stone still exist. Henry IV.'s most important work at
Fontainebleau is the Porte Dauphine, of which the lower part,
with rusticated columns and courses of masonry, does not quite
accord in scale or character with the superstructure, in which is put
some of the best work of the century.
Except perhaps for the monotony of the rusticated masonry
which is spread all over the building, the palace of the Luxembourg,
by Salomon de Broase (161O, is an important work, in which he
was probably instructed by Marie de'Medici to reproduce the general
effect of the Pitti palace at Florence. The three storeys of the main
block are well proportioned, but the absence of a boldly projecting
cornice, such as is found in the Riccardi and Strozzi palaces, is a
defect; the same architect reconstructed the great hall of the palace
of justice at Paris, burnt in 187 1 but now rebuilt to the same design.
In 1629 the building subsequently known as the Palais Royal was
begun from the designs of Lemercier; but it has been so materially
altered since that scarcely anything remains of his design, though the
works carried out from his designs at the Louvre were of the greatest
possible importance. The court of the latter, as begun by Pierre
Lescot, was of small dimensions, corresponding with that of the
palace of Philip Augustus, but Lemercier proposed to quadruple its
dimensions. It is not certain whether he built the lower portion of
the Pavilion d'Horloge, but he designed the upper part, with the
caryatid figures sculptured by Jacques Sarrazin. On the north side
of this pavilion he built a wins similar in length and design to that
of Pierre Lescot, and continued the wine along the north side to the
centre pavilion; this was continued Dy Levau, the architect of
Louis XIV., round the other sides of the court. His design for the
FRENCH RENAISSANCE)
cast front, however, did not recommend itaeff to the king or to his
minister Colbert, and a competition was held, the first place being
given to the design by a physician, Dr Perrault. Prior to its being
begun, however, Bernini was sent for, and he submitted other
designs, fortunately not carried out, as they would have destroyed
the court of the Louvre- In 1665 the works were begun on the
design of Perrault, a grandiose frontispiece which appealed to
Louis XIV., but in which no cognizance had been taken of the various
rooms against which it was built ; consequently no windows could
be opened, and it forms now a useless peristyle. Moreover it was so
much wider than the original building that on the north side it
became necessary to add a new front. Fortunately the example set
by Perrault of coupling columns together has rarely been followed
since in France, so that in the C.arde-Meuble on the south side of
the Place de la Concorde, by Gabriel, we return again to the original
classic peristyle. The works undertaken at the Louvre progressed
but slowly, in consequence of the greater interest taken by Louis XIV.
in the palace he was building at Versailles, an extension of the
hunting-box built by his father Louis XIII., which he insisted should
be maintained and incorporated as the central feature in the new
building. But as it was comparatively small in dimensions, of simple
design, and in brick and stone, it was quite unfit to become the central
feature of the main front of the largest palace in Europe. To make
it worse, the new wings built on either side were lofty and of more
importance architecturally, and as they projected some 300 ft in
advance of the earlier building, they reduced it to still greater
Insignificance. But even then the architect, Jules Hardouin Mansart,
might have redeemed his reputation by buildings of greater interest
than those which now exist. The back elevation of the central block
ARCHITECTURE
4i5
1 550 ft wide, the returns 280 ft., and the length of the wings on
ach side soo ft.; in other words he had nearly toco ft run of
facade, ana it is simply a repetition of the same bays from one end
to the other, in three storeys all of the same height, the lower one
with semicircular arched openings, the first floor decorated with
pilasters on columns of the Ionic order, and an attic storey above
with balustrade. The slightprojection given to the central and side
bays of each block, just sufficient to allow of columns in the first
floor as decorative features instead of pilasters, is of no value in
fronts of such great dimensions. The great galleries inside have
the same monotonous design as in the facades, relieved only by the
rich decoration in the first case and the splendid masonry in the
latter. There is one saving clause in the main front, the chapel
by R. de Cotte on the right-hand side being externally and
internally a fine structure, and the best ecclesiastical example of
the pe ri od.
Among other buildings of the 17th century are those begun by
Cardinal Mazarin in the rue de Richelieu, which now constitute the
National library; the H6tel de "* '-'-'* u ° "' of
France: the Hotel de Sully (16; de
Beatrvais (1634). by le Pautre le
Pautre). in the lie St Louis; St
Germain-en-Laye, by Francois of
France (1662), by Levau ; two tri 2),
by Blondel, and St Martin (1674] les
(1670). by Bruant; the Place dei ne
(1695-1699), by Jules Hardouin "gc
houses are grouped together in 01 les
(1676). and the chateau of Marl rt;
and important monumental bui ial
cities, such as Lyons, Bordeaux.
In the 18th century those whio. «.v _«-».., ~^ -.* ~~ ..„td
Soubise (1706), now the " Archives Nationales"; the fountain in
the rue de Crenelle, a fine composition; the Ecole Militaire (1752).
by Gabriel; the Ecole de Medecine (1769)* byGondouin; the mint
ii772), by Antoiae; the Place de la Concorde, with the Garde-
ieuble, by Gabriel (1765); the Hotel de Salm, now the Legion of
Honour, the Place Stanislas at Nancy 073*-«766). in which are
grouped the town halt, archbishop's palace, theatre and other
public buildings, with triumphal arch and avenues leading to the
palace of the duke Stanislaus (with magnificent wrought-iron
enclosures and gates by Jean Lamour, the greatest craftsman of the
century); the theatre at Bordeaux by Louis; and the Odcon, Paris
The ecclesiastical architecture of the French Renaissance comes
at the end of oar description owing to' the far greater importance
of the palaces, mansions and public monuments, and also because
in the beginning of the 16th century France found herself in posses*
sion of a much larger number of cathedrals and large churches than
•he could maintain. Some of these are still unfinished, so that her
first efforts would seem to have been directed to the completion of
those already begun rather than to the erection of new ones, St
Eustache in Pans being nearly the only exception of importance
prior to the 17th century.
We have from time to time dwelt upon the important consideration
which must not be lost sight of. viz. that nearly all the buildings
erected in France up to the accession of Henry IV were conceived
and carried out in the spirit of the Flamboyant Gothic style, cinque-
cento details mixed up with Gothic at first, then superseding them,
and even when the influence of the Italian revivalists began to exert
itself, still retaining much of her -traditional methods of design.,
If this was the case In civil architecture, it waa naturally mora
pronounced in the additions made to ecclesiastical structures, and
the gradual development of the style may be more easily followed in
the latter. These are, however, so numerous, and they are so uni-
versally spread throughout France, that only a few of- the most
interesting examples can be here given ; for instance, the porch of
St Michel at Diion ; the upper part of the western towers of the
cathedrals of Orleans and Tours ; the three eastern chapels of St
Jacques, Dieppe, built at the cost of lean Ango, a celebrated
merchant-prince of Dieppe, to whose chateau at Varengeville we
have already referred; the eastern chapels of St Peter's, Caen,
from the designs of Hector Sohier (151 i), both internally and
externally of great interest: the west end of the church at Vetheuil
(Seine-et-Oise), the* magnificent work of the west front and tower
of the church at Gisors; the upper part of the west front of the
cathedral at Angers; the portals of the church at Auxonne (Fichot)i
the choir at Tillieres; the lantern of the church of St Peter,
Coutances («54»); the porch of the Dalbade at Toulouse; and the
north front of the church of Ste Clotilde at Les Andelys, which dates
from the age of Henry II.
The church of St Eustache at Paris, begun in 1553, Dut not com "
pleted till the end of the century, is a large cruciform Gothic structure
with lofty double aisles on each side and carried round the choir,
and rectangular chapels round the whole building, excepting the
west end. Structurally also it possesses all the most characteristic
features of the Gothic church, with nave arcades carried on com-
pound piers, triforium and clerestory, vaulted throughout, and
flying buttresses outside. Close examination shows that all the
details are of the early cinque-cento work, panelled pilasters of
varying proportions, but with Renaissance capitals, corbels, niches
and canopies all grouped together in a Gothic manner, and quite
opposed to the principles of the Italian revivalists; what i* more
remarkable is that though long before its completion these principles
had already borne fruit in the Louvre and Tuilcries, the original
conception was adhered to, and the portals of the north and south
transepts (the last features added, with the exception of the ugly
west front of the 18th century) still retain the character of the early
French Renaissance.
In St Eticnne-du-Mont, sometimes claimed as a second example,
the church is Flamboyant Gothic throughout, the chief additions
being the magnificent rood-screen of 1600, and the west portal, in
which the banded columns of the Bourbon period form the chief
features.
Coming to churches of later date, Salomon de Brosse (c. 1*65-
1627), the architect of the Luxembourg palace, added in 1616 a fresh
front to the church of St Gervais, finely proportioned and of pure
Italian design, which contrasts favourably with the Jesuits' church
of St Paul and St Louis (1627- 164 1), overladen with rococo orna-
ment ; then came the churches of the Sorbonne (1629), by Jacques
Lemerrier, and of the Val -de-Grace (1645), by Francois Mansartr
the dome of the latter, though small, being a fine design; the church
of the In val ides, also by Mansart, the dome of which is the most
graceful in France; the cathedral of Nancy (I703-174 2 ). by Jules
Hardouin Mansart and Germain Boff rand (1667-1754), the principal
front of which is flanked by two towers with octagonal lanterns
which group so well with the central portion (of the usual design, in
two stages with pilasters and coupled columns, carrying a third
stage with circular pediment) that it is unfortunate it should be
almost the only example of its kind; and lastly the church of
Ste Genevieve, better known as the Pantheon (i7§5). by Jacques
Germain Soufflot (1713-1780), the dome of which is based largely
on that of St Peter's m Rome. The main building with its great
portico is a simple and fine piece of design, and unlike St Peter's
the dome is well seen from evtry point of view; the decoration of
its walls with paintings by Pwis de Chavannes and other French
artists has now rendered the interior one of the most interesting in
France. (R. P. Sj
Renaissance Architecture in Spain
In Spain, as in France, the revival of classic architecture
was engrafted on the Flamboyant style of the country, influenced
here and there by Moorish work, so that the earlier examples
of Spanish Renaissance constitute a transitional style which
lasted till the accession of Philip II. (1558), who introduced what
was then considered to be the purer Italian style of Palladio and
Vignola. This, however, did not seem to have had much at-
traction for the Spaniards, owing to its coldness and formality, so
that in the latter half of the 27th century a reaction took place
in favour of the most depraved and decadent architecture in
existence.
The magnificence of the earlier Renaissance work, which was
introduced into Spain when she was at the zenith of her power,
and (owing to the discovery of a new world) the possessor of
enormous wealth,has scarcely yet been recognued.in consequence
of the greater attraction of the Moorish architecture; these is
4X6
ARCHITECTURE
no doubt that its exuberant richness in the 16th century de-
rives its inspiration from the latter, and especially so in patios
or courts found in every class of building, ecclesiastical as well
as civil. There is still, however, another characteristic in the
early Renaissance of Spain, which is not found in Italy or France,
and which again owes its source to Moorish work, where the
external walls and towers consist of simple plain masonry, and
the rich decoration, generally in stucco brilliantly coloured and
gilded, is confined to the courts and to the interiors of their
magnificent halls. The Italian method of decorating the external
front of the palaces with flat pilasters of the various orders placed
at regular intervals, the windows and doors forming features of
second-rate importance, was not followed by the architects of
the Spanish Renaissance, who retained the simple plain masonry
and reserved their decorations for the entrance doorways and
windows, emphasizing therefore these features, and by contrast
increasing their value and interest.
Instead also of the huge comieiene which the Italians employed
to give the shadows required to emphasize the crowning features
of their palaces, the Spanish architects preferred to obtain a
similar effect by an open arcaded upper storey, which, as Fer-
gusson remarks, " forms one of the most pleasing architectural
features that can be applied to palatial architecture, giving
lightness combined with shadow exactly where wanted for effect
and where they can be applied without any apparent interfer-
ence with solidity." These galleries would seem to have been
provided to serve as promenades to the occupants of the palace,
and more especially for the ladies when it would have been unwise
or imprudent for them to venture into the streets. There is one
well-known example in France, in the chateau of Blob, which
is so attractive a feature that it is singular it has not been more
often adopted.
Instead also of the monotonous balustrade, which is invariably
found in Italy, the Spanish architects introduced richly carved
creating*, with finials at regular intervals, a feature probably
borrowed from Flamboyant Gothic and Moorish.
The three periods into which the architectural phases of the
Renaissance style in Spain are divided are: — (i) The Plateresque
or Silversmiths' work, from the conquest of Granada to the reign
of Philip II. (a) The purer Italian style, called by the Spanish
the Greco-Roman, though it has no Greek elements in its design,
being based on the work of Palladio and Vignola. This style
prevailed until the end of the 17th century. (3) The Rococo
or Churriguercsque style, so called from the name of the architect,
Jose Churriguera (d. 1735), the chief leader of the movement,
which lasted for about 100 years.
Ecclesiastical Architecture.— Th* cathedral of Granada, built from
the designs of Diego de Siloe, is the earliest example of the Renais-
sance in Spain, and in some respects the most remarkable, not only
for its plan, in which there is an entirely new feature, but for the
scheme adopted in the vaulting, which covers the whole church,
and shows that its architect had studied the earlier Gothic churches,
and was well acquainted with the principles of thrust and counter-
thrust developed in them. The cathedral is 400 ft. long by 230 ft.
wide, and therefore of the first class as far as size is concerned.
The western portion consists of nave and double aisles on each side,
the outer aisle being carried round the whole church and giving
access to the chapels which enclose the building. The principal
feature of the cathedral is at the east end, where the place of the
ordinary apse is occupied by a great circular area, 70 ft. in diameter,
crowned by a lofty dome, in the centre of which in a flood of light
stands the high altar. The vista from the nave through the great
arch (37 ft. 6 in. wide and 97 ft. high) is extremely fine, and it is
strange that it should be the only example of its land. The west
front was completed at a later date; the only feature of it belonging
to the original church being the north-west tower, which, in its design,
resembles the south-west tower of the church at Gisors in France.
There are two other important Renaissance cathedrals at Jaen and
Valladolid. The latter was built from a design of Juan de Badaios
in 1585 but never completed. On the south side of the cathedral is
the chapel in which the Catholic kings lie buried, where there are
'ine marble tombs enclosed by the reja orwri
y gilt, forged in 152s by Maestre Bartholomew
two fine marble tombs enclosed by the reja or wrought-iron screen
partly gilt, forged in 152s by Maestre Bartholomew the sograrto or
parish church, also on the south side, is a small version of the scheme
of design employed in the cathedral.
In Spain, as in France, magnificent portals have been added to
cathedrals and churches, and these are amongst the finest works
of the Renaissance period. The more remarkable of these are the
(SPANISH RENAISSANCE
portals of the cathedral of Malaga, a deeply recessed porch, enriched
with slender shafts and niches between; of Santa Engracia at
Saragossa; and of Santo Domingo and the cathedral at Salamanca.
Externally the Renaissance domes over the crossings of Spanish
cathedrals are poor, but this is compensated for by the lofty steeples
which form striking features. The western towers of the cathedral
at Valladolid , the tower of the Seo in Saragossa, which bears some
resemblance to Wren's steeples in the setting back of the several
storeys and the crowning with octagonal lanterns; the tower of the
cathedral Del Pilar at Saragossa, and that at Santiago, arc all
interesting examples of the Spanish Renaissance.
One of the most beautiful features of the Spanish Renaissance b
found in the magnificent rejas or wrought-iron grilles, richly gilt,
which form the enclosures of the chapels. Besides the example at
Granada, others are found at Seville, where is the masterpiece of
Sancho Muflox (1528); at Patenda (1582); Cuenca (1557). where
there are three fine examples; Toledo; Salamanca; and other
cathedrals. The iron pulpit at Avila, the eagle lectern at Cuenca
and the staircase railing at Burgos are all remarkable works in
metal.
Secular Architecture.— With the exception of the magnificent
portals, the finest works of the Renaissance in Spain as in France
are to be found in the secular buildings, but with this difference,
that the best examples in France are those built in the country or in
comparatively small provincial towns, whereas in Spain they are a II
in the midst of the larger towns, and further they are not confined
to palaces and chateaux; monasteries and universities coming in
for an equal share in the great architectural development.
The characteristic style of the Spanish architecture of the Renais-
sance period is due probably to the influence of the earlier Moorish
work, where the value of the rich Alhambresque decorations in the
entrance doorways and windows, and the patios or courts, is enhanced
by contrast with the plain masonry of their walls and towers. This
influence had already been felt in the Spanish flamboyant Gothic
panelling and tracery; when translated into Renaissance, and
probably, at first, executed by Italian artists, it displayed a variety
and beauty in its design scarcely inferior to some of the best work
in Italy. And this development, taking place at a time when Spain
was overflowing with wealth, resulted in that exuberant richness we
find in the entrance doorways and windows, the external galleries
of the upper storey, and the rich cresting surmounting the cornice.
Comparison with the contemporary and even earlier work in
Italy, where the principal thought of the architect would seem to
have been to break the wall surface by an unmeaning series of flat
pilasters, and then fill in the windows as features of secondary
importance, will show that the Spanish architect recognized more
fully the true principle of design, and although, in the profiles of
their mouldings, and the execution of the sculpture decorating
their pilasters and friezes, Spanish work in contrast with Italian
looks somewhat coarse, in general picturesquencss it is far in advance
of the palaces of Rome, Florence, and even Venice, and has not yet
received the recognition which it deserves.
The earliest palace built in the Renaissance style is that which
adjoins the Alhambra at Granada, and was begun by the emperor
Charles V. for his own residence in 1527, but never completed.
The building is nearly an exact square of 205 ft., with a great circular
court in the centre, nearly 100 ft. in diameter. This central court
was enclosed by a colonnade with Doric columns, and an upper
storey with columns of the Ionic order. From the unfinished con-
dition of the palace and the absence of roofs, it is difficult to deckle
what the form of the latter might have been. But the design, begun
•by Pedro Machuca and continued by Alonso Berruguetc (1480-
1561), is so remarkable that it ought to be better known. Its
proximity to the Alhambra, however, deprives it of the attention
which otherwise it deserves for the purity of its details and for it*
good proportion.
A second palace, the Alcazar at Toledo, was begun in 1540 by
Charles II., out little else than the bare walls remain, as it was
destroyed by fire in 1886, after having been twice rebuilt. In its
design it belongs to the true Spanish type of the Renaissance, with
the simple ashlar masonry of its walls and the accentuation of the
principal entrance doorway and the windows. Jn this palace also
the plan is square, about 1 10 ft., with a square courtyard (240 ft.).
The third palace built, the Escorial, some ao m. to the north-east
of Madrid, is the most renowned — more, however, on account of it*
immense size than for its design. It was built for Philip II. and
begun in 1561 from the designs of Juan Bautista de Toledo, being
completed by his pupil, Juan de Herrera, in 1584. The principal front
is 680 ft. in width, the depth of the palace 540 ft., with toe king's
residence in the rear. The plan is a fine conception, and consists
of a large entrance court in the centre, with the church in the rear,
having on the right the Colegio and on the left the monastery, with
numerous courts in each case. The church is 320 ft. long by 220 ft.
wide, the principal portion being the intersection of the nave and
transept, which is covered by a dome. The coro is placed above
the entrance vestibule, which is 100 ft. long and 27 ft. high, im-
perfectly lighted, but by contrast emphasizing the dimensions and
the splendour of the church beyond. Externally the grouping i*
fine; the lofty towers at the angles, the central composition of the
main front, and at the rear of the court the front of the church
BMCUSH RENAISSANCE)
ARCHITECTURE
4i7
■rich its corner towers and the neat dome, all form an c
picturesque group, and it is only when one begins to examine th
work in detail that its poverty in design reveals itself. Instead of
accentuating the windows of the principal storeys and giving them
appropriate dressings, the fronts are pierced with innumerable
windows, which give the appearance of a factory, and the angle
lowers, nine storeys high, look like ordinary " sky-scrapers," without
any of the dignity and importance which the architectural design
of a palace requires. The same applies to the great entrance courts
five storeys high with an attic, all of the most commonplace design.
Internally the church is fine, but it is dwarfed by the immense sue
of the Doric pilasters, 62 ft. high, all in plain stone masonry, the
coldness of which is emphasized by the rich colouring of the vaulted
ceilings and the elaboration of the pavement, all in coloured marbles.
The palace is regarded by the Spaniards as the Versailles of Spain,
and if it had been possible to have interchanged some of the features,
to transfer to Versailles some of the towers, and to break up the wall
surface of the Escorial with the superimposed order of pilasters,
»hich became monotonous by their repetition at Versailles, both
palaces would have gained.
The palace at Madrid is the last of the series, and although it was
begun at a much later period, by Philip V. in 1737. from the designs
of the Italian architect Sachetti, it is a fine and simple composition,
consisting of a lofty ground storey with coursed masonry, carrying
semi-detached columns of the Ionic order, rising through three
storeys, the whole crowned by an entablature and a bold balustrade.
The slightly projecting wings at each end of the main front and the
central frontispiece give that variety and play of light and shade of
which one regrets the absence in the Canccllaria palace at Rome.
We must, however, retrace our steps to the beginning of the
loth century, to take up the early buildings of the style; the palace
of the Conde de Monterey at Salamanca, built in 1530 from the
designs of Alonso de Covarrubias, is a fine example. The masonry
of the {round and first floors is of the simplest character, the decora-
tion being confined to the entrance doorways and to the windows
of the important rooms. It is on the second floor that the design
becomes enriched with an open arcade and entablature above,
crowned with a rich cresting. In the wings at the angles, and in
the central block, the buildings are carried up an additional storey,
the plain masonry of which gives value to the open galleries between.
On these wings and the central block are other galleries crowned
with entablature • and cresting. These features therefore form
towers, which break the sky-line. There is still another treatment
peculiar to the Spanish Renaissance, in which the example of the
Moorish palaces would stem to have been followed, viz. the elaborate
carving of the pilasters and their capitals, of the panelling and
the horizontal friezes, which is extremely minute and finished in the
lower storeys, but increases in scale and projection towards the
upper storeys. This is very notable In the entrance gateway of the
university of Salamanca (Plate V., fig. 73), where the carved arabesque
in the panelling above the doors is of the finest description, equal to
what might be found in cabinet work, whilst that of the upper
portion immediately under the cornice is at least twice the scale of
that below and is in bold relief.
The principal buildings characteristic of the Spanish Renaissance,
in chronological order, are: — the hospital of Santa Cruz at Toledo,
built in 1504-1514, and the Hospicio d« los Reyes at Santiago
(1504). both from the designs of Enrique de Egas, the former with a
magnificent portal rising through two storeys and a gallery with an
open arcade above: the Irish college at Salamanca, built (1521)
from the designs of Pedro de Ibarra. Alonso de Covarrubias, and
Berruguete; the convent of San Marcos, Leon, by Juan de Badajoz
(i$M-i 545)— here, however, the whole facade is panelled out in
imitation of late Gothic work, Renaissance pilasters a Ad devices
taking the place of the buttresses set angle- wise and flamboyant
panelling; the Colegio de San Udefonso at Alcala de Henarcs
(formerly the seat 01 the university), built in 1557-1584 by Rodrigo
Gil de Ontafion.
Of municipal buildings the Lonja or exchange at Toledo (1551).
built in brick-work, is somewhat Florentine in style.
The town hall of Seville (1527-1532). by Diego de Riaflo and
Martin Garuza, may be taken as the most gorgeous example in Spain
(Plate V., fig. 74)- The front facing the square is very simple,
compared with the facade in the street at the rear, and here again
we find, in the ornamental carving of the windows and door mould-
ings on the ground floor, a different scale from that adopted on the
first floor, where the shafts are enriched with a superabundance
of carved ornament in strong relief. There is still one other feature
of great importance in Spain, the magnificent galleries of the patios
or courts found in all the important buildings. It is from these
galleries that access is obtained to the rooms on the first floor.
They have sometimes arcades on the first floor, and columns with
bracket-capitals on the upper storey. There is an infinite variety
of design in these capitals, the brackets on each side of which lessen
the bearing of the architrave.
The earnest Renaissance example of these patios (1525) is in the
Irish college at Salamanca; it was carved by Berruguete. Alonso dc
Covarrubias being the architect. In the same town is the Casa de la
Salinas, another example with fine sculpture. In the Casa Polentina
(1550) at Avila, and the Casa de Miranda at Burgos, columns with
bracket -capitals are employed on both storeys. Rich examples are
found in the Casa de la Infanta and Casa Zaporta (1580), both at
Saragossa. Of late examples the patio of the Loaia at Seville by
Juan de Herrera resembles in its style the courtyard of the Farnese
palace at Rome; and the same style obtains in the court of the
Escorial, built at a time when the purer Italian style was introduced
into Spain. These courts, though cold in design, compared with the
earlier Renaissance type, are of fine proportion. Two other examples
are found in the bishop's palace at Alcala de .Henarcs, one of which
has a magnificent staircase. (R. P. S.)
RENAISSANCE AltCHRECTtntK IN ENGLAND
In England, as in France, the influence of the Classic Revival
was first seen in connexion with tombs and church work, though
not nearly to the same extent as in France, where throughout
the country the work Of the Italian sculptor is to be found not
only in churches but In country mansions. On the other hand*
two if not three of the Italian artists who came over to England
were men of some reputation, such as Pictxo Torrigianb, a
Florentine sculptor who was invited over by Henry VIII. and
entrusted with the tomb of Henry VTX in Westminster Abbey
(151 2-1 518), and executed the tomb of John Young (in terra-
cotta) in the Rolls chapel (1 5x6). Another Italian was Giovanni
da Maiano, who was also a Florentine, who modelled the busts
of the emperors in the terra-cotta medallions over the entrance
gates at Hampton Court, and probably the panel flanked by
Corinthian pilasters, in which are modelled the arms of Cardinal
Wolsey, also in terra-cotta. Benedetto da Rovessano (1478-
c. 1552), and Totodel Nunslata^Itaban artists of note, were also
employed in England, the first on the tomb of Cardinal Wolsey
(now destroyed), and the second on the palace of Nonsuch, built
by Henry VIII., which was pulled down in 1670. Other early
Renaissance work is found at Christchurch Priory, in the Salisbury
Chantry (1529), the design of which is Gothic and some of the
details Italian, and in the tombs of the countess of Richmond in
Westminster Abbey (1519), of the earl of Arundel in Arundel
church, Sussex, of Henry, Lord Marney, at Layer Marney ( 1 525),
of the duke of Richmond (1537) and the duchess of Norfolk
(1572) in Framlingham church; and of Queen Anne of Cloves
(1557) in Westminster Abbey, attributed to Haveus of Cleves.
The sedilia (in terra-cotta) of Wymondham church, Norfolk,
the choir screen at St Cross, and Bishop Gardiner's chantry,
Winchester, and the vaulted roof of Bishop West's chapel at
Ely, all show the direct influence of the Italian dnque-cento
style. The most beautiful example in England of Italian wood-
work is the organ screen in King's College chapel, Cambridge
(i534*i539)i which, except for the coats of arms, the roses, port-
cullis and other English emblems, might be in some Italian church,
so perfect is its design and execution. Of early domestic work,
Sutton Place (1523-1525), near Guildford, Surrey, is a good
example of transition work. The design is Tudor, but the window
muUions and panels inserted throughout the structure, which
is built in brick, are all enriched with dnque-cento details in
terra-cotta, and probably executed by Italian craftsmen. Similar
enrichments in the same material are found decorating the
entrance tower (1522-15*5) at Layer Marney, Essex.
Nearly all the examples above mentioned come within the
first half of the 16th century. Passing into the second half and
dealing with domestic architecture, we find the history of the
introduction of classic work into England more complicated than
in other countries, because in addition to the Italian, we have
French, Flemish and German Influences to reckon with, and it
is sometimes difficult to decide from which source the features
are borrowed. There were, however, two still more important
considerations to be taken into account— firstly, the extremely
conservative character of the English people, who were satisfied
with the traditional work of the country, and the methods by
which it was carried out, and secondly, the great progress in
design which was made during the Elizabethan period, resulting
in a phase which was peculiarly English and did not lend Itself
easily to classic embellishment.
Already in the last phase of Gothic work, to which the title
of Tudor is generally given, important changes were being made
in the planning of the larger country mansions, and features
4i8
ARCHITECTURE
were introduced which seemed to give an impetus towards their
further development.
The most important of these features were the following:— the
bow window, rectangular or polygonal, of which the earliest examples
date from the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), such as Eltham
Palace in Kent, Cowdny Castle in Sussex, and Thornbury Castle in
Gloucestershire, and at a later period at Hampton Court ; octagonal
towers or turrets flanking the entrance gateway at each end of the
main front; the projecting forward of the side wings so as to get
better light to the rooms in them by having windows on both sides,
such projections varying the otherwise monotonous effect of a uni-
form facade without breaks; the long gallery (generally on an upper
floor) , which was an important characteristic of the Elizabethan
house; and last but not least, the adherence to the type of old
Tudor window, with its moulded mullions and transoms but with
squarehead.
One of the first modifications was the introduction of semicircular
bow windows, as in Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire, followed by a
second example at Burton Agnes in Yorkshire (1602-1610), and a
third at Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire 0635). They were
carried up through three storeys at Kirby Hall, the upper storey
in the roof; three storeys at Burton Agnes with balcony and
balustrade; and two storeys at Lilford Hall— these features being
extremely simple but fine in effect, and the windows with moulded
mullions and transoms lending themselves naturally to the curve.
The projecting bays and bow windows seemed to have such an
attraction for the builders of these country mansions that at Burton
Agnes (with a rectangular plan of 120 ft. by 80 ft.) there are ho fewer
than thirteen of them, which break up the wall surface and give a
picturesque group externally, whilst internally they add to the fine
effect of the rooms. At Barlborough Hall, Derbyshire, with a
frontage of 80 ft., there is a central rectangular bay forming the
entrance porch and carried up above the roof, and two large octagonal
bow windows which rise as towers with an extra storey. In all these
mansions the only influence which the Revival seems to have
exerted was in the introduction of an entablature, which sometimes
takes the place of the Gothic string course, balustrades which crown
the building, but with no projecting cornice, and gables with curved
outlines and Renaissance panels or scrolls. The fact is that, with
prominent features so widely differing from those which were
represented on the perspective drawings attached to the earlier
publications of the five orders, such as those of Serlio (1537) and
Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp (1577), the only course left open to
the master-mason was to decorate the principal entrance with
columns and pilasters of the Classic orders, sometimes superposed
one upon the other.
To the further development of this singular introduction of the
Classic orders we shall return; for the moment it will be better to
follow a chronological sequence and take up the principal examples
of the country mansion, some of Which were from the first intended
to be Classic buildings. Of the house built at Gorhambury in
Hertfordshire (1563) for Sir Nicholas Bacon, the father of Lord
Bacon, too little remains to render its design intelligible, except
that it still retains in its lofty window the Tudor pointed arch ; but
in Longleat in Wiltshire, built by Sir John Thynne (1567-1580), we
have a typical example, the design of which departs from the English
type, though it would seem to have been carried out according to
the traditional custom of entrusting the whole work to a master-
mason, and furnishing him with sketch designs of some kind suggest-
ing the required arrangements of the -plan, the principal features
of the exterior elevation and the internal disposition. This custom
was adhered to far into the 18th century at Oxford and Cambridge,
where the alterations and additions to some of the colleges, such as
the chapel of Clare College, Cambridge (1763), were carried out by
master-masons or builders who were supplied with sketch designs
and sometimes even the materials for the buildings they had to carry
out, notwithstanding the existence of properly trained architects,
who from the first half of the 17th century were usually entrusted
with the preparation of the necessary designs for new structures of
anyconsiderable importance.
The name of the designer of Longleat is not known; the master-
mason was Robert Smithson, who in 1580 went to Wollaton in
Nottinghamshire and constructed the mansion there. Longleat is so
Italian in style that it must have been conceived by some one who
had been in Italy, because it departs from the usual English type.
The plan is rectangular, with a frontage of 220 ft. by 180 ft. deep,
an entrance porch in the centre, with two projecting bays on each
aide carried up through the three storeys, and three similar bays on
the flanks. The whole block is crowned with a parapet, the centre
tion of which is pierced with a balustrade, but the main cornice
trs no resemblance to the Italian feature, being only that of the
entablature of the upper order. The projecting bays are decorated
with pilasters of the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, each with its
proper entablature. These classic features would seem to have
been copied from a work by John Shute, painter and architect, who
had been sent to Italy by the duke of Northumberland in 1551,
and in 1563 brought out his Chief Croundes of Architecture, the hrst
practical work published in English on architecture. Shute died in
the same year, but two other editions appeared in 1579 and 1584.
Dears
[ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
which shows that it must have had an extensive circulation and
probably exercised the greatest influence on English architecture.
A second book on the orders, already referred to as published in
1577 by Jan Vredeman de Vries of Antwerp, was not of the same
type, for instead of confining his work, like Shute and Serlio. to a
simple representation of the Classic orders, he introduced, on the
shafts of his columns and on the pedestals, designs of the most
debased rococo type, with additional plates suggesting their applica-
tion to various buildings. Robert Smithson, or his client Sir Fr.
"' ■ • . : „j 1 ^i_j_ book, and the result
at WoUaton (1580-
_ .. r elaborately decorated
pedestals; crestings on the angle towers, the design of which is
known as strap-work; and medallions with busts in them, enclosed
with twisted curves similar to those which flowers and leaves take
when thrown into the fire. The plan and the scheme of the design of
Wollaton is, however, so far superior to the usual type, that it may
fairly be ascribed to John Thorpe, an architect or surveyor, of whose
drawings there is a large collection in the Soane Museum, represent*
ing many of the more important mansions of the Eliabethan era;
some of his own design, others either plans measured from existing
buildings upon which he was called in to report or copies from other
sources, and some reproduced from published works such as Vrede-
man de Vries's pattern book and Androuet du Cerceau's Da pluf
excellent* bastiments de France (1576).
To John Thorpe is also attributed the design of Kirby Hall
(1570-1572) in Northamptonshire, in which the plan of the feudal
castle with great central court is still retained. This court is
symmetrically designed, and was evidently considered to be the
principal feature, the decoration being far richer than that of the
exterior of the building.
. m Charlecote Hall (157a)
near Stratford -on- A von; Burleigh House, Northamptonshire (1575),
the most remarkable feature in which is the great tower in the court-
yard, decorated with the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders super-
posed, the design apparently suggested by a similar feature in the
chateau of Anet, France (published in du Cerccau); Apethorpe
Hall, Northamptonshire (1580); Montacute House, Somersetshire
(1580-1600); Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire (1583-1589):
Brereton Hall, Cheshire (1 575-1586), in brick and stone;
Park, Worcestershire (1590); Wakchurst Place, Sum
" ' ~ * " ' 17) : Longford Castle, v\
1 House. Bucking'
I), partly in half-
Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire (1590-1597): Longford Castle, Will
(1591-1612); Cobham Hall, Kent (1594); Dorton House. Buc
;churst PUce, _Sussex_ (1590) ;
hamshire (1596); Speke Hall, Lancashire t ,. „
timber work; Holland House, Kensington (1606; wings and arcades,
1624); Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (1 607-1 613); Chariton House,
Kent (1607); Bramshill, Hampshire (1607-1612), an interesting
example of Jacobean architecture; Hatfield, Hertfordshire (1608-
161 1), with an extremely fine courtyard (north side in brick and
stone, 162 1); Audley End, Essex (1610-1616), a great portion of
which was afterwards pulled down; Ham House, Surrey (1610),
chiefly in brick; Pinkie House, at Musselburgh in Midlothian
O613); Aston Hall near Birmingham (1618-1635); Buckling HalL
Norfolk (1619); Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh (1628-1659); and
Lanhydroc, Cornwall (1636-1641), which brings us down to the period
of the pure Italian Revival introduced by Iiugo Jones.
We have already referred to the reproduction of the Classic
orders, superposed as an enrichment of the principal entrance
doorways. In addition to Burton Agnes and Burleigh House,
there arc endless examples in mansions and country houses, but the
most remarkable are those at Oxford : in the old Schools, where coupled
columns flank the entrance gateway with the five orders supei
and in Merton and Wadham Colleges, with four orders (the 1
being omitted), in neither case taking any cognizance of the levels
of windows or string courses of the earlier building to which they
were applied, or serving any structural purpose. The orders were
all taken from one of the pattern books, and in the Schools and in
Merton College the rococo ornament and strap-work found in Vrede-
man de Vriess work were copied with more or Was fidelity to the
original. There are, however, two or three buildings ^Northampton-
shire which are free from rococo work, and in their design form a
just
klian
pleasant contrast, as much to the elaboration of the buil
described as to the cold formality of the works of the later
style. Lyveden new buildings (1577). the Triangular Lodge 1
Rushton, and the Market House at Kothwell, are all examples in
which the orders from Serlio or John Shute are faithfully repre-
sented, and are of a refined character; in the first named the en-
tablatures only of the orders are introduced. In Rushton Hall
(1595) the cresting of the bow windows shows the evil influence of
Vredeman de Vries's pattern-book and of numerous designs by him
and other Belgian artists, which were printed at the Plantin press.
Two other publications of a similar rococo type were brought out in
Germany, one by Cammermayer (1564) and the other by DietterUn
(i594)> both at Nuremberg; neither of them would seem to have
been much known in England, but indirectly through German
craftsmen they may have influenced some of the work of the Jacobean
period, and more particularly the chimney pieces and the ceilings
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE!
of the gallery and other important rooms la which temp-work h
found. Among the finer examples of ceilings of early date are those
of Knole, Kent; Haddon Hall, Derbyshire; Sizergh Hall. Westmor-
land; South Wraxall Manor House. Wiltshire; the Red Lodge,
Bristol; Chastleton House; and Canons Ashby— in the last three
with pendants. Two of the best -designed ceilings of modest dimen-
sions are those of the Reindeer Inn at Banbury and the Star Inn at
Great Yarmouth. The principal decorative feature of the reception
rooms was the chimney-piece, rising from floor to ceiling, in early
examples being very simple— -as those at Broughton House and
Lacock Abbey — but at a later date overlaid with rococo strap-work
ornament and misshapen figures, as at South Wraxall and Castle
Ashby. One of the most beautiful chimney-pieces is in the ball-
room at Knole, probably of Flemish design, but at Cobham Hall,
Hardwick, Hatfield and Bolsover Castle are fine examples in which
different-coloured marbles are employed, there being a remarkable
series at the last-named place.
The long gallery has already been incidentally mentioned. Its
origin has never been clearly explained « it was generally situated
in an upper storey, and may have been for exercise, like the eaves
galleries in Spain. The dimensions were sometimes remarkable:
— b at Ampthill (no longer existing) was 245 ft. long: and a second
Audley End, 920 ft. long and 14 ft. wide. Of moderate length,
the best known are those of Haddon Hall, with rich watnscottii
ARCHITECTURE
419
at Audley End, 920 ft. long and 14
best Vnown are those of Haddon rlaU, with rich watnscotting
carried up to the ceiling; Hardwick, Knole, Longlcat, Buckling HaO
and Sutton Place, Surrey.
In early work the staircases were occasionally in stone with
circular or rectangular newels, but the more general type was that
known as the open well staircase, with balustrade and newels in
timber. Of these the more remarkable examples are those at Hat-
field; Beathall HaO, Shropshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire;
Charterhouse, London; Ockwells Manor House, Berkshire;
Buckling. Norfolk; and the Old Star Inn at Lewes. Sussex.
One of the important features in the old halls was the screen
separating the ball from the passage, over the latter being a gallery;
the front of the screen facing the hall was considered to be its chief
decoration, and was accordingly enriched with columns of the Classic
orders, and balustrade or cresting over. The screens of Charter-
house (London), Trinity College (Cambridge), Wadham College
(Oxford), and the Middle Temple Hall (London), are remarkable for
their design and execution. The great hammer-beam roof (1562-
1572) in the last named is the finest example of the Renaissance in
existence (see Roofs, Plate I., fig. 25).
With the exception of chantry or other chapels added to existing
buildings, there was only one church built in the period we are now
describing, St John's at Leeds. This church is divided down the
centre by an arcade of pointed arches, virtually constituting a double
save, and the rood-screen is carried through both. The window
tracery and the arcade show how the master-mason adhered to the
traditional Gothic style, but the rood-screen, notwithstanding its
rococo decoration, is a fine Jacobean work, eclipsed only by the
magnincent example at Croscombe, which, with the pulpit and other
church accessories, dating from 1616, constitutes the most complete
example of that period. •
The pure Italian style, as it is sometimes called; was introduced
into France probably by Scrlio, and the result of its first influence
is shown in the Louvre, begun in 1546. It entered
Spain about 20 years later, under the rule of Philip IL,
and Germany about the same time, creating about
100 years later a reaction in Spain in favour of a less cold and
formal style, and scarcely taking any root in Germany. In
England its first appearance docs not take place till 16 19, when
Inigo Jones, after his second visit to Rome, designed an immense
palace, measuring 11 50 ft. by 900 ft., of which the only portion
built was the Banqueting House in Whitehall (Plate VI., fig. 75);
a fine design, in which the emphasizing of the central portion by
columns in place of pOasters is an original treatment not found in
Italy, but of excellent effect. Unfortunately many subsequent
designs of Inigo Jones were either not carried out or have
since been destroyed; but nothing approached this admirable
work in Whitehall.
Among his buildings still remaining are St Paul's, Covent Garden
(1631). a simple ana massive structure which requires perhaps an
Italian sun to make it cheerful; York Stairs Water-gate (1626): the
front of Wilton House, near Salisbury (1633); the Queen's House,
Greenwich (161 7]. a very poor design ;ColcshilI. Berkshire; Raynham
Park, Norfolk, with weakly-designed gables and an entrance doorway
with curved broken pediment, which can scarcely be regarded as
pure Italian; and Ashburnham House. Westminster (the staircase
of which is extremely fine), carried out after his death by his pupil
John Webb. who. at Thorpe Hall, near Peterborough (1656), shows
that he p os s e ss ed some of his master's qualities in his employment of
ample and bold details.
Sir Christopher Wren, who follows, was by far the greatest
architect of the Italian school, though curiously enough he had
never been in Italy. His first work was the library of Pembroke
College, Cambridge (1663-1664), followed by the ^^
Sbeldonian theatre at Oxford, in the construction of
the roof of which, with a span of 68 ft, he showed his great
scientific knowledge. In 1665 he went to Paris, where he stopped
six months studying the architectural buildings there and in its
vicinity, and where he came across Bernini, whose designs for
destroying the old Louvre (fortunately not carried out) were
being started. On his return Wren occupied himself with
designs for the rebuilding of the old St Paul's, but these were
rendered useless by the great fire of the 22nd of September 1666,
which opened out his future career. His plan for the reconstruc-
tion of the city was not followed, owing to the opposition of the
owners of the sites, but he began plans for the rebuilding of the
churches and of St Paul's, cathedral. In his treatment of the
former, where he was obliged to limit himself, to the old sites,
often very irregular, and in most cases to. the old foundations,
he adopted, perhaps quite unconsciously, one of the principles
of ancient Roman architecture, and made the central feature
the key of his plan, fitting the aisles, vestries, porches, &c, into
what remained of the site; this central feature varied according
to its extent and proportions, and sometimes from a desire to
work, out a new problem. The central dome was a favourite
conception, the finest example of which is that of St Stephen's,
Walbrook (1676); other domed churches are St Maxy-at-Hill,
St Mildred's, Bread Street, St Mary Abchurch (x68x), where the
dome virtually covers the whole area of the church, and St
Swithin's, Cannon Street, an octagonal example. In St Anne
and St Agnes, AJdersgate, the crossing is covered with an inter-
secting barrel vault; and In this small church, about 5a ft.
square with four supporting columns, he manages to get nave,
transept and choir with aisles in the angles. In those churches
where there was sufficient length, the ordinary arrangement of
nave and able is adopted, with an elliptical barrel vault over
the nave, sometimes intersected and lighted from clerestory
windows, the finest example of these being St Bride's, Fleet
Street; other examples are St Mary-le-Bow (Cheapside), Christ-
church (Newgate) and St Andrew's (Holborn). In St James's,
Piccadilly, of which the site was a new one, the plan of nave and
aisles with galleries over, and a fine internal design with barrel-
vaulted ceiling, was adopted; the exterior is very simple,
which suggests that Wren attached much mote importance to
the interior. It should be pointed out that in all these cases,
the vaults, to which we have referred, were in lath and plaster,
and consequently covered over with slate roofs, and as a rule
the exteriors (which arc rarely visible) were deemed to be of
less importance. This is, however, made up for by the position
selected for the towers, and in their varied design those of St
Mary-le-Bow, St Bride's (Fleet Street) and St Magnus (London
Bridge) are perhaps the finest of a most remarkable series.
The foundation stone of St Paul's cathedral was laid in 1075. and
the lantern was finished in 1 710. The silhouette of the dome (Plate
II., fig. 66). which is, of course, its principal feature, is far superior to
those of St Peter's at Rome, or the Invalides or Pantheon at Paris,
and the problem of its construction with the central lantern was
solved much more satisfactorily than in any other example. Wren
realized that the attempt to render a dome beautiful internally- as
well as externally could only be obtained by having three shells in
its construction; the inner one for inside effect, the outer one to
give greater prominence externally, and the third, of conical form,
to support the lantern.
In plan, Wren's design (fig. 53) was in accordance with the tradi-
tional arrangement of an English cathedral, with nave, north and
south transepts and choir, in all cases with side aisles, and a small
apse to the choir. The great dome over the crossing is, like the
octagon at Ely, of the same width as nave and aisles together. It
resembles the plan of that cathedral also in the four great arches
opening into nave, transepts and choir, with smaller arches between.
Instead of the great barrel vault of St Peter's, Rome, Wren intro-
duced a scries o? cupolas over the main arms of the cathedral, which
enabled him to light the same with clerestory windows; these are
not visible on the exterior, as they are masked by the upper storey
which Wren carried round the whole structure, in order, probably,
to give it greater height and importance; by its weight, however,
it serves to resist the thrust of the vaults transmitted by buttresses
across the aisles. The grouping of the two lanterns on the west front
420
ARCHITECTURE
[ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
with the central dome is extremely fine; the west portico is not
satisfactory, but the semicircular porticoes of the north and south
transepts are very beautiful features. Greater importance b given
to the cathedral by raising it on a podium about 12 ft. above the
level of the pavement outside, which enables the crypt under the
whole cathedra! to be lighted by side windows.
The principal examples of the churches which followed are those
of St George's, Bloomsbury; St Mary Woolnoth; Christ Church.
Spitatfields, by Nicholas Hawksmoor; and St Mary -le- Strand
ji7i4),andSt Martin V in- the- Fidds(i 721), by James Gibbs. Gibbs's
interiors are second only to those of Wren, while Hawksmoor's are
very weak; in both cases, however, the exteriors arc finely designed.
Amongst subsequent works are St John's, Westminster, and St
Philips, Birmingham (1710), by Tnomas Archer; St George's,
Hanover Square (1713-1714), by John James; All Saints' church,
Oxford, by Dean Aldrich; St Giles-in-the-Fields (1731), by Henry
Flitcroft; and St Leonard's, Shoreditch (1736), by George Dance.
Scab of Feet
*J2_ T
Fig. 53.— Plan of St Paul's Cathedral. London.
Sir Christopher Wren's chief monumental work was Greenwich
hospital, in the arrangement of which he had to include the Queen's
House, and a block already begun on the west side. His solution
was of the most brilliant kind, and seen from the -river the grouping
of the several blocks with the colonnade and cupolas of the two
central ones is admirable.
Wren's next great work was the alterations and additions to
Hampton Court palace, begun in 1689, the east front facing the park
(Plate VI., fig. 77), the south front facing the river, the fountain
court and the colonnade opposite the great hall. Chelsea hospital
(1682-1692), the south front (now destroyed) to Christ's hospital
(1692), and Winchester school (1 684-1 687), are all examples in
brick with stone quoins, cornices, door and window dressings, which
show how Wren managed with simple materials to give a monu-
mental effect. The library which he built in Trinity College,
Cambridge (1678), with arcades on two storeys divided by three-
quarter detached columns of the Doric and Ionic orders, is based
on the same principle of design as those in the court of the Farnese
palace at Rome by Sangallo, a part of the palace which is not likely
to have been known by him.
The results of the Italian Revival in domestic architecture were
not altogether satisfactory, for although it is sometimes claimed
that the style was adapted by its architects to the traditional require*
menu and customs of the English people, the contrary will be found
if they are compared with the work of the 16th century. The chief
aim seems to have been generally to produce a great display of
Classic features, which, even supposing they followed more closely
the ancient models, were quite superfluous and generally interfered
with the lighting of the chief rooms, which were sacrificed to them.
In fact there are many cases in which one cannot help feeling how
much better the effect would be if the great porticoes ruing through
two storeys were removed. This is specially the case in Sir John
Vanbrugh's mansion, Seaton Delaval, in Northumberland (1720);
his other works, Blenheim (1714) and Castle Howard (1702). are
vulgarized also by the employment of the large orders. ' The same
defect exists in Stonekigh Abbey, Leamington, where the orders
carried up through two and three storeys respectively destroy the
scale of the whole structure.
Among other mansions, the principal examples are Houghton in
Norfolk (1723), a fine work, the villa at Mereworth in imitation of
the Villa Capra near Vicenza, and the front of old Burlington House
(1718), copied from the Porto palace at Vicenza, by Colin Campbell ;
Holkham in Norfolk and Devonshire House, London, by William
Kent; Ditchley in Oxfordshire, and Milton House near Peter-
borough, by Gibbs; Chesterfield House, London, by Isaac Ware;
Wentworth House in Yorkshire (1740), and Woburn Abbey in
Bedfordshire (1747), by Henry Flitcroft; Spencer House, London
(1762), by John Vardy; Prior Park and various works in Bath by
John Wood; the Mansion House, London, by George Dance:
Wardour in Wiltshire, Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, and Worksop
in Nottinghamshire (1763), by James Paine; Gopsall Hall. Ely
House, Dover Street, London (1772), and Hevenngham Hall in
Suffolk, by Sir Robert Taylor, to whose munificence we owe the
Taylor Buildings at Oxford; Harewood House in Yorkshire (1760),
Lythara Hall in Lancashire, and (part of) Wentworth House in
Yorkshire, by John Carr; and Luton Hoo (1767), now largely
reconstructed, and Sion House (1761), the best-known mansions
by Robert Adam, who with his brothers built the Addphi and many
houses in London. Adam designed a type of decoration in stucco
for ceilings and mantelpieces, the dies of which are still in existence
and are utilized extensively in modern houses. His labours were not
confined to buildings, but extended to their decoration, furniture and
fittings.
The works of Sir William Chambers were of a most varied nature,
but his fame is chiefly based on Somerset House in the Strand.
London (i77 6 ). with its facade facing the river, a magnificent work
second only to Inigo Jones's Whitehall, but infinitely more exten-
sive and difficult to design. He was also the author of a work on
The Decorative Part of Ctvil Architecture, which is still the standard
" " wontbe
F «, , , „ ,_ y . and his
principal work was the Custom House in Dublin
work on the subject in England. His pupil, tames Gandon, won the
first gold medal given by the Royal Academy in ]
principal work was the Custom House in Dublin (178
prison (17.70), a remarkable building now destroyed.
in 1769, a
(1781). N<
(the
icwgate
le chief
work carried out by George Dance, lun.
Other buildings not yet mentioned are the Alcove and Banqueting
Hall (Orangery) of Kensington Palace, by Wren: the Raddiffe
library, Oxford, by Gibbs, an extremely fine work both externally
and internally; Queen's College, Oxford, by Hawksmoor; the
county hall, Northampton, by Sir Roger Norwich; the town hall.
Abingdon (1677), designer unknown; the Ashmolean museum.
Oxford (1677). by T. Wood; Clare College, Cambridge, and St
Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (1640-1670), by Thomas and Robert
Grumboll, master- masons; the custom house, King's Lynn (1681).
by Henry Bell ; Nottingham Castle, designed by the duke of New-
castle in 1674 and carried out by March, his clerk of works— the
central portion is finely proportioned, and it is only in the pilasters
at the quoins that one recognizes the amateur; two nouses in Caven-
dish Square. London (1717). on the north side, by John James;
Lord Burlington's villa (1740) at Chiswkk, by William Kent, which
with its internal decorations is still perfect; the celebrated Palladian
Bridge at Wilton, by R. Morris; and last but not least, in conse-
quence of its great influence on modern architecture, Sparrowe's
house at Ipswich (1567-1662), the timber oriel windows of which
are now so often reproduced. (R. P. S)
Renaissance Architecture in Germany
The classical revival does not seem to have taken root in
Germany much before the middle of the 16th century, some forty
to fifty years later than in France, from which country it is said to
have been introduced, and in some cf the early work there is a
great similarity to French examples, but without the refinement
and variety of detail which one finds in the chateaux of the
Loire and in many of the French towns. In the rood-screen of
the cathedral at Hildesheim (1546), the court of the town hail
at Gorliu (1554). the portal of the Petersboi at HaibersUdt
GERMAN RENAISSANCE)
(1552), and the entrance gateway of the cattle at B'rieg (1553),
one is able to recognize certain ornamental details and a similar
superposition of pilasters in several storeys to that which is
found in various towns in Normandy and on the Loire. In both
countries the new style was engrafted on the last phase of the
Gothic period, so forming at first a transitional style, which
lasted about fifty years. Thus the lofty roofs which prevailed
in the j$th century are developed further, but with this great
divergence in the two countries. In France there are rarely
gable ends, in Germany they are not only the chief character-
istic feature of the main front, but are introduced in the side
elevations in the shape of immense dormers with two or three
storeys and rising the full height of the roof, as in the castle at
Himebchcnburg near Hameln. Throughout Germany, therefore,
the gable end and the dormer gable became the chief features on
which they lavished all their ornamental designs, the main walls
of the building being as a rule either in plain masonry, rubble
masonry with stucco facing, or brick and stone. Other promi-
nent features arc the octagonal and circular oriel windows rising
through two or three storeys at the corners of their buildings-
rectangular bow windows in two or three storeys, which were
allowed apparently to encroach on the pavement, and octagonal
turrets or towers instead of circular as in France. In the
vicinity of the Harx mountains, where timber was plentiful,
a Urge proportion of the factories, houses and even public
buildings, are erected in half-timber work with elaborate carving
of the door and window jambs, projecting corbels, &c At
Hildesheim, Wernigerodc, Goslar, &c, these structures are
sometimes of immense size and richly decorated. Among
early examples in stone, the porch added to the town hall of
Cologne (1571), the projecting wings of the town halls at Halber-
stadt and Lemgo (1565), and the town halls at Posen (1550),
Altenbu.rg (1562-1567) and Rothcnburg (1572-1500), are all
picturesque examples more or less refined in design. In the last-
named example the purer Italian style has exercised its influence
in the principal doorway and in the arcaded gallery on the east
front. This same influence shows itself in* the courtyard of the
town hall at Nuremberg, where the arcades of the two upper
storeys might be taken for those of the courts of the palaces at
Rone.
Amongst other 16th-century work there are two entrance gates
at Danzig, the Hohe Tor (158S). a fine massive structure, and the
Langyasse Tor (1600), more or less pure Italian in style. At
Augvberg. the arsenal (1603-1607), by the architect EliasHoll (1573-
1646), is of a bold and original design, and the town hall has magnifi-
cent ceilings and wainscotting round the walls of the principal halls.
This brings us to the castle of Heidelberg (Plate VII., figs. 78,
70 and 80), which is looked upon by the Germans as the chef d oeuvre
of the Renaissance in Germany. As seen from the great court it
forms an interesting study, there being the work of three periods:
in the centre the met u rescue group of the older building (c. 1525),
on the right the Dtto-Hcinrichs-Bau (1556-1559), and on the left
the Friedrichs-Bau (1602-1607). Of the two the latter Is the finer.
The architect of the Otto-Heinrichs-Bau would seem to have been
undecided whether to give greater prominence and projection to his
pilasters and cornices or to his windows with their dressings and
pediments, so he has compromised the matter by making them
both about the same, and the effect is most monotonous. In the
Friedrichs-Bau, which is a remarkable work, the pilasters are of
great projection, with bold cornices and simple windows well set
back, while the tracery of the ground-floor windows is a pleasant
relief from the constant repetition of pilaster window dressings.
The gables also of the Friedricha-Bau break the horizontal sky-line
agreeably. A more minute examination of the decorative details,
however, betrays the advent of a peculiar rococo style of a most
debased type, which throughout the 17th century spread through
Germany, and the repetition of the same details suggests that it was
copied from some of the pattern books which were published towards
the cod of the 16th century, comprising heterogeneous designs for
ARCHITECTURE
421
piled by de Vries and Dictterlin, emanated from the Low Countries,
and their influence extended to England during the Elizabethan
period. At all events in Germany it would seem to have arrested
the purer Italian work, which we nave already noticed, and hence-
forth jn the gable ends one finds the most extraordinary accumula-
tion of distorted forms which, though sometimes picturesque,
disfigure the German work of the 17th century. An exception
aught perhaps be made in favour of the Peller/ache Hausin Nurem-
berg (1625), one of the best houses of modest dimensions in Germany.
The facade in the Aegidien-PIata is a fine composition ; inside is a
very picturesque court and staircase, and the painted ceiling and the
wainscotting of one of the rooms in woods of different colours,
though not very pure in style, are of excellent design and execution.
Some of the most characteristic work of this type exists at Hameln,
where the facades of the Ratteufangerhaus (1602), the Hochzeitshaua
(1610), and many other buildings, are covered with the most extra-
ordinary devices, leaving scarcely a foot of plain masonry as a relief.
The south front of the town hall of Bremen (1612) is in the same
style (Plate IV., fig. 70), relieved, however, by the fine large windows
of the great ball and the arcade in front, in which there is some
picturesque detail. Laterin the century the degradation increases
until it reaches its climax in the Z winger palace at Dresden (1711),
the most terrible rococo work ever conceived, if we except some of
the Churrigueresque work in Spain.
Among the most pleasing features in Germany are the fountains
which abound in every town ; of these there are good examples at
Tubingen, Prague, Hildesheim, Ulm, Nuremberg, already famed
for its Gothic fountains. Mainz and Rothenburg. In the latter town,
built on an eminence, they are of great importance for the supply of
the town, and some of them are extremely picturesque and 01 good
design.
Up to the present we have said nothing about the ecclesiastical
buildings in Germany, for the reason that the period between the
Reformation and the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War was not
favourable to church building. The only example worth mentioning
is the church of St Michael at Munich (1583-1597), and that more for
its plan than for its architecture. It nas a Wide nave covered with
a barrel vault, and a series of chapels forming semicircular recesses
on each side, the walls between acting; as buttresses to the great
"" e transept is not deep enough t *
_lue, out if at the east end there hi m - - w
have been a better termination than the long choir. The Ltebfrauen-
vault. The transept is not deep enough to have any architectural
value, out if at the east end there had been only an apse it would
Idrche at Dresden (1726-1745) has a good plan, but internally is
arranged like a theatre with pit, tiers of boxes, and a gallery, all in
the worst possible taste, and externally the dome is far too high
and destroys the scale of the lower part of the church. An elliptical
dome is never a pleasing object, and in the church of St Charles
Borromeo, at Vienna, there are no other features to redeem its
ugliness. The Marienldrche at Wolfenbuttel (1608-1622) has a fine
Italian portal; its side elevation is spoilt by the series of gable
dormers, which are of no possible use, as the church (of the HalUn-
kircken type) is well lighted through the aisle windows. The portal
of the Sduosskapelle 0555) at Dresden is a fine work in the Italian
style; and lastly the church at BQclpeburg, in a late debased style,
is redeemed only by the fact that it is built in fine masonry ana
that the joints run through all the rococo details. (R. P. S.)
RENAISSANCE AlCHITECTORE IN BELGIUM AND HOLLAND
The Gothic development in the 15th century in Belgium,
as evidenced in her magnificent town halls and other public
buildings, not only supplied her requirements in the century
following, but hindered the introduction of the Classic Revival,
so that it is not till the second half of the 16th century that we
find in the town hall of Antwerp a building which is perhaps mora
Italian in design than any work in Germany. There are; how*
ever, a few instances of earlier Renaissance, such as the Salm Inn
(2534) at Malincs; the magnificent chimncypiece, by Conrad
van Noremberger of Namur, in the council chamber of the
palais de justice at Bruges (1529); and the palaia de justice
of Liege (1533), fonnerjy the bishop's palace, in the court of
which' are features suggesting a Spanish influence. The influence
of the cinque-cento style of Italy may be noticed in the tomb
of the count de Borgnival (1535) in the cathedral of Breda,
and in the choir stalls of the church at Enkhuisen on the borders
of the Zuyder Zee', both in Holland, and in the choir stalls of the
cathedral of Ypjes in Belgium; the carving of these bears so
dose a resemblance to cinque-cento work in design and execution
that one might conclude they were the work of Italian artists,
but their authors are known to have been Flemish, who must,
however, have studied in Italy. Again, in the stained-glass
windows of the church of St Jacques at Liege, the details are all
cinque-cento, with circular arches on columns, festoons of leaves
and other ornament, all apparently derived from Italian sources,
but necessarily executed by Flemish painters, as stained-glass
windows of that type are not often found in Italian churches.
Of public buildings In Belgium, the most noted example is that
of the town hall at Antwerp, designed by Cornelius deVriendt (1564).
It has a frontage of over 300 ft. facing the Grande Place, and m an
imposing structure in four storeys, arcaded on the lower storey and
the classic orders above* with mulllnned windows between on the
4*3
ARCHITECTURE
[NETHERLANDS RENAISSANCE
three other storey* the uppermost storey being an open loggia,
which gives that depth of shadow obtained in Italy by a projecting
cornice. It is almost the only building in Belgium without the usual
gable, the centre block being carried up above the eaves and
terminated with an entablature supporting at each end a huge
obelisk, and in the centre what looks like the miniature representa-
tion of a church. The only other classic building is the Renaissance
ertion of the town hall at Ghent, which is very inferior to the older
►thic portion.
What is wanting in the town halls, however, is amply replaced
by the magnificence of the houses built for the various gilds, as for
instance those of the Fishmongers at Malines (1580), of the Brewers,
the Archers, the Tanners and the Cordeliers (rope-makers) at Ant-,
werp, and, in the Grande Place at Brussels, the gilds of the Butchers,
the Archers, the Skippers (the gable end of which represents the
stern of a vessel with lour cannons protruding), the Carpenters and
others. Besides these, and especially in Antwerp, are to be found
a very large series of warehouses, which in the richness of their
decoration and their monumental appearance vie with the gilds
in the evolution of a distinct style of Renaissance architecture — a
type from which the architect of the present day might derive more
inspiration than from the modest brick houses of Queen Anne's time.
In domestic architecture, the best-preserved example of the 16th
and 17th centuries is the Musee Plantin at Antwerp, the earliest
portion of which dates from IMS. This was bought by Ch. Plantin,
who was employed by Philip of Spain to print all the breviaries and
missals for Spam and the Netherlands; the fortune thus acquired
enabled him and his successors to purchase from time to time
adjoining properties which they rebuilt in the style of the earlier
buildings. Alter 1637 the buildings followed the style of the period,
but up to that date they were all erected in brick with stone courses
and window dressings round a central court. Internally the whole
of the ancient fittings are retained, including those of the old shop,
the show-rooms, reception rooms and the residential portion cf the
house, with the wainscotting and Spanish leather on the walls
above, panelled ceilings, chimney-pieces, stained glass, Ac., the most
Complete r ep res en tation of the domestic style of Belgium.
Of ecclesiastical architecture in the Renaissance style there are
scarcely any examples worth noting. The tower of the church of St
Charles Borromeo at Antwerp (1593-1610) is a fine composition
similar in many respects to Wren s steeples, and the nave of St
Anne's church at Bruges is of simple design and good proportion.
The Belgian churches are noted for their immense pulpits, sometimes
in marble and of a somewhat degraded style. The finest features in
them are the magnificent rood-screens, in which the tradition of the
Gothic examples already quoted seems to have been handed down.
In the cathedral at Tournai is a fine specimen by Cornelius de
Vriendt of Antwerp (157a), and there is a second at Nieuport, both
similar in design to the example from Bois-le-Duc now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum; and in the church of St Leonard at Leau is a
tabernacle in stone, over 50 ft. high, in seven stages, with numerous
figures by Cornelius de Vriendt (1550).
In Holland, nearly all the principal buildings of the Renaissance
date from the time of her greatest prosperity when the Dutch threw
off their allegiance to the Spanish throne ( 1 565). With the exception
pf the palace at Amsterdam (1648-1655), an immense structure
in stone with no architectural pretensions, there are no buildings in
Holland in which the influence of the purer style of the Italian
revival can be traced. Internally the great hall of the palace and
the staircase in the Louis XIV. style are fine examples of that period.
_ The earliest Renaissance town hall is that of the Hague (1564),
situated at the angle of two streets, which is an extremely picturesque
building, in fact one of the few In which the architect has known
how to group the principal feature* of his design. The Renaissance
addition made to the old town hall of Haarlem is a characteristic
example of the Dutch style. The walls are in red brick, the decora-
tive portions, consisting of superimposed pilasters with raullioned
and transomed windows, cornices and gable end, all being in stone.
Inside this portion of the town ball, which is now a gallery and
museum, is an ancient hall (not often shown to visitors) u which all
the decorations and fittings date from the 17th century. There is a
second example of an ancient hall in the Stadthuis at Kampen, one
of the dead cities of the Zuyder Zee, which served originally as a
court of justice, and retains all its fittings of the loth century,
including a magnificent chimneyptece in stone, some 25 ft. high and
dated 1543.
The town hall at Bolsward in Priesland is another typical specimen
of Dutch architecture, in which the red brick, alternating with stone
courses running through the semi-detached columns which decorate
the main front, has given variety to the usual treatment of such
features. The external double flight of steps with elaborate balus-
trade, and the twisted columns which flank the principal doorway,
are extremely picturesque, if not quite in accordance with the
principles of Palladio or Vignola.
A similar flight of steps with balustrade forms the approach to
tbe entrance doorway (on the first floor) of the town hall at Leiden,
where the rich decoration of the centre block and its lofty gable U
emphasized by contrast with the plain design of the chief front.
In the three chief cities in Holland, the Hague, Amsterdam and
Rotterdam; there are few buildings remaining of 17th-century work.
so- that they must be sought in the south at Dordrecht and Delft,
or in the north at Leiden, Haarlem, Alkmaar, Hooro, Enkhuisen, or,
crossing the Zuyder Zee into Friesland, in Leeuwarden, Bolsward,
Kampen and Zwolle, the dead cities. In all these towns ancient
buildings have been preserved, there being no resaon to pull them
down. Of the entrance gateways at Hoorn there is an example
left, of which the lower portion might be taken for a Roman
triumphal arch, so closely does it adhere to the design of those
monuments, extending even to a long Latin inscription in the frieze.
The tower (1 531-1652), built to protect the entrance to the harbour,
has no gateway. There are some old buildings in Kampen. in
one of which the entrance gateway is a simple and fine composition
in brick and stone, the chief characteristics of the gateways here
being the enormously high roofs of the circular towers flanking them.
A finer and more picturesque grouping of roofs exists in the entrance
gateway (Amsterdam Gate) at Haarlem, which is perhaps, however,
eclipsed by those of the Waaghuis at Amsterdam with it* seven
conical roofs.
The Waaghuisen, or weighing-houses for cheeses, are, next to the
town halls, the most important buildings in Holland, and in fact
vie with them in richness of design. The example at Alkmaar
possesses not only an imposing front with gable in three storeys,
but a lofty tower with belfry. At Deventer the main building is late
Gothic (1528), in brick ana stone, with an external double flight of
steps and balustrades added in 1643.
The Fleesch Halle (meat-market) at Haarlem, also ia brick and
atone, is of a very rococo style, but notwithstanding all its vagaries
presents a most picturesque appearance.
Tbe domestic architecture of Holland and the shop fronts retain
more of their original dispositions than will be found in any other
country. At Hoorn, Enkhuisen and other towns, there has virtually
been no change during the last 200 years. In the more flourishing
towns as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the increasing prosperity of
the inhabitants led them in the latter portion of the 17th and in the
18th centuries to adapt features borr o wed from the French work
of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., without, however, their re fi nement,
luxuriance or variety, so that although substantial structures they
are extremely monotonous in general effect. (R. P. S.)
MaSommeqan AxcHXTECnnuc
Before proceeding with "modern architecture/' to which
the styles now discussed, have gradually led us, we have still
another important architectural style to describe, in Mahomme-
dan architecture. The term " Mahommedan " has been selected
in preference to " Saracenic/' because it includes a much wider
field, and enables us to bring in many developments which could
not well come under the latter title. It was the M«iw>«iwiH*n
religion which prescribed the plan and the features of the mosques,
and it was the restriction of that faith which led to the principal
characteristics of the style. The term " Saracenic " could hardly
be applied to the architecture of Spain, Persia or Turkey.
The earliest mosques at Mecca and Medina, which have long since
passed away, were probably of the simplest kind; there were no
directions on the subject in the Koran, and. as Fergusson temarks,
had the religion been confined to its native land, it is probable that
no mosques worthy of the name would have ever been erected. In
the first half-century of their conquest in Egypt and Syria the
Mahommedans contented themselves with desecrated churches and
other buildings, and it was only when they came among the temple-
building nations that they seemed to have felt the necessity of.
providing some visible monument of their religion. The first require-
ment Was a structure of some kind, which should indicate to the
faithful the direction of Mecca, towards which, at stated times,
they were to turn and pray. The earliest mosque, built by Omar
at Jerusalem, no longer exists, but in the mosque of 'Amr at Cairo
(ng. 54)i founded in 643 and probably restored or added to at various
times, we find the characteristic features which form the base of the
plans of all subsequent mosques. These features consist of (a) a
wall built at right angles to a line drawn towards Mecca, in which,
sunk in the wall, was a niche indicating the direction towards which
the faithful should turn ; (6) a covered space for shelter from the
sun or inclement weather, which was known as the prayer chamber;
(0 in front of the prayer chamber, a large open court, in which
there was a fountain for ablution; and (J)a covered approach on
either side of these courts and from the entrance. The materials
employed in the earlier mosque were all taken from ancient struc-
tures, Egyptian, Roman and Byzantine, but so arranged as to
constitute tbe elements of a new style. The columns employed
were not always of sufficient size, and therefore in order to obtain
a greater height, above the capitals were square dies, carrying
ranges of arches, all running in the direction of Mecca; to resist
the thrust, wood ties were built in under the arches, so that the
structure was of tbe lightest appearance. The same principle was
observed in the mosque of Kairawan. in Tunisia (675). and in the
mosque of Cordova (786-9*5), copied from it. Similar wooden ties
are found in the mosque of El Ak&* and the Dome of the Rock at
MAHOMMEDANJ
Jerusalem (built 691)^ so that they became one of the characteristics
of the style. For constructional reasons, however, this method of
building was not always adhered to, and in the mosque of Tulun
( fi t- 5?) in Cairo (879), the first mosque in Egypt, built of original
materials, we find an important departure. The arcades, instead of
running at right angles to the Mecca wall, are built parallel with it,
on account ofthe great thrust of the arches, all built in brick (fig. 56).
The wood ties would have been quite insufficient to resist the thrust,
and in the case of this mosque were probably used to carry lanterns.
The mosque of Tulun is the earliest example in which the pointed
arch appears throughout, and it forms the leading and most char-
acteristic constructional feature of the style in its subsequent
developments in every country, except in Barbary and Spain,
where the circular-headed bone-shoe arch seems to be preferred.
As it is also tbe earliest mosque in which the decoration applied is
that which was by inference laid down in the Koran, some allusion
to the restrictions therein contained, and the consequent result,
may not be out of place. The representation of nature in any form
was absolutely forbidden, and this applied generally to foliage of all
kinds, and plants, the rcp r cscnta tioa of birds or animals, and above
ARCHITECTURE
423
Fig. 54-— Plan of Mosque of *Amr. Old Cairo.
5- Fountain for Ablution.
6. Rooms built later.
7. Minaret.
8. Latrines.
1. Kibla.
a. Mimbar.
3. Tomb of 'Amr.
4. Dakka.
all of the human figure. The only exceptions to the rule would seem
to be those found in the very conventional representations of lions
carved over the gateways of Cairo and Jerusalem and in the courts
of the Alhambra. It was this restriction which produced the ex*
tremely beautiful conventional patterns which are carried round the
arches of the mosque of Tulun. and are found in the friezes, string-
courses and the capitals of the shafts, and when these patterns
form the background of the text of the Koran in high relief, in the
splendid Arabic characters, it would be difficult to find a more
beautiful decorative scheme in theabsence of natural forms. As the
mosque of Tulun was built by a Coptic architect, and its decoration
b evidently * the result of many years of previous developments,
it a probably to the Copts that its evolution was due. The second
type of decoration as that which is given by geometrical forma,
and either in pavements or wall decorations in marble, or in the
framing of woodwork in ceilings, or in doorways, the most elaborate
and beautiful combinations were produced. The third type of
decoration is one which in a sense is found in the origin 01 most
styles, but which, restricted as the Mahommedans were to con-
ventional representations, received a development of far greater
importance, and in one of its forms— <that known as stalactite
vaulting-— constitutes the one feature in the style which is not found
in any other, and which, from the western coast of Spain to the east
of India, at once differentiates it from any other style.
A complete account, with illustrations of the origin of the stalactite
will be found in the Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects
£898). The earliest example is found in the- tomb of Zobeide, the
vourite wife of Harttn al-Rashid, at Bagdad, built at the end of
the 8th- century. This tomb, octagonal in plan, and of modest
dimensions, was vaulted over by. a series of niches in nine stages ox
levels rising one above the other, and brought forward on the inside,
so that the ninth course completed the covering of the tomb. It
was built In this way to save centreing, each niche when completed
being self-sifpporting. There is a second tomb at Bagdad, of later
date — the tomb of Ezekier,— constructed in the same way, except
that in each stage the niches are built not one over the other but
astride between the two, and this is the way in which in subsequent
developments it always appears to have been built. Its application
to the pendentives of the portals of the mosque at Tabriz and
Sultaniya was the next development: and when some two centuries
later it u found in Europe, in the palaces of the Ziza at Palermo,
dating from about the beginning of the 1 ith century, it has lost its
brick constructive origin, and, being cut in slabs of stone, has
become simply a decorative feature Its earliest example in Egypt
is in the tomb of ash-Shafi'i at Cairo; built by Saladin about 1240.
Here and in all subsequent examples throughout Egypt and Syria
it is always carved in stone. In the Alhambra another material was
employed, the elaborate vaults being built with a series of small
From Corte's Artki lutm t Armht m Cat*.
Fio. 55.— Plan of Mosque of Tulun, Cairo.
moulds in stucco. In the ceilings of the mosques at Cairo it waa
frequently carved in wood, and consequently lost all trace of its
origin.
Two other decorative features, but having a constructive origin,
are (1) tbe alternating of courses of stone of different colour, probably
derived from Byzantine work, where bands ot brick were employed:
and (a) the elaborate forms given to the vouasoirs of the arches ot
the Mecca niche.
Having now described the principles which ruled the plans of the
mosques and formed the motifs of their architectural design, it
remains to take the principal examples in the various countries
where the style was developed.
Although the tendency of modern research points to Persia as tbe
country in which the first development of the art took place, and we
have already referred to two tombs at Bagdad, in Which the earliest
examples of a stalactite vault are found, so far as remains are
concerned nothing can be traced earlier than the work of Ghazan
Khan (1294), whose mosque at Tabriz, half in ruins, is the earliest
example.
It is to Egypt therefore we turn first. There stul exist— and
sometimes in good preservation — mosques and other buildings in
Cairo of every period showing the development of the Mahoromedan
style, from the 9th to the 17th century. Owing to the magnificent
material at their command — for unfortunately more of it was taken
from the ancient Egyptian monuments than from the quarries— a
much purer style was evolved than in Persia ; and owing to the
absence of rain, those ephemeral structures built in brick under
with stucco, which in other countries would long have passed
retained the crispness of their flowing ornament, which is still -
sharp and well denned as when executed. We have already referred
42+
ARCHITECTURE
to two of the earlier mosques, those of 'Arar in Old Cairo and of
Tulun. The next in date, and built also in brick, is the mosque El
Halrira (c. 1003). The mosque of El Aahar (" the Splendid ) was
founded about 970; but entirely rebuilt in 1270 and enlarged in 1470.
It is the university, and its Liwan or prayer chamber is the largest
in Cairo, there being 380 columns carrying its roof.
The mosque of al-Zahir (founded 1264) is now occupied as barracks.
In one of its entrance porches the arches are decorated with the
well-known zigzag or chevron ornament, and a second porch with
cushion voussoirs, features found elsewhere only in Sicily, so that the
mosque was probably built by masons brought from thence. Then
follows a series of mosques:* Kalaua (1287) ; al-Nasir (1299-1303) ;
(MAHOMMEDAN
and 60 ft. wide, a greater span than any Gothic cathedral, and only
exceeded in dimensions by the great hail of the palace at Ctesiphon
built by the Sassanian dynasty. The mosque covers a large area,
and would seem to have been occupied by four religious sects,
whose rooms, situated on the outer side, are lighted by windows in
eight or ten storeys, giving the appearance of a factory. It* entrance
portal, 60 ft. to 70 ft. high, is the finest in Egypt, and is only exceeded
in dimensions by those of the Persian and Indian mosques. The
vestibule is covered by a dome with stalactite pendentives, and is
perhaps the most complete and perfect example in Cairo. Beyond
the prayer chamber is the tomb of the founder, which is covered by
a dome. This, according to Poole, was apt originally a feature in
Fig. 56.— Court of the Mosque of Tulun, Cairo. (From Coste.)
Merdam (1338); all based on the same plan as those described
with a large courtyard surrounded by porticoes. The mosque of
al-Nisir has* portal with clustered piers and pointed and moulded
orders. This is said to have been brought over as a trophy from
Acre, but it is more probable that Syrian masons were imported to
carry on the style introduced by the Crusaders.
The mosque of Sultan Hasan (1357-1360) marks art important
change in the scheme of its plan, which served afterwards as a
Flo. 57.— Plan of the Mosque of the Sultan Hasan.
future model (fig. 57). It consists of a central court, 1 1 7 ft. by 105 ft.
open to the sky, and instead of the covered porticoes on each side
there are immense recesses covered over with pointed vaults. The
prayer chamber is 90 ft. deep, 90 ft high to the apex of the vault
Saracenic mosques. A dome, he says, has nothing to do with prayer
and therefore nothing with a mosque. It is simply the roof of a
tomb, and only exists when there is at least a tomb to be covered.
The greater number of the mosques in and outside Cairo are
mausoleums, which accounts for the Urge number of domes found
there.
Of the tombs of the caliphs, outside Cairo, the most important is
the tomb of ash-Shafil, reputed to have been built by Saladin but
now quite changed by restoration. The tomb of Barkuk, in which
the courtyard pun of Sultan Hasan is retained, has porticoes round
it, which are of much more solid construction than those in earlier
examples, and carry small domes. The two great domes on the east
side and the minarets on the west are among the finest in Cairo.
The tomb-mosque of Kait Bey (c. 1470), though comparatively
smalt ft the finest in design and most elegant of its type in Egypt.
Here the central court is covered by a cupola lantern (fig. 58). and
the ceiling over the prayer chamber ana other rece ss es is framed
in timber and elaborately painted and gilded. The tomb b at the
south-east corner, and is covered with a dome in stone, beautifully
carved with conventional designs. In some of the mosques by the
side of the portal is a fountain enclosed with bronze grilles, and above
it a small room sometimes used as a school with open arcades on
two sides. This feature in the mosque of Kait Bey, with the portal
on its right, the lofty minaret beyond, and the great dome at the
farther end. makes it the most picturesque in aspect of any Cairene
mosque. (For plan see Mosque, fig. 3.)
It was in Egypt that the minaret received its highest development.
The earliest example is that of the mosque of Tulun, which b of
unusual shape, and has winding round it an inclined plane or staircase
of easy ascent which can be made on horseback. The original design
of thb scheme was probably derived from the mosque of Samara, a
town 60 m. north of Bagdad, where the minaret built t. 850 has a
spiral ascent round it. recalling that of the Assyrian siggurat as at
Khorsabad. The general design of the Cairo minarets would seen
to have been universally adhered to from the 12th century onwards,
but the upper storeys are all varied in detail, there being virtually no
two alike. As a rule the lower portion of the minaret forms part of
the main wall of the mosque, and was carried up square a few feet
MAHOMMEDANJ
ARCHITECTURE
:, cresting. It then became octagonal on plan, the sides
with niches or geometrical ornaments in bold relief.
above the cresting.
decorated with nlcl . o
This, the first independent storey, was crowned by a stalactite
cornice carrying the balcony (fig. 59), from which the muezzin (call-
to-prayer) was chanted. In the early and fine examples the balus-
trade round it consisted of vertical posts with panels between,
pierced with geometric ornaments, and all in stone. The second
storey, also octagonal, was set back sufficiently to allow a passage
round, and this was crowned by a similar stalactite cornice and
balustrade. A third storey, sometimes circular on plan, completed
the tower, which was crowned with a bulbous terminal. In one of
the mosques, that of El Azhar, the first storey is square on plan,
and the second storey has twin towers with lofty bulbous finials.
The elaboration of the carved ornament on the various storeys of
the minarets is of considerable beauty. Among the most remarkable,
other than those already referred to, are the minarets of the mosque
of al-Bordeni. of Kalaun, al-Nazir, Mu'ayyad (built on the semi-
circular bastion wall of the Zuwela Gate), Sultan Barkuk (1348),
and numerous other mosques or tombs outside Cairo.
The earlier domes were quite plain, hemispherical, with buttresses
42s
Fig. 58. — Interior of Kait Bey Mosque. (From Coste.)
round the base, similar to those of St Sophia at Constantinople.
In the later domes it was found that by raising the upper portion
so as to take the form in section of a pointed arch, they could be
built in horizontal courses of masonry up to about two-thirds of
their height, the upper portion forming a lid without any thrust.
It is probably owing to this method of construction that they still
exist in such large numbers^ The outer surfaces are decorated in
various ways with geometrical designs, star patterns, chevrons,
diapers, &c. Domes built in brick were covered with stucco and
divided up into godroons.
We have already referred to the lofty portal of the mosque of
Sultan Hasan; portals of smaller dimensions form the principal
entrance to all the mosques and private houses. The recessed portion
rises to twice or three times the height of the door, and its pointed
or cusped head is always filled by a rich stalactite vault.
The descriptions of the disposition of plan, and the principles
which have governed the plans of the Cairene mosques, apply
equally to those in Syria, so that it now only remains neccssa™ to
quote the chief examples. Of these the earliest is the Dome of the
Rock, incorrectly called the mosque of Omar, which was built by
Abdalmalik in 691, partly with materials taken from the buildings
destroyed by Chosrocs. At first it consisted of a central area en-
closing the sacred rock, covered with a dome and with aisles round
carried on columns and piers, and like the smaller Dome of the Chain
open all round, but the climate of Syria is very different from that
in Egypt, and consequently at a later period (813-833) the sultan
Mamun built the walls which now enclose the whole structure.
Many restorations have taken place since, and the dome with its
rich internal decoration is attributed to Saladin (1189). The
magnificent Persian tiles which encase the walls, the marble casing
of some of the piers, and the stained glass, form part of the works of
Suleiman (1530-1360).
The great mosque of Damascus occupied the site of an ancient
church dedicated to St John the Baptist, which for a time was
divided between the Christians and the Mahommcdans. But in 705
the caliph al-Walid took possession of the whole church, which he
rebuilt, retaining, however, the whole of the south wall, portions of
which belonged to a Roman temple. This, which by chance happened
to face south, became the Mecca wall, the niche being sunk in one of
the doorways of the original temple. Its plan, therefore, is a variation
of those we "have already described. It consists of a transept with
dome over the centre, three aisles of equal width, running both east
and west, and a great court on the north side surrounded by arcades.
The great transept is virtually the prayer chamber. The new build-
ing was erected by Byzantine masons sent from Constantinople,
and decorated with marbles and mosaic by Creek artists. ' The
mosque was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1893, but has since
been rebuilt.
The mosque of El Aksa in the sacred enclosure in Jerusalem, and
south of the Dome of the Rock, was commenced by Abdalmalik
Fie. 59.— Exterior of Kait Bey Mosque, Cairo. (From Coste.)
(691), who used up materials taken from the church of St Mary,
built by Justinian on Mount Sion, which had been destroyed by
Chosroea. There have been so many restorations and rebuilding^
since, owing to destructive earthquakes and other causes, that it is
difficult to give the precise dates of the various' portions. The
columns of the nave and aisles are extremely stunted in propor t ion,
and their capitals are of a very debased type, copied by inferior
artists from Byzantine models. They carry immense wood beams
cased, and above them a range of pointed arches* among the earliest
examples used throughout a mosque, and probably dating from the
rebuilding (774-785). The Crusaders made various additions in
the rear. Dut the great entrance porch is said to have been added
by Saladin, after 1 187, and was built probably by Christian masons
who were allowed to remain in the country.
The numerous minarets at Jerusalem and Damascus In general
design follow those of Egypt, but instead of the incised work are
generatly encased with marble in geometric patterns.
The great mosque at Mecca, from which it was thought at one time
the plan of the Egyptian and other mosques was taken, la necessarily
different from allothers, because the Ka'ba or Holy Stone, towards
which all the niches in all other mosques turn, stood in its centre.
The arcades which surround the court were nearly all rebuilt in the
17th century, aa the whole mosque was washed away by a torrent
in 1626.
The mosque of Kairawan in Tunisia was built In 675. It occupies
an area of 427 ft- deep and 225 ft. wide, with a prayer chamber at the
Mecca end of 17 aisles and II bays deep, more than twice, therefore,
that of 'Arar in Old Cairo. The columns to the prayer chamber.
426
ARCHITECTURE
all taken from ancient buildings, are 22 ft. high in the central aisle
and 15 ft. in all the others. They carry horse-shoe arches, which,
as in the mosque of 'Amr, are all tied together by wood beams inserted
at the springing of the arches.
The mosque of Cordova was built by Abdarrahman (Abd-ar-
Rahman) in 786-789 in imitation of the mosque of Kairawan.
There were eleven aisles of twenty-one bays, the centre one slightly
wider than the other. The materials were taken from earlier build-
ings, and, as the columns and caps were not considered high enough,
above the horse-shoe arches are built a second row of arches which
carry the barrel vaults. To this mosque Hakim added twelve more
bays in depth at the Mecca end (962), and in 985 Mansur added eight
more aisles of thirty-three bays on the east side. Part of the open
court on the north side dates from Abdarrahman's foundation (690)
and part from Mansur.
In the mosque of Cordova we find the earliest example of the
cusped arch, in the additions made by Hakim in 961 ; in order to
obtain a greater height above the columns, it became necessary to
employ the expedient of raising arch above arch in order to obtain
the height they required for the ceilings; and as these arches formed
purely decorative features, which might otherwise have become
monotonous, variety was given by introducing the cusped form of
arch and interlacing them one
within the other. It is probably
this elaborate design which sug-
gested the plaster decorations of
the screens above the arches in
the court of the Alhambra.
Though commenced in 1245, the
existing palace of the Alhambra
was built in the first half of the
14th century, at a time when the
style was fully developed. There
are two great courts at right
angles to one another, the most
important of which was the Court
of the Lions, so called from the
fountain in the centre, with
twelve conventional representa-
tions of that animal carrying the
basins. This court is surrounded
by an arcade with stilted arches
carried on slender marble columns
with extremely rich decoration
above, partly in stucco painted
and gilt. The hall of the Aben-
cerrages (35 ft. square) has a
polygonal dome covered with
arabesque (fig. 60). Two other
halls are roofed with lofty stalac-
tite vaults of great intricacy,
richly gilded and of remarkable
effect (fig. 61), but the employ-
ment of stucco instead of stone,
as in Egypt, has led to an abuse in
the wealth of enrichment, which
is only partly redeemed by the
plain masonry of the towers and
walls enclosing the palace. The
Giralda at Seville is the only
example of a tower, but it does
not seem to have served the
purpose of a minaret.
With the exception of the
tombs of Zobeide and EzekicI
near Bagdad, and a hospital at
Erzerum of the 12th century,
built by the Seljukian dynasty,
the Mahommedan style in Persia dates from the 13th century,
i.e. if Ghazan Khan built the mosque at Tabnz in 1294.
The plan is that of a Byzantine church with a central dome,
aisles and sanctuary. The portal consists of a lofty nicho vaulted
with semi-domes and stalactite pendentives, similar in many respects
to the well-known example of Sultan Hasan in Cairo, built sixty
years later. It is built in brick and covered internally and externally
with glazed bricks of various colours, wrought into most intricate
patterns with interlacing ornament and with Cufic inscriptions.
The dazzling and perfect beauty in point of colour is not to be
surpassed, bat from the architectural point of view it possesses the
fatal sin of not showing its construction. The bricks and tiles
arc only a veneer, and though in certain features (such as the
porta] and the dome) the construction is at least suggested, the
tendency is to trust to decoration alone to produce architectural
effects. (But see Tabriz.)
Fig. 60.— Capital and Spring-
ing of Arch, from the Hall of
A&encerrages, Alhambra.
The great mosque at Isfahan (1585) is a good illustration of the
danger attending a too free use of surface decoration. Strip the
walls of their tiles, and nothing is left except square box-like forms
with pointed arched openings of different form. The interior, how-
ever, owing to the variety ofits features, and the varied play of light
and shade given in the hemispherical vaults of its transepts and
(MAHOMMEDAN
niches and the vaulted aisles, constitutes one of the most beautiful
monuments of Mahommedan art.
Apart from the great development of Mahommedan architecture
in India (see Indian Architecture), there remains now to be
described only one other phase of the style, that found in
Constantinople.
Prior to the conquest of Constantinople in 1445. two mosque*
were built by the Turks at Brusa in Asia Minor. The plan of Vlu
Iami, the great mosque, follows the original courtyard type. Yesbil
ami. the Green mosque (1430), built on the site of a Byzantine
church, is cruciform on plan. In both of them the Persian influence
is shown, in the magnificent towers with which they are covered, the
marble casing and the stalactite vaults.
After the conquest of Constantinople, the supreme beauty of St
Sophia, and the adaptability of its plan to the requirements of the
Mahommedan faith, caused it to be accepted as the model on which
all the new mosques were based. The first two erected were the
Bayezid (1497-1515) and the Selim mosques (1520- 1526). In the
former the dome and its pendentives are carried on octagonal piers.
and the dome, 108 ft. in diameter, is greater than in any subsequent
example. The finest mosque, and the example in which we find the
complete development 01 the Turkish style, is that erected by
Fig. 61. — Pendentivc, from the Court of the Lions, Alhambra.
Suleiman the Magnificent in 1550- 1555. This mosque, designed by
Sinan, an Armenian architect, is still quite perfect. The plan follows
very closely its model, St Sophia, ana consists of a central dome,
86 it. in diameter and 156 ft. high, carried on pendentives. resting
on great arches which are slightly pointed, with great apses on the
east and west sides, and three smaller apses in each, the arches of
which aie all circular. The principal change in design is that found
in the north and south walls, under the arches carrying the dome:
in St Sophia they were subdivided into two storeys with galkrie>
overlooking the church, but in the Suleimanic mosque the galleries
arc set back in the outer aisles, and the screen walls consist o7 a wide
central and two side pointed arches, and voussoirs alternately of
black and white marble. The tympana above this is pierced with
eighteen windows filled with geometric tracery. Stalactite work is
employed in the pendentivc of the smaller apses and in the capital*
of the columns carrying the pointed arches. The columns are of
porphyry, the shafts, 28 ft. high, being taken from the Hippodrome
ana probably brought originally from Egypt. The walls are cased
with marble up to the springing of the dome, but the magnificent
mosaics of St Sophia arc here replaced by vulgar colouring and
plaster decoration of a rococo style, due probably to recent restora-
tions. The mosque is preceded by a forecourt, surrounded by an
arcade on all sides and containing a fountain, and in the garden in
the rear is the tomb of the founder and his wife.
The Sbah-Zadch mosque, known as the prince's mosque, was also
built by Sultan Suleiman, from the designs of Sinan. the same
MODERN]
Armenian architect who built the S uki m anic mosque. Here,
instead of confining the great apses to the east and west sides, they
are introduced on the north and south sides in place of the screen,
and produce a monotonous and poor effect. The same design is
found in the Ahmedin mosque, built 1608, and with the same result.
Externally, however, they are both fine, owing to the variety of
domes, semi-domes and other curved forms of roof.
The minarets of the Turkish mosques are very inferior to those Of
Cairo. They are of great height, generally semicircular, with
■arrow balconies round the upper part, and crowned with ex-
tinguisher roofs. To a certain extent, however, they contrast very
wefl with the domes and semi-domes of St Sophia and those of the
mosques built by the Turks.
In the mosque of Osman, built 1748-1757, we find the first trace
of Western influence in its rococo design, but here, as in the mosque
of Mehemet Ali in Cairo, built in 1837, the scheme is so good that,
notwithstanding the great falling off in design, and, in the latter
mosque, the construction, the effect of the interior is very fine.
Amongst other architectural features, the fountains in the court*
yards or the mosques and those which decorate the public squares
are extremely pleasing in design. The latter are square on plan
with polygonal angles elaborate niches with stalactite heads, with
overhanging eaves on each side; the ornament is very varied and
the colour sometimes very attractive. The roofs have sometimes
most picturesque outlines. (R. P. S.)
Modern Akchjtectube
The beginning of the 19th century may be considered to mark
the beginning of the modem era in architecture. The 19th
century is the period par excellence of architectural " revivals."
The great Renaissance movement in Italy already described was
something more than a mere revival. It was a new spirit
ARCHITECTURE
427
rather Roman than Greek); the impetus to it was probably
given by the "Elgin marbles"; Stuart and Rcvctt's great
work on the Antiquities of Athens had been issued a good while
previously, the three first volumes being dated respectively
2762, 1787 and 1794; but the appearance of the fourth volume
in 1816 was no doubt influenced by the transportation to London
of the Elgin marbles, and the sensation created by them. One'
of the first architectural results was the erection, at an immense
cost in comparison with its size, of the church of St Pancras
in London (1819-182 2), designed by Inwood, who published a
fine and still valuable monograph on the Erechtheum, and
showed his enthusiasm for Creek architecture by copying the
Erechtheum order and doorways for his facade, and erecting
over it a tower composed of the Temple of the Winds with an
octagonal imitation of the monument of Lysicrates imposed
above it This use of Creek monuments was architecturally
absurd, though at the time it was no doubt the offspring of a
genuine enthusiasm.
A better use was made of the study of Greek architecture
by William Wilkins (1778-1839), who was in his way a great
architect, and whose University College (1827-1828), as de-
signed by him, was a noble and dignified building, of which he
only carried out the central block with the cupola and portico.
The wings were somewhat altered from his design but not
materially spoiled, but the university authorities permitted the
vandalism of erecting a low building as a partial return of the
quadrangle on the fourth side, for the purposes of a mechanical
Fig. 85.— Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
affecting the whole of art and literature and life, not an archi-
tectural movement only; and as far as architecture is concerned
it was not a mere imitative revival. The great Italian architects
of the Renaissance, as well as Wren, Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor
in England, however they drew their inspiration from antique
models, were for the most part original architects; they put the
ancient materials to new uses of their own. The tendency of
the 19th-century revivals, on the other hand, except in Francq,
was distinctly imitative in a sense in which, the architecture of
the great Renaissance period was not. Correctness of imitation,
in the English Gothic revival especially, was an avowed object ^
and conformity to precedent became, in fact, except with one or
two individual architects, almost the admitted test of excellence.
The earliest classical London building of note in the 19th
century is Soane's Bank of England, which as a matter of date
belongs in fact to the end of the 18th century; but its
architect lived well into the x gth century, and the bank
may be classed with this section of the subject. Soane
had to make something architectural out of the walls
of a very extended building of only one storey, in which
external windows were not admissible; and he did so by applying
a ^Hfyifl columnar order to the walls and introducing sham
window architraves. The Utter are indefensible, and weaken the
expression of the building; the columnar order was the received
method at the time of making a building (as was supposed)
" architectural," and the building has grace and dignity, and could
hardly be taken for anything except a bank, although a more
robust and massive treatment would have been more expressive
of the function of the building, as a kind of fortress for the storage
of money. It was only some years later that the Greek revival
took some bold of English architects (the Bank of England is
nHvmtlm
laboratory, which ruined the appearance of the building. 1
Wilkins's other well-known work is the National Gallery (1832-
1838)1 which he was not allowed to carry out exactly as he wished,
and in which the cupola and the " pepperpots " are exceedingly
poor and weak. But his details, especially the profiles of his
mouldings, are admirably refined, and show the influence of a
close study of Greek work; Among other prominent English-archi-
tects of the classic revival in England are Sir Robert Smirke and
Decimus Burton ( 1800-1881 ). To Burton we owe the Constitu-
tion Hill arch and the Hyde Park screen. The latter is a very
graceful erection of its kind; the arch has never been completed
by the quadriga group which the architect intended as its crown-
ing feature, though for many years it was allowed to be disfigured
by the colossal equestrian statue of Wellington, completely out
of scale and crushing the structure. Smirke is kept in memory
by his fine facade of the British Museum, which has been much
criticized for its "useless" colonnades and the wasted space
under them. The criticism is hardly just; for classic colonnades
have at least some affinity with the purposes of a museum of
antique art, and it conveys the impression of being a frontis-
piece to a building containing something of permanent value and
importance. The early classic revival set its mark also, in a
very fine and unmistakable manner, on the capital of the sister
island. Dublin is almost a museum of fine classic buildings of
the period, among which the most remarkable is the present
Bank of Ireland (fig. 85), originally begun as the Parliament
House. The beginning of the building belongs to the 18th
1 Wilkins made two designs for the whole building; one leaving
the quadrangle entirely open on the fourth side, towards the street ;
the other showing a low open colonnaded screen connecting the ends
of the two wings. He never for a moment contemplated dosing in
the quadrangle by buildings on the fourth side.
428
ARCHITECTURE
(MODERN
century, but it was not completed in Its present form till 1805,
and was the work of five successive architects, only one of them.
James Gandon (1743-1823), a man of the first importance; but
it was Gandon who in 1700 did most to give the building its
effective outline on plan, by introducing one of the curved
quadrant walls, the building being subsequently finished in
accordance with this suggestion. It is a remarkable combination
of symmetry and picturesqueness, and as a one-storey classic
building is far superior to Soane's Bank of England, with which
a comparison is naturally suggested. Gandon's custom house,
with its fine central cupola, is another notable example. Edin-
burgh too can show examples of the classic revival, and bears
the title of " modern Athens " as much from her architectural
experiments as from her intellectual claims; she illustrates
the application of Greek architecture to modern buildings in
two really fine examples, the Royal Institution by W. H. Playfair
(1 780-1857), and the high school by Thomas Hamilton (1784-
1858). It was a pity that she added to these the collection of
curiosities on the Calton Hill.
Fie. 86.— Liverpool Branch of the Bank of England. (CockerelL)
But before we quit the classic revival in England, there are
two architects to be named who came a little later in the day,
living in fact into the time of the Gothic revival, who were superior
to any of the earlier classic practitioners: Harvey Lonsdale Elmcs
and C. R. Cockerell. Elmcs, who died very young, seems to
have been as completely a born architectural genius as Wren,
and his great work, St. George's Hall at Liverpool, has done
more than any other building in the world to glorify the memory
of the classic revival Granting all that may be said as to the
unsuitability of Greek architecture to the English climate, one
can hardly complain of any movement in architecture which
gave the opportunity for the production of so grand an architec-
tural monument It is true that it is badly planned and lighted,
and the exterior and interior do not agree with each other
(the exterior is Greek, and the great hall is Roman); but if
from our present point of view it is a mistake, it is certainly one
of the finest mistakes ever made in architecture. Cockerell, -who
completed the interior of the building after Elmes's death, was
an architect permeated with the principles and feeling of Greek
architecture, who brought to his work a refinement of taste and
perception in regard to detail which has rarely been equalled
and never surpassed. Perhaps the very best example of his
scholarly taste in the application of classic architecture to
modem uses is to be found in his facade to the branch Bank of
England at Liverpool (fig. 86V
From* photo by W. A. Mtnsdl ft Co.
Fig. 87.— Royal Theatre, Berlin. {Schinkel.)
In Germany, and especially at Berlin and Munich, the Greek
revival took hold of architecture in the early part of the century
in a more decisive but also in a more academical
spirit than in England. The movement is connected
more especially with the name of one eminent architect,
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, who must have been a man
of genius to have so impressed his taste on his generation as he
did .in Berlin, where he was regarded as the great and central
\
From a photograph by W. A. M taaril & Co
Fig. 88.— Nikolai Kirche, Potsdam. (Schinkel)
power in the architecture of his day; yet his buildings are
marked by learning and academical correctness rather than
original genius. Elmes's St George's Hall, already referred to
as one great English work of the classic revival, is by no means
a mere piece of academical architecture; it exhibits in some
of its details a great deal of originality, and in Its general design
a remarkably fine feeling for architectural grouping. In par-
ticular, the solid masses and the heavy square columns at the
MODERN]
ends of his building, which seem like Greek architecture treated
with Egyptian feeling, give support to, while they form a most
effective contrast with, the richer and more delicate Corinthian
order of the central portion. The only work of SchinkeTs which
shows something of the same feeling for contrast in architectural
composition is one of his smaller buildings, the Kdnigswache or
Royal Guard-house, in which a Doric colonnaded portico is
effectively flanked and supported by two great masses of plain
wall. But in general Schinkel does not seem to have known
what to do with the angles of his buildings, or to have realized
the value of mass as a support to his colonnades. This is
strikingly exemplified in his museum at Berlin, where the tall
narrow piers at the angles have a very weak effect, and are quite
inadequate as a support to the long open colonnade. His
Royal theatre also (fig. 87), though the centra] portico is fine,
is monotonous and weak in its two-storeyed repetition of the
small order in the wings, and it has also the fault (which it shares,
no doubt, with a great many theatres, large and small) that its
exterior design
gives no hintof the
theatre form; it
might just as well
be a museum. His
Nikolai Kirche
(1830-1837) at
Potsdam (fig. 88),
which has con-
siderable celeb-
rity, though not
so merely academ-
ical in character,
and in fact pos-
sessed of a certain
originality, has a
fault of another
kind, in its entire
lack of architec-
tural unity; the
dome docs not
seem to belong to
or to have any
connexion With F,om * P^otm* b * F«rd. Fimterliii.
the substructure, F,c - «9.-Propylaea at
while the portico is quite out of scale with the great block of
building in its rear, and looks like a subsequent addition. The
fault of the Schinkel school of architecture is an almost total
want of what may be called architectural life; it is an artificial
production of the studio. The same kind of cold classicism pre-
vailed at Munich, where Leo von Klenzc (x 784-1864), though a
lesser man than Schinkel, played somewhat the same part as the
latter played at Berlin. His Propylaea (fig. 89), in which Greek
and Egyptian influences are combined, is a characteristic example
of his cold and scholastic style. His well-known Ruhmcshattc,
with its boldly projecting colonnaded wings and the colossal statue
of Bavaria in front of it, is in its way a fine architectural con-
ception—perhaps finer and more consistent in its kind than any
one work of Schinkel, though he evidently did not exercise so
wide an influence on the German art of his day. A third eminent
name in the German classic revival is that of Gottfried Semper
(1803-1879), somewhat later in date (Schinkel was bom in 1 781),
but more or less of the same school. Semper practised successively
at Dresden and at Zurich, but finally settled in Vienna, where,
however, he did not live to see the execution of his two most
important designs, the museum and the Hofburg theatre, which
were carried out by Baron Karl von Hascnauer (1833-1894)
from his designs, or approximately so. Sempcr's theatre at
Dresden, however, shows that he could recognize the practical
basts of architecture, as the expression of plan, in a way that
Schinkel could not; for in that building he frankly adopted the
curve of the auditorium as the motif for his exterior design,
thus producing a building which is obviously a theatre, and
could not be taken for anything else, and putting some of
ARCHITECTURE
429
that life into it which is so much wanting in SchinkeTs rigid
classkalities.
In spite of the Romanizing influence of the First Empire,
the classic revival did not leave by any means so academical
a stamp on French as on German architecture of the
early period of the century. French architects in the Sff.—
main have always had too much original genius to
be entirely taken captive by a general movement of this kind.
There is the weak classicism of Bernard Poyet's facade to the
chamber of deputies, a very poor affair; and there are two
Important buildings in the guise of Roman peripteral temples,
devoted respectively to business and to religion— the Bourse,
by Alexandre Theodore Brongniart (1730-1813), and the Made-
leine, begun under Napoleon, as a "Temple de la Gloire,"
by Pierre Vignon (1763-18*8), and completed as a church in
1841 by Jean Jacques Huv6 (1783-1852). Both of these are
very well carried out externally, and enable us to judge of what
would be the effect of a Roman temple of the kind. It must
be admitted that
the plain oblong
massoftheBourse
has really been
very much im-
proved by the
recent addition of
the two wings,
carried oat by
Cavel, though
there was a great
deal of opposition
at first to medd-
ling with so cele-
brated a building.
Unfortunately,
the exterior of the
Bourse is a mere
piece of architec-
tural scenery,
quite unconnected
Avith the internal
object and ar-
rangement of the
Munich. (Von Klenzc.) building. The
Madeleine is a really fine exterior in its way; if a modern church
was to put on the guise of a pagan temple, the task could hardly
have been better carried out; and the interior might have been
as fine if properly treated, but it has little artistic relation with
the noble exterior, and is spoiled by poor architectural treatment
and bad ornament. The church of St Vincent dc Paul, by Jacques
Ignace Hittorff (1 792-1 867), an architect who was one of the most
learned students of Greek architecture of his day, is another im-
portant example of the French classical church of the period
(Plate XII., fig. 125). In this the interior is more consistent
with the exterior than is the case in the Madeleine; and by adding
a tower at each angle of the facade, above the colonnaded portico,
the architect gave it more the expression of a church, which the
Madeleine wants. In the Arc dc l'£toile, by Jean Francois T
Chalgrin (t 730-181 1), we have a really great, even sublime work,
which, though suggested by the Roman triumphal arches, is no
mere copy, but bears the impress of the French genius in its
details as well as in Francois Rude's grand sculptures on the
east face, while its great scale places it above everything else of
the kind in the world. It is only after ascending the interior
and seeing the vaults carrying the roof that one fully realizes
what a stupendous piece of work this is. Under Napoleon there
was at least no jerry-building. 1
1 A remarkable instance of this is shown by the railway viaduct
at Passy. a large and monumental piece of work in itself, which is
built along the centre of the roadway of Napoleon's bridge. It was
at first proposed to have a steel railway viaduct parallel with the
old bridge, but it was found that the latter, both in respect of solidity
and spacious dimensions, would fully bear the erection of the railway
viaduct along its centre.
43°
ARCHITECTURE
[MODERN
Bsrtr*
ttytt* to
Returning to the consideration of architecture in England, we
come, at about the close of the classic revival, to the name of
the man who was undoubtedly the most remarkable
. English architect since Wren, Sir Charles Barry. To
class him, as some would do, with the classic revival,
would be a misapprehension. Barry was no revivalist ;
he never attempted to recreate Greek architecture on
English soil. He adopted for most of his works what has been
called.for want of a better name.thc Italian style, which may really
rather be called the common-sense style of a civilized society.
The two first works which brought him into notice, the Travellers'
and Reform clubs in London, were no doubt based on special
Italian models, the Pandolfini and Farnese palaces; but a
consideration of his whole career shows that he was in fact
Fig. 90.— Halifax Town Hall. (Barry.)
anything but a copyist. The comparison of him with Wren is
justified by the fact that he was, like Wren, a born architect,
in the sense that he grasped every problem presented to him
from the true architect's point of view; with both of them
architecture was not the dressing up of an exterior, but the
fashioning of a building as a conception based on plan and
section as well as on the desire to secure a certain external
appearance; and, like Wren, be never failed to grasp the true
requirements of a site and to adapt his architectural conception
to it; a power perfectly different from that of merely producing
agreeable elevations in this or that adopted style. Though very
careful of his detail, he did not rely on detail, but on the general
conception of an architectural scheme. This power was never
so remarkably shown as in his grand scheme, unhappily never
carried out, for the concentration of all the British government
offices in one great architectural cnsembU, which was to extend.
on the west of Parliament Street and Whitehall, from Great
George Street nearly to Charing Cross, the whole of the buildings
to be carried out as one design, distributed into quadrangles,
each of which was to be connected with one department of the
administration, while all would have internal communication.
Had this great idea been carried out we might at the present
day have found some of the detail of the building unsatisfying to
our taste, as we often find the detail in some of Wren's buildings,
but we should have had a grand architectural achievement which
would have made London pre-eminent among the capitals of the
world. Nothing so great had been proposed in England since
Inigo Jones's plan for Whitehall Palace, which also survives only
in drawings, except the one noble bit of classic architecture
known as the Banqueting House (Plate VL, fig. 75). It was one
of the greatest misfortunes to London as a capital city that the
government of the day could not rise to the height of Barry's
ambitious scheme, in which there was nothing financially
insuperable, since it was all designed to be carried out by portions
at a time, as funds could be spared; but each government office
built would in that way have been one step towards the completion
of a great central idea; whereas the nation now spends the same
money in erecting detached government buildings which have no
architectural connexion with each other.
Barry's two clubs before mentioned are almost ideals of dub
architecture — the architecture of a civilized society; his Bridge-
water House is a building on a larger scale of the same type.
That he had architectural ideas less staid and sober than thes«
is shown, however, by the remarkable tower and spire of the
Halifax Town Hall (fig. 00), his last work, which he did not
live to see carried out, in which he contrived with remarkable
success to give the Gothic spirit and multiplicity of effect to a
tower which is nevertheless classic in detail. This tower is one
of the most original and striking things in modern English
architecture and shows how Barry's architectural ideas were
developing up to the close of his life.
Barry's great building, the Houses of Parliament (Plate X.,
fig. 118), with which his name will always be more especially
associated, comes accidentally, though not by natural development
nor by his own choice, under the head of the Gothic revival. The
style of Tudor Gothic was dictated to the competitors, apparently
from a mistaken idea that the building ought to " harmonise
with the architecture of Henry VH.'s chapel adjacent to the site.
Had Barry been left to himself, there is no doubt that the Houses of
Parliament, with the same main characteristics of plan and grouping,
would have been of a classic type of detail, and would possibly have
been a still finer building than it is; and since the choice of the
Gothic style in this case was not a direct consequence of the Gothic
revival movement, it may be considered separately from that. The
architectural greatness of the building consists, tn the first placer
in the grand yet simple scheme of Barry's plan, with the octagon
hall in the centre, as the meeting-point for the public, the two
chambers to north and south, and the access to the commit tee-
room* and other departments subordinate to the chambers. The
plan (fig. 01) in itself is a stroke of genius, and has been more or less
imitated in buildings for similar purposes all over the world: the
most important example, the Parliament House of Budapest (Plate
IX., fig. 1 15 and fig. 92), being almost a literal copy of Barry's plan.
Thus, as in all great architecture, the plan is the oasis of the whole
scheme, and upon it is built up a most picturesque and expressive
Grouping, arising directly out of the plan. The two towers are most
appily contrasted as expressive of their differing purposes; the
Victoria Tower is the symbol of the State entrance, a piece of archi-
tectural display solely for the sake of a grand effect; the Clock
Tower is a utilitarian structure, a lofty stalk to cany a great clock
high in the air; the two are differentiated accordingly, and the
placing of them at opposite ends of the structure has the fortunate
effect of indicating, from a distance, the extent of the plan. The
graceful spire in the centre offers an effective contrast to the masses
of the two towers, while forming the outward architectural expiration
of the octagon ball, which is, as it were, the keystone of the plan.
The detail is another consideration. Barry, having had a style
forced upon him (most unwisely), which he had not studied much
and with which he was not much in sympathy, associated Pugin
with him to design a good deal of the detail ; exactly bow much is
not certainly known: probably Pugin was responsible for all the
interior detail arid fittings; the exterior detail may have been
only suggested or sketched Dy him. On this ground absurd attempts
have been made, by people who do not seem to understand what
architecture in the true sense means, to claim for Pugin what they
call the " artistic merit " of the Houses of Parliament. The artistic
merit consists in the whole plan, conception and grouping, which
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are entirely Barry's, and which represent something beyond Pugin's
grasp; the detail is in fact the weak clement in the building. That
Pugin's Gothic detail is better than Barry's would have been is very
likely the case; but had Barry been left unfettered to work out
the detail in his own school, the result would probably have been
still better. Even as it is, however, the Houses of Parliament is one
of the finest buildings in the world, ancient or modern, and it is to be
regretted that Englishmen generally seem to be so little aware of this.
We may now turn to consider the Gothic Revival movement
itself, of which Pugin was one of the most important pioneers.
New ideas, however, as to the importance of Gothic architecture
had been in the air before be came on the scene, and
JJJjJjJ* quite early in the century John Britten's Architectural
Antiquities of Great Britain and Cathedral Antiquities,
with their beautiful steel engravings by Le Keux, had
done much to call attention to the neglected beauty of English
medieval churches; and Thomas Rickman's remarkable and (for
its day) masterly analysis of the variations of style in Gothic archi-
tecture, which first appeared in 1817, and went through edition
after edition in succeeding years, gave the first intelligent direction
to the study of the subject. Pugin supplied to the movement
building. The result has been gently but effectively satirised by
Browning in " Bishop Blougram's Apology ":—
" It's different preaching in Basilicas
To doing duty in some masterpiece
Like thb of brother Pugin's, bless his heart.
I doubt if they're half-baked, those chalk roa
Ciphers and stucco-twiddlings everywhere;,
It a just like breathing in a limekiln, eh?"
It is too true; and there is something pathetic in Pugin's
career, in this passionate and sincere pursuit after a revival
of the medieval spirit in life and in architecture — a pursuit which
towards the close of his life he himself evidently more than half
suspected to have been a fallacy.
The full tide of the Gothic revival is connected more especially
with the name of Sir Gilbert Scott He was hardly a pure
enthusiast like Pugin; he was a shrewd man of the world, the
commencement of whose professional career coincided with the
rising tide of ecclesiologkal reform, and he had the ability to
make the best of the opportunity. He appears to have had,
even as a child, an inborn interest in church architecture and is
Fig. 92.— Plan of the Parliament House, Budapest. (Steindl.)
not analysis, but passion. He had the merit of having perceived,
when quite a youth, that one thing wanted was better craftsman-
ship, and that craftsmanship in the medieval period was some-
thing very different from what it was in the early Victorian
period; he set up an atelier of craftsmen, and was the real pioneer
of what may be called the Arts and Crafts movement in England.
An enthusiast by nature, he flung his whole soul into the task
of reviving, as he believed, the glory of English medieval archi-
tecture; nothing else in architecture was worth thinking of;
Classic and Renaissance were only worth sarcasm. The result in
his works was a curious inconsistency. Pugin was not in the
true sense a great architect; his mind was not practical enough
to grasp an architectural problem as a whole, plan and building
combined; in fact, he was no master of plan, and does not seem
to have troubled himself much about it. But he had a re-
markable perception of interior effect; whenever you go into
one of his churches you recognise the desire to realize the greatest
effect of height, the most soaring effect of lines, possible within
the actual vertical measurements. But in his passion for this
soaring expression he seems to have entirely lost sight of the
essential quality of solidity and genuineness of material in
the medieval architecture which he was trying to emulate or
to outvie. So long as he could get his effect of height, bis
poetic interior, he was content to have thin walls and plaster
vaults and ornaments; or, in other words, he spent upon height
what should first have been spent upon solid and monumental
Gothic detail (witness the description, in his Memoirs, of his
astonishment and interest, at the age of eleven, at the first sight
of capitals of the Early English type), and he acquired by un-
remitting study a knowledge of English Gothic architecture, in
its every detail which few architects have ever equalled. His
numerous churches were, intentionally and confessedly, as close
reproductions as possible of medieval architecture, generally
that of the Early Decorated period; and if it were desirable that
modern church architecture should consist in the reproduction
of medieval churches, the task could not have been carried out
with more learning and exactitude than it was by him. It was
this minute and accurate knowledge of medieval church archi-
tecture which made him such a power when the idea of restoring
English cathedrals became popular. He had an acquired instinct
in tracing out the existence of details which had been overlaid
by modern repairs or plasterwork; in going over a cathedral
to decide on a scheme of restoration he seemed to know it as an
anatomist knows the suggestions of a fossil skeleton; and in the
course of his restorations he unearthed many points in the
architectural history of the buildings which but for him would
never have been elucidated. We now recognise that much of this
" restoration " was a mistake, which destroyed the real interest
of the cathedrals; and it is unhappily a mistake which cannot
be undone. But the violent reproaches which have been heaped
upon Scott's memory on this account are rather unjust. It
is forgotten that ho was doing what at the time every one
MODERN]
ARCHITECTURE
433
considered to be the right tiring; cathedral bodies vied with
each other in restoration, and were enthusiastic in the cause;
there were few if any dissenting voices; and in regard to the
interiors of the cathedrals which were in modern use as places
of worship, much that he did really required to be done to put
them into decent condition. His churches have ceased to be
interesting now, as is usually the case with copied architecture;
but when they were built they were exactly what every one
wanted and was asking for. And he produced at all events one
original work which is a great deal better than it is now the
fashion to think— the Albert Memorial. It is injured by the
statue, for which the commission went to the wrong sculptor;
but Scott's idea of producing, as he phrased it, " a shrine on a
great scale," was really a fine one, and finely carried out. The
most important objection to it is one which popular criticism
does not recognize, viz. that the vault is tied by concealed iron
ties, and would hardly be safe without them. But apart from
that it is a fine conception, and Scott was right in regarding It
as his best work.
G. E. Street, who was a pupil of Scott, was a greater enthusiast
for medieval architecture (which, with him, as with Pugin,
included medieval religion) than even Scott, and an architect
of greater force and individuality. He was especially devoted
to the early Transitional type of Gothic, and in all his buildings
there is apparent the feeling for the solidity and monumental
character, and the reticence in the use of ornament, which is
characteristic of the Transitional period. His churches are
noteworthy for their monumental character; and he had a
remarkable faculty for giving an appearance of scale and dignity
to the interiors of comparatively small churches. Hence his
modern-medieval churches retain their interest more than Scott's,
but in respect of secular architecture his taste was hopelessly
medievalized, and his great building, the law courts in London,
can only be regarded as a costly failure; it is not even beautiful
except in regard to some good detail; it is badly planned;
and the one fine interior feature, the great vaulted hall, is. rendered
useless by not being on the same floor with the courts, so that
instead of being a sallc dts pas perdus it is a desert Street's
career is a warning how real architectural talent and vigour
may be stultified by a sentimental adherence to a past phase of
architecture. No modern architect had more fully penetrated
the spirit of Gothic architecture, and his nave of Bristol cathedral
is as good as genuine medieval work, and might pass for such
when time-worn; but that is rather archaeology than architecture.
The competition for the law courts was one of the great
architectural events of the middle of the century, and made
or raised the reputation even of some of the unsuccessful com-
petitors. Edward Barry (the son of Sir Charles) gained the
first place for " plan," which the advisers of the government
had foolishly separated from " design" (as if the plan of a building
could be considered apart from the architectural conception!),
giving first marks for plan, and second for design. E. Barry
therefore had really gained the competition, " design," which
was awarded to Street, counting second; but Street managed
to push him out, and it is a nemesis on him for this by no means
loyal proceeding that the building he contrived to get entirely
into his own hands has served to injure rather than benefit
his reputation. William Burges (1827-1881), an ardent devotee
of French early Gothic, produced a design in that style, which,
though quite unsuitable practically, is a greater evidence of
architectural power than is furnished by any of his executed
buildings. J. P. Seddon (1828-1006), an old adherent of Rossetti
and the pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, an architect of genius
who never got his opportunity, produced a design which was
wildly picturesque in appearance but in reality more practical
than might be thoughtat first sight, and his proposal for a great
Record tower for housing official records was a really fine and
original idea.
Among the ecclesiastical buildings of the Gothic revival
those of William Butterfield (1814-1000), much less numerous
than those of Scott and Street, have a special interest as the
work of a revival architect who was something more than a
11 o
mere archaeologist. All Saints, Margaret Street (1859), is the
production of an architectural artist using medieval materials
to carry out a conception of his own, and hence, like Babbacombe
church and others by the same hand, it has an interest for the
present day which Scott's churches have not. His Keble College
chapel rather failed from an exaggeration of the use of poly-
chromatic materials, which in some of his other churches he had
used with moderation and with good effect. J. L. Pearson was
another distinguished architect of the later period of the Gothic
revival who was able to put something of his own into modern
Gothic churches. No one was more learned in medieval archi-
tecture than he was; and as of Street's nave of Bristol, so we
may say of Pearson's nave of Truro, that it is as good as medieval
Gothic; indeed Truro nave is finer in character than some of
the ancient cathedral naves, and represents pure Gothic at its
best. But in the exteriors of his .churches, as at Truro and in
the churches of Kilburn and Red Lion Square, Pearson evolved
a Gothic of his own which is Pearsonesq'ue and not merely
archaeological. James Brooks (1825-1001) also deserves an
honoured place in the chronicle of the Gothic revival for being
the first to show how large town churches might be erected in
brick (fig. 93), in which largeness of scale and a certain grandeur
]
of effect could be obtained without extravagant cost, and in,
which it was practically demonstrated that architecture in the,
true Gothic spirit could be produced without depending on
ornament.
Alfred Waterhouse began his remarkable career as an adherent
of the Gothic revival, and merits separate mention inasmuch
as he was the only one of the Gothic revivalists who from the
first set himself to adapt Gothic- to secular uses and to make
out of it a modem Gothic manner of his own. His first success
was made with the Manchester law courts, a design more
purely Gothic than his later works, and an admirably planned
building (the only good point in the national law courts plan,
the access to the public galleries, is taken from it); his special
style was more developed in the Manchester town hall, a building
typical both of the defects and merits of his secular Gothic
style. This style of his received the compliment, for a good
many years, .of an immense amount of imitation; in fact,
during that earlier period of his work it may be said to have
influenced every secular building that was erected in the medieval
style all over England. His Gothic detail was, however, not very
refined, and he has been subject to the same kind of retrospective
injustice which has fallen on Scott, critics in both instances
forgetting that what they do not like now was what every one
liked then, and could not have enough of. Waterhouse was a
master of plan, and a man of immense business and administra-
tive ability, without which he could not have carried out the
434
ARCHITECTURE
[MODERN
number of great building schemes which (ell into his hands, and
he had much more of the qualities of a great architect than are
to be found in the works of some of his latter-day critics. His
later works, one or two of which will be referred to, do not
come under the head of the Gothic revival.
In France, the Gothic revival, which so strongly affected the
whole school of English architecture for thirty or forty years,
A took little hold. Its most remarkable monument is
the church of Ste Clotilde at Paris, built about the
middle of the century from the designs of fiallu. In size it equals
a second-class cathedral, and is a fine monument, though it does
not show that complete knowledge of medieval Gothic which we
find in the churches of Scott, Street, Pearson and G. F. Bodlcy.
But as with the Classic, so with the Gothic revival — the leading
French architects of the period had too much personal architec-
tural feeling to be carried along in the wake of a " movement."
Two very important Paris churches, built just after the middle
of the century, illustrate well this independence of spirit. The
one is the domed church of St Augustin in the Boulevard
Malesherbes (Plate XII., fig. 122), designed by Victor Ballard
(1805-1874). It may be called a Classic church treated in a quasi-
Byzantine manner. A remarkable point about it is that, standing
between the divergence of two streets at an acute angle, the outer
walls of the nave follow the line of the two- streets, the church
thus expanding towards the centre; internally the colonnades
arc parallel, the chapels outside of them increasing in depth
from the entrance of the nave towards the centre — a very clever
device for reconciling exterior and interior effect. The other
church referred to, built about the same time, is La Trinite
(Plate XII., fig. t?3) by Theodore Ballu (1&1 7-1885)— a church
which is Renaissance in detail and yet distinctly Gothic in its
general effect and in the multiplicity of its detail, somewhat
recalling in this sense Barry's Halifax tower before referred to.
The sense in which there has really been a general movement
in church architecture in France has been in the direction of a
kind of modernized Byzantine, of which one of the earliest and
best examples is the church of St Pierre de Mont rouge, by
Joseph Auguste E. Vaudremer (Plate XII., fig. 1 24). A later and
more important example is the cathedral of Marseilles, by Leon
Vaudoyer (1803-1872) and Henry Esperandieu (1820-1874), a
mingling of Romanesque and Byzantine, and in many respects a
fine building (Plate XIII., fig. x 26). This modern feeling in favour
of a Byzantine type of church, architecture culminated in the
great church of the Sacre Cceur on Montmartre, at Paris, begun
in the early 'eighties from the designs of Paul Abadie (181 2-1884).
This grand building stands on a most effective site, and is of a
monumental solidity seldom met with in modern architecture; it
is more pure and consistent in style than many of the smaller
churches of the same school of architecture. These latter are
not for the most part very attractive; they represent in general
a kind of Frenchified Byzantine detail which exhibits neither
Byzantine spirit nor French grace and finish; and on the whole
it may be said that church architecture is the field in which the
French architects of the 19th century were least successful.
As regards secular buildings, on the other hand, the Paris of
the middle portion of the 19th century can show some of the
most unquestionable architectural successes of the period. The
modern portions of the Palais de Justice by Louis Joseph Due
(1 802-1 870) — not Vioilet-le-Duc.asisoften mistakenly asserted in
guide-books — and of the £cole des Beaux-Arts, by Jacques Felix
Duban ( 1 707-1870), are among the best examples of the application
of classic forms of architecture to modern buildings; and the
Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve (Plate XIII., fig. 128), by Henri
Labrouste (1801-187$), was in its day (about 1850) a new creation
in applied classic architecture; a building in which the exterior
design was entirely subservient to and expressive of the require-
ments of a library, a large portion of the wall being left unpierced
for the storage of books, windows being only inserted where they
did not interfere with this object; and the manner in which
these walls are treated so as to produce a decorative architectural
effect without having recourse to sham colonnades and sham
window openings, was entirely new at the time in modern work.
It is instructive to compare this design, with that of the Bank
of England, as examples of the right and the wrong way of
treating buildings in which much blank wall space was required.
The new buildings of the Louvre (Plate XIV., fig, 199). built
under Napoleon III. from the designs of Louis Tullius Joachim
Visconti (1701-1853), are not to be passed over, though they have
too much of the showy and flaunting character which belonged
to both the society and the art of the Second Empire; a fault
which also destroys some of the value of the Grand Opera house,
a remarkable work by a remarkable architect (Jean Louis Charles
Gamier), and typical, more than any other structure, of the
epoch in which it was built. Some of its effect it owes to the
admirable painting and sculpture with which it is decorated,
but the grand staircase is a fine architectural conception (see
Garnier).
In England and in the United States, the last quarter of the
19th century was a period of unusual interest and activity in
architectural development. While other nations have
been content to carry on their architecture, for the
most part, on the old scholastic lines which had been
prevalent since the Renaissance, in the two countries
named there has been manifest a spirit of unrest, of critical
inquiry into the basis and objects of architecture; an aspiration
to make new and original creations in or applications of the art,
without example in any other period in the modern history of
architecture. In England, the " note " — heard with increasing
shrillness of crescendo towards the very last year of the centuiy —
was the cry for originality, for throwing off the trammels of the
past, for rendering architecture more truly a direct expressiaa
of the conditions of practical requirement and of structure.
This was no dou bt to some extent the effect of a reaction. During
the greater part of the century architectural strength, as has been
already shown, had been spent in revivals of past styles. Churches
indeed, up to the close of the century, continued to be built,
for the most part, in revived Gothic; but this was owing to
special clerical influence, which saw in Gothic a style specially
consecrated to church architecture, and would he satisfied, as
a rule, with nothing else. Efforts have been made by architects
to modify the medieval church plan into something mote prac-
tically suited to modern congregational worship, by a system
of reducing the side aisles to mere narrow passages for access to
the seats, thus retaining the architectural effect of the arcade,
while keeping it out of the way of the seated congregation; and
there have been occasional reversions to the ancient Christian
basilica type of plan, or sometimes, as in the church in Da vies
Street, London, attempts to treat a church in a manner entirely
independent of architectural precedent; but in the main,
Gothic has continued to rule for churches. Apart from this
special class of building, however, revived Gothic began to droop
during the 'seventies. All had been copied that could be copied,
and the result, to the architectural mind, was not satisfaction
but satiety. Gothic began to be regarded as "played out."
The immediate result, however, was not an organised attempt
to think for ourselves, and make our own style, but a recourse
to another class of precedent, represented in the type of early
18th-century building which became known as " Queen
Anne," and which, like Gothic before it, was now to
be recommended as " essentially English," as in fact
it is. It can hardly, however, be called an architectural style;
it would have no right to figure in any work illustrating the great
architectural styles of the world. It was, in fact, the last dying
phase of the English Renaissance; the architecture of the classic
order reduced to a threadbare condition, treated very simply
and in plain materials, in many cases shorn of its columnar
features, and reflecting faithfully enough the prim rationalistic
taste in literature and art of the England of the 18th century.
Though not to be* dignified as a style, it was, howe v e r , a recogniz-
able and consistent manner in building; it made extensive use
of brick, a material inexpensive and at the same time very weD
suited to the English climate and atmosphere; and it was
generally carried out in very solid proportions, and with very
good workmanship. To a generation tired of imitating a great
MODERN)
ARCHITECTURE
+35
style at second hand, this unpretending and simple model was
a welcome relief, and led to the erection of a considerable num-
ber of modern buildings, dwelling-houses especially, the obvious
discovered that free classic is susceptible of a great deal of original
treatment based on Renaissance elements. As an example
we may cite a street front built some twenty years later by
another academician-architect, viz. the offices of the Chartered
Accountants in the City, by J. Belcher. More dignified and more
monumental than New Zealand Chambers, more original than
the School Board offices, this front contains some details and a
general treatment which may be said to be absolutely new;
it affords another example of a piece of street architecture which
attracted a great deal of attention, and has had an effect quite
disproportionate to its size and importance as a building; and
it gives a general measure of the progress of the " free classic "
idea. During the last decade of the century " free classic "
was almost the recognized style in English architecture, and has
been illustrated in many town halls and other large and important
buildings, .among which the Imperial Institute is a prominent
example (fig. 96).
I Concurrently with this tendency towards a free classic style
F10. oa.-Chelsea Town Hall. (J- M. Brydon.) I f h ! re ^ •*? *?* her movement which has had a considerable
I influence on English architecture, viz. an increased _„_^
aim of which was to look as like 18th-century buildings as j perception of the importance of decorative arts— UH - ^
possible. A typical example is the large London house by Norman sculpture, painting, mosaic, etc— in alliance with
Shaw, at the corner of Queen's Gate and Imperial Institute I architecture, and of the architect and the decorative artist
Road. The Chelsea town hall (fig. 04), by J. M.
Brydon (1840-1001), is a good example of a public
building in the revived Queen Anne style.
A change of front from copying a great style like
the medieval to copying what is at best a bastard
one, if a style at all, might not seem to promise very
much for the emancipation of modern architecture;
yet there turned out to be one element of progress in
it, resting on the fact that the comparatively simple
detail of the 18th-century buildings formed a kind of
vernacular of building workmanship, which could be
comprehended and carried out by good artisans as a
recognized tradition. Now to reduce architecture to
good sound building and good workmanship seemed "
to promise at any rate a better basis to work upon than
the mere imitation of classic or medieval detail; it
might conceivably furnish a new starting-point. This
was the element of life in the Queen Anne revival, and
it bad, as we shall see, an influence beyond the circle
of the special revivers of the style. But almost con-
currently with, or following hard upon, the " Queen
Anne " movement arose the idea of a modern archi-
tecture, founded on a free and unfettered treatment of
the materials of our earlier Renaissance architecture,
as illustrated in buildings of the Stuart period. This
new ideal was styled " free classic," and it
gave the prevailing tone to English archi-
tecture for the last fifteen years of the
century, though it had its commencement in certain
characteristic buildings a good many years earlier
than that. In 1873, for instance, there arose a com-
paratively small front in Leadenhall Street, under the
name of " New Zealand Chambers " (fig. 95), designed
by Norman Shaw, which excited more attention, and
had more influence on contemporary architecture than
many a building of far greater size and importance.
This represented the playful and picturesque possibilities
of " free classic." Its more restrained and refined
achievements were early exemplified in G. F. Bodley's
design for the front of the London School Board offices
on the Thames Embankment } a comparatively small
building which also exercised a considerable influ-
ence. There were no details here, however, but what
could be found in Stuart (or, as it is more often
called, Jacobean) architecture, but the building, and
the prominence of its architect's name, helped to draw j working together and in harmony. This- is no more than what
attention to the possibilities of the style, and it has been has long been understood and acted on in France, but it has been
•The western half of the present front; the design was duplicated j * ««* "«ht to modern English architecture, in which, until a
afterwards, 00 the extension of the building, but Bodley originated it. I comparatively recent period, decorative painting was hardly
Fie. 95.— New Zealand Chambers. (R. Norman Shaw, R.A.)
+36
ARCHITECTURE
(MODERN
thought of, and decorative sculpture, where it was introduced,
was too often, or indeed generally, the mere work of some trading
firm of masons. But of late years sculpture has taken a far
more prominent place in connexion with architecture; it has
become a habit with the best architects to rely largely on the
introduction of appropriate and symbolic sculpture to add to
the interest of their buildings, and to associate with them eminent
sculptors, who, instead of regarding their work only in the light of
isolated statues or groups for the exhibition room and the art
gallery, are willing to give their best efforts to produce high-class
sculpture for the decoration of an architectural design which
forms the framework to it.
Notice should be taken, however, of another movement in
Fie. 96.— Staircase, Imperial Institute. (Collcutt.)
English architecture during the closing years of the 19th century.
Reference has already been made to one idea which
m!uSS!r P rora P tcd tnc culture of the " Queen Anne " type of
MbaL architecture: that it presented a simple vernacular of
construction and detail, in which solid workmanship
was a more prominent element than elaboration of what is
known as architectural style. To a small group of clever and
enthusiastic architects of the younger generation it appeared
that this idea of reducing architecture to the common-sense
of construction might be carried still further; that as all the
revivals of styles since the Renaissance had failed to give per-
manent satisfaction and had tended to reduce architecture
to a learned imitation of the work of former epochs, the real
chance for giving life to architecture as a modern art was to
throw aside all the conventionally accepted insignia of architec-
tural-style — columns, pilasters, cornices, buttresses, etc. — and
to begin over again with mere workmanship — wall-building and
carpentry — and trust that in process of time a new decorative
detail would be evolved, indebted to no precedent. The building
artisans, in fact, were collectively to take the place of the architect
and the form of the building to be evolved by a natural process
of growth. This was a favourite idea also with William Morris,
who insisted that medieval art — the only art which he recognized
as of any value (Greek, Roman and Renaissance being alike
contemptible in. his eyes)— was essentially an art of the people,
and that In fact it was the modern architects who stood in the
way of our having a genuine architecture of the 19th century.
Considering how much of merely formal, conventional and soul-
less architecture has been produced in our time under the guidance
of the professional architect, it is impossible to deny that there
is an element of truth in this reasoning; at all events, that there
have been a good many modern architects who have done more
harm than good to architecture. But when we come to follow
out this reasoning to its logical results, it is obvious that there
are serious flaws in it. Morris's idea that medieval architecture
alone was worthy the name, we may, of course, dismiss at once;
it was the prejudice of a man of genius whose sympathies, both in
matters social and artistic, were narrow. Nor can we regard the
medieval cathedrals as artisan's architecture. The name of
" architect " may have been unknown, but that the personage
was present in some guise, the very individuality and variety
of our English cathedrals attest. Peterborough front was no
mere mason's conception. And when we come to consider
modern conditions of building, it is perfectly obvious that with
the complicated practical requirements of modern building,
in regard to planning, heating, ventilation, etc., the planning
of the whole in a complete set of drawings, before the building
is begun, is an absolute necessity. We are no longer in medieval
times; modern conditions require the modern architect. The
real cause of failure, as far as modern architecture is a failure,
lies partly in the fact that it is practised too much as a profession
or business, too little as an art; partly in the deadening effect
of public indifference to art in Britain. If the public really
desired great and impressive works of architecture they would
have them; but neither the British public nor its mouthpiece
the government, care anything about it. Their highest ambition
is to get convenient and economical buildings. And as to the
theory of the new school, that we should throw overboard all
precedent in architectural detail, that is intellectually impossible.
We are not made so that we can invent everything it *<*o t
or escape the effect on our minds of what has preceded us; the
attempt can only lead to baldness or eccentricity. Every great
style of architecture of the past has, in (act, been evolved from
the detail of preceding styles; and some of the ablest and most
earnest architects of the present day are, indeed, urging the
desirability of clinging to traditional forms in regard to detail,
as a means of maintaining the continuity of the art. This docs
not by any means imply the absence of original architecture;
there is scope for endless origination in the plan and the general
design of a building. The Houses of Parliament is a prominent
example. The detail is a reproduction of Tudor detail, but the
plan and the general conception arc absolutely original, and
resemble those of no other pre-existing building in the world.
It is necessary to take account of all these movements of
opinion and principle in English architecture to appreciate
properly its position and prospects at the time with Vm ^^
which we are here dealing. Turning now from England rtut tn
to the United States, which, as already observed, is
the only other important country in which there has been
a general new movement in architecture, we find, singular to
say, that the course of development has in America been almost
the reverse of what has taken place in England. The rapidity
of architectural development in America, it may be observed,
since about 1875, has been something astonishing; there is no
parallel to it anywhere else. Before then the currently accepted
architecture of the American Republic was little more than
a bad repetition of the English Gothic and Classic types of
revived architecture. At the present day no nation, except
perhaps France, takes so keen an interest in architecture and
produces so many noteworthy buildings; and it may be observed
that in the United States the public and the official authorities
seem really to have some enthusiasm on the subject, and to
desire fine buildings. But the stirring of the dry bones began
in America where it ended in England. The first symptoms of
an original spirit operating in American architecture showed
themselves in domestic architecture, in town and country houses,
the latter especially; and the form which the movement took
MODERN]
ARCHITECTURE
+37
was & desire to escape conventional architectural detail and to
return to the simplest form of mere building; rock-faced masonry,
sometimes of materials picked up on the site; chimneys which
were plain shafts of masonry or brickwork; woodwork simply
hewn and squared; but the whole arranged with a view to
picturesque effect (figs. 97 and 98). This form of American
Tig. 97.— American Type of Country-House Architecture.
house became an incident in the course of modern architecture;
it even had a recognizable influence on English architects.
About the same time an impetus of a more special nature was
given to American architecture by a man of genius, H. H.
Richardson, who, falling back on Romanesque and Byzantine
types of architecture as a somewhat unworked field, evolved
Fie. 98. — American Seaside Villa. (Bruce Price.)
from them a type of architectural treatment so distinctly his
own (though its orxgines were of course quite traceable) that he
came very near the credit of having personally invented a style;
at all events he invented a manner, which was so largely admired
and imitated that for some ten or fifteen years American archi-
tecture showed a distinct tendency to become "Richardsonesque"
Fie. 99. — Crane Public Library, Quincy, Mass. (H. H; Richardson.)
(see also Plate XVI., fig. 137). As with all architectural fashions,
however, people got tired of this, and the influence of another
very able American architect, Richard M. Hunt, coupled perhaps
with the proverbial philo-Gallic tendencies of the modern
American, led to the American architects, during the last decade
of the 19th century, throwing themselves almost entirely into
the arms, as it were, of France; seeking their education as
far as possible in Paris, and adopting the theory and practice
of the ficole des Beaux-Arts so completely that it is orten
impossible to distinguish their designs, and even their methods
of drawing, from those of French architects brought up in the
strictest regime of the " £cole." By this French movement
the Americans have, on the one hand, shared the advantages
and the influence of what is undoubtedly the most complete
school of architectural training in the world; but, on the other
hand, they have foregone the opportunity which might have
been afforded them of developing a school or style of their own,
influenced by the circumstances of their own requirements,
climate and materials. Figs, 133 and 134, Plate XV., show
example? of recent American architecture of the European
ckssic type. Thus, in the two countries which in this period
have shown the most activity and restlessness in their architec-
tural aspirations, and giveh the most original thought to the
subject, England has constantly tended towards throwing off
the yoke of precedent and escaping from the limits of a scholastic
style; while America, commencing her era of architectural
emancipation with an attempt at first principles and simple
but picturesque building, has ended by a pretty general adoption
of the highly -developed scholastic system of another country.
The contrast is certainly a curious one. Only one original
contribution to the art has been made by America in recent days
— one arising directly out of practical conditions, viz. the " high
buildings " in cities; a form of architecture which may be said to
have originated in the fact that New York is built on a peninsula,
and extension of the city is only possible vertically and not hori-
zontally. The tower-like buildings (see Plate XV., fig. 131, and
Steel Construction, Plate II., figs. 3 and 4), served internally
by lifts, to which this condition of things has given rise, form
a really new contribution to architecture, and have been handled
by some of the American architects in a very effective manner;
though, unfortunately, the rage for rapid building in the cities
of the United States has led to the adoption of the false archi-
tectural system of running up such structures in the form of
a steel framing, cased with a mere skin of masonry or terra-cotta,
for appearance' sake, which in reality depends for its stability
on the steel framing. It must be admitted, however, to be a
new contribution to architecture, and renders New York, as
seen from the harbour, a " towered city " in a sense not realized
by the poet.
Some sketch of the state of recent architectural thought or
endeavour in England seemed essential to the subject, since
it is there that what may be called the philosophy of
architecture has been most debated, and that thought jJJiw**
has had the most obvious and most direct effect on
architectural style and movement. That this has been the case
has no doubt been largely due to the influence of Rusk in, who,
though his architectural judgment was on many points faulty
and absurd in the extreme, had at any rate the effect of set-
ting people thinking — not without result. In other countries
architecture continued to pursue, up to the close of the century,
the scholastic ideal impressed upon it by the Renaissance,
without exciting doubt or controversy unless in a very occasional
and partial manner, and without any changes save those minor
ones arising from changing habits of execution and use of material.
In Germany there appears to be a certain tendency to a greater
freedom in the use of the materials of classic architecture, a
certain relaxation of the bonds of scholasticism; but it has hardly
assumed such proportions as to be ranked as a new movement
in architecture.
The last years of the 19th century witnessed the progress to
an advanced stage of the most remarkable piece of English
church architecture of the period, the Roman Catholic
cathedral at Westminster, by J. H. Bcntley (1830-
1902), a building which is not a Gothic revival, but
goes back to earlier (Byzantine) precedents; not, however,
without a considerable element of novelty and originality in
the design, especially in some of the exterior detail. The interior
was intended for decoration in applied marble and mosaic, yet
even as a shell of brickwork, with its solid domes and the
438
ARCHITECTURE
[MODERN
immense masses of the piers, it is one of the most impressive
and monumental interiors of modern date.
In ordinary church architecture, though there is still a good
deal of mere imitation medieval work carried out, England
has not been without examples of a new and original application
of Gothic materials. The interior of the church of St Clare,
Liverpool, by Mr Leonard Stokes (fig. ioo), is a good example
of the modified treatment of the three-aisled medieval plan
already referred to, the side aisles being reduced to passages;
and also of the tendency in recent years to simplify the treatment
of Gothic, in contrast to the florid and over-carved churches
of the Gothic revival. The churches of James Brooks, as already
Fie. ioo.— Interior, St Clare's, Liverpool. (Leonard Stokes.)
noted, have shown many examples of a solid plain treatment
of Gothic, yet with a great deal of character; and J. D. Sedding
(1838- 1891) built some showing great originality, among which
the interior of his church of the Holy Redeemer, Clcrkcnwcll,
affords also an interesting example of the modern free treat-
ment of forms derived from classic architecture.
The event of most importance in English church architecture
at the beginning of the 20th century was the commencement
of a modern cathedral at Liverpool. In the early 'eighties the
proposal for a cathedral had led to an important competition
between three sets of invited architects, Sir William Emerson,
Messrs Bodlcy and Garner and James Brooks. Nothing,
however, resulted, except the production of three very fine sets
of drawings. Subsequently the subject was taken up again with
more energy, and a sketch competition invited for a cathedral
on * new site (the one originally intended being no longer
available); from among the sketch competitors five were
invited to join in a final competition, viz. Messrs Austin and
Paley, C. A. Nicholson, Gilbert Scott (grandson of Sir Gilbert
Scott), Malcolm Stark and W. J. Tapper. Mr Scott's design
was selected (May 1903) and the building of it commenced not
long after. It is a design in revived Gothic, of the orthodox
type as to detail, though containing some points of decided
originality in the general treatment. The condition proposed
in the first instance by the committee, that the designs sent in
must be in the Gothic style, gave rise to a strong protest, in the
architectural journals and elsewhere, on the ground that the
revival of ancient styles was a mistaken and exploded fallacy;
and in deference to this expression of opinion the
committee officially withdrew the limitation as to style.
That, in view of their obvious bias, they, would confine
their selection to designs in the Gothic style, was
however, a foregone conclusion. It is much to be
regretted that the opportunity was not taken to evolve
a modern and Protestant type of cathedral, with a
central area and a dome as its principal feature.
In the architecture of public buildings one of the
earliest incidents in this latest period was the completion
of the Albert Hall, which, though the work of
K an engineer, and commonplace in detail, is Jjjjf*
"^ in the main a fine and novel architectural con- JSS^a.
ception, and a practical success (considering
its abnormal size) as a building for musical perform-
ances. Had its constructor been bold enough to roof
it with a solid masonry dome, with an " eye " in the
centre (as in the Pantheon) instead of a huge dish-cover
of glass and iron, there would have been little to find
fault with in its general conception. It was also the
first modern English building of importance to be
decorated externally with symbolical figure composition,
in the shape of the large frieze in coarse mosaic of
terracotta, which is carried round the upper portion
of the exterior, and which, if not very interesting in
detail, at all events fulfils very well its purpose as a
piece of decorative effect. The subject of the govern-
ment offices in London forms in itself an important
chapter in recent architectural history. The home
and foreign office block was finished in 1874; a
sumptuous, but weak and ill-planned building designed
by Scott, invito Minerva, in a style alien to his own
predilections, In 1884 took place the great competition
for the war and admiralty offices conjointly, won by
a commonplace but admirably drawn design, presenting
some good points in planning. The building was to
stand between Whitehall and St James's Park, with
a front both ways. The competition came to nothing.
a— and the successful architects were eventually employed
to build the new admiralty as it now stands, a mean
and commonplace building with no street frontage, in
which economy was the main consideration, and
totally discreditable to the greatest naval power in
the world. In 1 808-1 800 it was at last resolved to
build a war office and other government offices much
needed, and an irregular site opposite the Horse Guards
was selected for the war office and one in Great George
Street for the others. In this case there was no competition,
but the government selected two architects after inquiry as to
their works ("classic" architecture being a sine qua non),
W. Young (d. 1000) for the war office, and J. M. Brydon for the
Great George Street block. The war office site is inadequate
and totally unsymmctrical, the boundary of the building being
settled by the boundary of the street curb, and the inner court-
yards are of very mean proportions compared with the great
courtyard of the home and foreign office. Both architects
produced grandiose designs, but in regard to the war office at
least the government threw away a great opportunity.
There can only be further enumerated a few of the more
important buildings erected in England during the later yean
MODERN]
ARCHITECTURE
439
of the 19th century, and mention made of the general course
which architecture has taken in regard to special classes of
buildings. The Natural History Museum (Plate XI., fig. 120),
completed in 2881 by Alfred Waterhouse, may stand as a type
V U — K f V
IklMlftTCO • (©••• DOt-T»- &Mift« flAH.'
which has been extensively imitated; a refined variety of free
classic, always quiet and delicate in detail, though perhaps
rather wanting in architectonic force. The next great archi-
tectural competition was that for the completion of the
South Kensington Museum, the bare brick exterior of which,
waiting for architectural completion, had long been a national
disgrace. The competition produced some fine and striking
designs, some of them perhaps more so than the selected
one by Sir Aston Webb, whose fine plan, however, justified the
selection. Another competition which excited general interest
was that in 1894, for the rebuilding on a country site of Christ's
Fie. 101.— Plan of a Master's House. New Christ's Hospital.
(Webb and Bell.)
I
of the taste for the employment of terra-cot ta r with all its J
dangerous facilities in ornamental detail, of which that architect
specially set the example. Detail is certainly overdone here,
hut the building is strikingly original; a- point not to be over-
Fio. 102.— Sheffield Town Hall. (Mountford.)
looked in these days of architectural copying. The Imperial
Institute, the result of a competition among six selected archi-
tects, represents also a type of architecture which its architect,
T. £. Collcutt, may be said to have matured for himself, and
Fie. 103.— Oxford Town Hall. (Hare.)
Hospital schools, also gained by Aston Webb (in collaboration
with Ingress Bell), by a design which, in its arrangement of
schoolhouses in detached blocks (fig. 101), but in a symmetrical
ew idea in public-school planning, and
icturcsque but insanitary quadrangle
■ public buildings of the period ought
in Shaw's New Scotland Yard, built
or Gothic, but partaking of the elements
119). A competition in 1008 for the
f hall for the London County Council,
ance " in style, was won by a young
wn, Mr Ralph Knott.
ias been a great movement for building
r vying with each other in this way.
: have been carried out in some variety
he more important in point of scale is
W. Mountford (1856-1008) (fig. 102);
* of Oxford, by H. T. Hare (fig. 103);
and Colchester, by John Belcher, are
particularly good examples of recent
architecture of this class, the former
distinguished also by an exceptionally
good plan. The merit of excellent
planning also belongs to Aston Webb
and Ingress Bell's Birmingham law
courts, one of the modern tcrra-cotta
buildings of somewhat too florid
detail, though picturesque as a whole.
Among public halls the M'Ewan
Hall at Edinburgh, completed in
i8g8 from the designs of Sir Rowand
Anderson, deserves mention as one
of the most original and most care-
fully designed of recent buildings in
Great Britain.
I The various new buildings erected
in connexion with the university of
Oxford, those by T. G. Jackson (b.
1835) especially, form an important
incident in modern English archi-
tecture. Mr Jackson succeeded to a remarkable degree in design-
ing new buildings which are in harmony with the old architecture
of the university city; sometimes perhaps a little too imitative
of it, but at any rate he has the credit of having added rather
440
ARCHITECTURE
[MODERN
extensively to Oxford without spoiling it; while his school
buildings in different parts of the country have a refinement and
domesticity of feeling which is the true note of school archi-
tecture. Among buildings of an educational class, the move in
technical education has led to the erection of a good many large
polytechnic and similar institutions, which in many cases have
been well treated architecturally; the Northampton Institute at
Clerkenwell (fig. 104), by Mountford, being perhaps one of the
Fig. 104.— Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell. (Mountford.)
boldest and most effective of recent public buildings. In the
building of hospitals and asylums much has been done, and great
progress made in the direction of hygienic and practical planning
and construction, but the tendency has been (perhaps rightly)
towards making this practical efficiency the main consideration
and reducing architectural treatment to the simplest character.
St Thomas's hospital at Lambeth exemplifies the treatment
of hospital architecture at the commencement of the last quarter
of the 19th century; the separate pavilion system had been
already adopted on practical grounds, but the building is treated
Fig. 105. — Cragside. (R. Norman Shaw.)
in a sumptuous architectural style, as if representing so many
detached mansions — a treatment which would now be deprecated
as an expenditure foreign to the main purpose of the building.
One recent hospital, however, that at Birmingham, by W.
Henman, combining architectural effect with the latest hygienic
improvements, was the first large hospital in Great Britain in
which the system of mechanical ventilation was completely and
consistently carried out.
In theatre building there has been an immense improvement
in regard to planning, ventilation and fireproof construction,
but little to note in an architectural sense, since theatres in
England are never designed by eminent architects, the financial
and practical aspects being alone considered.
In domestic architecture the tendency has been to quit
picturesque irregularity for a more formal and more dignified
treatment. Such a house as Norman Shaw's " Cragside," built
in the earlier part of our period (fig. 105), however its picturesque
treatment may still be admired, would hardly be built now on
a large scale; its architect himself has of late years shown a
preference for a symmetrical and regular treatment of t
house architecture sometimes to the extent of making ,
the mansion look too like a barrack. In street archi- *
tecture, however, the tendency has been towards a JJ^JJ^
more characteristic and more picturesque treatment;
nor is there any class of building in which the improvement in
English architecture has been more marked and more unques-
tionable. Many of the new residential streets in the west end of
London present a really picturesque ensemble, and many shops
and other commercial street buildings have been erected with
Fig. 106.— London City & Midland Bank, Ludgate Hill Branch.
(Collcutt.)
admirable fronts from the designs of some of the best architects
of the day. Norman Shaw's building at the corner of St James's
Street and Pall Mall was one of the first, and is still one of the
best examples of modern street architecture, though surpassed
by the same architect's more recent building opposite, at the
south-west angle of St James's Street — one of the finest and
most monumental examples of street architecture in London.
Among other examples may be cited T. E. Collcutt's London
City & Midland Bank in Ludgate Hill (fig. 106) and R. Blom-
ficld's narrow house-front in Buckingham Gate (fig. 107). The
introduction of sculpture in street fronts is also beginning to
receive attention; and a simple house-front recently erected
in Margaret Street, London, from the design of Beresford Pite
(fig. 108) , is an excellent example of the use of sculpture in
MODERN]
ARCHITECTURE
441
connexion with ordinary street architecture. It is significant of
the increased attention accorded to street architecture, that the
most important architectural event in England at the very close
of the 19th century, was the outlay of £3000 by the London
County Council, in fees to eight architects for designs for the
front of the proposed new streets of Kingsway and Aldwych.
The idea was to treat these streets as comprehensive architectural
designs with a certain unity of effect. Unfortunately this idea
Fie. Z07. — House in Buckingham Gate, London. (R. Blomfield.)
was abandoned for merely commercial reasons, it being feared that
there would be a difficulty in letting the sites if tenants were
required to conform their frontages to a general design. In the
case of Aldwych, which is a crescent street, this decision was
fatal. A crescent loses all its effect unless treated as a complete
and symmetrical architectural design.
The competition for the Queen Victoria Memorial, consisting
of a processional road from Whitehall to Buckingham Palace,
culminating in a sculptural trophy in front of the palace,
attracted a great deal of attention in xooi. Of the five invited
competitors— Sir Aston Webb (b. 1849), T. G. Jackson, Ernest
George (b. 1839), Sir Thomas Drew (b. 1838), and Sir Rowand
Anderson (b. 1834) the two latter representing Ireland and
Scotland respectively, — Sir Aston Webb's design was selected,
and unquestionably showed the best and most effective manner
of laying out the road, as well as a very pleasing architectural
treatment of the semicircular forecourt in front of the pajace,
with pavilions and fountain-basins symmetrically spaced;
but some of this was subsequently sacrificed on grounds of
economy. The building, a. triumphal arch flanked by pavilions,
forming the entry to the processional road from Whitehall, is
a dignified design.
In France, still the leading artistic nation of the world, the art
of architecture has been in a most flourishing and most active
state in the most recent period. It is true that there
is not the same variety as in modern English archi-
tecture, nor have there been the same discussions and
experiments in regard to the true aim and course of
architecture which have excited so much interest in England;
because the French architects, unlike the English, know exactly
what they want They have a " school " of architecture; they
adhere to the scholastic or academic theory of architecture as
an art founded on the study of classic models; and on this
basis their architects receive the y
most thorough training of any in 1
the world. This predominance of J
the academic theory deprives their 1$
architecture, no doubt, of a good
deal of the element of variety and
picturesqueness; a French architect
pur sang, in fact, never attempts
the picturesque, unless in a country
residence, and then the results are
such that one wishes the attempt
had not been made. But, on the
other hand, modern French archi-
tecture at its best has a dignity and
style about it which no other nation
at present reaches, and which goes
far to atone for a certain degree
of sameness and repetition in its
motives; and living under a govern-
ment which recognizes the import-
ance of national architecture, and
is willing to spend public money
liberally on it (with the full appro-
bation of its public), the French
architects have opportunities which
English ones but seldom enjoy —
the predominant aim with a British
government being to see how little
they can spend on a public building.
The two great Paris exhibitions of
1889 and xooo may be regarded as
important events in connexion with
architecture, for even the temporary
buildings erected for them showed
an amount of architectural interest „.
and originality which could be met Fie. 108.— House in Mar-
with nowhere else, and which in each caret Street, London. (Beres-
case left its mark behind it, though ">"* Pitc -)
with a difference; for while in the 1889 exhibition the main
object was to treat temporary structures— iron and concrete
and terra-cotta — in an undisguised but artistic manner,
in those of the 1900 exhibition the effort was to create an
architectural coup d'aril of apparently monumental structures
of which the actual construction was disguised. In spite of
some eccentricities the amount of invention and originality
shown in these temporary buildings was most remarkable;
but fortunately the exhibition left something more permanent
behind it in the shape of the two art-palaces and the new bridge
over the Seine. The two palaces are triumphs of modern
classic architecture; the larger, one (by MM. Thomas, Louvet
and Deglane) is to some extent spoiled by the apparently
unavoidable glass roof; the smaller one, by M. Girault, escapes
this drawback, and, still more refined than its greater opposite,
is one of the most beautiful buildings of modern times; the
central portion is shown in Plate XIV., fig. 130. The architectural
pylons, with their accompanying sculpture, which flank the
entries to the bridge, arc worthy of the best period of French
Renaissance. Thus much* at least, has the xooo exhibition
done for architecture.
4+2
ARCHITECTURE
(MODERN
At the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th century stands
one of the most important of modern French buildings, the Paris
hotel de ville, commenced shortly after the war, from the
designs of MM. Ballu and Deperthes, planned on an immense
scale, and on the stateliest and most monumental lines: the
plan is given in fig. 109.
I
A, Salle de* Fete*
B, Salle a manger.
C, Salons de Reception.
D, Council Chamber.
£, Grand Staircase.
and a profusion of carved ornament, such as we know nothing of
in England; and though there is a rather monotonous repetition
of the same style and character throughout the new or newly
built streets, it is impossible to deny the effect of palatial dignity
they impart to the city. In the matter of country houses the
The central block is, externally, a \ French architect is less fortunate; when he attempts what he
regards as the rural picturesque, his good taste seems
[entirely to desert him, and the maison de comfiagnt is
generally a mere riot of gimcrack bargeboards and
finials. In Paris, the taste for the contortions of what
is called art nouveau has led to the erection, here and
there, of ugly and eccentric fronts with preposterous
ornamental details; but the invasion of this element
is only partial and will probably not prove other than a
passing phase.
The great military success of Germany in 1870, and
the founding of the German empire, gave, as is usual
in such crises, a decided impetus to public flfc MMJ i
architecture, of which the central and most
important visible sign is the German Houses of Parlia-
ment (Plate IX., fig. 1x7), by Paul Wallot (b. 1841),
I whose design was selected in a competition. There is
something essentially German in the quality of this
national building; classic architecture minus its refine-
ment. The detail is coarse; the finish of the end
pavilions of the principal front absolutely unmeaning-
mere architectural rodomontade; the central cupola of
F, Salle des Cariatides. M, Corridor. glass and iron, on a square' plan, probably the ugliest
N, President of CouncU. centra i fcature on uy g^t building in Europe; and
G, General Secretary.
H, Prefect.
K, Committee Rooms*
L, Public Works.
O, Librai
P.Refi
restoration of the old hotel de ville, the remainder carried out
in an analogous but somewhat more modern style. The interior
has been the scene of sumptuous pictorial decoration, in which all
the first artists of the day were employed — unfortunately in
too scattered a manner and on no pre-
dominant or consistent scheme. One of the
most characteristic architectural efforts of
the French has consisted in the erection of
the various smaller h6tels-de-vijle or mairies,
in the city and suburban districts of the
capital; as at Pan tin, Lilas, Suresncs and
in various arrondissements within the city
proper (Plate XIII., fig. 1 27). Nothing shows
the quality of modern French architecture
better, or perhaps more favourably, than this
series of district town halls; all have a dis-
tinctly municipal character and a certain
family resemblance of style amid their
diversity of details; all are refined speci-
mens of pre-eminently civilized architecture.
Among the greater architectural efforts of
France is the immense block of the new
Sorbonne, by M. Nenot, a building sufficient
in itself for an architectural reputation.
Among smaller French buildings of peculiar
merit may be mentioned the Musee Galliera,
in the Troeadero quarter of Paris, designed
by M. Ginain — a work of pure art in archi-
tecture such as we should nowadays look
for in vain out of France; the £cole de
MMecine, by the same refined architect
(fig. no); and the chapel in rue Jean
Goujon (Guilbert), erected as a memorial to
the victims of the bazaar fire, again a
notable instance of a work of pure thought
in architecture — a new conception out of old materials. The
new Opera Comiquc (Bernier) should also be mentioned, the
rather disappointing result of a competition which excited
great interest at the time. Street architecture has been carried
out of late in Paris in a sumptuous style, with great stone fronts
fresnment Room. yet tnerc ** undeniable power about the whole thing; it
is the characteristic product of a conquering nation not
reticent in its triumph. The new cathedral at Berlin, by
Julius Raschdorff (b. 1823), is the other most important German
work of the period (fig. in); a building very striking and
unusual in plan, but absolutely commonplace in its archi-
tectural detail; school classic of the most ordinary type, without
y
»f
n
y
a
d
a
Fie. 1 10.— £cole de Medecine, Paris. (Ginain.)
imperial cortege on special occasions, the cathedral also serving the
second purpose of an imperial mausoleum. Theatre building has
been carried on very largely in Germany .and among its productions
the Lessing theatre at Berlin (fig. 113) (Hermann von der Hude
and Julius Hennicke, d. x 892) is a favourable example of German
MODERN]
classic at its best, besides being, like most modem German
theatres, very well planned (fig. z 14). Hamburg has had its new
municipal buildings (Grotjan), a florid Renaissance building with
a central tower, showing in its general effect and grouping a good
deal of Gothic feeling. Mention may also be made of the Im-
perial law courts (Reichsgerichtsgeb&ude) at Leipzig, designed
by Ludwig Hoffmann (b. 1852) and finished in 1895, a building
ARCHITECTURE
443
genius in architecture, who had the good fortune to be appre-
ciated and given a free hand by his government. The design
is based on classic architecture, but with a treatment so com-
pletely individual as to remove it almost entirely from
the category of imitative or revival architecture; some-
what fantastic it may be, but as an original architectural
creation it stands almost Alone among modern public buildings.
In Vienna the scholastic classic style has been retained with
much more purity and refinement than in the German capital,
and the Parliament Houses (Plate IX., fig. 116), by Theophil
Hansen (1815-1891), if they show no originality of detail,. have
the merit of original and very effective grouping. Budapest, on
the other hand, which has almost sprung into existence since 1875
Fxc hi.— Cathedral at Berlin. (Raschdorff.)
with no more charm about it, externally, than the Berlin Parlia-
ment Houses, but with some good interior effects. The new
post offices in Germany have been an important undertaking*
and are, at all events, buildings of more mark than those in
England. There has also been a great deal of new development
in street architecture, which shows an immense variety, and a
constantly evident determination to do something striking; but
FKT. I 13^— Letting Theatre, Berlin.
Hennicke.)
(Von der Hude and
we find in it neither the dignity of Parisian street architectur* nor
the refinement of modern London work; there is an element of
the bombastic about it.
No modern building on the European continent if more
remarkable than the Brussels law courts (Plate XI., fig. iai)
from the designs of Joseph Poelaert (1816-1879),. an original
Fig. us.— Plan of Cathedral at Berlin.
as the rival of the Austrian capital, has erected a great Parliament
building of florid character (Plate IX., fig. 115), in a style in
which the Gothic element is prevalent, though the central feature
is a dome. The plan (see fig. 9 2) is obviously based on that of the
Westminster building; the exterior design, however, has the merit
of clearly indicating the position of the two Chambers as part of
the architectural design, the want of which is the one serious de-
fect of Barry's noblestruc-
ture. In Italy modern
architecture is at a very
low ebb; the one great
work of this period was the
building of the facade to
the Duomo at Florence,
from the design of de
Fabris, who did not live
to see its completion. As
the completion in modern
1 times of a building of
world-wide Came, it is a
work of considerable in-
terest, and, on the whole,
not unworthy of its posi-
tion; that it should
harmonise quite satis-
factorily with the ancient
structure was hardly to
be expected. It was prob-
ably the completion of
this facade which led the
city of Milan to start a
great architectural com-
petition, in the early
Fig. 114.— Plan of Lessing Theatre,
Berlin.
'eighties, for the erection of a new facade to its celebrated
cathedral, not because the facade had never been completed, but
because it had been spoiled and patched with bad 18th-century
work. The ambition was a legitimate one, and the competition,
open to all the world, excited the greatest interest; but the
young Italian architect, Brentano, to whom the first premium
444
ARCHITRAVE— ARCHON
was awarded, died shortly afterwards, and other causes, partly
financial, led to the postponement of the scheme, though it
Is understood that there is still an intention of carrying out
Brcntano's design under the direction of the official architectural
department of the city.
In summing up the present position of modern architecture,
U may be said that architecture is now a more cosmopolitan
art than it has been at any previous period. The
separate development of a national style has become
in the present day almost an impossibility. Increased
means of communication have brought all civilized nations into
dose touch with each other's tastes and ideas, with the natural
consequence that the treatment of a special class of building
in any one country will not differ very materially from its
treatment in another; though there are nuances of local taste
in detail, in manner of execution, in the materials used. And
the civilized countries have almost with one consent returned,
in the main, to the adoption of a school of architecture based
on classic types. The taste for medievalism is dying out even in
Great Britain, which has been its chief stronghold.
What course the future of modern architecture will take it
is not easy to prophesy. What is quite certain is that it is now
an individual art, each important building being the production,
not of an unconsciously pursued national style, but of a personal
designer. As far as there is a ruling consensus in architectural
taste, this will tend to become, like dress and manners, more and
more cosmopolitan; and it seems probable that it will be based
more or less on the types left us by Classic and Renaissance
architecture. There are, however, two influences which may
have a definite effect- on the architecture of the near future.
One of these is the possible greater rapprochement between
architecture and engineering, of which there are already some
signs to be scon; architects will learn more of the kind of struc-
tural problems which axe now almost the exclusive province
of the engineer, and there will be a demand that engineering
works shall be treated, as they well may be, with some of the
refinement and expression of architecture*. The other influence
lies in the closer connexion, which is already taking place,
between architecture and the allied arts, so that an important
building will be regarded and treated as a field for the application
of decorative sculpture and painting of the highest class, and
m being incomplete without these. It is in this closer union
of architecture with the other arts that there lies the best hope
for the architecture of the future.
Authorities,— The literature of architecture as a modern art Is
limited, the moat important publications of recent times being
mainly devoted to the study and illustration of ancient architecture.
1874); Lectures on Architecture (London. 1881); H. C. Burdett.
Hospitals and Asylums of the World (London, 1892-1801); Professor
Oswald Kuhn, Kranhcnh&user (Stuttgart, 1897); &• O. Sachs,
Modern Optra-Houses and Theatres (London, 1 897-1899); £.
Wyndham Tarn, The Mechanics of Architecture (London. 1893) ;
R. Norman Shaw, R.A., T. G. Jackson, R.A., and others, A rchilecture,
a Profession or an Art (London. 1893); W. H. White, The Architect
and his Artists (London, 1892); Architecture and Public Buildings
in Paris and London (London, 1884); H. H. Sutham, Architecture
for General Readers (London, 1895); Modern Architecture (London,
1898) ; Herrmann Muthesius, Die enrtische Bauhunst der Gegeuwart
(Berlin and Leipzig. X900); Der Architekten Verein zu Berlin,
Berlin und Seine Bauten (Berlin, 1896). The real literature of
modern architecture, however, is to be found mainly in the articles
and illustrations in the best periodical architectural publications of
various countries. Among these Italy has none worth mention,
end France, with all her architectural enthusiasm, has had no first-
class architectural periodical since the extinction, about 1890, of the
Revue tinirale de t architecture, conducted for more than fifty years
by the late Cesar Daly, and in its day the first periodical of its class
in the world.
Architectural Record
The
Among the best periodical publications are:
ecord (quarterly), (New York); The Architectural
Review (monthly). (Boston); the AUtemeine Bautcitunt (quarterly).
8 Vienna); the Berlin Archilehturwelt (monthly). (Berlin); The
uildtr (weekly), (London); La Construction modern* (weekly),
(Paris). (H. H. S.)
ARCHITRAVE (from Lat. anus, an arch, and trabs, trahem, a
beam), an architectural term for the chief beam which carries
the superstructure and rests immediately on the columns.
In the ordinary entablature it is the lowest of the three divisions,
the other two being the frieze and the cornice (see OmOEx).
The term is also applied to the moulded frame of a doorway.
ARCHIVE (Lat arehmtm, a transliteration of Gr. apx«tor,
an official building), a term (generally used in the plural
" archives ")> properly denoting the building in which are kept
the records, charters and other papers belonging to any state,
community or family, but now generally applied to the documents
themselves (see Recoid).
ARCHIVOLT (from Lat. anus, an arch, and volla, a vault),
an architectural term applied to the mouldings of an architrave,
when carried round an arched opening.
ARCHON (lpx<**, ruler), the title of the highest magistrate
in many ancient Greek states. It is only in Athens that we have
any detailed knowledge of the office, and even in this one case
the evidence presents problems of the first importance which
are incapable of decisive solution. There is no doubt that the
archons represented the ancient kings, whose absolutism, under
conditions which we can only infer, yielded in process of time to
the power of the noble families, supported no doubt by the fight-
ing force of the state. As to the process by which this change
was effected there are two accounts. Traditionally, the monarchy
after the death of Codrus (?io68 B.C.) gave place to the life
archon whose tenure of office was limited afterwards to ten
years and then to one year. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens
(q.v.) speaks of five stages: (x) the institution of the polcmarch
who took over the military duties of the king; (2) the institution
pf the archon to relieve the king of his civil duties;. (3) the tenure
of office was reduced to ten years (?75* B.C.); (4) the office
was taken from the " royal " clan and thrown open to all Eupa-
tridae (? 71 2 B.C.); (5) office was made annual, and to the existing
three offices were added the six thesmothetae whose duty it
was to record judicial decisions. The value of this latter account
is, of course, debatable, but it is at least compatible with the
general trend of development from hereditary absolutism, civil,
military and religious, in the person of the " king," to a con-
stitutional oligarchy. The change was dearly effected TJy the
devolution of the military and civil powers of the king to the
polemarch and the archon, while the archon basileus (or king)
retained control of state religion. It is equally clear that owing
to the predominating importance of civil affairs, the archon
became the chief state official and gave his name to the year
(hence archon eponymus) . It should be noticed that the analogy
which has often been suggested between the early history of
the archonship at Athens, and such cases as the mayors of the
palace in French history, or the tycoon (shogun) and mikado
in Japanese history, is misleading. In these cases it is the old
royal house that retains the royal title and the semblance of power,
while the real authority passes into new hands. In Athens,
the new civil office is vested in the old royal family, while the old
title along with its religious functions is transferred. The early
history of the thesmothetae is not dear, but this much is certain
that there is no adequate reason for supposing, as many historians
do, that in early times, they, with the three chief archons, con-
stituted a collective or collegiate magistracy. It is true Thucy-
dides (i. ia6) states that, in the time of the Cylonian conspiracy
(? 632 B.C.), " the nine archons were (it. collectively) the principal
officials," but at the same time the responsibility for the action
then taken attached to the Alcmaeonidae alone, because one
of their number, Megades, was at that time the archon (i.e.
responsibility was personal, not collective). Again, the Con-
stitution of Athens says that down to Solon's time the archons
had no official residence, but that afterwards they used the
Thesmotheteion. It is a reasonable inference from this statement
that the thesmothetae had previously sat together apart from
the superior archons and that it was only after Solon that col-
legiate responsibility began.
Evolution of the Office.— The history of the democratization of
the archonship is beset with equal difficulty. In the early days,
ARCHON
+45
the importance of the office (confined as it-was to. the highest
class) must have been immense; there was no audit, no written
law, no executive council. The popular assembly was ill-
organized and probably summoned by the archons themselves.
The only control came from the Areopagus which elected them
and would generally be favourably disposed, and from the fact
that the military and civil powers were not vested in the same
hands. Although the institution of the popular courts by Solon
hid within it the germ of democratic supremacy, it is clear that
the immediate result was small; thus, in the next decade
anarchia was continuous and Damasias held the archonship
for more than two years in defiance of the new constitution;
the prolonged dissension in this matter shows that the office
of archon still retained its supreme importance. Gradually,
however, the archonship lost its power, especially in judicial
matters, until it retained merely the right of holding the pre-
liminary investigation and the formal direction of the popular
courts. Its administrative powers, save those wielded by the
polemarch (see below and cf. Stratecos), dwindled away into
matters of routine. We know that Pelsistratus ruled by con-
trolling the archonship, which was always held by members of
his family, and the archonship of Isagoras was clearly an
important party victory; we know further the names of three
important men who held the office between Cleisthenes' reform
and the Persian Wax (Hipparchus, Themistocles (q.v.), Aristides)
from which we infer that the office was still the prize of party
competition. On the other hand, after 487 B.C. the list of
archons contains no name of importance. Presumably this is
due to the growing importance of the Strategus and to the
institution of sortition (see below), which, whether as cause or
effect, is presumably by the 5th century indicative of diminished
importance. There can, on these assumptions, be no doubt
that, from the early years of the 5th century B.C., the archonship
was of practically no importance. Furthermore we find that
(probably after the Persian War) the office is thrown open to the
second class, and finally in 457 B.C. we meet an archon, Mnesi-
theides, of the third, or Zeugite, class. Plutarch (Aristides, 11)
says that after the great struggle of the Persian War Aristides
threw open the office to all the citizens. But in fact the members
of the fourth class were not formally admitted even in the 4th
century (though by a fiction they were allowed to pose for the
time as Zeugites). Furthermore it is not till 457 that even a
Zeugite archon is known, according to the Constitution of Athens
(c. 36), which dates the change as five years after the death of
Ephialtes and does not connect it with Aristides.
Sortition.— The next question constitutes perhaps the most
important problem in Greek political development. At what
date was election by lot, or sortition, introduced for the archon-
ship? From the Constitution of Athens (c. 92) we gather that
from the faU of the Tyranny to 487 B.C. the archons were alpenl,
not tcXnponoi (i.e. chosen by vote, not by lot), and that in 487,
limited sortition was introduced, whereby fifty candidates were
elected by each tribe, and from these the archons and their
" secretary " were chosen by lot But against this must be set
the statement by the same authority that this double method
wss part of the Sokntan reform. The solution of the dilemma
is a matter of inference. Three indications favour the former
view: (x) the "anarchia" which occurred so often between
Solon and Peisistratus shows that the office was at that time a
question of party (*.«. elective); (2) the statement that Solon
invented sortition for the office is put as the basis of a comparison
(offer, cnit&oo) and, therefore, may fairly be regarded as a
hypothesis; (3) there is no indication that the change made in
487 b.c. was a return to an obsolete method, and on the same
argument it is odd that Solon's alleged system should not have
been revived at the end of the Tyranny. On the other hand
Herodotus (vi. 109) states that, in 400, before the battle of
Marathon, the polemarch was chosen by lot. If this be true,
it follows that the office of polemarch must have lost its military
importance, which was not the case, inasmuch as the polemarch
at Marathon gave the casting vote in favour of immediate battle.
Whether, therefore, Solon ot Aristides was the first to introduce
sortition, it is perfectly clear that the lot was not used between
the Tyranny and 487 B.C. and that after 487 the lot was always
used (see J. E. Sandys, Constitution of Athens c. 8 note 1 , c. 22 $ 5,
note); in fact, at a date not known the mixed system of Aristides
gave place to double sortition, in which the first nomination also
was by lot. To enter here into the theory of the lot is impossible.
It should, however, be observed that in the somewhat material
atmosphere of constitutional Athens the religious significance
of the lot had vanished; no important office in the $th and 4th
centuries was entrusted to its decision. The real effect of
sortition was to equalize the chances of rich and poor without
civil strife. Now it is perfectly dear that it could not have been
this object which impelled Solon to introduce sortition; for in
his time the archonship was not open to the lower classes, and,
therefore, election was more democratic than sortition, whereas
later the case was reversed. It should further be mentioned that,
before the discovery of the Aristotelian Constitution in 1891 , Grote,
C. F. Hermann, Busolt and others had maintained that the lot
was not used in Athens before the time of Cleisthenes ; and in spite
of the treatise, it must be admitted that there is no satisfactory
evidence, historical or inferential, that their theory was unsound.
Qualifications and Functions. — It remains to give a brief
analysis of the qualifications and functions of the archons after
the year 487 B.C. After election (in the time of Aristotle in the
month Anthesterion; in the 3rd century in Munychion) a short
time had to elapse before entering on office to allow of the
dokimasia (examination of fitness). In this the whole life of the
nominee was investigated, and each had to prove that he was
physically without flaw. Failure to pass the scrutiny involved
a certain loss of civic rights (e.g. that of addressing the people).
The successful candidate had to take an oath to the people
(that he would not take bribes, Ac.) and to go through certain
preliminary rites. Any citizen could bring an impeachment
(eisangdia) against the archons. Any delinquency involved a
trial before the Heliaea. Finally an examination took place at
the end of the year of office, when each archon had to answer for
his actions with person and possessions; till then he could not
leave the country, be adopted into another family, dispose of
his property, nor receive any " crown of honour." A similar
investigation took place with regard to the assessors (paredrf)
whom the three senior archons chose to assist them. The archons
at the end of their year of office (some say on entering upon office)
became members of the Areopagus, which was, therefore, a body
composed of ex-archons of tried probity and wisdom. The
archons as a body retained some duties such as the appointment
of jurymen, the sortition of the athhthetae, &c. (but see Gilbert's
Antiquities, Eng. trans., p. 251, n. 1). On entering upon office
the archon (archon eponymus) made proclamation by his herald
that he would not interfere with private property. His official
residence was the Prytaneum where he presided over all questions
of family, e.g. the protection of parents against children and
vice verse, protection of widows, wardship of heiresses and
orphans, divorce; in religious matters he superintended the
Dkmysia, the Thargeua, the processions in honour of Zeus the
Saviour and Asclepius. The archon basileus superintended the
holy places, the mysteries, the Lampadephoria (Torch race), &c,
questions of national religion and certain cases of bloodguiltiness.
His official residence was the Stoa Basildos, and his wife, as
officially representing the wife of Dionysus, was called Basilinna.
The polemarch, who was at any rate titular commander down
to about 487 b.c. (see above; and Herod, vi. 100, Mfaarot
ifa+ido&poi), became in the 5th century a sort of consul who
watched over the rights of resident aliens (metoeci) in their
family and legal affairs. He offered sacrifices to Artemis Agrotera
and Enyalios, superintended efitaphia and arranged for the
annual honours paid to the tyrannicides. His official residence
was the Epityceum (formerly called the Polemarcheion).
BtBLiOORAPHY.— G. Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities (Eng.
trans., 1805) ; Eduard Meyer's GtschichU des AUerthums, it. sect. 228 ;
A. H. J. Grecnidge. Handbook of Cruh Constitutional Hist, (1895);
J. W. Headlam. Election by Lot in Athens (Camb., 1891): and
authorities quoted under Greece: History, ancient, and Athens:
History. (J- M. M.)
446
ARCHPRIEST— ARCOT
ARCHPRIBST (Lat. or chi presbyter, Gr. dpxurperfOrcpos), in
the Christian Church, originally the title of the chief of the
priests in a diocese. The office appears as early as the 4th cent-
ury as that of the priest who presided over the presbyters of
the diocese and assisted the bishop in matters of public worship,
much as the archdeacon helped him in administrative affairs.
Where, as in Germany, the dioceses were of vast extent, these
were divided into several archpresbyterates. Out of these
developed the rural deaneries, the office of archprjest being
ultimately merged in that of rural dean, with which it became
synonymous. It thus became strictly subordinate to the
jurisdiction of the archdeacon. In Rome itself, as the office of
archdeacon grew into that of cardinal-camerlengo, so that of
archpriest of St Peter's developed into that of the cardinal-vicar.
In England from 1508 until the appointment of a vicar-apostolic
in 10 23 the Roman Catholic clergy were placed by the pope
under an " archpriest " as superior of the English mission.
In the Lutheran Church in Germany the title archpriest (£rg-
priestcr) was in some cases long retained as the equivalent of
that of superintendent, sometimes also still called dean (Dcchant),
his functions being much the same as those of the rural dean.
ARCHYTAS (c. 428-347 B.C.), of Tarentum, Greek philosopher
and scientist of the Pythagorean school, famous as the intimate
friend of Plato, was the son of Mnesagoras or Histiaeus. Equally
dtstinguishedin natural science,philosophyand theadminjstration
of civic affairs, he takes a high place among the versatile savants
of the ancient Greek world. He was a man of high character
and benevolent disposition, a fine flute-player, and a generous
master to his slaves, for whose children he invented the rattle.
He took a prominent part in state affairs, and, contrary to
precedent, was seven times elected commander of the army.
Under his leadership, Tarentum fought with unvarying success
against the Messapii, Lucania and even Syracuse. After a
life of high intellectual achievement and uninterrupted public
service, he was drowned (according to a tradition suggested by
Horace, Odes, L 28) on a voyage across the Adriatic, and was
buried, as we are told, at Matinum in Apulia. He is described
as the eighth leader of the Pythagorean school, and was a pupil
(not the teacher, as some have maintained) of Philolaus, In
mathematics; he was the first to draw up a methodical treatment
of mechanics with the aid of geometry; he first distinguished
harmonic progression from arithmetical and geometrical pro-
gressions. As a geometer be is classed by Eudemus, the greatest
ancient authority, among those who " have enriched the science
with original theorems, and given it a really sound arrangement."
He evolved an ingenious solution of the duplication of the cube,
which shows considerable knowledge of the generation of cylinders
and cones. The theory of proportion, and the study of acoustics
and music were considerably advanced by his investigations.
He was said to be the inventor of a kind of flying-machine, a
wooden pigeon balanced by a weight suspended from a pulley,
and set in motion by compressed air escaping from a valve. 1
Fragments of his ethical and metaphysical writings are quoted
by Stobacus, Simplicius and others. To portions of these
Aristotle has been supposed to have been indebted for his doc-
trine of the categories and some of his 'chief ethical theories.
It is, however, certain that these fragments are mainly forgeries,
attributable to the eclecticism of the xst or 2nd century aj>.,
of which the chief characteristic was a desire to father later
doctrines on the old masters. Such fragments as seem to be
authentic are of small philosophical value. It is important to
notice that Archytas must have been famous as a philosopher,
inasmuch as Aristotle wrote a special treatise (not extant)
On the Philosophy of Archytas. Some positive idea of his specu-
lations may be derived from two of his observations: the one
in which he notices that the parts of animals and plants are in
general rounded in form, and the other dealing with the sense of
hearing, which, in virtue of its limited receptivity, he compares
1 If this be the proper translation of Aulus Gellius, Nodes AUicae,
x. 12.9." . . . simulacrum colu mbae e I igno . . . factum: itaerat
scilicet libramentis suspensum et aura spsntus inclusa atque occulta
" (See Aeronautics.)
with vessels, which arhen filled can hold no more, Two important
principles are illustrated by these thoughts, (1) that there is no
absolute distinction between the organic and the inorganic, and
(2) that the argument from final causes is no explanation of
phenomena. Archytas may be quoted as an example of Plato's
perfect ruler, the philosopher-king, who combines practical
sagacity with high character and philosophic insight.
259 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry. Lond., 1
Geometry ft
Mathen '
JiSti
necn.; ineooor uompenr, uree* winters, it.
;. Berry, Lond., 1005); G. J. Allman, Greek
to Euclid (1889) ; Florian Cajori, History *4
irk, 1894); M - Cantor, Gesch. d. «r. Math.
Worn Tholes i
Mathematics (New York,
'1894 foil.). The mathematical fragments are collected by Fr. BUss,
Muanges Graux (Paris, 1884). For Pythagorean mathematics see
further Pythagoras.
ARCIS-SUR-AUBB, a town of eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Aube, on the left bank of
the Aube, 23 m. N. of Troycs on the Eastern railway to Chalons-
sur-Marne. Pop. (1906) 2803. Fires in 1719, 1727 and 1814
destroyed the ancient buildings, and it is now a town built in
modern style with wide and regular streets. A chateau of the
1 8th century occupies the site of an older one in which Diana
of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II., resided. The only other
building of interest is the church, which dates from the 15th
century. In front of it there is a statue of Danton, a native
of the town. Arcis-aur-Aube has a tribunal of first instance.
Its industries include important hosiery manufactures, and it
carries on trade in grain and coal. The town communicates
with Paris by means of the Aube, which becomes navigable at
this point.
A battle was fought here on the 20th and aist of March
18x4 between Napoleon and the Austro-Russian army under
Schwarzcnberg (see Napoleonic Campaigns).
AROOLA, a village of northern Italy, 16 m. E.S.E. of Verona,
on the Alpone stream, near its confluence with the Adige below
Verona. The village gives its name to the three days' battle of
Areola (15th, x6th and 17th of November 1706), in which the
French, under General Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Aus-
trians commanded by Allvintcy (see French Revolutionary
Wars).
ARCOS DB LA PROHTBRA, a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Cadiz ; on the right bank of the river Guadalete,
which flows past Santa Maria into the Bay of Cadis. Pop. ( 1000)
13,926. The town occupies a ridge of sandstone, washed on
three sides by the river, and commanding fine views of the lofty
peak of San Cristobal, on the east, and the fertile Guadalete
valley, celebrated in ancient Spanish ballads for its horses. At
the highest point of the ridge is a Gothic church with a fine
gateway, and a modern tower overlooking the town. The fame
of its ten bells dates from the wars between Spaniards and Moors
in which " Arcos of the Frontier " received its name. After its
capture by Alphonso the Wise of Castile (1252-1284), the town
was a Christian stronghold on the borders of Moorish territory.
Another church contains several Moorish banners, taken in
1483 at the battle of Zahara, a neighbouring village. The
ruined citadel, the theatre, and the palace of the dukes of Arcos
are the only other noteworthy buildings. Roman remains have
been found in the vicinity, and the ridge of Arcos is honeycombed
with rock-hewn chambers, said to be ancient cave-dwellings.
See Galena de Arcobricensts Ulustres (Arcos, T&92), and Riavrsa
yculturade Arcos de la Frontera (Arcos, 1898) ; both by M. Manchcno
y Olivares.
ARCOSOUUM (from Lat arcus, arch, and solium, a sarco-
phagus), an architectural term applied to an arched recess used
as a burial place in a catacomb (?.».).
ARGOT, the name of a city and two districts of British India
in the presidency of Madras. Arcot city is the principal town in
the district of North Arcot. It occupies a very prominent place
in the history of the British conquest of India, but it has now
lost its manufactures and trade and preserves only a few mosques
and tombs as traces of its former grandeur. It is a station on
the line of railway from Madras to Beypur, but has ceased to be
ARCTIC— ARCUEIL
447
a military cantonment. The most famous episode in its history
Is the capture and defence of Arcot by Give. In the middle
of the 1 8th century, during the war between the rival claimants
to the throne of theCarnatic, Mahommcd Ali and Chanda Sahib,
the English supported the claims of the former and the French
those of the latter. In order to divert the attention of Chanda
Sahib and his French auxiliaries from the siege of Trichinopoly,
Give suggested an attack upon Arcot and offered to command
the expedition. His offer was accepted; but the only force
which could be spared to him was 200 Europeans and 300 native
troops to attack a fort garrisoned by izco men. The place,
however, was abandoned without a struggle and Clive took
possession of the fortress. The expedition produced the desired
effect; Chanda Sahib was obliged to detach a large force of
10,000 men to recapture the city, and the pressure on the English
garrison at Trichinopoly was removed. Arcot was afterwards
captured by the French; but in 1760 was retaken by Colonel
Coote after the battle of Wandiwash. It was also taken by
Hyder Ali when that invader ravaged the Carnatk in 1780, and
held by him for some time. The town of Arcot, together with
the whole of the territory of the Carnatk, passed into the hands
of the British in 1801, upon the formal resignation of the govern-
ment by the nawab, Azim-ud-daula, who received a liberal
pension.
The district of North Arcot is bounded on the N. by the
districts of Cuddapah and Nellore; on the E. by the district
of Chingleput; on the S. by the districts of South Arcot and
Salem; and on the W. by the Mysore territory. The area of
North Arcot is 7386 sq. m., and the population in 1001 was
2,207,71 2, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The aspect
of the country, in the eastern and southern parts, is flat and
uninteresting; but the western parts, where it runs along the
foot of the Eastern Ghats, as well as all the country northwards
from Trivellam to Tripali and the Karkambadi Pass, are moun-
tainous, with an agreeable diversity of scenery. The elevated
platform in the west of the district is comparatively cool, being
2000 ft. above the level of the sea, with a mean maximum of the
thermometer in the hottest weather of 88°. The hills are com-
posed principally of granite and syenite, and have little vegetation.
Patches of stunted jungle here and there diversify their rugged
and barren aspect; but they abound in minerals, especially
copper and iron ores. The narrow valleys between the hills
are very fertile, having a rich soil and an abundant water-supply
even in the driest seasons. The principal river in the district
is the Palar, which rises in Mysore, and flows through North
Arcot from west to east pasl the towns of VcUore and Arcot, into
the neighbouring district of Chingleput, eventually falling into
the sea at Sadras. Although a considerable stream in the rainy
season, and often impassable, the bed is dry or nearly so during
the rest of the year. Other smaller rivers of the district are the
Paini, which passes near Chittore and falls into the Palar, the
Sonanrakhi and the Chayaur. These streams are all dry during
the hot season, but in the rains they flow freely and replenish
the numerous tanks and irrigation channels. The administrative
headquarters are at Chittore, but the largest towns are Vellore
(the military station), Tirupati (a great religious centre), and
Walla japet and Kalahasti (the two chief places of trade).
The district of South Arcot is bounded on the N. by the dis-
tricts of North Arcot and Chingleput; on the E. by the French
territory of Pondicherry and the Bay of Bengal; on the S. by
the British districts of Tanjore and Trichinopoly; and on the
W. by the British district of Salem. It contains an area of 5217
sq. m.; and its population in 1001 was 2,349,804, showing an
increase of 9 % in the decade. The aspect of the district resembles
that of other parts of the Coromandel coast. It is low and sandy
near the sea, and for the most part level till near the western
border, where ranges of hills form the boundary between this
and the neighbouring district of Salem. These ranges arc in
some parts about 5000 ft. high, with solitary hills scattered about
the district. In the western tracts, dense patches of jungle
furnish covert to tigers, leopards, bears and monkeys. The
principal liver is the Coleroon which forms the southern boundary
of the district, separating it from Trichinopoly. This river is
abundantly supplied with water during the greater part of the
year, and two irrigating channels distribute its waters through
the district. The other rivers are the Vellar, Pennar, and Gada-
lum, all of which are used for irrigation purposes. Numerous
small irrigation channels lead off from them, by means of which
a considerable area of waste land has been brought under culti-
vation. Under the East India Company, a commercial resident
was stationed at Cuddalore, and the Company's weavers were
encouraged by many privileges. The manufacture and export
of native cloth have now been almost entirely superseded by the
introduction of European piece goods. The chief seaport of the
district of South Arcot is Cuddalore, dose to the site of Fort
St David. The principal crops in both districts are rice, millet,
other food grains, oil-seeds and indigo.
ARCTIC (Gr. 'Apcrot, the Bear, the northern constellation
of Ursa Major), the epithet applied to the region round the
North Pole, covering the area (both ocean and lands) where
the characteristic polar conditions of climate, &c, obtain.
The Arctic Circle is drawn at 66° 30' N. (see Polar Regions).
ARCTINUS, of Miletus, one of the earliest poets of Greece
and contributors to the epic cycle. He flourished probably about
744 B.C. (01. 7). His poems are lost, but an idea of them can be
gained from the Ckrestomatky written by Produs theNco-Platonist
of the 5th century or by a grammarian of the same name in the
time of the Antonines. The Aetkiopis (AWtoxls), in five books,
was so called from the Aethiopian Memnon, who became the ally
of the Trojans after the death of Hector. As the opening shows,
it took up the narrative from the dose of the Iliad. It begins
with the famous deeds and death of the Amazon Penthesileia,
and concludes with the death and burial of Achilles and the
dispute between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms. The title
thus only applied to part of the poem. The Sack of Troy ( 'I Xiov
Xlipmi) gives the stories of the wooden horse, Sinon, and Laocoon,
the capture of the dty, and the departure of the Greeks under
the wrath of Athene at the outrage of Ajax on Cassandra. The
Liltlc Iliad (Tycdr fttxpa) of Lesches formed the transition between
the Aelhiopis and the Sack of Troy.
Kinkcl, Epicorum Graecorum Frogmenta (1877); Wclcker, Der
epUcke Cyclus; Mailer, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;
Lang, Homer and the Epic (1803) ; Monro, Journal of Hellenic Studies
(1883); T. W. Allen in Classical Quarterly, April 1908, pp. 82 foil.
ARCTURUS* the brightest star in the northern hemisphere,
situated in the constellation Bootes (q.v.) in an almost direct
line with the tail ({* and y) of the constellation Ursa Major
(Great Bear); hence its derivation from the Gr. ApKros, bear,
and o&pot, guard. Arcturus has been supposed to be referred
to in various passages of the Hebrew Bible; the Vulgate reads
Arcturus for stars mentioned in Job ix. 9, xxxvii. 9, xxxviii. 31,
as well as Amos v. 8. Other versions, as also modern authorities,
have preferred, e.g., Orion, the Pleiades, the Scorpion, the Great
Bear(cf.4w^inthe'lnternationalCritical Comment/' series,and
G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the O.T., Eng. trans., Oxford, 1905,
ch. iv.) . According to one of the Greek legends about Areas, son of
Lycaon, king of Arcadia, he was killed by his father and his flesh
was served up in a banquet to Zeus, who was indignant at the
crime and restored him to life. Subsequently Areas, when hunting,
chanced to pursue his mother Callisto, who had been trans-
formed into a bear, as far as the temple of Lycaean Zeus; to
prevent the crime of matricide Zeus transported them both to
the heavens (Ovid, Mtlam. ii. 410), where Callisto became the
constellation Ursa Major, and Areas the star Arcturus (see
Lycaon and Callisto).
ARCUEIL, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine, on the Bievre, 2} m. N.E.of Sceaux on the railway from
Paris to Limours. Pop. (1006) 8660. The town has an interest-
ing church dating from the 13th to the 15th century. It takes
its name from a Roman aqueduct, the Arcus Juliani (ArcuK),
some traces of which still remain. In 1613-1624 a bridge-
aqueduct over 1300 ft. long was constructed to convey water
from the spring of Rungis some 4 m. south of Arcueil, across
the Bievre to the Luxembourg palace in Paris. In 1868-187,2
448
ARCULF— ARDASHIR
another aqueduct, still longer, was superimposed above that of
the 17th century, forming part of the system conveying water
from the river Vanneto Paris. The two together reach a height
of about 135 ft. Bleaching, and the manufacture of bottle
capsules, patent leather and other articles are carried on at
Arcueil; and there are important stone-quarries.
ARCULF, a Gallioan bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who
rated the Levant about 680, and was the earliest Christian
traveller and observer of any importance in the Nearer East
after the rise of Islam. On his return he was driven by contrary
winds. to Britain, and so came to Iona, where he related his
experiences to his host, the abbot Adamnan (670-704). This
narrative, as written out by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith
the Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about
701, and came to the knowledge of Bcde, who inserted a
brief summary of the same in his Ecclesiastical History of the
English Nation, and also drew up a separate and longer digest
which obtained great popularity throughout the middle ages as
a standard guide-book (the so-called LibeUus de locis Sanctis)
to the Holy Places of Syria. Arculf is the first to mention the
column at Jerusalem, which claimed to mark the exact centre of
the Inhabited Earth, and later became one of the favourite
Palestine wonders. Besides a valuable account of the principal
sacred sites of Judaea, Samaria and Galilee as they existed in the
7th century, he also gives important information as to Alexandria
and Constantinople, briefly describes Damascus and Tyre, the
Nile and the Lipari volcanoes, and refers to the caliph Moawiya I .
(aj>. 661-680), whom he pictures as befriending Christians and
rescuing the " sudarium " of Christ from the Jews. Arculf s
record is especially useful from its plans, drawn from personal
observation by the traveller himself, of the churches of the Holy
Sepulchre and of Mount Sion in Jerusalem, of the Ascension
on Olivet and of Jacob's well at Sichem. It is also a useful
witness to the prosperity and trade of Alexandria after the
Moslem conquest: it tells us how the Pharos was still lit up every
night; and it gives us (from Constantinople) the first form of the
story of St George which ever seems to have attracted notice in
Britain.
Thirteen MSS. of the original Arculf-Adamnan narrative exist,
and fully 100 of Bcde's abridgment : of the former, the most im-
portant, containing all the plans, arc ( 1) Bern, Canton Library, 582, of
Qth cent. ; (2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 13,048, of 9th cent. ; a third
MS., London. B. Mui, Cotton, Tib. D. V., of 8th-Qth cents., though
damaged by fire and lacking the illustrations, is of value for the
text, being the oldest of all. Among editions the first is of 1619,
by Gretscr: the best, that of 1877, by Tobler, in Itinera el De-
seriptiones Terra* Sanctae; we may also mention that of 1 870, by
Delpit, in his £5401 sur Us anciens pHerinages a Jerusalem; see also
Delpit's remarks upon Arculf in the same work, pp. 260-304;
Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, I 131-40 (1897).
ARDASHIR, the modern form of the Persian royal name
Artaxerxes (q.v.), "he whose empire is excellent." After the
three Achaemenian kings of this name, it occurs in Armenia, in
the shortened form Artaxias (Armenian, Artashes or Ar taxes),
and among the dynasts of Persia who maintained their inde-
pendence during the Parthian period (see Persis). One of these,
(1) Artaxerxes or Ardashir I. (in his Greek inscriptions he calls
himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias ii. 25,
iv: 34), became the founder of the New-Persian or Sassanian
empire. Of his reign we have only very scanty information, as
the Greek and Roman authors mention only his victory over the
Parthians and his wars with Rome. A trustworthy tradition
about the origin of his power, from Persian sources, has been
preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari (Th. Noldeke, Ce-
sckichte dcr Perser und Araber tur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus der
arabiscken Ckronik des Tabari, 1879). He was the second son of
Papak (Babek), the offspring of Sassan (Sasan), after whom the
dynasty is named. Papak had made himself king of the district
of Istakhr (in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen
to ruins). After the death of Papak and his oldest son Shapur
(Shahpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made himself king (probably
a.d. 2x2), put his other brothers to death and began war against
the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had conquered a
great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king Artabanus
IV. interfered. But he was defeated in three battles and at last
killed (a.d. a 26). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of
the whole empire of the Parthians and called himself " King of
Kings of the Iranians." But his aspirations went farther. In
Persis the traditions of the Achaemenian empire had always been
alive, as the name of Ardashir himself shows, and with them the
national religion of Zoroaster. Ardashir, . who was a zealous
worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate connexion with the
magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian creed as the
official religion of his new kingdom, persecuted the infidels, and
tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the Achat -
menids had extended over the whole of Asia from the Aegean Sea
to the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts
and tried to create a strong concentrated power. His empire is
thus quite different in character from the Parthian kingdom of the
Arsadds, which had no national and religious basis but leant
towards Hellenism, and whose organization had always been very
loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole race of the Arsadds, with
the exception of those princes who had found refuge in Armenia,
and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian tradition
shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in
subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia.
The Parthian capital Ctesiphon (q.v.) remained the principal
residence of the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national
metropolis Istakhr, which was too far out of the way to become
the centre of administration. Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the
right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir restored Seleuda under the
name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer Mesopotamia,
Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which be
was repelled by Alexander Severus (a.d. 233). Before his death
(a.d. 241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son
Shapur, who successfully continued his work.
Under the tombs of Darius L at Persepolis, on the surface of
the rock, Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god
Ahuramazda (Ormuzd or Ormazd). Both are on horseback;
the god is giving the diadem to the king. Under the horse of the
king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian king Artaban; under
the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Ahriman, with two snakes rising
from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and Pahlavi),
Ardashir I. calls himself " the Mazdayasnian [ix. " worshipper of
Ahuramazda "] god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes
(Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Papak the king."
(Sec Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels (1821-1822), i. 548 foil.; Flandin
et Costc, Voyage en Peru, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J. C. Andreas,
Persepolis, pi. 116; Marcel Dieulafoy, L'Art antique de la Perse,
1 884-1889, v. pi. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a
rock, near Gur (Firuzabad) in Persia. On his coins he has the
same titles (in Pahlavi). We see that he, like his father and his
successors, were worshipped as gods, probably as incarnations of a
secondary deity of the Persian creed.
Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire,
that of Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with
legends; like Cyrus he is the son of a shepherd, his future
greatness is predicted by dreams and visions, and by the calcula-
tions of astronomers he becomes a servant at the court of King
Artabanus and then flies to Persia and begins the rebellion; he
fights with the great dragon, the enemy of god, &c A Pahlavi
text, which contains this legend, has been translated by Noldeke
(CeschichU des Artachshir i Pdpakan, 1879). On the same
tradition the account of Firdousi in the Shahnama is based ; it
occurs also, with some variations, in Agathias ii. 26 f. Another
work, which contained religious and moral admonitions which
were put into the mouth of the king, has not come down to us.
On the other hand the genealogy of Ardashir has of course been
connected with the Achaemenids, on whose behalf he exacts
vengeance from the Parthians, and with the legendary kings of
old Iran.
(2) Ardashir II. (370-383). Under the reign of his brother
Shapur II. he had been governor (king) of Adiabene, where he
persecuted the Christians. After Shapur's death, he was raised to
the throne by the magnates, although more than seventy years
old. Having tried to make himself independent from the court,
ARDEA— ARDECHE
449
and having executed some of the grandees, lw was deposed altera
reign of four years.
(3) Awashr III. (628-630), son of Kavadh II., was raised to
the throne as a boy of seven years, but was killed two years
afterwards by his general, Shahrbaraz. (Ed. M.)
ARDEA, a town of the Rutuli in Latium, 3 m. from the S.W.
coast, where fts harbour (Castrum Inui) lay, at the mouth of
the stream now known as Fosso dell' Incastro, and 23 m. S.
of Rome by the Via Ardeatina. It was founded, according to
legend, either by a son of Odysseus and Circe, or by Danae,
the mother of Perseus. It was one of the oldest of the coast
cities of Latium, and a place of considerable importance; accord-
ing to tradition the Ardeatines and Zacynthians joined in the
foundation of Saguntum in Spain. It was the capital of Turn us,
the opponent of Aeneas. It was conquered by Tarquinius
Superbus, and appears as a Roman possession in the treaty with
Carthage of 509 B.C., though it was later one of the thirty cities
of the Latin league. In 445 b.c an unfair decision by the Romans
m a frontier dispute with Aricia led, according to the Roman
historians, to a rising; the town became a Latin colony 442 B.C.,
and shortly afterwards it appears as the place of exile of Camillus.
It had the charge of the common shrine of Venus in Lavimum.
It was devastated by the Sammies, was one of the 12 Latin
colonies that refused in 209 b.c. to provide more soldiers, and
was in 186 used as a state prison, like Alba and Setia. In imperial
times the unhealthiness of the place led to its rapid decline,
though it remained a colony. In the forests of the neighbourhood
the imperial elephants were kept. A road, the Via Ardeatina,
led to Ardea direct from Rome; the gate by which it left the
Servian wall was the Porta Naevia; a large tomb behind the
baths of Caracalla lay on its course, The gate by which it left
the Aurelian wall has been obliterated by the bastion of Antonio
da Sangallo (Ch. Hillsen in Romiscke Miltcilungcn, 1894, 320).
The site of the primitive city, which later became the citadel,
is occupied by the modern town; it is situated at the end of a
long plateau between two valleys, and protected by perpendicular
tufa cliffs some 60 ft high on all sides except the north-east,
where it joins the plateau. Here it is defended by a fine wall
of opus quadratum of tufa, in alternate courses of headers and
stretchers. Within its area are scanty remains of the podium
of a temple and of buildings of the imperial period. The road
entering it from the south-west is deeply cut in the rock. The
area of the place was apparently twice extended, a further
portion of the narrow plateau, which now bears the name of
Civita Vecchia, being each time taken in and defended by a mound
and ditch; the nearer and better-preserved is about \ m. from
the city and measures some 2000 ft. long, 133 ft wide and 66 ft.
high, the ditch being some 80 ft wide. The second, \ m. farther
north-east, is smaller. In the cliffs below the plateau to the
north are early rock habitations, and upon the plateau primitive
Latin pottery has been found. In 1900 a group of tombs cut in
the rock was examined; they are outside the farther mound
and ditch, and belong, therefore, to the period after the second
extension of the city.
See O. Richtcr, in Annali dtlV 1st Unto (1884). 90; J. H. Parker
in Arckaeoltgio, xlix. 169 (1885); A. Pasqui, in N otitic detli scam,
(1900) 53- (T. As.)
ARDEBIL, or Akdabil, chief town of a district, or sub-
province, of same name, of the province of Azerbaijan in north-
western Persia, in lat. 38 14' N., and long. 48 21' E., and at
an elevation of 4500 ft. It is situated on the Baluk Su (Fish
river), a tributary of the Kara Su (Black river), which flows
northwards to the Aras, and in a fertile plain bounded on the
west by Mount Savelan, a volcanic cone with an altitude of
25,792 ft. (Russian triangulation), and on the east by the Talish
mountains (0000 ft). Ardebil has a population of about 10,000,
and post and telegraph offices. Its trade, principally in the
hands of Armenians, is still important, but is chiefly a transit
trade between Russia and Persia by way of Astara, a port on
the Caspian 30 ra. north-east of Ardebil. It is surrounded by* a
ruinous mud wall flanked by towers; a quarter of a mile east of
it stands a mud fort, 180 yds. square, constructed according
to European system of fortification. Inside the city are the
famous sepulchres and shrines of Shaikh San ud-din and his
descendant Shah Ismail I. (1502-1524) the first Shiah shah of
Persia and founder of the Safavi dynasty. Plans and photo-
graphs of the shrines were taken in 1897 by Dr F. Sarre of Berlin
and published in xoox {Denkmtter Pcrsischer Baukunst; 65 large
folio plates).
European and Chinese merchants resided at Ardebil in the
middle ages, and for a long time the city was a great emporium
for central Asian and Indian merchandise, which was forwarded
to Europe via Tabriz, Trebizond and the Black Sea, and also
by way of the Caucasus and the Volga. Since the beginning of
the 16th century, when Persia fell under the sway of the Safavis,
the place has been much frequented by pilgrims who come to
pay their devotions at the shrine of Shaikh SafL This shrine
is a richly endowed establishment with mosques and college
attached, and had a fine library containing many rare and
valuable MSS. presented by Shah Abbas I. at the beginning
of the 17th century, and mostly carried off by the Russians in
1828 and placed in the library at St Petersburg. The grand
carpet which had covered the floor of one of the mosques for
three centuries was purchased by a traveller about 1800 for
£zoo, and was finally acquired by the South Kensington Museum
for many thousands. This beautiful carpet measures 34 ft by
17 ft 6 in., and contains 380 hand-tied knots in the square inch,
which gives over 32,500,000 knots to the whole carpet (W. Griggs,
Asian Carpet Designs). (A. H.-S.)
ARD&CHB, an inland department of south-eastern France,
formed in 1790 from the Vivarais, a district of Languedoc
Pop. (1906) 347,140. Area, 2145 sq. m. It is bounded N.W.
by the department of Loire, E. by the Rhone which divides it
from Isere and Drome, S. by Gard and W. by Loaere and Haute-
Loire. The surface of Ardeche is almost entirely covered by
the Cevennes mountains, the main chain, continued in the
Boutieres mountains, forming its western boundary. Its centre
is traversed from south-east to north-west by the Coiron range
which extends from the Rhone to the Mont Mezcnc (5755 ft.),
the highest point in the department, and the oldest of its many
volcanoes. These mountains separate the southern half of the
department, which comprises the basin of the Ardeche, from the
northern half which is watered by numerous smaller tributaries
of the Rhone, the chief of which arc the £rieux and the Doux.
A few rivers belong to the Atlantic side of the watershed, the chief
being the Loire, which rises on the western borders of the depart-
ment, and the Allier, which for a short distance separates it
from Lozere. Nearly all the rivers of the department are of
torrential swiftness and subject to sudden floods. The scenery
through which they flow is often of great beauty and grandeur.
Natural curiosities are the Pont d'Arc, over the Ardeche, and
the Chaussee des Geants, near Vals. The climate in the valley
of the Rhone is, in general, warm, and sometimes very hot;
but westward, as the elevation increases, the cold becomes more
intense and the winters longer. Some districts, especially in
summer, are liable to sudden alterations in the temperature.
Rye, wheat and potatoes are the chief crops cultivated. Good
red and white wines are grown in the hilly region bordering the
Rhone valley, the white wine of St P£ray being highly esteemed.
The principal fruits are the chestnut, which is largely exported,
the olive and the walnut. In the rearing of silk-worms, Ardeche
ranks second to Gard among French departments, and great
numbers of mulberry trees are grown for the purposes of this
industry. The many goats and sheep of Ardeche make it one
of the chief sources of supply of skins for glove-making. Mines
of coal, iron, lead and zinc are worked, and the quarries furnish
hydraulic lime (Le Teil) and other products. Besides flour-mills,
distilleries and saw-mills, there are important silk-mills and
leather-works and paper-factories. Annonay is the principal
industrial town. The department exports wine, cattle, lime,
mineral waters, silk, paper, &c. Hot springs are numerous,
and some of them, as those of Vals, St Laurent-les-Bains,
Cellcs and Ncyrac, are largely resorted to. Ardeche is served
by the Paris-Lyon-M£diterran6e railway and has some 43 in.
45°
ARDEE— ARDENNES
of navigable waterway. The department is divided into the
arrondissements of Privas, Largcntiere and Tournon, with 31
cantons and 342 communes. It forms the diocese of Viviers
and part of the archiepiscopal province of Avignon, It is in the
region of the XV. army corps, and within the circumscription
of the acadbnic (educational division) of Grenoble. Its court
of appeal is at NImcs. Privas, the capital, Annonay, Aubenas,
Largcntidre and Tournon are the principal towns. Bourg-St
Andfol, Thines, Mllas and Cruas have interesting Romanesque
churches. Mazan has remains of a Cistercian abbey founded
in the 12th century to which its vast church belongs. Viviers
is an old town with a church of various styles of architecture
and several old houses.
ARDEE, a market-town of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, on the river Dee, 48 m. N. by W. from
Dublin on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop.
(1001) 1883. It has some trade in grain and basket-making.
The town is of high antiquity, and its name (Ather-dee) is taken
to signify the ford of the Dee. A form Ath-Firdia, however, is
connected with the ancient story of the warrior Cuchullain of
Ulster, who, while defending the ford against the men of Con-
naught, was forced to slay many with whom he was on friendly
terms, and among them the warrior Firdia, whom he regarded
with special affection. A castle Of the lords of the manor was
built early in the 14th century, and remains, as does another
adjacent fortified building of the same period. Roger dc Peppart,
lord of the manor early in the 13th century, founded the present
Protestant church and a house of Crutched Friars. There was
also a house of Carmelite Friars, but neither of these remains.
Ardee received its first recorded charter in 1377. It had a full
share in the several Irish wars, being sacked by Edward Bruce
(1315) and by O'Neill (1538); and it was taken by the Irish and
recaptured by the English in the wars of 1641, and was occupied
later by the forces of James II. and of William III. It returned two
members to the Irish parliament. A large rath, or encampment,
with remains of fortifications, stands to the south of the town.
ARDEN, FOREST OF, a district in the north of Warwickshire,
England, the " woodland " as opposed to the " felden," or
"fielden," i.e. open country, in the south, the river Avon sep-
arating the two. Originally it was part of a forest tract of far
wider extent than that within the confines of the county, and
now, though lacking the true character of a forest, it is still
unusually well wooded. The undulating surface ranges for the
most part from 250 to 500 ft. in elevation. Wide lands in this
district were held in the time of Edward the Confessor by Alwin,
whose son Thurkill of Warwick, or " of Arden," founded the
family of the Warwickshire Ardens who in Queen Elizabeth's
time still held several of the manors ascribed to Thurkill in
Domesday. Shakespeare, whose mother Mary Arden claimed to
be of this family, knew the district well, living as he did at
Stratford; and its natural characteristics, then still unchanged,
inspired his pictures of forest life in A s You Like It. The name
of the Forest of Arden, besides remaining a convenient designa-
tion of a well-marked physical area, is preserved in such place-
names as Henley-in-Ardcn and Hampton-in-Arden.
ARDENNES, a district covering some portion of the ancient
forest of Ardenne, and extending over the Belgian province of
Luxemburg, part of the grand duchy, and the French depart-
ment of Ardennes. Brazen Lamartinierc states in his Diction-
noire Gtographique that the Gauls and Bretons called it by a
word signifying " the forest," which was turned into Latin as
Arduenna silvo, and he thinks it quite probable that the name
was really derived from the Celtic word ardu (dark, obscure).
The Arduenna Silva was the most extensive forest of Gaul, and
Caesar {Bella Gallico, lib. vi. cap. 29) describes it as extending
from the Rhine and the confines of the Treviri as far as the
limits of the Nervii. In book v. the Roman conqueror describes
his campaign against Indutiomarus and the Treviri in the
Ardenne forest. Strabo gave it still greater extent, treating it
as covering the whole region from the Rhine to the North Sea.
It is safer to give it the more reasonable dimensions of Caesar,
and to accept the verdict of later commentators that it never
extended west of the Scheldt. At the division of the empire
of Charlemagne between the three sons of Louis the D£bonnaire,
effected by the pact of Verdun in 843, the forest had become a
district and is called therein pagus Arduensis. It was part of
the division that fell to Lothair, and several of the charters
of 843 expressly specify certain towns as being situated in this
pagus. In the 10th century the district had become icomitaius,
subject to the powerful count of Verdun, who changed bis style
to that of count of Ardenne.
The Belgian Ardennes may be said now to extend from the
Meuse above Dinant on the west to the grand duchy of Luxem-
burg and Rhenish Prussia as far north as the Baraque de
Michel on the east, and from a line drawn eastward from Dinant
through Marcbe, Durbuy and Stavelot to the Hautcs Fagnes
on the north, to the French frontier roughly marked by the
Semois valley in the south. Within these limits there arc still
some of the finest woods in Europe, which seem to have come
down to us almost intact from the days of the Arduenna of
Caesar. Notable among these portions of the great forest are
the woods of St Hubert, the woods round La Roche, and those
of the Amerois, Herbeumont, and Chiny on the Semois. In the
grand duchy the forest has almost entirely disappeared, but
owing to the compulsory law of replanting in Belgium this fate
does not seem likely to attend the Belgian Ardennes.
In addition to being a forest the Ardennes is a plateau, and
it offers to the geologist a most interesting field of investigation.
The greater part of the Ardennes is occupied by a large area of
Devonian beds, through which rise the Cambrian masses of
Rocroi and Stavelot, and a few others of smaller size. Upon
the folded slates and schists which constitute these inliers the
Devonian rests with marked unconformity; but north of the
ridge of Condroz Ordovician and Silurian beds make their
appearance. Near Dinant carboniferous beds are infolded
among the Devonian. Along the northern margin lies the
intensely folded belt which constitutes the coalfield of Namur,
and, beneath the overlying Mesozoic beds, is continued to the
Boulonnais, Dover and beyond. The southern boundary of this
belt is formed by a great thrust-plane, the faille du midi, along
which the Devonian beds of the south have been thrust over the
carboniferous beds of the coalfield.
The Ardennes are the holiday ground of the Belgian people,
and much of this region is still unknown except to the few
persons who by a happy chance have discovered its remoter
and hitherto well-guarded charms. There is still an immense
quantity of wild game to be found in the Ardennes, including
red and roe deer, wild boar, &c. The shooting is preserved
either by the few great landed proprietors left in the country,
or by the communes, who let the right of shooting to individuals.
Occasionally it is still stated in the press that wolves have been
seen in the Ardennes, but this is a mere fiction. The last wolf
was destroyed there in the 18th century.
ARDENNES, a department of France on the N.E. frontier,
deriving its name from that of the forest, and formed in 1790
from parts of Champagne, Picardy and Hainault. Pop. (1906)
3i7>5<>5< Area, 2028 sq. m. It is bounded N. and N.E. by
Belgium, E. by the department of Meuse, S. by that of Marne,
and W. by that of Aisne. In shape it is quadrilateral with a
cape-like prolongation into Belgium on the north. The slope
of the department is from north-east to south-west, though its
longest river, the Meuse, entering it in the south-east, pursues
a winding course of in m. in a north-westerly, and after-
wards through deep gorges in a northerly, direction. The other
principal river, the Aisne, crosses the southern border and takes
a northerly, then a westerly course, separating the region known
as Champagne Pouilleuse from the more elevated plateau of
Argonne which forms the central zone of the department and
stretches to the left bank of the Meuse. The highest points of
the department are found in the wooded highlands of the
Ardennes which, with an altitude varying between 980 and 1640
ft. , cover the north and north-east. The climate is comparatively
mild in the south-west, but becomes colder and more rainy
towards the north and north-east. Agriculture is carried on to
ARDGLASS— ARECIBO
45 »
most advantage la the Champagne and Argonne. Wheat and
oats are the predominant cereals. Potatoes, rye, lucerne and
other kinds of forage are also important crops. Pasturage is
found chiefly on the banks of the Aisno and Mease and on the
plateau of Rocroi in the north. Horr -raising is carried on in
the neighbourhood of Bmsancy in lie south, arid at Bourg-
Fidele in the north. Fruit-growing is confined to the west and
central districts. The working of slate is very important,
especially in the neighbourhood of Fumay, and quarries pro-
ducing freestone, lime-stone and other minerals are found
in several places. Flour-mills, saw-mills, sugar-works, dis-
tilleries and leather-works are scattered over the department,
but iron-founding and various branches of metal-working which
are active along the valley of the Meuse (Nouzon, &c) are the
chief industries. To these may be added wool-weaving, centred
at Sedan, and minor industries such as the manufacture of
basket-work, wooden shoes, &c Coal and raw wool are pro-
minent imports, while iron goods, cloth, timber, live-stock,
alcohol and the products of the soil are exported. Various
branches of the Eastern railway traverse the department The
Meuse is canalized within the department, and the Canal des
Ardennes, uniting that river with the Aisne, and the lateral canal
of the Aisne are together about 65 m. long. Ardennes is divided
into five arrondissements: Mezieres, Rocroi, Rethel, Vouziers
and Sedan, with 3 1 cantons and 503 communes. The department
forms part of the ecclesiastical province of Reims and of the
circumscriptions of the appeal-court of Nancy and the VI. army
corps. In educational matters, it is included in the tuadimie
(educational area) of Lille. Mezieres, the capital, Charleville,
Rocroi, Sedan and Rethel are the chief towns. Outside them
its finest examples of architecture are the churches of Mouzon
(13th century) and Vouziers (15th century).
ARDGLASS (" Green Height " ), a small town of Co. Down,
Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, at the head of a
rocky bay, in a picturesque situation between two hills, 32 m.
S. by E. of Belfast on a branch of the Belfast & Co. Down
railway. Pop. (1901) 501. Soon after the Norman invasion it
became of the first importance as a port, a fact attested by the
remains of no fewer than five castles in dose proximity, which
give the town a picturesque aspect. There are also an ancient
church crowning the eastern hill, and a curious fortified ware-
house (called the New Works), dating probably from the 14th
century, when a trading company was established here under a
grant from Henry IV. Ardglass was a royal burgh and sent
a representative to the Irish parliament. The chief industry is
the herring fishery. Ships of 500 tons may enter the harbour at
all times. In summer Ardglass is a frequented resort of visitors ;
good bathing and a golf links contribute to its attractions.
AROITIt LUIGI (182 2-1903), Italian musical composer and
conductor, was born in Piedmont, and studied musk at the
Conservatoire in Milan, starting professionally aS a violinist,
and touring with Bottesini, the double-bass player, in the
United States in 1847. He began composing at an early age,
and in 1840 produced an overture, foHowed by an opera
/ Briganti in 1841, and other works. He paid frequent visits to
America, conducting the opera in New York, where he produced
his La Spit in 1856. In 1858 he became conductor of the opera
at Her Majesty's theatre in London, and both in London and
abroad he became famous in this capacity, having the reputation
of being Madame Patti's favourite conductor. His vocal waltz
// Bacio was often sung by her. In 1896 he published his
Reminiscences, and after a long and active musical life he died
at Brighton on the 1st of May 1003.
ARDMORB, a township and .the county-seat of Carter county,
Oklahoma, U. S. A., just S. of the Arbuckle Mountains, about
120 m. S. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1000). 5681; (1007) 8759
(2122 being negroes, and xo8 Indians); (1910) 86x8. It
is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis &
San Francisco, and the Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6 railways.
Ardmore is the market-town and distributing point for the
surrounding agricultural region, which is the home of a large
part of the Chickasaw and Choctaw nations. It is situated
800 ft. above the sea in a cotton and grain producing region, in
which cattle are raised and fruit and vegetables grown; coal,
oil, natural gas and rock asphalt (which is used for paving the
streets of Ardmore) arc found in the vicinity? Ardmore is an
important cotton market, and has cotton gins, a cotton compress,
machine shops, bridge works, foundries, bottling works and
manufactories of cotton-seed oil, brick, concrete, flour, brooms,
mattresses and dressed lumber. At Ardmore are the Saint
Agnes Academy, a Catholic school for girls, and Saint Agnes
College for boys, a conservatory of music, Hargrove College,
and the Selvidge Commercial College. Near Ardmore is a
summer school on the Chautauqua (q.v.) system. Ardmore was
founded in 1887, and was incorporated in 1898*
ARDRBS, a town of northern France in the department of
Pas-de-Calais, 10$ m. by rail S.S.E. of Calais, with which it is also
connected by a canal. Pop. (1006) 1269. The " Field of the
Cloth of Gold," where Henry VIII. of England and Francis I.
of France met in 1520, was at Bahnghem in the •immediate
neighbourhood. The town is an important market for cattle.
ARDROSSAN, a seaport, burgh of barony, and police burgh
of Ayrshire, Scotland, 3 a m. from Glasgow by the Glasgow
& South-Western railway, and 29} m. by the Lanarkshire
& Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901)
6077. The rise of Ardrossan was due to the enterprise of Hugh,
iath earl of Eglinton, who began the construction of the present
town and harbour in 1806. The harbour was intended to be
in connexion with a canal from Glasgow to Ardrossan, but this
was only completed as far as Johnstone. Owing to the costliness
of the undertaking, and the death of the earl in 181 0, the works
were suspended after an outlay of £100,000, but his successor
completed the scheme on a reduced scale at an expense of another
£100,000. The dock accommodation has since been consider-
ably extended, and the town enjoys great prosperity. Steamers
run every week-day to Arran and Belfast, and during summer
there is a service also to Douglas in the Isle of Man. The exports
consist principally of coal and iron from collieries and iron-
works in the neighbourhood; and the imports of timber, ores
and general goods. Shipbuilding thrives and the fisheries are
important. The town is governed by a provost and council.
Saltcoats (pop.' 8x20), a mile to. the south, is a popular sea-
side resort, with a brisk trade, due to its proximity to Ardrossan
and Stevens ton; the making of salt, once a leading industry,
has ceased.
Ardrossan dates from an early period. The name Arthur
of Ardrossan is found in connexion with a charter dated 1226;
and Sir Fergus of Ardrossan accompanied Edward Bruce in has
Irish expedition in 1316, and in 1320 signed the appeal to the
pope, made by the barons of Scotland, against the aggressions
of England. The family of Ardrossan is now merged, by
marriage, in that of the earl of Eglinton and Winton. The castle
where Wallace surprised the English garrison and threw their
corpses into the dungeon, grimly styled " Wallace's Larder,"
was finally destroyed by Cromwell, who is said to have used
part of its masonry for the construction of the fort at Ayr; but
its ruins still exist.
ABBA* a Latin word, originally meaning a threshing-floor,
namely a raised space in a field exposed on all sides to the
wind; now applied in English (x) to a plot of ground on which a
structure is to be erected, (2) to the court or sunk space in the
front or rear of a building, (3) to the superficial space covered
by a district, country, &c, or by a building or court.
ARECIBO, a dty and port on the north coast of Porto Rico,
at the mouth of a small stream called the Rio Grande de Arccibo,
and contiguous to one of the most fertile regions of the island.
Pop. (1809) 8008; of the tributary district, about 30/500; (1910)
96x2. It is connected with San. Juan, Mayaguezand Ponce by
railway. It is a well-built and active commercial dty, and has
a large export trade in coffee and sugar. The harbour is an open
roadstead, very dangerous to shipping in northerly winds, and
the discharge and loading of cargoes is effected by means of
lighters at considerable risk and expense. Arecibo was founded
in 1788.
452
AREMBERG— AREOI
AREMBERG, or Abenbeig, formerly a German duchy of
the Holy Roman Empire in the circle of the Rhine Palatinate,
between Julich and Cologne, and now belonging to the Prussian
administrative district of Coblcnz. The hamlet of Arcmbcrg
is at the foot of a basalt hill 2067 ft. high, on the summit of
which are the ruins of the castle which was the original seat of
the family of Aremberg.
The lords of Aremberg first appear early in the 1 2th century,
but had died out in the male line by 1279. From the marriage
of the heiress Mathilda (1 282-1 299) with Engelbert II., count
of La Marck (d. 1328), sprang two sons. The elder of these,
Adolf II, (d. 1347), inherited the countshipof La Marck; the
second, Engelbert III. (d. 1387), the lordship of Aremberg,
which he increased by his marriage with Marie de Looz, heiress
of Lumain. The lordship of Aremberg remained in his family
till 1 $47, when it passed, by his marriage with Margaret, sister
of the chfldless Robert III., to John of Barbancon, of the great
house of Ligne, who assumed the name and arms of Aremberg,
and was created a count of the Empire by Charles V. He was
governor of Friesland, and for a while commanded the Spanish
and Catholic forces against the " beggars," falling at the battle
of Heiligerlee in 1568. His son Charles (d. 1618) greatly in-
creased the possessions of the house by his marriage with Ann of
Croy, heiress of Croy and of Chimay-Aerschot, and in 1576 was
made prince of the Empire by Maximilian II. His grandson,
Philip Francis, was made duke in 1644 by the emperor
Ferdinand III., and was succeeded by his brother Charles
Eugene (d. 1681), who married Marie Henriette de Vergy de
Cusance, heiress of Perwez (d. 1700). Their son, Duke Philip
Charles Francis, was killed in 1601 fighting against the Turks,
and was succeeded by Leopold (1754). a distinguished soldier
of the War of the Spanish Succession, and patron of Rousseau
and Voltaire. His son Charles (d. 1778) was an Austrian field-
marshal during the Seven Years' War, and married Louise
Margaret of La Marck-Lumain, heiress of the countship of
Schlcidcn and lordship of Saffenberg. By the peace of Luneville
(February z8oz), the next duke, Louis Engelbert, lost the greater
part of his ancestral domain, but received in compensation
Mcppcn and Recklinghausen. On the establishment of the con-
federation of the Rhine, his son Prosper Louis (to whom,
becoming blind, he had ceded his domains in 1803) became a
member (1806), and showed great devotion to the interests of
France; but in 1810 he lost his sovereignty, Napoleon incor-
porating Meppen with France and Recklinghausen with the
grand -duchy of Berg, and indemnifying him by a rent of
240,702 francs. In 181 5 he received back his possessions, which
were mediatized by the congress of Vienna, Recklinghausen
falling to Prussia and Meppen to Hanover. On account of the
one portion he became a peer of the Westphalian estates, and
by the other a member of the upper house in Hanover.
George IV. of England (9th May 1826) elevated the duke's
Hanoverian possessions to a.dukedom under the title of Arcmbcrg
Meppen. His brother Auguste Raymond, Comte de la Marck
(1753-1833), became famous during the early stages of- the
French Revolution for his friendship with Mirabeau (q.v.).
Duke Prosper Louis died in 1861, and was succeeded by his son
Engelbert (d. 1875), who was followed in his turn by his son
Engelbert (b. 1872).
The duke of Aremberg is one of the wealthiest of the great
continental nobles. His feudal domain in Germany covers an
area of over zioo sq. m., besides which he has laTge estates in
Belgium and France. The duke has residences in Brussels,
where he has a famous collection of pictures, and at the chateau
of Kiemenswerth near Meppen.
ARENA (Lat. for " sand "), the central area of an amphitheatre
on which the gladiatorial displays took place, its name being
derived from the sand with which it was covered. The word
is applied sometimes to any level open space on which spectacles
take place.
ARENDAL, a seaport of Norway, in Nedcnaes ami (county),
on the south coast, 46 m. N.E. from Christiansand. Pop. (1000)
.ii f i 55. It rises picturesquely above the mouth of the river Nid,
with a good harbour protected by an island from the open waters
of the Skagerrack. The town itself occupies several islets, and
some of the houses are supported above the water on piles. The
chief exports are timber ( very largely exported to Great Britain),
wood-pulp, sealskins ar I felspar. In 1879 Arcndal ranked
second (after Christiania) as a ship-owning port; in 1809 il h*d
dropped to the fifth place. In and near the town arc factories
for wood-pulp, paper, cotton and joinery; and at Fevig, 8 ra.
north-east, a shipbuilding yard and engineering works. The
neighbourhood is remarkable for the number of beautiful and
rare minerals found there; one of these, a variety of epidote,
was formerly called Arendalite. Louis Philippe stayed here for
some time during his exile.
ARENIO GROUP, in geology, the name now applied by British
geologists to the lowest stage of the Ordovician System in
Britain. The term was first used by Adam Sedgwick in 1847
with reference to the " Arenig Ashes and Porphyries " in the
neighbourhood of Arenig Fawr, in Merioneth, North Wales.
The rock-succession in the Arenig district has been recognized
by W. O. Fearnsides (" On the Geology of Arenig Fawr and Mocl
Llanfnant," QJ.G.S. vol. lxi., 1905, pp. 608-640, with maps)
as follows:^
J* I"
30 I
<o
\ Upper Ashes
r of
| Arenig.
dymogroMus MurcMuemu
shes of Arenig
thene Andesites). .
} ymograptus bifuius).
I Didymograptushiruxdo.
1 Didymograptus
[ extensus.
(unconformity)
The above succession is divisible into: (z) a lower series of
gritty and calcareous sediments, the " Arenig Scries," as it is
now understood; (2) a middle series, mainly volcanic, with
shales, the " Llandeilo Series "; and (3) the shales and lime-
stones of the Bala or Caradoc Stage. It was to the middle series
(2) that Sedgwick first applied the term " Arenig."
In the typical region and in North Wales generally the Arenig
series appears to be unconformable upon the Cambrian rocks;
this is not the case in South Wales. The Arenig series is represented
in North Wales by the Garth grit and Ty-Obry beds, by the Shelve
series of the Corndon district, the Skiddaw slates of the Lake
District, the Ballantrac group of Ayrshire, and by the Ribband
series of slates and shales in Wicklow and Wexford. It may be
mentioned here that the " Llanvlrn " Scries of H. Hicks was
equivalent to the bifidus-shalcs and the Lower Llandeilo Scries.
t. vol. vi.. 1880; G. A. J. Cole and C. V. Jennings, Q.J.G.S.
xlv., 1889; C. V. Jennings and G. J. Williams, ibia. vol. xlviu,
1; Messrs Crosncld and Skeat, ibid. vol. Hi., 1896; G. L. Elles,
Hist. vol. vi., i88oj
vol. xlv.,
1891; Ml ........ , .
Gtol. Mag., 1004, J. E. Marr and T. Roberts, Q.J.G.S.. 1885:
H. Hicks, ibid. vol. xxxi., 1875. See also OanoviciAN. {J. A. H.)
AREOI, or Areoitx, a secret society which originated in
Tahiti and later extended its influence to other South Pacific
islands. To its ranks both sexes were admitted. The society
was .primarily of a religious character. Members styled them-
selves descendants of Orc-Tetifa, the Polynesian god, and were
divided into seven or more grades, each having its characteristic
tattooing. Chiefs were at once qualified for the highest grade,
but ordinary members attained promotion only through initiatory
rites. The Areois enjoyed great privileges, and were considered
as depositaries of knowledge and as mediators between God and
man. They were feared, too, as ministers of the taboo and were
entitled to pronounce a kind of excommunication for offences
against its rules. The chief religious purpose of the society was
the worship of the generative powers of nature, and the ritual
and ceremonies of initiation were grossly licentious. But the
AREOPAGUS
453
Areois were also a social force. They aimed at communism in
all things. The women members were common property; the
period of cohabitation was limited to three days, and the female
Arcois were bound by oath at initiation to strangle at birth any
child born to them. If, however, the infant was allowed to
survive half an hour only, it was spared; but to have the right
of keeping it the mother must find a male Areoi willing to adopt
it. The Areois travelled about, devoting their whole time to
feasting, dancing (the chief dance of the women being the grossly
indecent Timorodeemenliontdby Captain Cook) , and debauchery,
varied by elaborate realistic stage presentments of the lives and
loves of gods and legendary heroes.
AREOPAGUS ('Apeios 11*70$), a bare, rocky bill, 370 ft.
high, immediately west of the northern rim of the acropolis of
Athens. The ancients interpreted the name as " Hill of Ares."
Though accepted by some modern scholars, this derivation of
the word a rendered improbable by the fact that Ares was not
worshipped on the Areopagus. A more reasonable explanation
connects the name with Arae, " Curses," commonly known as
Semnae, " Awful Goddesses," whose shrine was a cave at the
foot of the hill, of which they were the guardian deities (AeschyL
Eumcfi. 417, 804; Schol. on Lucian, vol. iiL p. 68, ed. Jacobite;
Paus. i. 28. 6).
The Boule, or Council, of the Areopagus (4 h 'Aptly II&Y9
&qv\t}), named after the hill, is to be compared in origin and
fundamental character with the council of chiefs or elders which
we find among the earliest Germans, Celts, Romans, and other
primitive peoples. Under the kings of Athens it must have
closely resembled the Boule of ciders described by Homer; and
there can be no doubt that it was the chief factor in the work
of transforming the kingship into an aristocracy, in which it
was to be supreme. It was composed of ex-archons. Aristotle
attributes to it for the period of aristocracy the appointment
to all offices {Alh. Pol. viii. 2), the chief work of administration,
and the right to fine or otherwise punish in cases, not only of
violation of laws, but also of immorality {ibid. iiL 6; cf. Isoc. vii.
46; Androtion and Philochorus, in Muller, Frag. Hist. Grace.
i* 387- *7» 594 60) •' This evidence is corroborated by the
remnants of political power left to it in later time, after its
importance had been greatly curtailed, and by the designation
Boule, which in itself indicates that the body so termed was once
a state council. In a passage bearing incidentally upon the
early constitution of Athens, Thucydides (i. 126. 8) informs us
that at the time of the Cylonian insurrection the Athenians, we
may suppose in their assembly ('EmXipta), commissioned the
archons with absolute power to deal with the trouble at their
discretion. From this passage, if we accept the Aristotelian view
as to the early supremacy of the Areopagitic council, we must
infer that a modification of the aristocracy in a popular direction
had at that time already taken place.
In addition to its political functions, the council from the
time of Draco, if not earlier, exercised jurisdiction in certain
cases of homicide (see below, ad fin.). The assumption that in
their criminal jurisdiction the Areopagites were called Ephetae
till after the legislation of Draco (cf. Philoch. 58, in Muller,
ibid. 394) would explain the otherwise obscure circumstances
that, according to Plutarch {Sol. 19), Draco (q.v.) in his
laws mentioned only the Ephetae, and that Pollux (vni. 125)
included the Areopagus among the localities in which sat the
Ephetae. 3 The same assumption would supply a reason for
1 Neither Herodotus nor Thucydides tells us anything as to its
powers: but their silence on this point need not surprise us, as they
had no especial occasion for referring to the subject, and in general
it may be said that before the 4th century b.c writers took little
interest in the constitutional history of the remote past. The state-
ment of Thucydides (i. 126. 8) that at the time of the Cylonian
insurrection the nine archons attended to a great part of the business
of government does not contradict the Aristotelian view, for their
administration may well have been under Areopagitic supervision
(see aho Ascbon); and, as is stated in the text, the supremacy
of the council may have already suffered considerable limitation.
The Eumenides of Aeschylus is a glorification of the institution,
though for obvious reasons it is there represented as an essentially
judicial body.
* It is possible also to explain the alleged absence of reference to
the notion entertained by many miters of later tine that the
Areopagitic council was instituted by Solon (q.v.)—& notion
partly explained also by the desire of political thinkers to ascribe
to Solon the making of a complete constitution. Conformably
with the view here presented we may suppose that the name
" Boulfi of the Areopagus " developed from the simple term
" Boule " in order to distinguish it from the new Boule (9.*.),
or Council of Four Hundred. The popular reforms of Sokm
(504 B.C.), so far as they were carried into effect, tended practi-
cally to limit the Council of the Areopagus, thoaghconstitutionally
it retained all its earlier powers and functions, augmented by the
right to try persons accused of conspiracy against the state
(Arist. Atk. Pol. viii. 4). In the exercise of its duty as the
protector of the laws it must have had power to inhibit in the
Four Hundred, or in the Ecdesia, a measure which it judged
unconstitutional or in any way prejudicial to the state, and in
the levy of fines for violation of law or moral usage it remained
irresponsible. As censor of the conduct of citizens it inquired
into every man's source of income and punished the idle (Plut.
Sol. aa).
The tyrants (560-510 B.C.) left to the council its cognizance
of murder cases (Demosth. xxiii. 66; Arist. Alh. Pol. xvi. 8)
and probably the nominal enjoyment of all its prerogatives;
but their method of filling the archonship with their own kinsmen
and creatures gradually converted the Areopagites into willing
supporters of tyranny. Though hostile, therefore, to the policy
of Cleisthenes, their council seems to have suffered no direct
abridgment of power from his reforms. After his legislation
it gradually changed character and political sentiment by the
annual admission of ex-archons who had held office under a
popular constitution. In 487 b.c, however, the introduction
of the lot as a part of the process of filling the archonship (see
Archon) began to undermine its ability. This deterioration
was necessarily slow; it could not have advanced far in 480 b.c,
when on the eve of the battle of Salamis, as we are informed
(Arist. Polil. viii. 4, p. 1304a, 17; Alh. Pol. xxiii. 25; Plut.
Them. 10; Cic. OJj. i. 22, 75), the council of the Areopagus
succeeded in manning the fleet by providing pay for the seamen,
thereby regaining the confidence and respect of the people.
The patriotic action of the council and its attendant popularity
enabled it to recover considerable administrative control, which
it continued to exercise for the next eighteen years, although
its deterioration in ability, becoming every year more noticeable,
as well as the rapid rise of democratic ideas, prevented it from
fully re-establishing the supremacy which Aristotle, with some
exaggeration, attributes to it for this period. Its prestige was
seriously undermined by the conduct of individual members,
whose corrupt use of power was exposed and punished by
Ephialtes, the democratic leader. Following up this advantage,
Ephialtes (462 b.c), and less prominently Archestratus and
Pericles (o.v.), proposed and carried measures for the transfer
of most of its functions to the Council of Five Hundred, the
Ecclesia, and the popular courts of law (Arist. Atk. Pol. xxv. 2,
xxvii. x, xxxv. 2; Plut. P«r. 9). Among these functions were
probably jurisdiction in cases of impiety, the supervision of
magistrates and the censorship of the morals of citizens, the
inhibition of illegal and unconstitutional resolutions in the
Five Hundred and the Ecclesia, the examination into the fitness
of candidates for office, and the collection of rents from the sacred
property (cf. WilamowiU-MtiUendorff, Arist. u. Atk. ii. 186-197;
Busolt, Gricck. Gesck. (2nd ed.) iiL 269-294; G. Gilbert, Const.
Antiq. of Sparta and Atkins, Eng. trans., 154 t)> It retained
the Areopagitic council In the Draconian laws by the supposition
that Solon, while leaving untouched the Draconian laws concerned
with the cases of homicide which came before the Ephetae. substi-
tuted a law of his own regarding wilful murder, which fell within
the jurisdiction of the Areopagites. This view finds strong support
in the circumstance that the copy of the Draconian laws (C./L4 . 1. 61),
made in pursuance of a decree o? the people of the year 409-408 B.C.,
does not contain the provision for cases of premeditated homicide;
cf. G. de Sanctis, 'Artit, 135. The relation of the Ephetae to the
court of the Areopagus is obscure; cf. Philippi, Der Areopag vnd
die EpheUn (Berlin, 1874)* Busolt, Grieckistke Geschtchte fcndcd.),
ii. 138 ff.
45+
AREQUIPA
jurisdiction in cues of homicide and the care of sacred olive
trees. From this time to the establishment of the Thirty (46 a-
404 b.c.) the Areopagitic council, degraded stall further by the
opening of the archonship to the Zeugitae (457 ».c.) and by the
absolute use of the lot in filling the office, was a political nullity.
The first indication of a revival of its prestige is to be traced in
the action attributed to it by Lysias during the siege of Athens
(404 B.C.) (in Eratosth. 69: rparrofap fU* rift b 'Apekp IU7V
fiov\rjt currnpia). After the surrender of Athens and the
appointment of the Thirty, the repeal of the laws of Ephialtes
and Archcstratus prepared the way for the rehabilitation of the
council as guardian of the constitution by the restored democracy
(Arist. Atk. Pel. xxxv. 2; decree of Tisamenus, in Andoc. i. 84;
d. Din. i. 9). Although under the new conditions the Areopagiles
could not hope to recover their full supremacy, they did exercise
considerable political influence, especially in crises. In the time
of Demosthenes, accordingly, we find them annulling the election
of individuals to offices for which they were unfit (Plut. Pkoc. 16) ,
exercising during a crisis a disciplinary power extending to life
and death over all the Athenians " in conformity with ancestral
law," procuring the banishment of one, the racking of another,
and the infliction of capital-punishment on several of the citizens.
This authority seems to have been delegated to them by the
assembly with reference either to individual cases or temporarily
to the whole body of Athenians (Din. i 10, 62 f.; Aeschin.
iii. 252; Lye. Leoc. 52; Demosth. xviii. 132 f.; Plut. Demoslh.
14). Religion, too, was their care (Pseud. Demostb. lix. 80 f.).
Lycurgus (ibid.) even goes so far as to claim that by their action
during the crisis after Chaeioneia they had saved the state.
After the period of the great orators their influence continued
to grow. Demetrius of Phalcrum empowered them to assist
the gynoeconomi in supervising festivals held in private houses
( Pkilock. in MOller, ibid. i. 408. 143). Under Roman supremacy
in addition to earlier functions they had jurisdiction in cases
of forgery, tampering with the standard measures, and probably
other high crimes, the supervision of buildings, and the care of
religion and of education (Cic. Pan. xiii. x; Alt. v. 9; Tac.
Ann. ii. 55; Plut Cic. 24; C.I.G. i. 123. 9; C.I.A. ii. 476;
iii. 703, 714, 716; Acts xvii. 19). Their council acquired, too,
in conjunction with the assembly, with or without the co-
operation of the Five Hundred (or Six Hundred), the right to
pass decrees and to represent their city in foreign relations
(C.I.A. iii. 10, 31, 40, 41, 454, 457, 458). From the overthrow
of the Thirty to the end of their history they enjoyed a high
reputation for ability and integrity (Isoc. vii.; Demosth. xxiii.
6s f.; Val. Max. viii. x. Amb. 2; Gell. xii. 7; Lucian, Bis Ace.
iv. 12. 14). About a.d. 400 their council came to.an end (Theo-
doret, Curat, ix. 55).
With regard to the jurisdiction of the council in cases of
homicide, the procedure, so far as it may be gathered from the
orators and other sources, was as follows:— accusations were
brought by relatives within the circle of brothers' and sisters'
children, supported by the wider kin and the phratry (Demosth.
xliii. 57). On receiving the accusation the king-archon by
proclamation warned the accused to keep away from temples
and other places forbidden to such persons. He made three
investigations of the case in the three successive months, and
brought it to trial in the fourth month. As he was forbidden to
hand a case over to his successor, it resulted that in the last three
months of the year no accusations of homicide could be brought
(Ant. vi. 42). After the examination he assigned the case to
the proper court, and presided over it during the trial, which
took place in the open air, that the judges and the accuser might
not be polluted by being brought under the same roof with the
offender (Ant. v. xi). The accuser and the accused, standing
on two white stones termed " Relentlessness " fAvaffata) and
" Outrage " ("Tftxr) respectively (Paus. i. 28. 5), bound them-
selves to the truth by most solemn oaths (Demoslh. xxiii. 68).
Each was allowed two speeches, and the trial lasted three days.
After the first speech the accused, unless charged with parricide,
was at liberty to withdraw into exile (Poll. viii. 117). If con-
demned, he lost his life, and his property was confiscated. A
tie vote acquitted (Aeschyl. Eumen. 735; Ant v. $t, Aeschin.
iii. 252). See further Gkeek Law.
Authorities. — Among other works may be mentioned E. Dugit.
&ude snr VAriopage aihZnien (Paris, 1 867); E. Cailtemer. " Areo-
pagus," in Darcntberg et Saglio, Diet. d. Antui. grecq. tt rem. (Paris,
r873) i. 39S-404; A. Philippi, Areopag und EpbcUn (Berlin. X874).
The discovery of the Aristotelian " Constitution of Athens " (Ath.
Pol.) has largely rendered obsolete all works published before 1891.
Sec Hermann-T humser, Grieehische Stoatsaltertumer (6th ed.. Fret-
1, 788; U. von WtUmowiU'Moltendorff.
Lng.
London and New York, 1895), 114, 12a, 137, 154.282; F. Cauer,
"Aischylos und der Areopag;' in Rkti*. Mus. (1895). N.F. i. 348-
356; Wachsmuth and Thalheim, s.t. " Areios pagos " in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realtncyd. d. Id. Alttrtumswiss. (Stuttgart, 1896), ii. 627.
633; G. de Sanctis, *Ar9tt, Storia delta Repubblua Ateniese (Rome,
1898); L. Ziehen. " Drakontische Gesetzgebung," in Rkein. litis.
^1899). N.F. liv. 321-344. See also Clbistuekes; Pericles and
lTUBNs. (G. W. B.)
AREQUIPA, a coast department of southern Peru, bounded
N. by the departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, E. by Puno and
Moquegua, S. and W. by Moquegua and the Pacific It is
divided into seven provinces. Area, 21,047 *<!• m -> P°P- (1896)
229,007. It is traversed by an important railway line from
Mollendo (Islay) to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, 325 m. long, with
extensions to Santa Rosa, Peru and La Pas, Bolivia. The
highest point reached by this line is 14,660 ft. The department
includes an arid, sand-covered region on the coast traversed
by deep gorges formed by river courses, and a partly barren,
mountainous region inland composed of the high Cordillera
and its spurs toward the coast, between which are numerous
highly fertile valleys watered by streams from the snow-clad
peaks. These produce cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, coffee,
Indian corn, barley, potatoes and fruit. The mountainous
region is rich in minerals, and there is a valuable deposit of
borax near the capital, Arequipa.
ARBQUIPA, a city of southern Peru, capital of the depart-
ment of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. by N. of its seaport
Mollendo (107 m. by rail), and near the south-west foot of the
volcano Misti which rises to a height of 19,029 ft. above sea-level.
The population was estimated at 35,000 in 1896. The dty is
provided with a tram line, and is connected with the coast at
Mollendo (Islay) by a railway 107 m. long, and with Puno, on
Lake Titicaca, by an extension of the same line 218 m. long.
The dty occupies a green, fertile valley of the Rio Chile, 7 7 53 ft.
above the sea, surrounded by an arid, barren desert. It is built
on the usual rectangular plan and the streets are wide and well
paved. The edifices in general are low, and are massively built
with thick walls and domed ceilings to resist earthquakes, and
lessen the danger from falling masonry. The material used is
a soft, porous magnesian limestone, which is well adapted to
the purpose in view. Arequipa is the seat of a bishopric created
in 1609-16 1 2, and possesses a comparatively modern cathedral,
its predecessor having been destroyed by fire in 1849. It has
several large churches, and formerly possessed five monasteries
and three nunneries, which have been dosed and their edifices
devoted to educational and other public purposes. The religious
clement has always been a dominating factor in the life of the
dty. A university, founded in 1825, three colleges, one of them
dating from colonial times, a medical school, and a public library,
founded in 1821, are distinguishing features of the city, which
has always taken high rank in Peru for its learning and liberalism,
as well as for its political restlessness. The city's water-supply
is derived from the Chile river and is considered dangerous
to new arrivals because of the quantity of saline and organic
matter contained. The climate is temperate and healthy, and
the fertile valley (xo m. long by 5 m. wide) surrounding the dty
produces an abundance of cereals, fruits and vegetables common
to both hot and temperate regions. Pears and strawberries
grow side by side with oranges and granadillas, and are noted
for their size and flavour. The trade of the city is principally
in Bolivian products — mineral ores, alpaca wool, &c— but it
also receives and exports the products of the neighbouring
ARES— ARETE
455
Peruvian provinces, and the output of the borax deposits in the
neighbourhood. Arequipa was founded by Piaarro in 1540,
and has been the scene of many events of importance in the
history of Peru. It was greatly damaged in the earthquakes of
156a, 1609, 1784 and 1868, particularly in the last. It was
captured by the Chileans in 1883, near the close of the war
between Chile and Peru.
ARBS, in ancient Greek mythology, the god of war, or rather
of battle, son of Zeus and Hera. (For the Roman god, identified
with Ares, see Mars.) As contrasted with Athena, who added
to her other attributes that of being the goddess of well-con-
ducted military operations, he personifies brute strength and
the wild rage of conflict. His delight is in war and bloodshed;
he loves fighting for fighting's sake, and takes the side of the
one or the other combatant indifferently, regardless of the justice
of the cause. His quarrelsomeness was regarded as inherited
from his mother, and it may have been only as an illustration
of the perpetual strife between Zeus and Hera that Ares was
accounted their son. According to a later tradition, he was the
son of Hera (Juno) alone, who became pregnant by touching
a certain flower (Ovid, Fasti, v. 155). All the gods, even Zeus,
hate him, but his bitterest enemy is Athena, who fells him to
the ground with a huge stone. Splendidly armed, he goes to
battle, sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made
ready by his sons Deimos and Phobos (Panic and Fear) by whom
he is usually accompanied. In his train also are found Enyo, the
goddess of war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction
of cities; his sister, Eris, goddess of fighting and strife; and
the Keres, goddesses of death, whose function it is especially
to roam the battle-field, carrying off the dead to Hades. In
later accounts (and even in the Odyssey) Ares' character is some-
what toned down; thus, in the " Homeric " hymn to Ares,
he is addressed as the assistant of Themis (Justice), the enemy
of tyrants, and leader of the just. It is to be noted, however, that
in this little poem he is to some extent confounded with the
planet named after him (Ares, or Mars).
The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed.
He is a god of storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian
god, one of the deities of the subterranean world, who could
bring prosperity as well as ruin upon men, although in time his
destructive qualities obscured the others. In this last aspect
he was one of the chief gods of the Thradans, amongst whom
his home was placed even in the time of Homer. In Scythia
an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which
yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier
times (as apparently also at Sparta) human victims, selected
from prisoners of war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into
the god of war, in which character he made his way into Greece.
This theory may have been nothing more than an instance of
the Greek tendency to assign a northern or " hyperborean "
home to deities in whose character something analogous to the*
stormy elements of nature was found. But it appears that the
Thradans and Scythians in historical times (Herodotus i. 50)
worshipped chiefly a war god, and that certain Thradan settle-
ments, formed in Greece in prehistoric times, left behind them
traces of the worship of a god whom the Greeks called Ares.
The story of his imprisonment for thirteen months by the
Aloldae {Iliad, v. 385) points to the conquest of this chthonian
destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, especially agriculture,
of which the grain-fed sons of Aloeus (the thresher) are the
personification.
In Homer Ares Is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus,
who catches them together in a net and holds them up to the
ridicule of the gods. In what appears to be a very early develop-
ment of her character, Aphrodite also was a war goddess, known
under the name of Areia; and in Thebes, the most important
seat of the worship of Ares, she is his wife, and bears him Eros
and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, and Harmonia, wife of Cadmus,
the founder of the city (Hesiod, Theog. 033). In the legend of
Cadmus and his family Ares plays a prominent part. His
worship was not so widely spread over Greece as that of other
gods, although he was honoured here and there with festivals
and sacrifices. Thus, at Sparta, under the name of Theritas,
he was offered young dogs and even human beings. The Dio-
scuri were said to have brought his image from Colchis to Laconia,
where it was set up in an old sanctuary on the road from Sparta
to Therapnae. At Athens, he had a temple at the foot of the
Areopagus, with a statue by Alcamenes. It was here, according
to the legend, that he was tried and acquitted by a council of
the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, who had violated
Alcippe, the daughter of Ares by Agraulos. The figure of Ares
appears in various stories of ancient mythology. Thus, he
engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to avenge the
death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants
by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter he is severely
wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena;
maddened by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which
slew Adonis, the favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war
between the Lapithae and Centaurs. His attributes were the
spear and the burning torch, symbolical of the devastation
caused by war (in ancient times the hurling of a torch was the
signal for the commencement of hostilities). The animals sacred
to him were the dog and the vulture.
The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than
that of the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small;
those of Ares-Mars, among the Romans, arc more frequent.
Previous to the 5th century B.C. he was represented as full-
bearded, grim-featured and in full armour. From that time,
apparently under the influence of Athenian sculptors, he was
concdved as the ideal of a youthful warrior, and was for a time
associated with Aphrodite and Eros. He then appears as a
vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head and
stalwart shoulders, with helmet and chlamys. In the Villa
Ludovisi statue (after the style of Lysippua) he appears seated,
in an attitude of thought; his arms are laid aside, and Eros
peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese Ares (also taken for
Achilles) he is standing, his only armour being the helmet on his
head. He also appears in many other groups, with Aphrodite,
in marble and On engraved gems of Roman times. But before
this grouping had recommended Itself to the Romans, with their
legend of Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again
become under Macedonian influence a bearded, armed and
powerful god.
Authorities.— H. D. Mailer, Ares (1848); H. W. Stoll, Cher die
urtprangliche Bedeutung des A. und dew Aiken* (1881); F. A. Voigt,
" Beitrage zur MythoTogie des Ares und Athena " in Leipziger
Studien, iv. 1881 ; W. H. Roscher, Studien sur tergleickenden Mytho-
logie, i., 1873; C. Tompel, Ares und Aphrodite (1880); articles in
Pauly>Wissowa a 8 Realeucydopddie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho-
lope, and Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnain des Antiquites (s.v.
Mars) ; Preller. Grieckische Mytkologie.
ARETAEUS, of Cappadocia, a Greek physician, who lived at
Rome in the second half of the 2nd century aj>. We possess
two treatises by him, each in four books, in the Ionic dialect:
On the Causes and Indications of Acute and Chronic Diseases,.
and 0» their Treatment. His work was founded on that of
Archigenes; like him, he belonged to the eclectic school, but
did not ignore the theories of the " Pneumatics," who made the
heart the seat of life and of the soul.
Editions by KUhn (1828), Ermerius (1848). English translations :
Wigan (1723): Moffat (1786); Reynolds (1837); Adams (1856).
See Locher. Aretaeus aus Kappadocien (1847).
ARBTAS (Arab. Hiritha), the Greek form of a name borne by
kings of the Nabataeans resident at Petra in Arabia. (1) A
king in the time of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (2 Mace v. 8).
(2) The father-in-law of Herod Antipas (Jos. Ant. xviii. 5. 1, 3).
In 2 Cor. si. 32 be is described as ruler of Damascus (q.v.) at the
time of Paul's conversion. Herod Antipas had married a
daughter of Aretas, but afterwards discarded her in favour of
Herodias. This led to a war with Aretas in which Antipas was
defeated.
An Aretas is mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 22, but the true
reading is probably Ariarathes (king of Cappadocia). See
Nabataeans.
ARftTE (O. Fr. ariste, Lat. arista, ear of corn, fish-bone or
spine), a ridge or sharp edge; a French term used in Switzerland
45*
ARETHAS— AREZZO
to denote the sharp bayonet-like edge of a mountain (such as the
Matterhorn), that slopes steeply upward with two precipitous
sides meeting in a long ascending ridge. Hence the word has
passed into common use to denote any sharp mountain edge
denuded by frost action above the snowline, where the con-
sequent angular ridges give the characteristic "house-roof
struc ture " of these altitudes.
ARETHAS (c. 860-040), Byzantine theological writer and
scholar, archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was born at
Patrae. He was the author of a Greek commentary on the
Apocalypse, avowedly based upon that of Andrew, his pre-
decessor in the archbishopric. In spite of its author's modest
estimate, Aretha* 's work is by no means a slavish compilation;
it contains additions from other sources, and especial care has
been taken in verifying the references. His interest was not,
however, confined to theological literature; he annotated the
margins of his fhn&ical texts with numerous scholia (many of
which are preserved), and had several MSS. copied at his own
expense, amongst them the Codex Clarkianus of Plato (brought
to England from the monastery of St John in Patmos), and the
Dorvillian MS. of Euclid (now at Oxford).
Most divergent opinions have been held as to the time in which
Arcthas lived ; the reasons for the dates given above will be found
succinctly stated in the article " Aretas, by A. Julicher in Pauly-
Wissowas ReaUncyclopddie der klassischen Altertumswissenschafl
(1896). The text of the commentary is given in Migne, Pairologto
Graeca, cvi.; see also O. Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Teste und
Untersuchungen tur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litt. i. pp. 36-46
(1882), and Vita Euthymii (patriarch of Constantinople, d. 917),
ed. C. de Boor (1888); H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography,
i.; C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der bytantinischen Litteratur (1897);
G. Hcinrici in Herzog-Hauck, Reaiencyhhp&die (1897).
ARETHUSA, in Greek mythology, a nymph who gave her
name to a spring in Elis and to another in the island of Ortygia
near Syracuse. According to Pausanias (v. 7. 2), Alpheus, a
mighty hunter, was enamoured of Arethusa, one of the retinue
of Artemis; Arethusa fled to Ortygia, where she was changed into
a spring; Alpheus, in the form of a river, made his way beneath
the sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In
Ovid (Uetam. v. 57a foil.), Arethusa, while bathing in the
Alpheus, was seen and pursued by the river god in human form;
Artemis changed her into a spring, which, flowing underground,
emerged at Ortygia. In the earlier form of the legend, it is
Artemis, not Arethusa, who is the object of the god's affections,
and escapes by smearing her face with mire, so that he fails to
recognize her (see L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii.
p. 428). The probable origin of the story is the part traditionally
taken in the foundation of Syracuse by the Iamidae of Olympia,
who identified the spring Arethusa with their own river Alpheus,
and the nymph with Artemis Alpheiaia, who was worshipped at
Ortygia. The subterranean passage of the AJpheus in the upper
part of its course (confirmed by modern explorers), and the
freshness of the water of Arethusa in spite of its proximity to
the sea, led to the belief that it was the outlet of the river.
Further, according to Strabo (vi. p. 270), during the sacrifice of
oxen at Olympia the waters of Arethusa were disturbed, and a
cup thrown into the AJpheus would reappear in Ortygia. In
Virgil (Eel. x. z) Arethusa is addressed as a divinity of poetical
inspiration, like one of the Muses, who were themselves originally
nymphs of springs.
For Arethusa on Syracutan coins, see B. V. Head, Histotia
Numorvm, pp. 151. 155.
ARETINO, PIETRO (1492-1556), Italian author, was born in
1493 at Arezso in Tuscany, from which place he took his name.
He is said to have been the natural son of Luigi Bacd, a gentle-
man of the town. He received little education, and lived for
some years poor and neglected, picking up such scraps of infor-
mation as be could. When very young he was banished from
Arezzo on account of a satirical sonnet which he composed
against indulgences. He went to Perugia, where for some time
he worked as a bookbinder, and continued to distinguish himself
by his daring attacks upon religion. After some years' wandering
through parts of Italy he reached Rome, where his talents, wit
and impudence commended him to the papal court. This
favour, however, he lost in 1523 by writing a set of 1
sonnets, to accompany an equally immoral series of drawings
by the great painter, Giulio Romano. He left Rome and was
received by Giovanni de' Medici, who introduced him at Milan
to Francis I. of France. He gained the good graces of that
monarch, and received handsome presents from him. Shortly
after this Aretino attempted to regain the favour of the pope,
but, having come to Rome, he composed a sonnet against a
rival in some low amour, and in return was assaulted and severely
wounded. He could obtain no redress from the pope, and
returned to Giovanni de' Medici. On the death of the latter in
December 1526, he withdrew to Venice, where he afterwards
continued to reside. He spent his time here in writing comedies,
sonnets, licentious dialogues, and a few devotional and religious
works. He led a profligate life, and procured funds to satisfy
his needs by writing sycophantish letters to all the nobles and
princes with whom he was acquainted. This plan proved
eminently successful, for large sums were given him, apparently
from fear of his satire, So great did Aretino's pride grow, that
he styled himself the " divine," and the " scourge of princes."
He died in 1556, according to some accounts by falling from his
chair in a fit of laughter caused by hearing some indecent story
of his sisters. The reputation of Aretino in his own time rested
chiefly on bis satirical sonnets or burlesques; but his comedies,
five in number, are now considered the best of his works. His
letters, of which a great number have been printed, are also
commended for their style. The dialogues and the licentious
sonnets have been translated into French, under the title
Academic dts Dames.
AREZZO (anc. Arrciium), a town and episcopal see of Tuscany,
Italy, the capital of the province of Arezzo, 54 m. S.E. of Florence
by rail. Pop. (1001) town, 16,780; commune, 46,926. It is an
attractive town, situated on the slope of a hill 840 to 970 ft. above
sea-level, in a fertile district. The walls by which it is surrounded
were erected in 1320 by Guido Tarlati di Pietramala, its warlike
bishop, who died in 1327, and is buried in the cathedral; they
were reconstructed by Cosimo I. de' Medici between 1541 and
1568, on which occasion the bronze statues of Pallas and the
Chimaera, now at Florence, were discovered. The town itself is
fan-shaped, the streets, which contain some fine old houses with
projecting eaves and many towers, radiating from toe citadel
(Fortezza), which was constructed in 1502, and dismantled by
the French in 1800. The cathedral, close by, is a fine specimen of
Italian Gothic begun in 1277, but not completed internally until
15x1, while the facade was not begun until 1880. The interior is
spacious and contains some fine 14th-century sculptures, those of
the high altar, which contains the tomb of St Donatus, the patron
saint of Arezzo, being the best; very good stained-glass windows
of the beginning of the 16th century by Guillaume de Marcillat,
and some terra-cotta reliefs by Andrea deila Robbia. Another
fine church is S. Maria della Pieve, having a campanile and a
facade of 12x6, the latter with three open colonnades running for
its whole length above the doors. The interior was restored to its
original style in 1863-1865. The Romanesque choir and apse
belong to the nth century, the rest of the interior is con-
temporary with the facade. In the square behind the church is a
colonnade designed by Vasari. In the cloisters of S. Bernardo, on
the site of the ancient amphitheatre, is a remarkable view of
medieval Rome. S. Francesco contains famous frescoes by Piero
de' Franceachi, representing scenes from the legend of the Holy
Cross, and others by Spincllo Aretino, a pupil of Giotto. There
are several other frescoes by the latter in S. Domenico. Among
the Renaissance buildings the churches of S. Maria delle Grazie
and the Santissima Annunziata may be noted. The collection of
majolica in the municipal museum is very fine, and so is that of
the Funghini family. In the middle ages Arezzo was generally on
the Ghibelline side; it succumbed to Florence in 1289 at the
battle of Campaldino, but at the end of the century recovered its
strength under the Tarlati family. In 1336 it became subject to
Florence for six years, and after intestine struggles, finally came
under her rule in 1384. Among the natives of Arezzo the most
famous are the Benedictine monk Guido of Arezzo, the inventor
ARGALI— ARGENSON
457
of the modem system of musical notation (died c. io$o) f the
poet Petrarch, Pictro Arctino, the satirist (1402-15 56), an{ i
Vasari, famous for his lives of Italian painters. The town never
possessed a distinct school of artists.
See C. Signorini, Areao, Cittay Prooincia, Guida illustrate. (Arezso,
1004). (T.AS.)
ARQAU, the Tatar name of the great wild sheep, Oris ammon,
of the Altai and other parts of Siberia. Standing as high as a
large donkey, the argali is the finest of all the wild sheep, the
horns of the rams, although of inferior length, being more
massive than those of Oris poll of the Pamirs. There are several
local races of argali, among which O. amnion hodgsoni of Ladak
and Tibet is one of the best known. There are likewise several
nearly related central Asian species, such as O. sairensis and
O. littUdaloi. (See Sheep.)
ARGAO, a town on the east coast of Cebu, Philippine Islands,
36 m. S.S.W. of the town of Cebu. Pop. (1003) 35,448. Large
quantities of a superior quality of cacao are produced in the
vicinity, and rice and Indian corn are other important products.
A limited amount of cotton is raised and woven into cloth. The
language is Cebu-Visayan. Argao was founded in 1608.
ARGAUM, a village of British India in the Akola district of the
Central Provinces, 32 m. north of Akola. The village is mem-
orable for an action which took place on the 28th of November
1803 between the British army, commanded by Major-General
Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), and the Mahrattas
•under Sindhia and the raja of Berar, in which the latter were
defeated with great Loss. A medal struck in England in 1851
commemorates the victory.
ARGEI* the name given by the ancient Romans to a number of
rush puppets (24 or 27 according to the reading of Varro, de Ling.
lot. vii. 44, or 30 according to Dionysius L 38) resembling men tied
hand and foot, which were taken down to the ancient bridge
over the Tiber (pons sublkius) on the 14th of May by the ponti-
fices and magistrates, with the nammica Dialis in mourning guise,
and there thrown into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins. There
were also in various parts of the four Servian regions of the dty
a number of sactlla Argeorum (chapels) , round which a procession
seems to have gone on the 17th of March (Varro, L.L. v. 46-54;
Jordan, R8m. Topogr. voL ii. 603), and it has been conjectured
that the puppets were kept in these chapels until the time came
for them to be cast into the river. The Romans had no historical
explanation of these curious rites, and neither the theories of
their scholars nor the beliefs of the common people, who fancied
that the puppets were substitutes for old men who used at one
time to be sacrificed to the river, are worth serious consideration.
Recently two explanations have been given: (1) that of W.
Mannhardt, who by comparing numerous examples of similar
customs among other European peoples arrived at the con-
clusion that the rite was of extreme antiquity and of dramatic
rather than sacrificial character, and that its object was possibly
to procure rain; (2) that of Wissowa, who refuses to date it
farther back than the latter half of the 3rd century B.C., and sees
in it the yearly lepresentation of an original sacrifice of twenty-
seven captive Greeks (taking Argei as a Latin form of 'A^yctot)
by drowning in the Tiber. This second theory is, however, not
borne out by any Roman. historical record.
See Wiasowa's arguments in the article " Afgei " in his edition
of Pony's Jbalencyclop&die. For the other view see W. Mannhardt,
Antike Wold und FeldkuUe, 178 foil.; W- W. Fowler. Roman Festi-
to/f, pp. in foil. (W. W.F.*)
ARQELAXDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1709-
1875), German astronomer, was born at Memel on the 22nd of
March 1700. He studied at the university of KSnigsberg, and
was attracted to astronomy by F. W. Bessel, whose assistant he
became (October 1 , 1820). His treatise on the path of the great
comet of 181 1 appeared in 1822; he was, in 1823, entrusted
with the direction of the observatory at Abo; and he exchanged
it for a similar charge at Helsingfors in 1832 His admirable
investigation of the sun's motion in space was published in
1837; and in the same year he was appointed professor of
astronomy in the university of Bonn, where he died on the 17th
of February 1875- He also published Observatumes Astrono-
mical Aboae Fadce (3 vols., 1830-1832); DLX StoUarum
Fixarum Positiones Mediae (1835); and the first seven volumes
of AsironomiscJte Boobachtungen auf der Sternwarte mm Bonn
(1846-1869), containing bis observations of northern and southern
star-zones, and his great Durckmustcruftg (vols, iii.-v^ 1850-
1862) of 324,208 stars, from the north pole to -2 Dec The
corresponding atlas was issued in 1863. His observations
(begun in 1838) and discussions of variable stars were embodied
in voL vii. of the same series.
See E. Schfinfdd in Viertdjakrssckrift der Astronomisckon GeseU-
sckqfl, x. pp. 150-176.
ARGEbTSt JEAN BAPTISTS DE BOYER, Marquis d'
(1 704-1 771), was born at Aix in Provence on the 24th of June
1704. He entered the army at the age of fifteen, and after a
dissipated and adventurous youth settled for a time at Amster-
dam, where he wrote some historical compilations and began
his more famous Lettres juives (The Hague, 6 vols., 1738-1742),
Lettres ckinoises (The Hague, 6 vols., 1730-1472), and Lettres
cabalisMques (2nd ed., 7 vols., 1769); also the Memoir es secrets
de la ripubiique des lettres (7 vols., 1743-1478), afterwards revised
and augmented as Histoire de Vesprit husnain (Berlin, 14 vols.,
1765-1768). He was invited by Prince Frederick (afterwards
Frederick the Great) to Potsdam, and received high honours at
court; but Frederick was bitterly offended by his marrying
a Berlin actress, Mile Cochois. Argens returned to France in
1769, and died near Toulon on the nth of January 1771.
ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE (1550-1613),
Spanish dramatist and poet, was baptized at Barbastro on the
14th of December 1559. He was educated at the universities
of Huesca and Saragossa, becoming secretary to the duke de
Villahermosa in 1585. He was appointed historiographer of
Aragon in 1599, and in 16x0 accompanied the count de Lemos
to Naples, where he died In March 1613. His tragedies— Filis,
Isobela and Alejandro— are said by Cervantes to have "filled
all who heard them with admiration, delight and interest";
FUis is lost, and Isabcta and Alejandro, which were not printed
till 1772, are ponderous imitations of Seneca. Argensola's
poems were published with those of his brother in 1634; they
consist of excellent translations from the. Latin poets, and of
original satires. His " echoing sonnets "—such as Despuis quo
al mundo el rey divine- wno—lend themselves to parody; but
his diction is singularly pure.
His brother, Bajholoxe. Leonardo de Ajlgensola (1562-
1631), Spanish poet and historian, was baptized at Barbastro
on the 26th of August 1562, studied at Huesca, took orders, and
was presented to the rectory of Villahermosa in 1588. He was
attached to the suite of the count de Lemos, viceroy of Naples,
in 1610, and succeeded his brother as historiographer of Aragon
in 1613. He died at Saragossa on the 4th of February 1631.
His principal prose works are the Conquistode las Isles Molucas
(1609), and a supplement to Zurita's Andes do Aragon, which
was published in 1630. His poems (1634), like those of his elder
brother, are admirably finished examples of pungent wit. His
commentaries on contemporary events, and his AlXcraciones
populates y dealing with a Saragossa rising in 1591, are lost An
interesting life of this writer by Father Miguel Mir precedes a
reprint of the Conquista do las Isles Molucas, issued at Saragossa
in 1 89 1.
ARGENSON, the name, derived from an old hamlet situated in
what is now the department of Indre-et-Loire, of a French
family which produced some prominent statesmen, soldiers and
men of letters.
Ren£ de Voyer, seigneur d'Argenson (1596-1651), French
statesman, was born on the 21st of November 1506. He was a-
lawyer by profession, and became successively ovocot, councillor
at the parlement of Paris, mattre des requites, and councillor
of state. Cardinal Richelieu entrusted him with several missions
as inspector and intendant of the forces. In 1623 he was
appointed intendant of justice, police and finance in Auvergne,
and in 1632 held similar office in Limousin, where he remained
till 1637. After the death of Louis XIII. (1643) be retained his
administrative posts, was intendant of the forces at Toulon
458
ARGENSON
(1646), commissary of the king at the estates of Languedoc
(1647), and intendant of Guienne (1648), and showed great
capacity in defending the authority of the crown against the
rebels of the Fronde. After his wife's death he took orders
(February 1651), but did not cease to take part in affairs of
state. In 1651 he was appointed by Mazarin ambassador at
Venice, where he died on the 14th of July 1651.
His son, Marc Rene de Voyer, comte d'Argenson (1623-
1700), was born at Blois on the 13th of December 1623. He
also was a lawyer, being councillor at the parlement of Rouen
(1642) and matlre des requites. He attended his father in all his
duties and succeeded him at the embassy at Venice. In 1655 he
returned from his embassy ruined, and lost favour with Mazarin,
who removed him from his office of councillor of state. He then
gave up public affairs and retired to his estates, where he occupied
himself with good works. In September 1656 he entered the
Company of the Holy Sacrament, a secret society for the diffusion
of the Catholic religion. Besides writing the Annals of the
society, he composed many pious works, which were destroyed
in the fire at the Louvre in 1871. Some of his correspondence
with the once famous letter-writer, Jean Louis Guez de Balaac
( 1 507-1 654) , has been published. He died in May x 700, leaving
two sons, Marc Ren6 (see below), and Francois £lie (1656-1738),
who became archbishop of Bordeaux.
See Fr. Rabbe, " Compagnic du Saint-Sacrement," in the Revue
histofique (Nov. 1899); Bcauchct-FilJcau, Les Annates de la com-
pagnie du Saint-Sacrement (Paris, 1900); R. Allier, La Cabale des
divots (Paris, low)-
Maec Rene de Voyeb, marquis de Paulmy and marquis
d'Argenson (1652-1721), son of the preceding, was born at
Venice on the 4th of November 1652. He became avocat in 1660,
and lieutenant-general in the sentehausse* of Angouleme (1679).
After the death of Colbert, who disliked his family, he went to
Paris and married Marguerite Letevre de Caumartin, a kins-
woman of the comptroller-general Pontchartrain. This was
the beginning of his fortunes. He became successively mattre
des requites (1604), member of the conseil des prises (prise court)
(1695)1 Procureur-gentral of the commission of inquest into
false titles of nobility (1696), and finally lieutenant-general
of police (1697). This last office, which had previously been
filled by N. G. de la Reynie, was very important. It not only
gave him the control of the police, but also the supervision of
the corporations, printing press, and provisioning of Paris.
All contraventions of the police regulations came under his
jurisdiction, and his authority was arbitrary and absolute.
Fortunately, he had,in Saint-Simon's phrase, "a nice discernment
as to the degree of rigour or leniency required for every case that
came before him, being ever inclined to the mildest measures,
but possessed of the faculty of making the most innocent
tremble before him; courageous, bold, Audacious in quelling
tmeuUs, and consequently the master of the people." During
the twenty-one years that he exercised this office he was a party
to every private and state secret; in fact, he had a share in every
event of any importance in the history of Paris. He was the
familiar friend of the king, who delighted in scandalous police
reports; he was patronized by the duke of Orleans; he was
supported by the Jesuits at court; and he was feared by all.
He organized the supply of food in Paris during the severe winter
of 1709, and endeavoured, but with little success, to run to
earth the libellers of the government. He directed the destruc-
tion- of the Jansenist monastery of Port Royal (1709), a pro-
ceeding which provoked many protests and pamphlets. Under
the regency, the Chambre de Justice, assembled to inquire into
the malpractices of the financiers, suspected d'Argenson and
arrested his clerks, but dared not lay the blame on him. On
the 28th of January 17 18 he voluntarily resigned the office of
lieutenant-general of police for those of keeper of the scab-
in the place of the chancellor d'Aguesseau— and president
of the council of finance. He was appointed by the regent to
suppress the resistance of the parlemcnts and to reorganize
the fiM""— , and was in great measure responsible for permitting
John law to apply his financial system, though he soon quarrelled
with Law and intrigued to bring about his downfall. The regent
threw the blame for the outcome of Law's schemes on d'Argenson^
who was forced to resign his position in the council of finance
(January 1720). By way of compensation he was created
inspector-general of the police of the whole kingdom, but had
to resign his office of keeper of the seals (June 1720). He died
on the 8th of May 1721, the people of Paris throwing taunts and
stones at his coffin and accusing him of having ruined the kingdom.
In 1 716 he had been created an honorary member of the Academic
des Sciences and, in 1718, a member of the French Academy.
See the contemporary memoirs, especially those of Saint-Simon
(de BoUlisle's cd.). Dangeau and Math. Marais; Barbscr's Journal',
" Corrcspondance administrative sous Louis X-i V.*' in Coll. des doc.
inU. sur t'kistoire de France, edited by G. B. Depping (1850-1855) ;
Correspondanee des contrbleurs-gineraux des finances, pub. by de Bois-
lisle (1873-1900); Correspondanee deM.de Marville arte M. de
Maurepas (1896-1897); Rapports de police de Rent fArgenion,
pub. by P. Cottin (Pari • - ~ •« - •
Louis XIV. (1873).
aub. by P. Cottin (Paris, undated); P. Clement, La police urns
Ren£ Louis de Voyer de Pauuty, marquis d'Argenson
(1694-1757), eldest son of the preceding, was a lawyer, and held
successively the posts of councillor -at the parlement (1716),
matlre des requites ( 1 7 i8)t, councillor of state (1719), and intendant
of justice, police and finance in Hainaut. During his five years*
tenure of the last office he was mainly employed in provisioning
the troops, who were suffering from the economic confusion
resulting from Law's system. He returned to court in 1724
to exercise his functions as councillor of state. At that time
he had the reputation of being a conscientious man, but ill
adapted to intrigue, and was nicknamed " la bete." He entered
into relations with the philosophers, and was won over to the
ideas of reform. He was the friend of Voltaire, who had been
a fellow-student of his at the Jesuit college Louis-le-grand, and
frequented the Club del'Entresol, the history of which he wrote
in his memoiss. It was then that he prepared his Considerations
sur le gouvemement de Us France^ which was published posthu-
mously by his son. He was also the friend and counsellor of
the minister G. L. de Chauvelin. In May x 744 he was appointed
member of the council of finance, and in November of the same
year the king chose him as secretary of state for foreign affairs,
his brother, the comte d'Argenson (see below), being at the same
time secretary of state for war. France was at that time engaged
in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the government had
been placed by Louis XV. virtually in the hands of the two
brothers. The marquis d'Argenson endeavoured to reform the
system of international relations. He dreamed of a " European
Republic," and wished to establish arbitration between nations
in pursuance of the ideas of his friend the abbe de Saint-Pierre.
But he failed to realize any part of his projects. The generals
negotiated in opposition to his instructions.; his colleagues
laid the blame on him; the intrigues of the courtiers passed
unnoticed by him; whilst the secret diplomacy of the king
neutralized his initiative. He concluded the marriage of the
dauphin to the daughter of Augustus III., king of Poland, but
was unable to prevent the election of the grand-duke of Tuscany
as emperor in 1745. On the xoth of January 1747 the king
thanked him for his services. He then retired into private life,
eschewed the court, associated with Voltaire, Condillac and
d'Alembert, and spent his declining years in working at the
Acadlmie des Inscriptions, of which he was appointed president
by the king in 1747, and revising his M (moires. Voltaire, in
one of his letters, declared him to be " the best citizen that had
ever tasted the ministry. 1 ' He died on the 26th of January 1757.
He left a large number of manuscript works, of which his son,
Antoine Rene (1722-1787), known as the marquis de Pauhny,
published the Considerations sur le gouvemement de France
(Amsterdam, x 764) and Essois dans le gouH de ceux de Montaigne
(ib. 1785). The latter, which contains many useful biographical
notes and portraits of his contemporaries, was republished in
x 7 87 as Loisirs d'un ministre d'ttat. Argenson' s most important
work, however, is his Menurires, covering in great detail the
years 1725 to 1756, with an introductory part giving his recollec-
tions since the year 1606. Tbey are, as they were intended to be.
ARGENSON
459
valuable " materials for the history of his time." There are two
important editions, the first, with some letters, not elsewhere
published, by the marquis d'Argenson, his great-grand-nephew
is v ols., Paris, 1857 et seq.); the second, more correct, but less
complete, published by J. B. Rathery, for the Societe de l'Histoire
de France (9 vols., Paris, 1859 et seq.). The other works of the
marquis d'Argenson, in MS., were destroyed in the fire at the
Louvre lib
See Sail ,*-
vasseur, " tie
des Science ly,
E. Zevort, res
(Paris, i88< tie
jrancaise (a ic,
Correspond >n,
* Le Marq i.,
1899); A. i le.
The Marq*
Marc Pierre de Voyer de' Paulmy, comte d'Argenson
(1696-1764), younger brother of the preceding, was born on the
16th of August 1696. Following the family tradition he studied
law and was councillor at the parlernent of Paris. He suc-
ceeded his father as lieutenant-general of police in Paris, but
held the post only five months (January 26 to June 30, 1720).
He then received the office of intendant of Tours, and resumed
the lieutenancy of police in 1722. On the 2nd of January 2724
he was appointed councillor of state. He gained the confidence
of the regent Orleans, administering his fortune and-living with
his son till 1737. During this period he opened his salon to the
philosophers Chaulieu, la Fare and Voltaire, and collaborated
in the legislative labours, of the chancellor d'Aguesseau. In
March 1737 d'Argenson was appointed director of the censorship
of books, in which post he showed sufficiently liberal views to
gain the approval of writers — a rare thing in the reign of Louis
XV. He only retained this post for a year. He became president
of the grand council (November 1738), intendant of the ginSraliti
of Paris (August 1740), was admitted to the king's council
(August 1742), and in January 1743 was appointed secretary
of state for war in succession to the baron de BreteuiL As
minister for war he had a heavy task; the French armies
engaged in the War of the Austrian Succession were disorganized,
•and the retreat from Prague had produced a disastrous effect.
After consulting with Marshal Saze, he began the reform of the
new armies. To assist recruiting, he revived the old institution
of focal militias, which, however, did not come up to his expecta-
tion. In the spring of 1744 three armies were able to resume
the offensive in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy, and in
the following year France won the battle of Fontenoy, at which
d'Argenson was present. After the peace in 1748 he occupied
himself with the important work of recasting the French army
on the model of the Prussian. He unified the types of cannon,
grouped the grenadiers into separate regiments, and founded
the Ecole Militaire for the training of officers (1751). An edict
of the xst of November 1751 granted patents of nobility to all
who had the rank of general officer. In addition to his duties
as minister of war he bad the supervision of the printing, postal
administration and general administration of Paris. He was
responsible for the arrangement of the promenade of the Champs
£lysees and for the plan of the present Place de la Concorde.
He was exceedingly popular, and, although the court favour-
ites hated him, he had the support of the king. Nevertheless,
after the attempt of R. F. Damiens to assassinate the king,
Louis abandoned d'Argenson to the machinations of the court
favourites and dismissed both him and his colleague, J. B. de
Machault d'Arnouville (February 1 757). D'Argenson was exiled
to his estates at lies Ormes near Saumur, but he had previously
found posts for his brother, the marquis d'Argenson, as minister
of foreign affairs, for his son Marc Rend as master of the
horse, and for his nephew Mart Antoine Ren6 as commissary
of war. From the time of his exile he lived in the society of
savants and philosophers. He had been elected member of the
Academie des Inscriptions in 1749. Diderot and d'Alembert
dedicated the Encycteptdie to him, and Voltaire, C. J. F. Hinault,
and J. F. Marmontel openly visited him in his exile. After the
death of Madam* de Pompadour he obtained permission to
return to Park, and died a few days after his return, on the 22nd
of August 1764.
Marc Antoine. Rene db Voyer, marquis de Paulmy
d'Argenson (1722-1787), nephew of the preceding and son of
Rene Louis, was bom at Valenciennes on the 22nd of November
1722. Appointed councillor at the parlernent (1744), and maitre
des requites- (1747), he was associated with his father in the
ministry of foreign affairs and with his uncle in the ministry of
war, and, in recognition of this experience, was commissioned
to inspect the troops and fortifications and sent on embassy
to Switzerland (1748). In 1751 his uncle recognized him as hi
deputy and made over to him the reversion of the secretariate
of war. He then worked on the great reform of the army, and
after the dismissal of his uncle became minister of war (February
1757). But the outbreak of the Seven Years' War made this post
exceedingly- difficult to hold, and he resigned on the 23rd of
March 1758. He was ambassador to Poland from 1762 to 1764,
but failed to procure the nomination of the French candidate
to that throne. From 1 766 to x 7 70 he was ambassador at Venice.
Failing to obtain the embassy at Rome, he retired at the age of
forty-eight and devoted the rest of his life to indulging his tastes
for history and biography. He brought together a large library,
very rich in French poetry and romance, and undertook various
publications with the help of his librarian. In 2775 he began
his Bibliotkeque umverseUe des romans, of which forty volumes
appeared within three years, but subsequently handed over the
publication to other editors. His great work, Milanges liris
<Tune grand* bibliotkeque, was published in 65 volumes (Paris,
1 779-1 788). At his death he forbade his library to be dispersed:
it was bought by the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.) and
formed the nucleus of the present Bibliotheque de rArsenal at
Paris (the marquis having been governor of the arsenal). He
died on the 13th of August 1787.
See contemporary memoirs; also Dader*a eulogium in the
Acad&mie des Inscriptions et BeUes-LeUres (November 1788); and
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. xiL).
Marc Rene, marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson
(1721-1781), known as the marquis de Voyer, son of Marc Pierre
de Voyer, the minister of war, was born in Paris on the 20th of
September 1721. He served in the army of Italy and the army
of Flanders in the War of the Austrian Succession, and was
meslre de camp (proprietary colonel) of the regiment, of Berry
cavalry at the battle of Fontenoy (May xo, 1745), where he was
promoted brigadier. He was associated with his father in his
work of reorganizing the army, was made inspector of cavalry
and dragoons (1749), and succeeded his father as master of the
horse (175?). He introduced English horses into France. He
was lieutenant-general of Upper Alsace in 1753 and governor
of Vincennesin 1754, and served afterwards under Soubise in
the Seven Years' War. He was wounded at Crefeld in x 758, and
was promoted lieutenant-general ( 1 7 59) . He followed his father
into exile at Les Ormes (1763), and in the last years of the reign
of Louis XV. sided with the malcontents headed by Choiseul;
but on the rupture with England he rejoined the service of the
king (1775)- He was appointed inspector of the sea-board, and
put the roadstead of the island of Aix in a state of defence during
the American War of Independence. He caught marsh-fever
whiles attempting to drain the marshes of Rochefort, and died
at Les Ormes on the x8th of September 1782.
Marc Rene Marie db Voyer de Paulmy, marquis d'Argen-
son (1771-1842), son of the preceding, was born in Paris in
September 1771. He was brought up by his father's cousin,
the marquis de Paulmy, governor of the arsenal, and was made
lieutenant of dragoons in x 789. Although, at the age of eighteen,
he had succeeded to several estates and a large fortune, he em-
braced the revolutionary cause, joining the army of the North
as Lafayette's aide-de-camp and remaining with it even after
Lafayette's defection. Leaving France to take one of his sisters
to England, he was denounced on his return as a royalist con-
spirator, on the charge of having in his possession portraits of
the royal family. He then went to live in Touraine, married
4-6o
ARGEOTAN— ARGENTINA
the widow of Prince Victor de BrogUe, and saved her and her
children from proscription. He introduced new agricultural
instruments and processes on his estates, and installed
machinery imported from England in his ironworks in Alsace.
He was an enthusiastic adherent of Napoleon, by whom he was
appointed in May 1809 prefect of Deuz-Nethes. He helped
to repel the English invasion of the islands of South Bcveland
and Walcheren (August 1809), and afterwards directed the
defence works of Antwerp, but resigned this post (March 1813)
in consequence of the complaints of the inhabitants and the
exacting demands of the emperor. In May 18x4 he refused the
prefecture of Marseilles offered to him by the Bourbons, but
was elected deputy from Belfort in 18x5 during the Hundred
Days. On the 5th of July 18x5 he took part in the declaration
protesting against any tampering with the immutable rights of
the nation- He was a member of the Ckambre introuvabU, where
he became one of the orators of the democratic party. He was
one of the founders of the journal Le censeur europten and of
the Club de ia liberti de la presse, and was an uncompromising
opponent of reaction. Not re-elected in 1824 on account of his
liberal ideas, he returned to the chamber under the Martignac
ministry (1828), and resolutely persisted in his championship
of the liberty of the press and of public worship. On the death
of his wife he voluntarily renounced his mandate (July 1829),
and hailed the revolution of 1830 with great satisfaction. On
the 3rd of November 1830 he was elected to the chamber as
deputy from Chatclterault, and took the oath, adding, however,
the reservation " subject to the progress of the public reason."
His independent attitude resulted in his defeat in the following
year at the Chatellerault election, but he was returned for
Strassburg. He wished the incidence of the taxes to be arranged
according to social condition, and advocated a single tax pro-
portionate to income like the English income tax. He harped
incessantly on this idea in his speeches and articles (see his letters
in La Tribune of June 20, x 83a). Although he was a proprietor
of ironworks he opposed the protectionist laws, which he con-
sidered injurious to the workmen. He became the mouthpiece
of the advanced ideas; subsidized the opposition newspapers,
especially the National; received into his house F..M. Buonar-
roti, who in 1796 had been implicated in the conspiracy of
"Gracchus" Babeuf ($.».); and became a member of the
committee of the Society of the Rights of Man. He was even
sued in the courts for a pamphlet called Boutade d'un kemme
riche & sentiments populaires, and delivered a speech to the
jury in which he displayed very -daring social theories. But
he gradually grew discouraged and retired from public affairs,
refusing even municipal office, and living in seclusion at La
Grange in the forest of Gucrche, where he devoted his inventive
faculty to devising agricultural improvements. He subsequently
returned to Paris, where he died on the xst of August 184a.
Cbakles Mabc Ren* de Voyeb, marquis d'Argenson
(r 796-1862), son of the preceding, was born at Boulogne-sur-
Seine on the 20th of April 1706. He concerned himself little
with politics. He was, however, a member of the council-
general of Vienne for six years, but was expelled from it in 1840
in consequence of his advanced ideas and his relations with the
Opposition. In 1848 he was elected deputy from Vienne to the
Constituent Assembly by 12,000 votes. He was an active
member of the Archaeological Society of Touraine and the
Society of Antiquaries of the West, and wrote learned works
for these bodies. He collaborated in preparing the archives
of the scientific congress at Tours in 1847; brought out two
editions of the MSS. of his great-grand-unde, the minister of
foreign affairs under Louis XV., under the title Memoirts du
marquis d'Argenson, one in 1825, and the other, in 5 vols., in 1857-
i8s8;and published Diseows et opinions de mon jpere, M. Voyer
d'Argenson (2 vols., 1845). He died on the 3 ist of Juy x86a.
ARQKMTAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arroodissement in the department of Ome, 27 m. N.N.W* of
Aiencon on the railway from Le Mans to Caen. Pop. (xoo6)
5072. It is situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the
Ome at its confluen c e with the Ure. The town has remains of
old fortifications, among them the Tour Marguerite, and *
chateau, now -used as a law-court, dating from the 15th century.
The church of St Germain (15th, x6th and 17th centuries) has
several features of architectural beauty, notably the sculptured
northern portal, and the central and western towers. The
church of St Martin, dating from the 15th century, has good
stained glass. The handsome modern town-hall contains among
other institutions the tribunal of commerce, the museum and
the library. Argentan is the seat of a sub-prefect, has a tribunal
of first instance and a communal college. Leather-working and
the manufacture of stained glass are leading industries. There are
quarries of limestone in the vicinity. Argentan was a viscounty
from the nth century onwards; it was often taken and pillaged.
During the Religious Wars it remained attached to the Catholic
party. Francois Eudes de Mezeray, the historian* was born near
the town, and a monument has been erected to his memory.
ARQENTETJIL, a town of northern France in the department
of Seine-et-Oisc, on the Seine, 5 m. N.W. of the fortifications
of Paris by the railway from Paris to Mantes. Pop. (1906)
x 7,330. Argenteuil grew up round a monastery, which, dating
from a.d. 656, was by Charlemagne changed into a nunnery; it
was afterwards famous for its connexion with Helofse (see
Abelabo), and on her expulsion in 1x29 was again turned into
a monastery. Asparagus, figs and wine of medium quality
are grown in the district; and heavy iron goods, chemical
products, clocks and plaster are among the manufactures.
ARGENTINA, or the AxczNTnn Republic (officially, Re-
publica Argentina), a. country occupying the greater part of the
southern extremity of South America. It is of wedge shape,
extending from 21° 55* S* to the most southerly point of the
island of Tferra del Fuego in 55* 2' 30* S., while its extremes of
longitude -are 53° 40' on the Brazilian frontier and 73 s 17' 30* W.
on the Chilean frontier. Its length from north to south is 2285
statute miles, and its greatest width about 930 m. It is the
second largest political division of the continent , having an area of
1,083,596 sq> m. (Gotha measurement). It is bounded N. by
Bolivia and Paraguay, £. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the
Atlantic, W. by Chile, and S. by the converging lines of the
Atlantic and Chile.
Boundaries. — At different times Argentina has been engaged
in disputes over boundary lines with eveiy one of her neighbours,
that with Chile being only settled in X902. Beginning at the
estuary of the Rio de la Plata, the boundary line ascends the
Uruguay river, on the eastern side of the strategically important
island of Martin Garcia, to the mouth of the Pequiry, thence
under the award of President Grover Cleveland in 1894 up that
small river to its source and in a direct line to the source of the
Santo Antonio, a small tributary of the Iguassu, thence down
the Santo Antonio and Iguassu to the upper Parana, which forms
the southern boundary of Paraguay. From the confluence of the
upper Parana and Paraguay the line ascends the latter to the
mouth of the Pilcomayo, which river, under the award of Presi-
dent R. B. Hayes in 1878, forms the boundary between Argentina
and Paraguay from the Paraguay river north-west to the
Bolivian frontier. In accordance with the Argentine-Bolivian
treaty of 1889 the boundary line between these republics con-
tinues up the Pilcomayo to the 22nd parallel, thence west to the
Tarija river, which it follows down to the Bermejo, thence up
the latter to its source, and westerly through the Quiaca ravine
and across to a point on the San Juan river opposite Esmoraca.
From this point it ascends the San Juan south and west to the
Cerro de Granadas, and thence south-west to Cerro Incahuasi
and Cerro Zapalegui on the Chilean frontier. The boundary
with Chile, extending across more than 32° laL, had been
the cause of disputes for many yean, which at times led to
costly preparations for war. The debts of the two nations
resulted largely from this one cause. In x88x a treaty was
signed which provided that the boundary line should follow
the highest crests of the Andes forming the watershed as far
south as the 52nd parallel, thence east to the 70th meridian and
south-east to Cape Dungeness at the eastern entrance to the
Straits of Magellan. Crossing the Straits the line should follow
ARGENTINA
461
the meridian of 68° 44', south to Beagle Channel, and thence east to
the Atlantic, giving Argentina the eastern part of the Tierra del
Fuego and Staten Island. By this agreement Argentina was
confirmed in the possession of the greater part of Patagonia,
while Chile gained control of the Straits of Magellan, much
adjacent territory on the north, the larger part of Tierra del
Fuego and all the neighbouring islands south and west.
When the attempt was made to mark this boundary the
Commissioners were unable to agree on a line across the Puna de
Atacama in the north, where parallel ranges enclosing a high arid
plateau without any clearly denned drainage to the Atlantic or
Pacific, gave an opportunity for conflicting claims. In the south
the broken character of the Cordillera, pierced in places by large
rivers flowing into the Pacific and having their upper drainage
basins on the eastern side of the line of highest crests, gave rise to
unforeseen and very difficult questions. Finally, under a con-
vention of the 17th of April 1896, these conflicting claims were
submitted to arbitration. In 1899 a mixed commission with
Hon. W. I. Buchanan, United States minister at Buenos Aires,
serving as arbitrator, reached a decision on the Atacama line
north of 26 52' 45" S. lat., which was a compromise though it
gave the greater part of the territory to Argentina. The line
starts at the intersection of the 23rd parallel with the 67th
meridian and runs south-westerly and southerly to the
mountain and volcano summits of Rinc6n, Socompa, Llullaillaco,
Azufre, Aguas Blancas and Sierra Nevada, thence to the
initial point of the British award. (See Gcogr. Jour., 1899, xiv.
322-393.) The line south of 26° 52' 45" S. lat had been located by
the commissioners of the two republics with the exception of
four sections. These were referred to the arbitration of Queen
Victoria, and, after a careful survey under the direction of Sir
Thomas H. Holdich, the award was rendered by King Edward
VII. in 1902.' (See Gcogr. Jour., 1903, xxi. 45-50-) In the first
section the line starts from a pillar erected in the San Francisco
pass, about 26° 50' S. lat., and follows the water-parting south-
ward to the highest peak of the Tres Cruces mountains in
27° c/ 45* S. lat., 68° 49' 5* W. long. In the second, the line runs
from 40 2' S. lat., 71° 40' 36' W. long., along the water-parting to
the southern termination of the Cerro Perihueico in the valley
of the Huahum river, thence across that river, 71° 40' 36" W.
long., and along the water-parting around the upper basin of the
Huahum to a junction with the line previously determined. In
the third and longest section, the line starts from a pillar erected
in the Perez Resales pass, near Lake Nahuel-Huapi, and follows
the water-parting southward to the highest point of Mt. Tronador,
and thence in a very tortuous course along local water-partings
and across the Chilean rivers Manso, Puelo, Fetaleufu, Palena,
Pico and Aisen, and the lakes Buenos Aires, Pueyrreddn and San
Martin, to avoid the inclusion of Argentine settlements within
Chilean territory, to the Cerro Fitzroy and continental water-
parting north-west of Lake Viedma, between 49 and 50° S. lat.
The northern half of this line does not run far from the 72nd
meridian, except in 44° 30* S. where it turns eastward nearly a
degree to include the upper valley of the Frias river in Chilean
territory, but south of the 40th parallel it curves westward to
give Argentina sole possession of lakes Viedma and Argentine
The fourth section, which was made particularly difficult of
solution by the extension inland of the Pacific coast inlets and
sounds and by the Chilean colonies located there, was adjusted
by running the line eastward from the point of divergence in
50° 50' S. lat along the Sierra Baguales, thence south and south-
east to the 52nd parallel, crossing several streams and following
the crests of the Cerro Cazador. The Chilean settlement of
Ultima Espcranza (Last Hope), over which there had been much
controversy, remains under Chilean jurisdiction.
Physical Gtofraphy.-'For purposes of surface description, Argen-
tina may be divided primarily into three great divisions-— the
mountainous tone and tablelands of the west, extending the full
length of the republic; the great plains of the east, extending from
the Pflcomayo to the Rio Negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of
Patagonia. The first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the
width of the country between the Bolivian frontier and the Rio
Negro, and comprises the elevated Cordilleras and their plateaus,
with flanking ranges and spurs toward the east. In the extreme
north, extending southward from the great Bolivian highlands,
there are several parallel ranges, the most prominent of which are:
the Sierra de Santa Catalina, from which the detached Cachi,
Gulumpaji and Famatina ranees project southward ; and the Sierra
de Santa Victoria, south of which are the Zenta, Aconquija, Ambato
and Ancaste ranges. These minor ranges, excepting the Zenta, are
separated from the Andean masses by comparatively low depressions
and are usually described as dbtinct ranees; topographically, how-
ever, they seem to form a continuation of the ranges running south-
ward from the Santa Victoria and forming the eastern rampart of
the great central plateau of which the Puna de Atacama covers a
large part. The elevated plateaus between these ranges are semi-
arid and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive saline basins,
which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or dry salt-
Etns in the dry season. These saline basins extend down to the
wer terraces of C6rdoba, Mendoza and La Pampa. Flanking this
great widening of the Andes on the south-east are the three short
parallel ranees of C6rdoba, belonging to another and older formation.
North of them is the great saline depression, known as the " salinas -
grandes," 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway;
north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the " Mar
Chiquita " (of Cordoba) and the morasses into which the waters of
the Rio Saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated
plains, partly saline, of western C6rdoba, which separate this isolated
group of mountains from the Andean spurs of Kioia and San Luis.
The eastern ranges parallel to the Andes are here broken into detached
extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated western
pampas, and the Andes contract south of Aconcagua to a single
range, which descends gradually to the great plains of La Pampa
and Neuquen. The lower terrace of this great mountainous region,
with elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western
margin of the great Argentine plain, and may be traced from Oran
(1017 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier southward through Tucuman
(1476 ft.), Frias (1129 ft.), Cordoba (1279 ft.), Rio Cuarto (1358 ft.),
Paunero (1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through
still unsettled regions to the Rio Negro at the confluence of the
Neuquen and Limay.
The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the
Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of
the Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north
the plain is known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country
between the Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive
depression immediately north of the latter river, believed to be the
undisturbed bottom of the ancient Pampean sea. The northern
part of the Gran Chaco is partly wooded and swampy, and as the
slope eastward is very gentle and the rivers much obstructed by
sand bars, floating trees and vegetation, large areas are regularly
flooded during rainy seasons. South of the Bermejo the land is
more elevated and drier, though large depressions covered with
marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther north.
The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and south-west
there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with salt-pans.
The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800 ft. above
sea-level. The Argentine " mesopotamia," between the Parana and
Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region, being
EartTy wooded, flat and swampy in the north (Corrientes), but
igher and undulating in the south (Entre Rios). The Mi si ones
territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands
of Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising
to a height of 1000 to 1300 ft.
The remainder of the great Argentine plain is the treeless; grassy
Pampa (Quichua for " level spaces "), apparently a dead level, but
in reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward toward the
Andes. Evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the
stations on the Buenos Aires and- Pacific railway running a little
north of west across the pampas to Mendoza. The average elevation
of Buenos Aires is about 65 ft.; of Mercedes, 70 m. westward,
132 ft.; of Junta (160 m.), 267 ft; and of Paunero (400 m.) it is
1250 ft, showing an average rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. The
apparently uniform level of the pampas is much broken along its
southern margin by the Tandil and Ventana sierras, and by ranges
of hills and low mountains in the southern and western parts of the
territory of La Pampa. Extensive depressions also are found, some
of which are subject to inundations, as along the lower Salado in
Buenos Aires and along the lower courses of the Colorado and Negro.
l n .... „.. . -i ich jg a, yet but slightly explored and settled,
th lepressed area, largely saline in character,
wl snd morasses, having no outlet to the ocean.
Tl > in. annually, but the drainage from the
ndes is large enough to meet the loss from
these inland lakes from drying up. At an
led area drained southward to the Colorado,
itlet can still be traced. The rivers belonging
s system arc the Vermeio, San Juan and
r affluents, and their southward flow can be
S. lat to the great lagoons and morasses
it. in the western part of La Pampa territory,
affluents are the Vmchina and Jackal, or
the Vermeio. the Patos, which flows into
i Mendoza, Tunuyan and Diamante which
462
ARGENTINA
flow into the Desaguadero, all of these being Andean snow-fed
rivers. The Desaguadero also receives the outflow of the Laguna
Bebedero, an intensely saline lake of western San Luis. The lower
course of the Desaguadero is known as the Salado because of the
brackish character of its water. Another considerable river flowing
into the same great morass is the Atuel, which rises in the Andes
not far south of the Diamante. (A description of the Patagonian
part of Argentina will be found under Patagonia.)
Rivers and Lakes. — The hydrography of Argentina is of the
simplest character. The three great rivers that form the La Plata
system — the Paraguay, Parana and Uruguay — have their sources
in the highlands of Brazil and flow southward through a great
continental depression, two of them forming eastern boundary lines,
and one of them, the Parana, flowing across the eastern part of the
republic The northern part of Argentina, therefore, drains eastward
from the mountains to these rivers, except where some great inland
depression gives rise to a drainage having no outlet to the sea, and
except, also, in the " mesopotamia " region, where small streams
„ flow westward into the Parana and eastward into the Uruguay.
The largest of the rivers through which Argentina drains into the
Plata system are the Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and flows
south-east along the Argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the
Bermejo, which rises on the northern frontier and flows south-east
into the Paraguay; and the Salado del Norte (called Rio del lura-
mento in its upper course), which rises on the high mountain slopes
of western Salta and flows south-east into the Parana. Another
river of this class is the CarcaranaL about 300 m. long, formed by
the confluence of the Tercero and Cuarto, whose sources are in the
Sierra de Cdrdoba ; it flows eastward across the pampas, and dis-
charges into the Parana at Gaboto, about 40 m. above Rosario.
Other small rivers rising in the C6rdoba sierras are the Primero and
Segundo, which flow into the lagoons of north-east Cordoba, and the
Quinto. which flows south-easterly into the lagoons and morasses
of southern C6rdoba. The Lujan rises near Mercedes, province of
Buenos Aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows north-easterly into
the Parana delta. Many smaller streams discharge intothe Paraguay
and Parana from the west, some of them wholly dependent upon the
rains, and drying up during long droughts. The Argentine " mesopo-
tamia " is well watered by a large number of small streams flowing
north and west into the Parana, and east into the Uruguay. The
largest of these are the Corrientes, Feliciano and Gualeguay of the
western slope, and the Aguapey and Miriflay of the eastern. None
of the tributaries of the La Plata system thus far mentioned is
navigable except the lower Pilcomayo and Bermejo for a few miles.
These Chaco nvers are obstructed by sand bars and snags, which
could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted
by the present population and traffic. In the southern pampa
region there are many small streams, flowing into the La Plata
estuary and the Atlantic; most of these are unknown by name
outside the republic. The largest and only important river b the
Salado del Sud, which rises in the north-west corner of the province
of Buenos Aires and flows south-east for a distance of 360 m. into
the bay of Samborombon. On the southern margin of the pampas
are the Colorado and Negro, both large, navigable rivers flowing
entirely across the republic from the Andes to the Atlantic Many
of the rivers of Argentina, as implied by their names (Salado and
Saladillo), are saline or brackish in character, and are of slight use
in the pastoral and agricultural industries of the country. The lakes
of Argentina are exceptionally numerous, although comparatively
few arc large enough to merit a name on the ordinary general map.
They vary from shallow, saline lagoons in the north-western plateaus,
to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in the Andean foothills of
Patagonia. The province of Buenos Aires has more than 600 lakes,
the great majority small, and some brackish. The La Pampa
territory also is dotted with small lakes. The Bebedero, in San
Luis, and Porongos, in Cdrdoba, and others, are shallow, saline lakes
which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no outlet.
The large saline Mar Chiquita, of C6rdoba, is fed from the Sierra de
C6rdoba and has no outlet. In the northern part of Corrientes
there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which are
believed to be slowly drying up.
Harbours.— Although having a great extent of coast-line, Argen-
tina has but few really good harbours. The two most frequented
by ocean-going vessels are Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata),
both of which have been constructed at great expense to overcome
natural disadvantages. Perhaps the best natural harbour of the
republic is that of Bahia Blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered
by islands, and 534 m. by sea south of Buenos Aires; here the
government is building a naval station and port called Puerto
Militar or Puerto Belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render
the harbour accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. About
100 m. south of Bahia Blanca is the sheltered bay of San Bias,
which may become of commercial importance, and between the
42nd and 43rd parallels are the land-locked bays of San Jose
and Nueva (Golfo Nucvo)— the first as yet unused; on the latter
is Puerto Madryn, 838 m. from Buenos Aires, the outlet for
the Welsh colony of Chubut. Other small harbours on the lower
Patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population.
An occasional Argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests
of colonists. The best-known among them arc Puerto Descado
(Port Desire) at the mouth of the Deseado fiver (1253 m.). Santa
Crux, at the mouth of the Santa Crux river (148! m.), and Ushuaia,
on Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego. North of Buenos Aires, on
the Parana river, is the port of Rosario, the outlet for a rich agri-
cultural district, ranking next to the federal capital in importance.
Other river ports, of less importance, are Concordia on the Uruguay
river, San Nicolas and Campana on the Parana river, Santa Ft on
the Salado, a few miles from the Parana, the city of Parana on the
Parana river, and Gualeguay on the Gualeguay river.
Geology. — The Pampas of Argentina are generally cove r ed by
loess. The Cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of
folded beds, while the Sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly
of gneiss, granite and schist. In the western Sierras, which are
more or less closely attached to the main chain of the Cordillera,
Cambrian and Silurian fossils have been found at several places.
These older beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the
country, by a sandstone scries which- contains thin seams of coal
and many remains of plants. At Bajo de Vclis, in San Luis, the
plants belong to the " Clossopteris flora," which is so widely spread
in South Africa, India and Australia, and the beds are correlated
with the Karharbari series of India (Permian Or Permo-Carboni-
fcrous). Elsewhere the plants generally indicate a higher horizon
and are considered to correspond with the Rhaettc of Europe.
Jurassic beds are known only in the Cordillera itself, and the Cre-
taceous beds, which occur in the west of the country, are of freshwater
origin. As far west, therefore, as the Cordillera, there is no evidence
that any part of the region was ever beneath the sea in Mesocoic
times, and the plant-remains indicate a land connexion with Africa.
This view is supported by Neumayr's comparison of Jurassic faunas
throughout the world. The Lower Tertiary consists largely of
reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of the Cordillera and
of the Sierras. Towards the east they lie at a lower level ; but in
the Andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000 ft., and are strongly
fo ,JJ c — : ng that the elevation of the chain was not completed
ui sir deposition. The marine fades of the later Tertiaries
is the neighbourhood of the coast, and was probably
fo the elevation of the Andes; but inland, freshwater
d< lis period are met with, especially in Patagonia. Con-
te a volcanic rocks are associate*! with the Ordovidan
tx 1 the Rhaetic sandstones in several places. During the
T od the great volcanoes of the Andes were formed, and
tli laller eruptions in the Sierras. The principal rocks are
ar ttrachytesand basalts are also common. Great masses
of „ , enite and diorite were intruded at this period, and send
tongues even into the andesitic tuffs.
Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur ta many localities.
They are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses
of the hilly regions. (See also Andes.) 1
Climate. — The great extent of Argentina in latitude— about 33*—
and its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the permanently
snow-covered peaks of the Andes, give it a highly diversified climate,
which is further modified by prevailing winds and mountain barriers.
The temperature and rainfall are governed by conditions different
from those in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, for instance, although
they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made habitable and an
excellent sheep-graiing country by the southerly equatorial current
along the continental coast. The climate, however, is colder than
the corresponding latitudes of western Europe, because of the pre-
vailing westerly winds, chilled in crossing the Andes. In the extreme
north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by the
" blanketing " influence of the eastern Andean ranges, extends
southward to Mcndoza. The northern part of the republic, ea»t
of the mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the
south-east trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet
and dry seasons. Farther south, in Patagonia, the prevailing wind
is westerly, in which case the Andes again " blanket " an extensive
region and deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe.
Below this region, where the Andean barrier is low and broken, the
moist westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large
rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. If the republic
be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of climate
in the same latitude appear. In the extreme north a little over a
degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid rone, extending
from the Pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the Chilean frontier;
its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the Gran Chaco, where
the mean annual temperature is 73* F., and the annual rainfall is
63 in. ; but on the and, elevated plateau at its western extremity
the temperature falls below 57* F., and the rainfall has diminished
to a in. The character of the soil changes from the alluvial lowlands
of the Gran Chaco, covered with forests of palms and other tropical
vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the Puna de Atacama.
almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently
For the geology of Argentina, see Stelzner, Beitrige car gtologU
art argenstnuchen Republik (Cassel and Berlin, 1885); Brackebusch.
Mapa geoUjtko del InUriote de la RtfmbUca Argentina (Gotha. 1892) ;
Valentin, Bostpujo geoUeko de la Argentina (Buenos Aires. 1897);
Hauthal. Beitrftge zur Geologic der argentinischen Provinz Buenos
Aires, Peterm, ifiU. vol. I., 1904, pp. 83-92, 1 12-117, pi. vi.
ARGENTINA
463
•now-crowned peaks. Between the 30th and 31 st parallels, a
essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from
66° on the eastern plains to 62*5° in C6rdoba and 64* F. on the
higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of San Juan. The rainfall,
which varies between 39 and 47 in. in Entre Rios, decreases to 27 in.
in Cordoba and 2 in. in San Juan. The republic has a width of about
745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level
alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain
ranges. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the climatic conditions vary
very little from those of the parapa region ; the mean annual tempera-
ture is about 63° (maximum 104°; minimum 32°), and the annual
rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. South of the pampa region,
on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only slightly
in the 370 m. from themouth of the Colorado to the Andes, ranging
from 57 s to 55 s ; but the rainfall increases from 8 in. on the coast
to 16 in. on the east slope of the Cordillera. This section is near the
northern border of the arid Patagonian steppes. In Ticrra del
Fuego (lat. 53* to 55°), the climatic conditions are in strong contrast
to those of the north. Here the mean te mp erature is between 46*
and 48 s in summer and 36 and 38° in winter, rains are frequent,
and snow falls every month in the year. The central and southern
parts of the island and the neighbouring Staten Island are excep-
tionally rainy, the latter having 2«| rainy days in the year. The
precipitation of rain, snow and nail is about 55 in.
The prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly,
being moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the
40th parallel. In the north and on the pampas the north wind is
not and depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing.
The north wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a
pampero, a cold south-west wind from the Andes which blows with
great violence, causes a fall in temperature of 15° to 20°, and is most
frequent from June to November— the southern winter and spring.
In the Andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west,
called the Zonda, Blows with great intensity, especially in September-
October, and causes much discomfort and suffering. It is followed
by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25°. The
climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is .admirably
suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Its greatest defect is
the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great losses in
cattle and sheep* The Patagonian coast-line and mountainous region
are also healthy, having a dry and bracingclimate. In the north, how-
ever, the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north European
settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus arc celebrated for their
healthiness, those of Catamarca having an excellent reputation as a
sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial diseases.
Flora.— The flora of Argentina should be studied according to
natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the country
—the rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the treeless
pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and the arid
plateaus of the north-west. The vegetation of each region has its
distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation, irrigation
from mountain streams, and by the saline character ot the soil.
In the extreme south, where an Arctic vegetation is found, the
pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the Antarctic beech
(Fagus antarclica), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy.
The greater part of Patagonia is comparatively barren and has no
arboreal growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the Andean
foothills. The water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppes
afford pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a
thorny vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. The
Antarctic beech and Winter's bark (Drimys Winteri) are found at
intervals along the Andes to the northern limits of this sone. The
pampas, which cover so large a part of the republic, have no native
trees whatever, and no woods except the scrubby growth of the delta
islands of the Parana, and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the
Atlantic coast south to Mar Chiquita and south of the Tandil sierra,
which, strictly speaking, does not belong to this region. The great
plains are covered with edible grasses, divided into two classes,
tasso duro (bard grass) and paste Nendo, or tiemo (soft grass)— the
former tall, coarse, nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle,
and the latter tender grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable
for sheep and cattle. The so-called " pampas-grass " (Gyneriutn
argenteum) is not found at all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds
of the south and south-west. The paste duro is largely composed
of the genera Stipa and Melica. In the dry, saline regions of the
west and north-west, where the rainfall is slight, there- are large
thickets of low-growing, thorny bushes, poor in foliage. The pre-
dominating species is the chanar (Gurliaca dacorikans), which pro-
duces an edible berry, and occurs from the Rio Negro to the northern
limits of the republic Huge cacti are also characteristic of this
region. On the lower slopes of the Andes are found oak, beech,
cedar. Winter's bark, pine (Araucaria imbricata), laurel and calden
(Prosopis algarobilla). The provinces of Santa Ft, Cordoba and
Santiago del Estero are only partially wooded ; Urge areas of plains
are intermingled with scrubby forests of algarrobo (Prosopis),
quebracho-bianco (Aspido-sperma quebracho), tala (CeUis tola,
SeUowiana, acuminata), acacias and other genera. In Tucuman
and eastern Salta the same division into forests and open plains
exists, but the former are of denser growth and contain walnut,
cedar, laurel, tips (Machatrium fertile) and quebracho-coIorado
(Loxfipterygium LorentsU). The territories of the Gran Chaco,
however, are covered with a characteristic tropical vegetation, in
which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of the Bermejo
with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-coIorado, urunday
(Astronium JraxinijoHum), lapacho (Teeoma curialis) and palosanto
(Guoyacum officinalis), all esteemed for hardness and fineness, of
grain. Other palms abound, such as the pind6 (Cocos australis),
mbocaya (Cocos ulerocarpa) and the yatai (Cocos yatai), but the
predominating species north of the Bermejo is the caranday or
Brazilian wax-palm (Copemicia cerifera), which has varied uses.
The forest habit in this region is close association of species, and
there are " palmares," " algarrobales," " chaftarales, &c, and
among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a
park-like appearance. In the " mesopotamia " region the flora is
similar to that of the southern Chaco, but in the Misiones it approxi-
mates more to that of the neighbouring Brazilian highlands. Among
the marvellous changes wrought in Argentina by the advent of
European civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the intro-
duction of useful trees and plants from every part of the world.
Indian corn, quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and
various fruits, including the strawberry, were already known to
the aborigines, but with the conqueror came, wheat, barley, oats,
flax, many kinds of vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, peat
grapes, figs, oranges and lemons, together with alfalfa and n<_
grasses for the plains. The Australian eucalyptus is now grown
in many places, and there are groves of the paradise or paraiso tree
(Melia azedarach) on the formerly treeless pampa. The cereals of
Europe are a source of increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa
promises new prosperity for pastoral industries.
Fauna. — The Argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly
influenced by the character and position of the pampas. Whatever
it may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely
limited both in size and numbers. Of the indigenous fauna, the
tapir of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the
largest of the animals. The pampas were almost destitute of animal
life before the horses and cattle of the Spanish invaders were there
turned out to graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until
the herds of European cattle attracted them. The timid viscacha
(Lagostomus trichodactylus), living in colonies, often with the burrow-
ing owl, and digging deep under ground like the American prairie
dog, was almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense
open plains. The fox, of which several species exist, probably never
ventured far into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. Immense
flocks of gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect
life, and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. The
occupation of this region by Europeans, and the introduction of
horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed
its aspect and character. On the Patagonian steppes there are
comparatively few species of animals. Among them are the puma
(Felts concolor). a smaller variety of the jaguar (Felts anca), the
wolf, the fox, the Patagonian hare (Ddiehotu patagonica) and two
species of wild cat. The huge glyptodon once inhabited this region,
which now possesses the -smallest armadillo known, the "quir-
quincho " or Dasypus minutus. The guanaco (Auckenia), which
ranges from Tierra del Fuego to the Bolivian highlands, finds com-
parative safety in these uninhabitable solitudes, and is still numerous.
The " fiandfi or American ostrich {Rhea anuricana), inhabiting the
pampas and open plains of the Chaco, has in Patagonia a smaller
counterpart (Rhea Darwinii), which is never seen north of the Rio
Negro. On the arid plateaus of the north-west, the guanaco and
vicuna are still to be found, though less frequently, together with a
smaller species of viscacha (Lagidium cuvieri). The greatest develop-
ment of the Argentine fauna, however, is. in the warm, wooded
regions of the north and north-east, where many animals are of- the
same species as those in the neighbouring territories of Brazil.
Several species of monkeys inhabit the forests from the Parana to
the Bolivian frontier. Pumas, jaguars and one or two species of
wild cat are numerous, as also the Argentine wolf and two or three
species of fox. The coatf, marten, skunk and otter (Luira para-
nensis) are widely distributed. Three species of deer are common.
In the Chaco the tapir or anta (Tapir amerkanus) still finds a safe
retreat, and the peccary (Dycotyles torquatus) ranges from C6rdoba
north to the Bolivian frontier; The capybara (Hydrochoenu copy*
bard) is also numerous in this region. Of birds the number of species
greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including the rhea of the
pampas and condor of the Andes, and the tiny, brilliant-hued
humming-birds of the tropical North. Vultures and hawks are well
represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the parrots,
of which there are six or seven species. The reptilians are represented
in the Parana by the jacare (Alligator sclerops), and on land by the
" iguana " (Teius Uguexim, Podinema teguixin), and some species of
lizard. Serpents are numerous, but only two are described as
poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the " vibora de la crux "
(Trigonocepkalus alternatus). 1
'Interesting details of the Argentine fauna may be found tn
Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle-, W. H. Hudson's Idle Days in Pata-
gonia, and Naturalist in the La Plata-, G. Pelleschi's Eight Months
on the Gran Chaco; R. Napp's Argentine Republic; and de Moussy s
Confederation argentine.
464
ARGENTINA
Populaliort.^-ln population Argentina ranks second among
the republics of South America, having outstripped, during the
last quarter of the 19th century, the once more populous states
of Colombia and Peru. During the first half of the xoth century
civil war and despotic government seriously restricted the natural
growth of the country, but since the definite organization of the
republic in i860 and the settlement of disturbing political
controversies, the population had increased rapidly. Climate
and a fertile soil have been important elements in this growth.
According to the first national census of i860" the population
was 1,830.214. The census of 1895 increased this total to
3,954,91 1, exclusive of wild Indians and a percentage for omissions
customarily used in South American census returns. In 1904
official estimates, based on immigration and emigration returns
and upon registered births and deaths, both of which are ad-
mittedly defective, showed a population increased to 5,410,028,
and a small diminution in the rate of annual increase from 1895
to 1004 as compared with 1869-1895. The birth-rate is excep-
tionally high, largely because of the immigrant population,
the greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large
cities. In the rural districts of the northern provinces, the
increase in population is much less than in the central provinces,
the conditions of life being less favourable. According to the
official returns, 1 the over-sea immigration for the forty-seven
years 1857-1003 aggregated 2,872,588, while the departure of
emigrants during the same period was 1,066,480, showing a net
addition to the population of 1,806,108. A considerable per-
centage of these arrivals and departures represents seasonal
labourers, who come out from Europe solely for the Argentine
wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. Un-
favourable political and economic conditions of a temporary
character influence the emigration movement During the years
1880-1889, when the country enjoyed exceptional prosperity,
the arrivals numbered 1,020,007 and the departures only 1 75,038,
but in 1890-1899, a period of financial depression following the
extravagant Celman administration, the arrivals were 928,865
and the departures 552,175. Another disturbing influence has
been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years
of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly
than the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants
to seek employment elsewhere. The influence of such legislation
on unsettled immigrant labourers may be seen in the number
of Italians who periodically migrate from Argentina to Brazil,
and vice versa, seeking to better their condition. Of the immigrant
arrivals for the forty-seven years given, 1,331,536 were Italians,
414.973 Spaniards, 170,293 French, 37,953 Austrians, 35.435
British, 30,699 Germans, 25,775 Swiss, 19,521 Belgians, and the
others of diverse nationalities, so that Argentina is in no danger
of losing her Latin character through immigration. This large
influx of Europeans, however, is modifying the population by
reducing the Indian and mestao elements to a minority, although
they are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and
north-western provinces. The language is Spanish.
Science and Literature. — Though the university of C6rdoba
is the oldest but one in South America, it has made no con-
spicuous contribution to Argentine literature beyond the his-
torical works of its famous rector, Gregorio Funes (1 749-1830).
This university was founded in 1621 and the university of
Buenos Aires in 182 1, but although Bonpland and some other
European scientists were members of the faculty of Buenos Aires
in its early years, neither there nor at C6rdoba was any marked
attention given to the natural sciences until President Sarmiento
(official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the
university of C6rdoba under the eminent German naturalist,
Dr Hermann Burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the National
Observatory at C6rdoba and placed it under the direction of
1 There are two distinct statistical offices compiling immigration
returns and their totals do not agree, owing in part to the traffic
between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Another report gives the
arrivals in 1904 as 125,567 and the departures 38.023.' Of the
arrivals 67,598 were Italians and 39.851 Spaniards. The total for
the years 1859-1904 was 3.166,073 and the departures 1,239,064,
the noted American astronomer, Benjamin Apthorp Gould
(1824-1896). Both of these men made important contributions
to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the country,
not only through their publications but also through the interest
they aroused in scientific research. A bureau of meteorology
was afterwards created at Cordoba which has rendered valuable
service. Dr Burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the
provincial museum of Buenos Aires, and devoted himself to the
acquisition of a collection of fossil remains, now in the La Plata
museum, which ranks among the best of the world. Not only has
scientific study advanced at the university of Buenos Aires,
but scientific research is promoting the development of the
country; examples are the geographical explorations of the
Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by
Francisco P. Moreno. In literature Argentina is still under the
spell of Bohemianism and dilettanteism. Exceptions are the
admirable biographies of Manuel Belgrano (d. 1820) and San
Martin, important contributions to the history of the country
and of the war of independence, by ex-President Bartotome'
Mitre (1821-1906). Buenos Aires has some excellent daily
journals, but the tone of the press in general is sensational
The number of newspapers published is large, especially in
Buenos Aires, where in 190a the total, including sundry periodi-
cals, was 183.
Political Divisions and Towns. — The chief political divisions
of the republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and
xo territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement
of the territorial controversies with Chile. For purposes of local
administration the provinces are divided into departments.
The names, area and population of the provinces and territories
are as follows: —
Administrative Divisions.
Provinces—
Federal Capital
Buenos Aires .
Santa Ft .
Entre Rios
Corrientes.
Cordoba . . .
San Luis .
Santiago del Estero
Mendoza .
San Juan .
Rioja
Catamarca
Tucuman .
Salta.
Jujuy.
erriiorics—
Misiones ....
Formosa ....
Chaoo
Pampa ....
Ncuquen ....
Rio Negro . . .
Chubut ....
Santa Cruz
Tierra del Fuego .
Los Andes
Total . .
Gotha computations of 1902
with corrections for boun-
dary changes .
Area,
sq. m.
72
"7.778
50,916
28,784
32.580
62,160
28.535
39.764
56.502
337«5
34.546
47.531
8,926
62,184
18.977
11,282
4MW
53.741
56.330
43445
75.934
93437
109,142
8.299
a 1. 989
1.135.840
1.083.596
Pop.
1895.
663.854
921,168
397.188
292,019
339.618
351.223
81450
161,50a
116,136
84.351
69.50a
90,161
315,742
118,015
49,713
33.163
4.829
10.422
35.9U
X4.517
9.341
3.748
1.058
477
Pop. est.
for 1904-
3*954.911
979.335
1J13.953
640.755
367,006
,&
159.780
S.955
,099
103,082
263^079
136,059
S54SO
38.755
6,094
13.937
52.150
18,02a
18,648
9,060
1.793
Mil
3.095
5,410,028
The principal towns, with estimated population for 1005,
are as follows: Buenos Aires (1,025,653), Rosario (129,121),
La Plata (85,000), Tucuman (ss.ooo), C6rdoba (43,000), Sante F6
(33,200), Mendoaa (33,000), Parana (27,000), Salta (t8,ooo),
Corrientes (18,000) , Chivilcoy ( 1 5,000) , Gualeguaychu ( 13,300),
San Nicolas (13.000), Concordia (11,700), San Juan (11,500),
Rio Cuarto (10,800), San Luis (10,500), Barracas al Sud (10,200).
Communications.— The development of railways in Argentina,
which dates from 1857 when the construction of the Buenoa Aires
Western was begun, was at first slow and hesitating, but after 1880
it went forward rapidly. Official corruption and speculation have
led to tome unsound ventures, but in the great majority of cases tie
ARGENTINA
465
lines constructed have been beneficial and productive. The principal
centres of the system are Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca,
with La Plata as a secondary centre to the former, and from these the
lines radiate westward and northward. The creation of a com-
mercial port at Bahia Blanca and the development of the territories
of La Pampa, Rio Negro and Ncuquen, have given an impetus to
railway construction in that region, and new lines arc being extended
toward the promising districts among the Andean foothills. Begin-
ning with 6 m. in 1857, the railway mileage of the republic increased
to 1563 no. in 1880, 5865 ra. in 1800, 7753 m. in 1891, 10,304 m. in
1 901, and 12,274 m. in 1006, with 1794 m. under construction.
The greater development of railway construction between 1885 and
1 89 1 was due, principally, to the dubious concessions of interest
guarantees by the Celman administration, and also -to the fever
of speculation. Some of these lines resulted disastrously. The
Transandine line, designed to open railway communication between
Buenos Aires and Valparaiso, was so far completed early in 1909
that on the Argentine side only the summit tunnel, 2 m. 127 yds.
long, remained to be finished. The piercing was completed in Nov.
1909, but in the meantime passengers were conveyed by road over
the pass. The gauge is broken at Mendoza, the Buenos Aires and
Pacific having a gauge of 5 ft. 6 in. and the Transandine of one metre.
Tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all
important towns. Those of Buenos Aires, Rosario and La Plata
are owned by public companies. According to the census returns of
1895, tJ 1 * total mileage was 496 m,, representing a capital expenditure
of $84,044,581 paper. Electric traction was first used in Buenos
Aires in 1897, since when nearly all the lines of that city have been
reconstructed to meet its requirements, and subways are contem-
plated to relieve the congested street traffic of the central districts;
the companies contribute 6 % of their gross receipts to the munici-
pality, besides paying $50 per annum per square on each single track
in paved streets, 5 Der thousand on the value of their property, and
33 % of the cost of street repaving and renewals.
The telegraph lines of Argentina are subject to the national
telegraph law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and
special conventions with Brazil and Uruguay. In 1902 the total
length of wires strung was 28,125 m - > m l 9° 6 >* had been increased
to 34.080 m. The national lines extend from Buenos Aires north to
La Quiaca on the Bolivian frontier (1180 m.), and south to Cape
Virgenes (1926 m.), at the entrance to the Straits of Magellan.
Telegraphic communication with Europe is effected .by cables laid
along the Uruguayan and Brazilian coasts, and by the Brazilian
land lines to connect with transatlantic cables from Pernambuco.
Communication with the United States is effected by land lines to
Valparaiso, and thence by a cable along the west coast. The service
is governed by the international telegraph regulations, but is subject
to local inspection and interruption in times of political disorder.
The postal and telegraph services are administered by the national
government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister
of the interior. Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union
since 1878. Owing to the great distances, which must be covered,
and also to the defective means of communication in sparsely settled
districts, the costs of the postal service in Argentina are unavoidably
high in relation to the receipts.
Shipping. — Although Argentina has an extensive coast-line, and
one of the great fluvial systems of the world, the tonnage of steamers
and sailing vessels flying her flag is comparatively small. In 1898
the list comprised only 1416 sailing vessels of all classes, from to tons
up, with a total tonnage of 118,894 tom * and 2M * team *h»p«, of
36.323 tons. There has been but slight improvement since that date.
There are excellent fishing grounds on the coast, but they have bad
no appreciable influence in developing a commerical marine. The
steamships under the national flag are almost wholly engaged in
the traffic between Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the river traffic,
and port services.
Agriculture.— In 1878 the production of wheat was insufficient
for home consumption, the amount of Indian corn grown barely
Lhm slock. covcre o local necessities, and the only market for live stock
4c was in the slaughtering establishments!, where the meat
was cut into strips and cured, making the so-called
" jerked beef " for the Brazilian and Cuban markets. But three
Siars later a new economic development began. In 1881 President
oca offered for public purchase by auction the lands in the south-
west of the province of Buenos Aires, the Pampa Central, and the
Neuquen district, these lands having been rendered habitable after
the campaign of 1878 against the Indians. The upset (reserve) price
was £80 sterling per square league of 6669 acres, and, as the lands
were quickly sold, an expansion of the pastoral industry immediately
ensued. The demand for animals for stock-breeding purposes sent
up prices, and this acted as a stimulus to other branches of trade,
so that, as peace under the Roca regime seemed assured, a steady
flow of immigration from Italy set in. The development of the
pastoral industry of Argentina from that time to the end of the
century was remarkable. In 1878 the number of cattle was
12,000,000; of sheep, 65,000,000; and of horses, 4,000,000; in
1899 the numbers were — cattle, 25.000,000; sheep, 89,000.000:
and horses, about 4,500.000. Originally the cattle were nearly alt
of the long-horned Spanish breed and of little value for their meat,
except to the saladcro establishments. Gradually Durham, Short*
11 A*
horn, Hereford and other stock were introduced to improve the
native breeds, with results so satisfactory that now herds of three-
quarters-bred cattle are to be found in all parts of the country.
Holstcin, Jersey and other well-known dairy breeds were imported
for the new industries of butter- and cheese-making. Not only has
the breed of cattle been improved, but the system of grazing has
completely altered. Vast areas of land have been ploughed and
sown with lucerne (alfalfa); magnificent permanent pasturage has
been created where there were coarse and hard grasses in former
days, and Argentina has been able to add baled hay to her list of
exports. In 1889 the first shipment of Argentine cattle, consisting
altogether of 1930 steers, was sent to England. The results of these
first experiments were not encouraging, owing mainly to the poor
class of animals, but the exporters persevered, and the business
steadily grew in value and importance, until in 1898 the number of
live cattle shipped was 359^96, which then decreased to 119,189
in 1901, because of the foot-and-mouth disease. In 1906 the export
of live stock was prohibited for that reason. Large quantities of
frozen and preserved meat are exported, profitable prices being
realized. Dairy-farming is making rapid strides, and the develop-
ment of sheep-farming has been remarkable. In 1878, 65,000,000
sheep yielded 230,000,000 lb weight of wool, or an average per sheep
of about 3 J lb. In the season of 1899-1900 the wool exports weighed
420,000,000 lb, and averaged more than 5 lb per sheep. The extra
weight of fleece was owinff to the large importation of better breeds.
The export, moreover, of live sheep and of frozen mutton to Europe
has become an important factor in the trade of Argentina. In 1892
the number of live sheep shipped for foreign ports was 40,000; m
1898 the export reached a total of 577.813, which in 1901 fell off
to 25,746. In 1892 the frozen mutton exported was 25,500 tons,
and this had increased in 1901 to 63.013 tons.
The advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great
importance. In 1872 the cultivated area was about 1 ,430,000 acres ;
in 189& 12,083,000 acres; in iooi, I7i4»5>973 acres. In Crtuta.
1899 the wheat exports exceeded 50.000,000 bushels, and *"*■■•
the Indian corn 40,000,000 bushels. The area under wheat in
1901 was 8,351,843 acres; Indian corn, 3.103,140 acres; linseed,
1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929 acres. The farming industry is
not, however, on a sat isfactory basin. No national lands in accessible
districts are available for the application of a homestead law, and
the farmer too often has no interest in the land beyond the growing
crops, a percentage of the harvest being the rent charged by the
owner of the property. This system is mischievous, since, if a few
consecutive bad seasons occur, the farmer moves to some more
favoured spot; while, on the other hand, a succession of good years
tends to increase rents. The principal wheat and Indian corn pro-
ducing districts lie in the provinces of Santa F6, Buenos Aires,
C6rdoba and Entrc Rios, and the average yield of wheat throughout
the country is about 12 bushels to the acre. Little attention is paid
to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has no resources to help
him if the cereal crops fail. In the Andean provinces of Mendoza,
San Juan, Catamarca and Rioja viticulture attracts much attention,
and the area in vineyards in 190 1 was 100,546 acres, only 18 % of
which was outside the four provinces named. Wine is manufactured
in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to meet the home
demand. a In the provinces of Tucuman, Saba and Jujuy the main
industry is sugar growing and manufacture. In 1901 toe production
of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported.
The sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed
industry, and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a
heavy tax upon consumers and taxpayers. Other products are
tobacco, olives, castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit
and vegetables.
The pastoral and agricultural industries have been hampered by
fluctuations in the value of the currency, farm products being sold
at a gold value for the equivalent in paper, while labourers are paid
in currency. The existing system of taxation also presses heavily
upon the provinces, as may be seen from the fact that the national,
provincial and municipal exactions together amount to £7 per head
of population, while the total value of the exports in 1808 was only
£6 in round numbers. The guia tax on the transport of stock from
one province to another, which has been declared unconstitutional
in the courts, is still enforced, and is a vexatious tax upon the
stock-raiser, while the consumption, or octroi, tax in Buenos Aires
and other cities is a heavy burden upon small producers.
Manufactures. — Manufacturing enterprise in Argentina, favoured
by the protection of a high tariff, made noticeable progress in the
national capital during the dosing years of the last century, espe-
cially in those small industries which commanded a secure market.
The principal classes of products affected are foods, wearing apparel,
building materials, furniture, Ac, chemical products, printing and
allied trades, and sundry others, such as cigars, matches, tanning,
paints, &c. In some manufactures the raw material is imported
partly manufactured, such as thread for weaving. The lack of coal
in Argentina greatly increases the difficulty and cost of maintaining
these industries, and high prices of the products result. Electric
power generated by steam is now commonly used in Buenos Aires
and other large cities for driving light machinery.
Commerce. — The rapid development of the foreign trade of the
republic since 1881 is due to settled internal conditions and to the
4.66
ARGENTINA
prime necessity to the commercial world of man* Argentine product!,
such as beef, mutton, hides, wool, wheat and Indian corn. Efforts
to hasten this development have created some serious financial
and industrial crises, and have burdened the country with heavy
debts and taxes. During the decade 1881-180O great sums of
European capital were Invested in railways and other undertakings,
encouraged by the grant of interest guarantees and by state mortgage
bank loans in the form of ceduUs, nominally secured on landed
property. In 1890 the crisis came, the mortgage banks failed, credit*
were contracted, the value of property declined, defaults were
common, imports decreased, and the losses to the country were
enormous. The constant fluctuations in the value of the currency,
then much depredated, intensified the distress and complicated the
situation. Recovery required years, although made easier by the
sound and steady development of the pastoral and agricultural
industries, which were slightly affected by the crisis; and the steadily
increasing volume of exports, mainly foodstuffs and other staples,
saved the situation. There have been some changes in commercial
methods since 1890, the retailer, and sometimes the consumer,
importing direct to save intermediate commission charges. Such
transactions are made easy by the foreign banks established in all
the large cities of the republic. The conversion law of 1899, which
gave a fixed gold value to the currency (44 centavos gold for each 100
centavos paper), has had beneficial influence on commercial trans-
actions, through the elimination of daily fluctuations in the value of
the currency, and the commercial and financial situation has been
steadily improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation and tariff re-
strictions. The import trade shows the largest totals in foodstuffs,
wines and liquors, textiles and raw materials for their manufacture,
wood and its manufactures, iron and its manufactures, paper and
cardboard, glass and ceramic wares. The official valuation of
imports, which is arbitrary and incorrect, was $164,369,884 gold in
1889, fell off to 167,907,780 in 1891, but gradually increased to
$203,154,420 in 1905. The exports, which are almost wholly of
agricultural and pastoral products, increased from $103,219,000 in
1891 to $322,843,841 in 1905.
Government.— The present constitution of Argentina dates
from the 25th of September i860. The legislative power is
vested in a congress of two chambers— the senate, composed of
30 members (two from each province and two from the capital),
elected by the provincial legislatures and by a special body of
electors in the capital for a term of nine years; and the chamber
of deputies, of 120 members (1906), elected for four years by
direct vote of the people, one deputy for every 33.000 inhabitants.
To the chamber of deputies exclusively belongs the initiation
of all laws relating to the raising of money and the conscription
of troops. It has also the exclusive right to impeach the
president, vice-president, cabinet ministers, and federal judges
before the senate. The executive power is exercised by the
president, elected by presidential electors from each province
chosen by direct vote of the people. The president and vice-
president are voted for by separate tickets. The system closely
resembles that followed in the United States. The president
must be a native citizen of Argentina, a Roman Catholic, not
under thirty years of age, and must have an annual income of at
least $2000. His term of office is six years, and neither he nor
the vice-president is eligible for the next presidential term.
All laws are sanctioned and promulgated by the president, who
is invested with the veto power, which can be overruled only by
a two-thirds vote. The president, with the advice and consent
of the senate, appoints judges, diplomatic agents, governors of
territories, and officers of the army and navy above the rank
of colonel. All other officers and officials he appoints and pro-
motes without the consent of the senate. The cabinet b com-
posed of eight ministers — the heads of the government depart-
merits of the interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, marine,
justice, agriculture, and public works. They are appointed by
and may be removed by the president.
Justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five
judges and an attorney-general, whilh is also a court of appeal,
four courts of appeal, with three judges each, located in Buenos
Aires, La Plata, Parana and Cordoba, and by a number of
inferior and local courts. Each province has also its own
judicial system. Trial by jury is established by the constitution,
but never practised. Civil and criminal courts arc both corrupt
and dilatory. In May iSoo the minister of justice stated in the
chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the
country was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing
its duties; that $0,000 cases were then waiting detisioo in the
minor courts, and 10,000 in the federal division; and that a
reconstruction of the judiciary and the judicial system had
become necessary. In June 1899 he sent his project for the
reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but no action
was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for
examination and report. The proceedings are, with but few
exceptions, written, and the procedure is a survival of the anti-
quated Spanish system.
Under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not
delegated to the federal government Each province has its
own constitution, which must be republican in form and in
harmony with that of the nation. Each elects its governor,
legislators and provincial functionaries of all classes, without
the intervention of the federal government. Each has its own
judicial system, and enacts laws relating to the admi n istration
of justice, the distribution and imposition of taxes, and all
matters affecting the province. All the public acts and judicial
decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority
in all the others. In cases of armed resistance to a provincial
government, the national government exercises the right to
intervene by the appointment d an interveritor, who becomes the
executive head of the province until order is restored. The terri-
tories are under the direct control of the national government.
A rmy.— The military service of the republic was reorganized
in 1901, and is compulsory for all citizens between the ages of
20 and 45. The army consists of : (1) The Line, comprising
the Active and Reserve, in which all citizens 20 to 28 years
of age are obliged to serve; (2) the National Guard, comprising
citizens of 28 to 40 years; (3) the Territorial Guard, comprising
those 40 to 45 years. Conscripts of 20 years of age have to
serve two years, three months each year. The active or stand-
ing army comprises 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of
cavalry, 8 regiments of artillery, and 4 battalions of engineers.
A military school, with 125 cadets, is maintained at San Martin,
near the national capital, and a training school for non-com-
missioned officers in the capital itself. Compulsory attendance
of young men at national guard drills is enforced for at least
two months of the year, under penalty of enforced service in the
Line. In 1906 the president announced that permission had
been given by the German emperor for 30 Argentine officers to
enter the German army each year and to serve eighteen months,
and also for five officers to attend the Berlin Military Academy.
The equipment of the standing army is thoroughly modern, the
infantry being provided with Mauser rifles and the artillery with
Krupp batteries.
Navy. —The disputes with Chile during the dosing years of
the 19th century led to a large increase in the navy, but in 1002
a treaty between the two countries provided for the restriction
of further armaments for the next four years. The naval vessels
then under construction were accordingly sold, but in 1006 both
countries, influenced apparently by the action of Brazil, gave
large orders in Europe for new vessels. At the time when further
armaments were suspended, the effective strength of the
Argentine navy consisted of 3 ironclads, 6 first-class armoured
cruisers, 2 monitors (old), 4 second-class cruisers, 2 torpedo
cruisers, 3 destroyers, 3 high-sea torpedo boats, 14 river torpedo
boats, 1 training ship, 5 transports, and various auxiliary
vessels. Two of these first-class cruisers were sold to Japan.
The armament included 394 guns of all calibres, 6 of whkb were
of 250 millimetres, 4 of 240, and 12 of 200. There are about
320 officers in active service, and the total personnel ranges
from 5000 to 6000 men. The service is not popular, and it is
recruited by means of conscription from the national guard, the
term of service being two years. These conscripts number
about 2000 a year. In addition, there is a corps of coast artillery
numbering 450 men, from which garrisons arc drawn for the
military port, Zarate arsenal and naval prison. The govern-
ment maintains a naval school at Flores, a school of mechanics
in Buenos Aires, an artillery school on the cruiser M Pata-
gonia," and a school for torpedo practice at La Plata. The
naval arsenal is situated on the " north basin M of the Buenos
Aires port, and the military port at Bahia Blaoca is provided
ARGENTINA
with a dry dock of the largest sine, and extensive repair shops.
There is also a dockyard and torpedo arsenal at La Plata,
an artillery depot at Zarate, above Buenos Aires, and naval
depots on the island of Martin Garcia and at Tigre, on the
Lujin river.
Education. — Primary education is free and secular, and is
compulsory for children of 6 to 14 years. In the national
capital and territories it is supervised by a national council
of education with the assistance of local school boards; in the
14 provinces it is under provincial control Secondary in-
struction is also free, but is not compulsory. It is under the
control of the national government, which in 1902 maintained
19 colleges. Of these colleges four are in Buenos Aires, one in
each province, and one in Conception del Uruguay. For the
instruction of teachers the republic has 28 normal schools, as
follows: three in the national capital; one in Parana, three
(regional) in Corrientes, San Luis and Catamarca; 14 for
female teachers in the provincial capitals; and seven for either
sex in the larger towns of the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa
Fe, C6rdoba and San Luis. The normal schools, maintained by
the state on a secular basis, were founded by President Sarmieato,
who engaged experienced teachers in the United States to direct
them; their work is excellent; notably, their model primary
schools. For higher and professional education there are two
national universities at Buenos Aires and C6rdoba, and three
provincial universities, at La Plata, Santa Fe and Parana, which
comprise faculties of law, medicine and engineering, in addition
to the usual courses in arts and science. To meet the needs
of technical and industrial education there are a school of mines
at San Juan, a school of viticulture at Mendoza, an agronomic
and veterinary school at La Plata, several agricultural and
pastoral schools, and commercial schools in Buenos Aires,
Rosario, Bahia Blanca and Concordia. Schools of art and
conservatories of music are also maintained in the large cities,
where there are, besides, many private schools. Secular educa-
tion has been vigorously opposed by strict churchmen, and
efforts have been made to maintain separate schools under
church control The national government has founded several
scholarships (some in art) for study abroad. The total school
population of Argentina in 1900 (6 to 14 years) was 994,089, of
which 45 % attended school, and 13 % of those not attending
were able to read and write. The illiterate school population
was about 41 %, and of those of 15 years and over 54 % were
illiterate. Of the whole population over 6 years, 50*$ % were
illiterate.
Rdigion. — The Argentine constitution recognizes the Roman
Catholic religion as that of the state, but tolerates all others.
The state controls all ecclesiastical appointments, decides on
the passing or rejection of all decrees of the Holy See, and
provides an annual subsidy for maintenance of the churches and
clergy.' Churches and chapels are founded and maintained by
religious orders and private gift as well At the head of the
Argentine hierarchy are one archbishop and five suffragan
bishops, who have five seminaries for the education of the
priesthood. From statistics of 1895 it appears that in each
1000 of population 091 are Roman Catholics, 7 Protestants, and
a Jews, the Jews being entirely of Russian origin, sent into the
republic since i8cr by the Jewish Colonisation Association
under the provisions of the Hirsch legacy; from 1895 to 1908
the number of Jews in Argentina increased from 6085 to about
30,000.
Finance.— The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from
customs and excise, and the largest item of expenditure is the service
ef the public debt. Since 1891 the national budgets have been
calculated in both gold and currency, and both receipts and ex-
penditures have been carried out in this dual system. The collection
of a part of the import duties in gold has served to give the govern-
ment the gold it requires for certain expenditures, but it has com pli-
cated returns and acconnts and increased the burden of taxation.
According to a compilation of statistical returns published by Dr
Francisco Latzina in 1 901, the national revenues and expenditures
for the 37 years from 1864 to 1900, inclusive, reduced to a
common standard, show a total deficit for that period of $408,960,795
gold, which has been met by external and internal loans, and by a
467
continued increase in the scope and rate of taxation. The growth
of the annual budget is shown by a comparison of the foUowing
vean: — ^
I864
I880
1890
I9OO
1905
Total Revenue.
$7.<x>5.3*8 gold.
19.594.306 „
. 73.150,856 „
J 63,045458 paper.
} 37.998.704 gold.
J 63,439.000 paper.
< 43461.3*4 gold.
Total Expenditure.
f7,« I9.93I gold.
26,919,295 „
, 95.363,854 „
J 104,501,614 paper.
} 33.644.543 gold.
j 105,581,680 paper.
I 24,865,016 gold.
The bane of Argentine finance has been the extravagant and un-
scrupulous use of national credit for the promotion of schemes
calculated to benefit individuals rather than the public. The large
increase in military expenditures during the disputes with Chile
also proved a heavy burden, and in the continued strife with Brazil
for naval superiority this burden could not fail to be increased greatly.
A very considerable percentage of Argentina's population of five
to six millions is hopelessly poor and unprogreseive, and cannot be
expected to bear its share of the burden. To meet these expenditures
there arc a high tariff on imported merchandise, and excise and stamp
taxes of a far-reaching and often vexatious character. Nothing is
permitted to escape taxation, and duplicated taxes on the same thing
are frequent. In Argentina these burdens bear heavily upon the
labouring classes, and in years of depression they send away by
thousands immigrants unable to meet the high costs of living.
For the year 1900 the total expenditures of the national government,
14 provincial governments, and 16 principal cities, were estimated
to have been $208,811,925 paper, which js equivalent to 891,877,247
§old, or (at $5.04 per pound stg.) to £18,229,612, 10s. The popu-
ition that year was estimated to be 4,794,149, from which it is
seen that the annual costs of government were no less than £3, 16s.
for each man, woman, and child in the republic. About 71 % of
this charge was on account of national expenditures, and 29 %
provincial and municipal expenditures. Had the expenses of all
the small towns and rural communities been included, the total would
be in excess of $20 gold, or £4, fer capita.
In 1889 the pubh'c debt of the republic amounted to about
£24.000,000, but the financial difficulties which immediately followed
that year, and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced
the debt up to approximately £128,000,000 during the next ten
years. In the year 1905 the outstanding and authorized debt of the
republic was as follows: —
External debt (July 31, 1905):
National loans ....
Provincial loans and others, assumed
National cedulas ....
£4*,397.05O
30,395.916
1.763.9*3
Total £84456,889
Consolidated Internal debt (Dec. 31, I904):
Gold $16*544,000
Paper 79.174400
£10,178,718
Total service on funded debt, 1905^24,375,067 gold%
and $15,914,335 Paper . . £6,2*5.669
Floating debt £259,170
Treasury bills (Apr. 30, 1905) 275,220
Unpaidbills, 83^32,594, paper 288,560
£822,950
The paper currency forms an important part of the internal debt,
and has been a fruitful source of trouble to the country. Few
countries have suffered more from a depreciated currency than
Argentina. During the era of so-called " prosperity " between
1881 and 1890 an enormous amount of bank notes were issued under
various authorisations, especially that of the " free banking law "
of 1887. During this period the bank-note circulation was increased
to $161,700,000, and two mortgage hanks — the National Hypothec-
ary Bank and the Provincial Mortgage Bank (of Buenos Aires) —
flooded the country with $509,000 000 of cedulas (hypothecary
bonds). When the crash came and the national treasury was found
to be without resources to meet current expenses, further issues of
$110,000,000 in currency were made. The free-banking law which
permitted the issue of notes by provincial banks was primarily
responsible for this situation. Under the provisions of this law the
provinces were authorised to borrow specie abroad and deposit the
same with the national government as security for their issues.
These loans aggregated £27,000^000. The Cclman administration,
in violation ofthc trust, then sold the specie and squandered the
proceeds-leaving the provincial bank notes without guarantee and
value. The national government has since assumed responsibility
for all these provincial loans abroad. As on previous occasions, the
great depreciation in the value of the currency has led to a repudia-
tion of part of its nominal value. This depreciation reached its
maximum in October 1891 ($460.82 paper for $100 gold), and
remained between that figure and $264 during the next six years.
To check these prejudicial fluctuations and to prevent too great
a fall in the price of gold (to repeat a popular misconception), a
468
ARGENTINA
conversion law was adopted on the 31st of October 1899. which provided
that the outstanding circulation should be redeemed at the rate oT
44 centavos gold for each 100 ccntavos paper, the official rate for
gold being 227*27. Provisions were also made for the creation of
a special conversion fund in specie to guarantee the circulation,
which fund reached a total of $100,000,000 in March 1906. These
measures have served to give greater stability to the value of the
circulating medium, and to prevent the ruinous losses caused by a
constant fluctuation in value, but the rate established prevents the
further appreciation of the currency. On the 18th of January 1906
the currency in circulation amounted to $502,420,485, which is
more than $95 per capita, (A. J. L.)
History
The first Europeans who visited the river Plate were a party
of Spanish explorers in search of a south-west passage to the
East Indies. Their leader, Juan Diaz de Soils, landing in-
cautiously in 1 5 16 on the north coast with a few attendants to
parley with a body of Charrua Indians, was suddenly attacked
by them and was killed, together with a number of his followers.
This untoward disaster led to the abandonment of the expedition,
which forthwith returned to Spain, bringing with them the news
of the discovery of a fresh- water sea. Four years later (1520)
the Portuguese seaman, Ferdinand Magellan, entered the
estuary in his celebrated voyage round the world, undertaken
in the service of the king of Spain (Charles I., better known as
the emperor Charles V.). Magellan, as soon as he had satisfied
himself that there was no passage to the west, left the river
without landing.
The first attempt to penetrate by way of the river Plate and
its affluents inland, with a view to effecting settlements in the
CmK/ . interior, was made in 1526 by Sebastian Cabot. This
great navigator had already won renown in the service
of Henry VII. of England by his voyage to the coast of North
America in company with his father, Giovanni Caboto or Cabot
(see Cabot, John). Sebastian Cabot had in 1519 deserted
England for Spain, and had received from King Charles the post
of pilot-major formerly held by Juan de Solis. In 1526 he was
sent out in command of an expedition fitted out for the purpose
of determining by astronomical observations the exact line of
demarcation, under the treaty of Tordcsillas, between the coloniz-
ing spheres of Spain and Portugal, and of conveying settlers
to the Moluccas. Arrived in the river Plate in 1527, rumours
reached Cabot of mineral wealth and a rich and civilized empire
in the far interior, and he resolved to abandon surveying for
exploration. He built a fort a short distance up the river
Uruguay, and despatched one of his lieutenants, Juan Alvarez
Ram6n, with a separate party upon an expedition up stream.
This expedition was assailed by the Charruas and forced to
return on foot, their leader himself being killed. Cabot, with
a large following, entered the Parana and established a settle-
ment just above the mouth of the river CarcaraAal, to which
he gave the name of San Espiritu , among the Timbu Indians, with
whom he formed friendly relations. He continued the ascent
of the Parana as far as the rapids of Apipl, and finding his course
barred in this direction, he afterwards explored the river Para-
guay, which he mounted as far as the mouth of the affluent
called by the Indians Lepeti, now the river Bermejo. His party
was here fiercely attacked by the Agaces or Payagui Indians,
and suffered severely. Cabot in his voyage bad seen many
silver ornaments in the possession of the Timbu and Guarani
Indians. Some specimens of these trinkets he sent back to
Spain with a report of bis discoveries. The arrival of these
first-fruits of the mineral wealth of the southern continent
gained for the estuary of the Parana the name which it has since
borne, that of Rio de la Plata, the silver river. As Cabot was
descending the stream to his settlement of San Espiritu, he
encountered an expedition which had been despatched from
Spain for the express purpose of exploring the river discovered
by Solis, under the command of Diego Garcia. Finding that
he had been forestalled, Garcia resolved to return home.^ Cabot
himself, after an absence of more than three years, came back
in 1530, and applied to Charles V. for means to open up com-
munications with Peru by way of the river Bermejo. The
emperor's resources were, however, absorbed by bis struggle
for European supremacy with Francis I. of France, and he was
obliged to leave the enterprise of South American discoveries
to his wealthy nobles. Cabot's colony at San Espiritu did not
long survive his departure; an attempt of the chief of the Tim bus
to gain possession of one of the Spanish ladies of the settlement
led to a treacherous massacre of the garrison.
Two years after the return of Cabot, the news of Francisco
Pizarro's marvellous conquest of Peru reached Europe (1532),
and stirred many an adventurous spirit to strive to • _„___
emulate his good fortune. Among these was Pedro JN ^ 1 *
de Mendoza, a Basque nobleman. He obtained from Charles V.
a grant (osiento) of two hundred leagues of the coast from the
boundary of the Portuguese possessions southward towards
the Straits of Magellan, and the inland country which lay behind
it. Mendoza undertook to conquer and settle the territory at
his own charges, certain profits being reserved to the crown.
In August 1534 the adclantado, or governor, sailed from San
Lucar, at the head of the largest and wealthiest expedition that
had ever left Europe -for the New World. In January 1535 he
entered the river Plate, where he followed the northern shore to
the island of San Gabriel, and then crossing over he landed by
a little stream, still called Riachuelo, The name of
Buenos Aires was given to the country by Sancho del
Campo, brother-in-law of the addantado, who first
stepped ashore. Here, on the 2nd of February, Mendoza laid
the foundations of a settlement which in honour of the day
he named Santa Maria de Buenos Aires. Mendoza, after some
fierce encounters with the Indians, now proceeded up the Parana,
and built a fort, which he called Corpus Christi, near the site of
Cabot's former settlement of San Espiritu. The expedition,
which originally numbered 2500 men, was reduced by deaths at
the hands of the Indians, by disease and privation, within a year
to less than 500 men. From Corpus Christi, Mendoza sent
out various bodies to explore the interior in the direction of
Peru, but without much success, and at length, thoroughly
discouraged and broken in health, he abandoned his enterprise,
and returned to Spain in 1537.
A portion of one of the expeditions he despatched, under Juan
de Ayolas, pushing up the Paraguay, is said to have reached
the south-east districts of Peru, but while returning laden with
booty, was attacked by the Payagua Indians, and every man
perished. The other portion, which had stayed behind as a reserve
under Domingos Irala, had better fortunes. Finding their
comrades did not return, Irala and his companions determined
to descend the river, and on their downward journey
opposite the mouth of the river Pilcomayo, finding tf
a suitable site for colonizing, they founded (1536) *
what proved to be the first permanent Spanish settlement
in the interior of South America, the future city of Asuncion
(15th August 1536).
In the meantime the colony at Buenos Aires had been dragging
on a miserable existence, and after terrible sufferings from
famine and from the ceaseless attacks of the Indians, the re-
maining settlers abandoned the place and made their way up
the river first to Corpus Christi, then to Asuncion. Here, by
the emperor's orders, the assembled Spaniards proceeded to
the election of a captain-general, and their choice fell almost
unanimously on Domingos Martinez de Irala, who #
was proclaimed captain-general of the Rio de la Plata *"^
(August 1538). In 1542 the settlement of Buenos Aires was
re-established by an expedition sent for the purpose from
Spain, under a tried adelaniado, Cabesa de Vaca. This able
leader, eager to reach Asunci6n as quickly as possible, sent on
his ships to the river Plate, but himself with a small following
marched overland from Santa Catherina on the coast of Brazil
to join Irala. His doings at Asunci6n belong, however, not to
the history of Argentina, but of Paraguay. Suffice it to say
that differences with Irala eventually led to his arrest, and to his
being sent back to Spain to answer to the charges brought against
him for maladministration. The second settlement made by
his expedition at Buenos. Aires was even less successful and
ARGENTINA
469
long-lived than the first. Exposed to the incessant attacks of
the savages, the place was a second time abandoned, February
1543.
Forty years were now to elapse before any further efforts
were made by the Spaniards to colonize any part of the territory
^ m of the river Plate and lower Parana. In 1573 Juan
jJjJJJ* dc Garay, at the head of an expedition despatched
from Asunci6n, founded the city of Santa F6 near
the abandoned settlements of San Espiritu and Corpus Christi.
Seven years later (1580), when the new colony had been firmly
established, Juan de Garay proceeded southwards, and made
the third attempt to build a city on the site of Buenos Aires;
and despite the determined hostility of the Qiierendi Indians
he succeeded in finally gaining a complete mastery over them.
In a desperate battle, the natives were defeated with great
slaughter, and the territory surrounding the town was divided
into ranches, in which the conquered natives had to labour.
The new town received from Garay the name of Ciudad de la
Santissima Trinidad, while its port retained the old appellation
of Santa Maria de Buenos Aires. It was endowed by its founder
with a cabildo (corporation) and full Spanish municipal privileges.
Garay, when on his way to Santa F£, was unfortunately murdered
by a party of Indians, Minuas (Mimas), three years later, while
incautiously sleeping on the river bank near the ruins of San
Espiritu. The new settlement, however, continued to prosper,
and the cattle and horses brought from Europe multiplied and
spread over the plains of the Pampas.
In the meantime the Spaniards had penetrated into the
interior of what is now the Argentine Republic, and established
themselves on the eastern slopes of the Andes. In 1553 an ex-
pedition from Peru made their way through the mountain region
and founded the city of Santiago del Estero, that of Tucuman
in 1 565, and that of C6rdoba in 1 573. Another expedition from
Chile, under Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, crossed the Cordillera
in 15 59, and having defeated the Araucanian Indians, made
a settlement which from the name of the leader was called
Mendoza. In 1620 Buenos Aires was separated from the
authority of the government established at Asuncion, and was
made the scat of a government extending over Mendoza, Santa
Fe, Entre Rios and Corrientes, but at the same time remained
like the government of Paraguay at Asuncion, and that of the
province of Tucuman, which had Cordoba as its capital, subject
to the authority of the viceroyalty of Peru.
Thus at the opening of the 17th century, after many adven-
turous efforts, and the expenditure of many lives and much
treasure, the Spaniards found themselves securely
established on the river Plate, and had planted a
number of centres of trade and colonization in the
interior. Unfortunately, in no part of the Spanish
oversea possessions did the restrictive legislation of the home
government operate more harshly or disadvantageous^ to the
interests of the colony; it was a more effective hindrance to
the development of its resources and the spread of civilization
over the country, than the hostility of the Indians. Cabot had
urged the feasibility of opening an easier channel for trade with
the interior of Peru through the river Plate and its tributaries,
than that by way of the West Indies and Panama; and now
that his views were able to be realized, the interests of the
merchants of Seville and of Lima, who had secured a monopoly
of the trade by the route of the isthmus, were allowed to destroy
the threatened rivalry of that by the river Plate. Never in the
history of colonization has a mother country pursued so relent-
lessly a policy more selfish and short-sighted. Spanish legis-
lation was not satisfied with endeavouring to exclude all Euro-
pean nations except Spain from trading with the West Indies,
but it sought to limit all commerce to one particular route, and
it forbade any trade being transacted by way of the river Plate,
thus enacting the most flagrant injustice towards the people
it had encouraged to settle in the latter country. The strongest
protests were raised, but the utmost they could effect was that,
in 1618, permission was granted to export from Buenos Aires
two shiploads, of produce a year. But the Spanish government
was not content with the prohibition of sea-borne commerce.
To prevent internal trade with Peru a custom-house was set up
at Cordoba to levy a duty of 50 % on everything in transit to
and from the river Plate. In 1665 the relaxation of this system
was brought about by the continual remonstrances of the people,
but for more than a century afterwards (until 1776). ^ ._
the policy of exclusion was enforced. This naturally JJJJJSi.
led to a contraband trade of considerable dimensions.
The English, after the treaty of Utrecht (171 5) held the contract
(asienlo) for supplying the Spanish-American colonies with negro
slaves. Among other places the slave ships regularly visited
Buenos Aires, and despite the efforts of the Spanish authorities,
contrived both to smuggle in and carry away a quantity of
goods. This illicit commerce went on steadily till 1739, when
it led to an outbreak of war between England and Spain, which
put an end to the asiento. The Portuguese were even worse
offenders, for in 1680 they made a settlement on the north of the
river Plate, right opposite to Buenos Aires, named Comma,
which with one or two short intervals, remained in their hands
till 1777. From this port foreign merchandise found its way
duty free into the Spanish provinces of Buenos Aires, Tucuman
and Paraguay, and even into the interior of Peru. The con-
tinual encroachments of the Portuguese at length led the Spanish
government to take the important step of making Buenos Aires
the seat of a viceroyalty with jurisdiction over the territories
of the present republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and the
Argentine Confederation (1776). At the same time all this
country was opened to Spanish trade even with Peru, and the
development of its resources, so long thwarted, was allowed
comparatively free play. Pedro de Zeballos, the first viceroy,
took with him from Spain a large military force with which he
finally expelled the Portuguese from the banks of the river Plate.
The wars of the French Revolution, in which Spain was allied
with France against Great Britain, interrupted the growing
prosperity of Buenos Aires. On the 17th of June 1806
General William Bercsford landed with a body of f*"* —
troops from a British fleet under the command of Sir £«^
Home Popham, and obtained possession of Buenos
Aires. But a French officer, Jacques de Liniers, gathered
together a large force with which he enclosed the British within
the walls, and finally, on the 12th of August, by a successful
assault, forced Bercsford and his troops to surrender. In July
1807 another British force of eight thousand men under General
Whitelock endeavoured to regain possession of Buenos Aires,
but strenuous preparations had been made for resistance, and
after fierce street fighting the invading army, after suffering
severe losses, was compelled to capitulate. The colonists,
who had achieved their two great successes without any aid from
the home government, were naturally elated, and began to feel
a new sense of self-reliance and confidence in their own resources.
The successful defence of Buenos Aires accentuated the growing
feeling of dissatisfaction with the Spanish connexion, which was
soon to lead to open insurrection. The establishment of the
Napoleonic dynasty at Madrid was the actual cause which
brought about the disturbances which were to end in separation.
Liniers was viceroy on the arrival of the news of the crowning of
Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, but as a Frenchman he was
distrusted and was deposed by the adherents of Ferdinand V1L
The central junta at Seville, acting in the name of Ferdinand,
appointed Balthasar de Cisneros to be viceroy in his place. He
entered upon the duties of his office on the 19th of July 1809,
and at first he gained popularity by acceding to the urgent
appeals of the people and throwing open the trade of the country
to all nations. But his measurea speedily gave dissatisfaction
to the Argentine or Creole party, who had long chafed under the
disabilities of Spanish rule, and who now felt themselves no longer
bound by ties of loyalty to a country which was in the possession
of the French armies.
On the 25th of May x8xo a great armed assembly met at
Buenos Aires and a provisional junta was formed to supersede
the authority of the viceroy and carry on the government. The
acts of the new government ran in the name of Ferdinand VIL,
47©
ARGENTINA
but the step taken was a revolutionary one, and the 25th
of May has ever since been regarded as the birthday of Argen-
tine independence. The most prominent leader of
the junta was its secretary Mariano Moreno (177&-
181 1), who with a number of other active supporters
of the patriot cause succeeded in raising a considerable
force of Buenos Aireans to maintain, arms in hand, their nation-
alist and anti-Spanish doctrines. An attempt of the Spanish
party to make Balthasar de Cisneros president of the junta
failed, and the ex-viceroy retired to Montevideo. A sanguinary
struggle between the party of independence and the adherents
of Spain spread over the whole country, and was carried on with
varying fortune. Foremost among the leaders of the revolutionary
armies were Manuel Belgrano, and after March 18x2 General
Jos6 de San Martin, an officer who had gained experience against
the French in the Peninsular War. A state of disorder, almost
of anarchy, reigned in the provinces, but on the 25th of March
1816 a congress of deputies was assembled at Tucum&n, who
named Don Martin Pueyrred6n supreme director, and on the oth
of July the separation of the united provinces of the Rio de la
Plata was formally proclaimed, and comparative order was
re-established in the country; Buenos Aires was declared the
scat of the government. The jealousy of the provinces, however,
against the capital led to a series of disturbances, and for many
years continual civil war devastated every part of the country.
Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay rose in armed revolt, and
finally established themselves as separate republics, whilst the
city of Buenos Aires itself was torn with faction and the scene
of many a sanguinary fight.
From 1816, however, the independence of the Argentine
Republic was assured, and success attended the South Americans
in their contest wi th the royal armies. The combined
forces of Buenos Aires and Chile defeated the Spaniards
at Chacabuco in 1817, and at Maipu in 18x8; and
from Chile the victorious general Jose de San Martin
led his troops into Peru, where on the 9th of July r82i, he made
a triumphal entry into Lima, which had been the chief stronghold
of the Spanish power, having from the time of its foundation
by Pizarro been the seat of government of a viceroyalty which
at one time extended to the river Plate. A general congress
was assembled at Buenos Aires on the xst of March 1822, of
representatives from all the liberated provinces, and a general
amnesty was decreed, though the war was not over until the 9th
of December 1824, when the republican forces gained the final
victory of Ayacucho, in the Peruvian border-land. The Spanish
government did not, however, formally acknowledge the in-
dependence of the country until the year 1842. On the 23rd of
January 1825, a national constitution for the federal states, which
formed the Argentine Republic, was decreed; and on the 2nd of
February of the same year Sir Woodbine Parish, acting under
the instructions of George Canning, signed a commercial treaty
in Buenos Aires, by which the British government acknowledged
the independence of the country. It had already been recognised
by the United States of America two years previously.
In 1826 Bernardo Rivadavia waa elected president of the
confederation. His policy was to establish a strong central
VattMHao* government, and he became the head of a party known
*■* _. as Unitarians in contradistinction to their opponents,
[jy* who were styled Federalists, their aim being to main-
tain to the utmost the local autonomy of the various
provinces. Under the government of Rivadavia the people of
Buenos Aires became involved, practically single-handed, in a
war with Brazil in defence of the Banda Oriental, which had
been seized by the imperial forces (see Uruguay). The Brazilians
were defeated, notably at Ituzaingo, and in 1827 the war issued
in the independence of Uruguay. Rivadavia 's term of office was
likewise memorable for the constitution of the 24th of December
1826, passed by the constituent congress of all the provinces,
by which the bonds which united the confederated states of the
Argentine Republic were strengthened. This project of closer
union met, however, with much opposition both at Buenos Aires
and the province*. Rivadavia resigned, and Vicente Lopes,
a Federalist, waa elected to succeed him, but was speedily dis-
placed by Manuel Dorrego (1827), another representative of the
same party. The carrying out of Federalist principles led,
however, to the formation in the republic of a number of quasi-
independent military states, and Dorrego only ruled in Buenos
Akes. After the conclusion of the peace with Brazil, the Uni-
tarians placed themselves under the leadership of General
Juan de Lavalle, the victor of Ituzaingo. Lavalle, at the bead of
a division of troops, drove Dorrego from Buenos Aires, pursued
him into the interior, and captured him. He was shot (December
9, 1828), by the order of Lavalle, and during the year 1828 the
country was given up to the horrors of civil war.
On the death of Dorrego, a remarkable man, Juan Manuel de
Rosas, became the Federalist chief. In 1829 he defeated Lavalle,
made himself master of Buenos Aires, and in the course M (
of the next three years made his authority recognized matmtmt.
after much fighting throughout the provinces. The
Unitarians were relentlessly hunted down and a veritable reign
of terror ensued. Rosas gradually concentrated all power in
his own hands, and was hailed by the populace as a saviour of
the state. In 1835, with the title of governor and captain-
general, he acquired dictatorial powers, and all public authority
passed into his hands. This dictatorship of Rosas continued
until 1852. In every department of administration and of
government he waa supreme. He was exceedingly jealous of
foreign interference, and quarrelled with France on questions
connected wi th the rights of foreign residents. Buenos Aires was
in 1838 blockaded by a French fleet; but Rosas stood firm.
A formidable revolt took place in 1839 under General Lavalle,
who had returned to the country accompanied by a number
of banished Unitarians. In 1840 he invaded Buenos Aires at
the head of troops raised chiefly in the province of Entre Rios;
but he was defeated at Santa F6, then at Lujin, and finally was
captured in Jujuy and shot, 1841. The rule of Rosas was now
one of tyranny and almost incessant bloodshed in Buenos Aires,
while his partisans, foremost amongst whom was General Ignario
Oribe, endeavoured to exterminate the Unitarians throughout
the provinces. The scene of slaughter waa extended to the
Banda Oriental by the attempt of Oribe, with the support of
Rosas, and of Justo Jos6 de Urquiza, governor of Entre Rios,
to establish himself as president of that republic (see Uruguay),
where the existing government was hostile to Rosas and sheltered
all political refugees from the country under his despotic rule.
The siege of Montevideo led to a joint intervention of England
and France. Buenos Aires was blockaded by the combined
English and French fleets, September 1845, which landed a force
to open the passage up the Parana to Paraguay, which had been
declared closed to foreigners by Rosas. A conven tion was signed
in 1849, which secured the free navigation of the Parana and
the independence of the Banda Oriental. The downfall of Rosas
was at hist brought about by the instrumentality of Justo Jos6 de
Urquiza, who as governor of Entre Rios, had for many years
been one of his strongest supporters. The breach between the
two men which led to open collision took place in 1846. The
first efforts of Urquiza to rouse the country against the oppressor
were unsuccessful, but in 185 1 he concluded an alliance with
Brazil, to which Uruguay afterwards adhered. A large army
of twenty-four thousand men was collected at Montevideo, and
on the 8th of January 1852 the allied forces crossed the Parana
and the road to Buenos Aires lay open before them. Rosas met
the allies at the head of a body of troops fully equal in numbers
to their own, but was crushingly routed, February 3rd, at Monte
Cascros, about 10 m. from the capital. The dictator fled for
refuge to the British legation, from whence he was conveyed on
board H.B.M.S. '* Locust," which carried him into exile.
A provisional government was formed under Urquiza, and the
Brazilian and Uruguayan troops withdrew. He summoned all
the provincial governors at San Nicolas in the province
of Buenos Aires, and on the 31st of May they pro*
claimed a new constitution, with Urquiza as provi-
sional director of the Argentine nation. A constituent congress,
in which each province had equal representation, was duly
ARGENTINA
471
elected, and in order to provide Against the predominance of
Buenos Aires, it was determined that Sante Fe should be the
place of session. But this did not suit the porieHos, as the
people of Buenos Aires were called, and the province refused
to take any part in the congressional proceedings. But Urquiza
was a man of different temperament from Rosas, and
when he found that Buenos Aires refused to submit
to his authority, he declined to use force. The con-
gress had (May x, 1853) appointed Urquiza president
of the confederation, and he established the seat of government
at Parana. The province of Buenos Aires was recognised as an
independent state, and under the enlightened administration
of Doctor Obligado made rapid strides in commercial prosperity.
The two sections of the Argentine nation contrived to exist as
separate governments without an open breach of the peace until
1850, when the long-continued tension led to the outbreak of
hostilities. The army of the portdlos, commanded by Colonel
Bartolome' Mitre, was defeated at Cepeda by the confederate
forces under Urquiza, and Buenos Aires agreed to re-enter the
confederation (November ix, 1859). Urquiza at this juncture
resigned the presidency, and Doctor Santiago Derqui was elected
president of the fourtcenj)rovinces with the seat of government
at Parana; while Urquiza became once more governor of Entre
Rios, and Mitre was appointed governor of Buenos Aires.
The struggle for supremacy between Buenos Aires and the
provinces had, however, to be fought out, and hostilities once
more broke out in 1861. The armies of the opposing
pntt4*a< P*rties,under Generals Mitre and Urquiza respectively,
met at Pav6n in the province of Santa ¥6 (September
17). The battle ended in the disastrous defeat of the provincial
forces; General Mitre used his victory in a spirit of modera-
tion and sincere patriotism. He was elected president of the
Argentine confederation and did bis u tmost to settle the questions
which had led to so many civil wars, on a permanent and sound
basis. The constitution of 1853 was maintained, but Buenos
Aires became the seat of federal government without ceasing
to be a provincial capital. Causes of friction still remained,
but they did not develop into open quarrels, for Mitre was content
to leave Urquiza in his province of Entre Rios, and the other
administrators (caudillos) in their several governments, a large
measure of autonomy, trusting that the position and growing
commercial importance of Buenos Aires would inevitably tend
to make the federal capital the real centre of power of the republic.
In 1865 the Argentines were forced into war with Paraguay
through the overbearing attitude of the president Francisco
Solano Lopez. The dictator of Paraguay had quarrelled with
Brazil for its intervention in the internal affairs of Uruguay,
and he demanded free passage for his troops across
r^f** the Argentine province of Corrientes. This Mitre
refused, and alliance was formed between Argentina,
Brazil and Uruguay, for joint action against Lopez. General
Mitre became commander-in-chief of the combined armies for
the invasion of Paraguay and was absent for several years in
the field. The struggle was severe and attended by heavy losses,
and it was not until 1870 that the Paraguayans were conquered,
Lopez killed, and peace concluded (see Paraguay) . Meanwhile,
disturbances had broken out in the interior of Argentina (1867),
which compelled Mitre to relinquish his command in Paraguay,
and to call back a large part of the Argentine forces to suppress
the insurrection. The rebels had hoped for assistance from
Urquiza, but the powerful governor of Entre Rios maintained the
peace in his province, which under his firm and beneficent rule
had greatly prospered, and the revolutionary movement was
quickly subdued.
In 1868 the term of General Mitre came to an end, and Doctor
Domingo Faustino Sanniento, a native of San Juan, was quietly
elected to succeed him. His conduct of affairs was
broad-minded and upright, and was characterized
by earnest efforts to promote education and to develop
the resources of the country. His period of office was marked
by the rapid advance of Buenos Aires in population and pros-
perity, and by an expansion of trade that was unfortunately
accompanied by financial extravagance. The war with Paraguay
left a legacy of disputes concerning boundaries which almost
led to war between the two victorious allies, Argentina and
Brazil, but by the exertions of Mitre; who was sent at the close
of 187s as special envoy to Rio, a settlement was arrived at and
friendly relations restored. The month of April 1870 saw an
insurrection in Entre Rios headed by the cavdilio, Lopez Jordan.
Urquiza was assassinated, and the provincial legislature, through
fear, at once proclaimed Lopez Jordan governor. The federal
government refused to acknowledge the new governor, and
troops were despatched by Sanniento against Entre Rios. The
contest lasted with varying success for more than a year, but
finally Lopes Jordan was completely defeated and driven into
exile,
The presidential election of 1874 resolved itself, as so often
before, into a struggle between the provincials and the fcfUHos
(Buenos Aires). The candidate of the former, Dr -,_^_
Nicolas Avellaneda, triumphed over General Mitre, %SSHmL
not without suspicions of tampering with the returns;
and the unsuccessful party appealed to arms. The new
president, however, who was installed in office on the 12th
of October, took active steps to suppress the revolution, which
never assumed a really serious character. The government
troops gained two decisive victories over the insurgents under
Generals Mitre and Arredondo, and they were compelled to
surrender at discretion. But though peace was for a time
restored, the old causes of soreness and dissension remained
unappeascd, and as the time for the next presidential election
began to draw near, it became more and more evident that a
Critical struggle was at hand, and that the people of Buenos
Aires, supported by the province of Corrientes, were determined
to bring to an issue the question as to what position Buenos
Aires was to hold for the future with regard to the remaining
provinces of the confederation. It was evident that the president
intended to use all the influence which the party in power could
exercise, to secure the return of General Julio Roca, who had
distinguished himself in 1878 by a successful campaign against
the warlike Indian tribes bordering on the Andes. The portdtos
on their part were determined to resist this policy to the utmost.
Mass meetings were held, and a committee was appointed for
the purpose of considering what action should be taken to
defeat the ambitious designs of the provincials. Under the
direction of this committee, the association known
as the " Tiro Nadonal " was formed, with the avowed JrHtauS
object of training the able-bodied citizens of Buenos
Aires in military exercises and creating a volunteer army, ready
for service if called upon, to withstand by force the pretensions
of their opponents. The establishment of the Tiro Nadonal
was enthusiastically received by all classes in Buenos Aires, the
men turning out regularly to drill, and the women aiding the
movement by collecting subscriptions for the purpose of arma-
ment and other necessaries. On the 13th of February 1880, the
minister of war, Dr Carlos Pellegrini, summoned the principal
officers connected with the Tiro Nadonal, General Bartotome
Mitre, his brother Emilio, Colonel Julio Campos, Colonel
Hilario Lagos and others, and warned them that as officers of
the national array they owed obedience to the national govern-
ment, and would be severely punished if concerned in any
revolutionary outbreak against the constituted authorities. The
reply to this threat was the immediate resignation of their com-
missions by all the officers connected with the Tiro Nadonal.
Two days later, the national government occupied, with a strong
force of infantry and artillery, the parade ground at Palermo
used by the Buenos Aires volunteers for drill purposes. A great
meeting of dtizens was then called and marched through the
streets. President Avellaneda was frightened at the results of
his action, and to avoid a collision ordered the troops to be
withdrawn Negotiations were now opened by the government
with the provincial authorities for the disarmament of the dry
and province of Buenos Aires, but they led to nothing. Matters
became still further strained on account of the outrages com-
mitted by the national troops, and such was the bitterness of
472
ARGENTINA
feeling developed between the two factions, that an appeal to
aims became inevitable.
In the month of June 1880, President Avellaneda and his
ministers left Buenos Aires, and this act was considered by the
poriefko leaders equivalent to a declaration of war.
i2r*r to T° e national government and the twelve provinces
forming the C6rdoba League, were ranged on one side;
the city and province of Buenos Aires and the province of
Corrientes on the other. The national troops were well armed
with Remington rifles, provided with abundant ammunition,
equipped with artillery and supported by the fleet. In the city
and province of Buenos Aires, plenty of volunteers offered their
services, and an army of some twenty-five thousand men was
quickly raised, but they were armed with old-fashioned weapons
and there was only a limited supply of ammunition. Feverish
attempts were made to remedy the lack of warlike stores, but
difficulty was experienced on account of the fleet blockading
the entrance to the river. After several skirmishes, the national
army commanded by General Roca, containing many troops
seasoned in Indian campaigns, assaulted the portdios posted
before Buenos Aires, and after two days' hard fighting
JjJ[ ## (20th and 21st July) forced its way into the town.
/&£* On 23rd July the surrender of the city was demanded
and obtained. The terms of the surrender were that
all the leaders of the revolution should be removed from posi-
tions of authority, all government employees implicated in the
movement dismissed, and the force in the province and city
of Buenos Aires at once disarmed and disbanded. • The power
of Buenos Aires was thus completely broken and at the mercy
of the C6rdoba League. The portdios were no longer in a position
to nominate a candidate in opposition to General Julio Roca,
who was duly elected. He assumed office in October 1880.
Hitherto General Roca had been regarded only in his capacity
as a soldier, and not from the point of view of an administrator.
In the campaigns against the Indians in the south-
west of the province of Buenos Aires and the valley of
the Rio Negro he had gained much prestige; the victory
over Buenos Aires added to his fame, and secured his authority
in the outlying provincial centres. One of the first notable acts
of the Roca administration was to declare the city of .Buenos
Aires the property of the national government. This separation
of the city from the province, and its federalization had been
one of the chief aims of the Cordoba League, and was the natural
consequence of the crushing defeat inflicted on the portdios. As
a sequel to this step, in 1884 the town of La Plata was declared
to be the capital of the province of Buenos Aires, and the pro-
vincial administration was moved to that place. This federal-
ization of the capital has proved to be a most important factor
in binding together the different parts of the confederation, and
in promoting the evolution of an Argentine nation out of a
loosely cemented union of a number of semi-independent states.
Considering the circumstances in which General Roca assumed
office, it must be admitted that he showed great moderation
and used the practically absolute power that he possessed to
establish a strong central government, and to initiate a national
policy, which aimed at furthering the prosperity and develop-
ment of the whole country. He was able by the influence he
exerted to keep down the internal dissensions and insurrectionary
outbreaks which had so greatly impeded for many years the
development of the vast natural resources of the republic.
With this object he had promoted the extension of railways so
as to link the provinces with the great port of Buenos Aires,
and to provide at the same time facilities for the rapid despatch
of military forces to disturbed districts. Unfortunately the last
two years of Roca's term of office were marked by two grave
errors, which subsequently caused widespread suffering and
distress throughout the country. The first of these mistakes
was a measure making (January 1885) the currency inconvertible
for a period of two years. This act, which was only decided
upon after much hesitation, had a most deleterious effect upon
the national credit. The second was the nomination of Dr Miguel
Juarez Celman for the presidential term commencing in October
1886. The nomination was brought about by the C6rdoba
clique, and Roca lacked the moral courage to oppose the decision
of this group, though he was well aware that Celman, who was
his brother-in-law, was neither intellectually nor morally fitted
for the post.
No sooner had President Juarez Celman come into power
towards the dose of 1886, than the respectable portion of the
community began to feel alarmed at the methods _^
practised by the new president in his conduct of j|^J" Jf
public affairs. At first it was hoped that the influence
of General Roca would serve to check any serious extravagance
on the part of Celman. This hope, however, was doomed to
disappointment, and before many months had elapsed it was
clear that the president would listen to no prudent counsels
from Roca or from any one else. The men of the old C6rdoba
League became dominant in all branches of the government,
and carpet-bagging politicians occupied every official post. In
their hurry to obtain wealth, this crowd of office-mongers from
the provinces lent themselves to all kinds of bribery and corrup-
tion. The public credit was pledged at home and abroad to fill
the pockets of the adventurers, and the wildest excesses were
committed under the guise of administrative acts. What followed
in the second and third years of the Celman administration can
only adequately be described as a debauchery of the national
honour, of the national resources, of the rights of Argentines
as citizens of the republic. Buenos Aires was still prostrate
under the crushing blow of the misfortunes of 1880, and lacked
strength and power of organization necessary to raise any
effective protest against the proceedings of Celman and his
friends when the true character of these proceedings was first
understood. The conduct of public affairs, however, at length
became so scandalous, that action on the part of the more sober-
minded and conservative sections was seen to be absolutely
imperative if the country was to be saved from speedy and
certain ruin. In 1889 the association of the " Union Civica "
was founded, and the organization undertaken by ^ . . .
Dr Leandro Alem, Dr Aristobulo del Vallc, Dr Ber- SKtat
nardo Irigoyen, Dr Vicente Lopez, Dr Lucio Lopez,
Dr Oscar Lillicdale and other leading citizens. The un-
tiring energy and zeal of Leandro Alem fitted him for being
the chief organizer of a movement into which he threw himself
heart and soul. Mass meetings were held in Buenos Aires, and
it fell specially to the lot of Dr del Vallc, who was an able orator
as well as a sincere patriot, to expose the irresponsible and
corrupt character of the administration, and the terrible dangers
that threatened the republic through its reckless extravagance
and financial improvidence. Subsidiary dubs affiliated to the
central administration were formed throughout the length and
breadth of the country, and millions of leaflets and pamphlets
were distributed broadcast to explain the importance of the
movement. President Celman underrated the strength of the
new opposition, and relied upon his armed forces promptly to
suppress any signs of open hostility. No change was made in
official methods, and the condition of affairs drifted from bad
to worse, until the temper of the people, so long and so sorely
tried, showed plainly that the situation had become insufferable.
The Union Civica then decided to make a bold bid for freedom
by attempting forcibly to eject Celman and his clique from office.
On the night of the 26th of July 1890 the Union Civica called
its members to arms. It was joined by some regiments of the
regular army and received the support of the fleet. Barricades
were thrown up in the principal streets, and the surrounding
houses were occupied by the insurgents. Two days of desultory
street fighting ensued, during which the fleet began to bombard
the dty, but was compelled to desist by the interference of
foreign men-of-war, on the ground that the bombardment was
causing unnecessary damage to the life and property of non-
combatants. A suspension of hostilities then took place, and
negotiations were opened between the contending parties.
Celman, acting upon the advice of General Roca, who recognized
the strength of public opinion in the outbreak, placed his resig-
nation in the hands of congress on the 3 tst of July A scene of
ARGENTINA
473
intense enthusiasm followed, and Buenos Aires was en fUe for
the following three days. The vice-president of the confedera-
tion, Carlos Pellegrini, who had been minister of war under
presidents Avellaneda and Roca and had had much adminis-
trative experience, succeeded without opposition to the vacant
post.
Much satisfaction was shown in Europe at the fall of President
Celman, for investors had suffered heavily by the way in which
, . the resources of Argentina had been dissipated by
Jjjjjjjjjjf a corrupt government, and hopes were entertained
that the uprising of public opinion against his finan-
cial methods signified a more honest conduct of the national
affairs in the future. Great expectations were entertained
of the aoility of President Pellegrini to establish a sound
administration, and he succeeded in forming a ministry which
gave general satisfaction throughout the country. General
Roca was induced to undertake the duties of minister of the
interior, and his influence in the provinces was sufficient to
check any attempts to stir up disturbances at C6rdoba or else-
where. The most onerous post of all, that of minister of finance,
was confided to Dr Vicente Lopez, who, though he was not of
marked financial ability, was at least a man of untiring industry
and of a personal integrity that was above suspicion. But the
economic and financial situation was one of almost hopeless
embarrassment and confusion, and Pellegrini proved himself
incapable of grappling with it Instead of facing the difficulties,
the president preferred to put off the day of reckoning by
flooding the country with inconvertible notes, with the result
that the financial crisis became more and more aggravated.
Through the rapid depreciation of Argentine credit, the great
firm of Baring Brothers, the financial agents of the government
in London, became so heavily involved that they were forced
into liquidation, November 1800. The consequences of this
catastrophe were felt far and wide, and in the spring of 1891
both the Banco National and the Banco de la provincia de
Buenos Aires were unable to meet their obligations. Amidst
this sea of financial troubles the government drifted helplessly
on, without showing any inclination or capacity to initiate a
strong policy of reform in the methods of administration which
had done so much to ruin the country.
It is little wonder that, in these circumstances, the choice
of a successor to Pellegrini, whose term of office expired in 1892,
should have been felt to possess peculiar importance. General
Bartolome* Mitre was proposed by the portdlos as their candi-
date. He had been absent from Argentina on a journey to
Europe, and on his return in April 1S01, a popular reception
was given to him at which 50,000 persons attended. A petition
was presented to him begging him to be a candidate for the
presidency, and with some reluctance the veteran leader gave
his consent. His partisans, however, found themselves con-
fronted by a compact provincial party, who proposed to put
forward the other strong man of the republic, General Roca,
to oppose him. But the two generals were equally averse to a
contest & ouirance, which could only end in civil war. They
met accordingly at a conference known as El Acuerdo, and it
was arranged that both should withdraw, and that a non-party
candidate should be selected who should receive the support
of them both. The choice fell upon Dr Saenz Pcfia, a judge of
the supreme court, and a man universally respected, who had
never taken any part in political life. This compact aroused
the bitter enmity of Dr Lcandro Alcm, who did his utmost to
stir up the Union Civica to a campaign against the neutral
candidate. Finding that the more conservative section of the
union would not follow him, Alcm formed a new association to
which he gave the name of Union Civica Radical. Such was his
energy, that soon a network of branches of the Union Civica
Radical was organized throughout the republic, and Dr Ber-
nardo Irigoyen was put forward as a rival candidate to Dr Saenz
Pena. But Alem was not content with constitutional opposition
to the Acuerdo, and his movement soon assumed the character
of a revolutionary propaganda against the national government.
Bis violence gave Pellegrini the opportunity of taking active
steps to preserve the peace. In April 180a Alem and his chief
colleagues were arrested and sent into exile.
In the following month (May), the presidential elections were
held; Dr Saenz Pena was declared duly elected, and Dr Jose
Unburn, the minister in Chile, was chosen as vice-president.
The idea of Dr Saenz Pena was to conduct the government
on common sense and non-partisan lines, in fact to translate
into practical politics the principles which underlay
the compromise of the Acuerdo. He was a straight- *■***
forward and honourable-man, who tried his best to do 2S* -fc
his duty in a position that had been forced upon him,
and was in no sense of the word his own seeking. No sooner,
however, was he installed in office than difficulties began to crop
up on all sides, and he quickly discovered that to attempt to
govern without the aid of a majority in congress was practically
impossible. He had had no experience of political life, and he
refused to create the support he needed by using his presidential
prerogative to build up a political majority. Obstruction met
his well-meant efforts to promote the* general good, and before
twelve months of the presidential term had run public affairs
were at a deadlock. Dr Alem, who had been permitted to return
from exile, was not slow to profit by the occasion. Embittered
by his treatment in 189a, he openly preached the advisability
of an armed rising to overthrow the existing administration.
Public opinion had been outraged by the immunity with which
the governors of certain provinces, and more particularly Dr
Julio Costa, the governor of the province of Buenos Aires,
had been allowed to maintain local forces, by the aid of which
they exacted the payment of illegal taxes and exercised other
acts of injustice and oppression. A number of officers of the army
and navy agreed to lend assistance to a revolutionary outbreak,
and towards the end of July 1893 matters came to a head.
The population of Buenos Aires assembled in armed bodies with
the avowed intention of ejecting the governor from office, and
electing in his stead a man who would give them a just adminis-
tration. The president was for some time in doubt whether he
had any right to intervene in provincial affairs, but eventually
troops were despatched to La Plata, There was no serious
fighting. Negotiations were soon opened which quickly led to
the resignation of Costa, and the return of the insurgents to
their homes. While these disturbances were taking place in
the province of Buenos Aires, another revolutionary rising was
in progress in Santa F6. Here the efforts of Dr Alem succeeded
in supplying a large body of rebels with arms and ammuni-
tion, and he was able, by a bold attack, to seize the town of
Rosario and there establish the revolutionary headquarters. This
capture so alarmed the national government that a force was
sent under the command of Roca to put down the insurrection.
The revolt speedily collapsed before this redoubtable commander,
and Alem and the other leaders surrendered. They were sen-
tenced to banishment in Staten Island at the pleasure of the
federal government
But the suppression of disorder did not relieve the tension
between the congress and the executive. During the whole
of the 1894 session, the attitude of senators and deputies alike
was one of pronounced hostility to the president. All his acts
were opposed, legislation was at a standstill and every effort
was made to force Dr Saenz Pena to resign. But although he ex-
perienced the utmost difficulty in forming a cabinet, the president
was obstinate in his determination to retain office without
identifying himself with any party. A definite issue was therefore
sought by the congress on which to join battle, and it arose out
of the death sentences which had been pronounced on certain
naval and military officers Who had been implicated in the
Santa Fe outbreak. The president had made up his mind that
the sentence must be carried out; the congress by a great
majority were resolved not to permit the death penalty to be
inflicted. It was a one-sided struggle, for without the consent
of the congress the president could not raise any money for
supplies, and congress refused to vote the budget. But heavy
expenses had been incurred in putting down revolutionary
movements in various parts of the provinces, and war with Chile
474
ARGENTINA
was threatened upon the question of a dispute concerning the
boundaries between the two republics. In January 1895 a
special session of congress was summoned to take into con-
sideration the financial proposals of the government, which
included an increase in the naval and military estimates. Con-
gress, however, had now got their opportunity, and they used
the time of national stress to bring increased pressure to bear
upon the president. On the axst of January Dr Saenz Pena
at last perceived that his position was untenable, and he handed
in his resignation. It was accepted at once by the chambers,
and the vice-president, Dr Jose" Unburn, became president of
the republic for the three years and nine months of PeAa's term
which remained unexpired.
Uriburu was neither a politician nor a statesman,- but had
spent the greater portion of his life abroad in the diplomatic
service.. His knowledge of foreign affairs was, however,
peculiarly useful at 8 juncture when boundary ques-
tions were the subjects that chiefly attracted public
attention. After disputes with Brazil, extending over fifteen
years, about the territory of " Misiones," the matter had
been submitted to the arbitration of the president of the
United States. In March 1895 President Cleveland gave his
decision, which was wholly favourable to the contention of
Brazil. The Argentine government, though disappointed at
the result, accepted the award loyally. The boundary dispute
with Chile, to which reference has already been made, was of
a more serious character. The dispute was of old standing.
Already in 1884 a protocol had been signed between the con-
tending parties, by which it was agreed that the frontier
should follow the line where " the highest peaks of the Andinc
ranges divide the watershed." This definition unfortunately
ignored the fact that the Andes do not run from north to south
in one continuous line, but are separated into cordillcras with
valleys between them, and covering in their total breadth a
considerable extent of country. Difference of opinion, therefore,
arose as to the interpretation of the protocol, the Argentines
insisting that the boundary should run from highest peak to
highest peak, the Chileans that it should follow the highest
points of the watershed. The quarrel at length became acute,
and on both sides the populace clamoured from time to time
for an appeal to arms, and the resources of both countries were
squandered in military and naval preparations for a struggle.
Nevertheless despite these obstacles, President Uriburu did some-
thing during h^ term of office to relieve the nation's financial
difficulties. In 1896 a bill was passed by congress, which
authorized the state by the issue of national bonds to assume
the provincial external indebtedness. This proof of the desire
of the Argentine government to meet honestly all its obligations
did much to restore its credit abroad. Uriburu found in 1897
the financial position so far improved that he was able to resume
cash payments on the entire foreign debt.
In 1898 there was another presidential election. Public
opinion, excited by the prospect of a war with Chile; naturally
supported the candidature of General* Roca, and he
was elected without opposition (12th October 1808).
The first question which he had to handle was the
Chilean boundary dispute. During the last months of President
Uriburu's administration, matters had reached a cb'max, especi-
ally in connexion with the delimitation in a district known as
the Puna de Atacama. In August an ultimatum was received
from Chile demanding arbitration. After some hesitation, on
the advice of Roca the Argentines agreed to the demand, and
peace was maintained. The principle of arbitration being
accepted, the conditions were quickly arranged. The question
of the Puna de Atacama was referred to a tribunal composed
of the United States minister to Argentina and of one Argentine
and one Chilean delegate; that of the southern frontier in
Patagonia to the British crown.. One of the first steps of Presi-
dent Roca, after his accession to office, was to arrange a meeting
with the president of Chile at the Straits of Magellan. At their
conference all difficulties were discussed and settled, and an
undertaking was given on both sides to put a stop to warlike
preparations. The decision of the representative of the United
States was given in April 1899. Although the Chileans pro-
fessed dissatisfaction, no active opposition was raised, And the
terms were duly ratified- In his message to congress, on the
1st of May. 1899, General Roca spoke strongly of the immediate
necessity of a reform in the methods of administering justice,
the expediency of a revision of the electoral law, and the im-
perative need of a reconstruction of the department of public
instruction. The administration of justice, he declared, had
fallen to so low an ebb as to be practically non-existent. By
the powerful influence of the president, government measures
were sanctioned by the legislature dealing with the abuses
which had been condemned. On the 31st of August of the same
year a series of proposals upon the currency question was
submitted to congress by the president, whose real object was to
counteract the too rapid appreciation of the inconvertible paper
money. The official value of the dollar was fixed at 44 cents
gold for all government purposes. The violent fluctuations
in the value of the paper dollar, which caused so much damage
to trade and industry, were thus checked. In October 1900
Dr Manuel Campos Salles, president of Brazil, paid a visit to
Buenos Aires, and was received with great demonstrations
of friendliness. The aggressive attitude of Chile towards Bolivia
was causing considerable anxiety, and Argentina and Brail
wished to show that they were united in opposing a policy which
aimed at acquiring an extension of territory by force of arms.
The feeling of enmity between Chile and Argentina was indeed
anything but extinct. The delay of the arbitration tribunal
in London in giving its decision in the matter of the disputed
boundary in Patagonia ted to a crop of wild rumours being
disseminated, and to a revival of animosity between the two
peoples. In December 1901 warlike preparations were being
carried on in both states, and the outbreak of active hostilities
appeared to be imminent. At the critical moment the British
government, urged to move in the matter by the British residents
in both countries, who feared that war would mean the financial
ruin of both Chile and Argentina, used its utmost influence
both at Santiago and Buenos Aires to allay the misunder-
standings; and negotiations were set on foot which ended in
a treaty for the cessation of further armaments being signed.
June 1902. The award of King Edward VII. upon the de-
limitation of the boundary was given a few months later,
and was received without controversy and ratified by both
governments.
To the calm resourcefulness and levelheadedness of President
Roca at a very difficult and critical juncture must be largely
ascribed the preservation of peace, and the permanent removal
of a dispute that had aroused so much irritation. His term
of office came to an end in 1904, when Dr Manuel Quintana
was elected president and Dr Jose" Figueroa Alcorta ,
vice-president, both having Root's support. Dr m*4
Quintana at the time of his election was sixty-four Akui *f
years of age. He proved a hard-worJring progressive *»*■**■■*■»
president, who did much for the development of communications
and the opening up of the interior of the country. He died
amidst general regret in March 1906, and was succeeded by
Dr Alcorta for the remaining years of his term. (G. E.)
Authorities. — C. E. Akcrs, Argentine, Patagonia* and CksUan
Sketches (London, 1893), and A History of South America 1&54-1004
(New York, 1905) ; Theodore Child, The Spanish-American Republics
(London, 1891) ; Sir T. H. Holdich, The Countries of the King's Award
(London, 1904) ; W. H. Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata (London,
1892), and Idle Days in Patagonia (London. 1 "
and C. R. Markham, Central and South Am
Days in Patagonia (London. 1893); A. H. Keane
kham. Central and South America, in Stanford's
"Compendium of Geography and Travel" (London. 1901); G.
E. Church, " Argentine Geography and the Ancient Pampean
Sea " (Geogr. Journal, xii. p. 386); 'South America: an Outline of
its Physical Geography" {Gcogr. Journal, xvii. p. 313); Dr Karl
Kargcr, Landtpirlxcno.fi und Kolonisation im s^anischen Amerika
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1901 J ; F. P. Moreno, " Explorations in Patagonia "
(Geogr. Journal, xtv. pp. 241, 354); Carlos Lix Klctt, Bstudios sobn
production, comer exo, finantas e tnteresses generates de la Repubfiea
Argentina (2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1900): G. Carraaco, El creetmitnut
de la fobtacion de la Republica A rgentina comparado con el do tat
princtpales naciones 1890-1903 (Buenos Aires, 1904); C M. Urien
ARGENTINE— ARGON
475
and C Colombo, Geografia Arrtutii
Irenes o
md
Rosea, Archaeological Restart
Bolivia igoi-1902 (Stockholm, 19
stitution National y Constituctonei
Aires, 1 898); Angefo dc Gubcmati
Meliton Gonzales, El Gran Ckaco .
John Grant & Sons, The Argentine
et seq.) ; Francis Latzina, Dicciona\
Aires, 1 891); Gfographie de la Ripi
1890); V Agriculture et VElevage
(Paris, 1889); Bartolorae Mitre, J
Emancipation Sud-Americana, teg
Buenos Aires, 1887); Historic de
Argentina (3 vols., Buenos Aires, X
Geografito Estadistieo National A
Thomas A. Turner, Argentina and
London. 189?); Estanislao S. Zcb
Republics Argentina (3 vols., Buei
Dtrecuht General de Estadisliea 189
Wiener. La Ripublwue Argentine
Reptblica Argentina (3 vols., Buew
Argentina Republic (Bureau of the A
1892-1903)'- »
ARGENTINE, a former city oi as,
V. S. A., since 1910 a part of Kansas City, on the S. bank
of the Kansas river, just above its mouth. Pop. (1800) 4732;
(1900) 5878, of whom 623 were foreign-born and 603 of negro
descent; (1905, state census) 6053. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka 8c Santa F6 railway, which maintains here
yards and machine shops. The streets of the city run irregularly
up the steep face of the river bluffs. Its chief industrial estab-
lishment is that of the United Zinc and Chemical Company,
which has here one of the largest plants of its kind in the country.
There are large grain interests. The site was platted in 18S0,
and the city was first incorporated in 1882 and again, as a city
of the second class, in 1889.
ARGENTITE, a mineral which belongs to the galena group,
and is cubic silver sulphide (AgjS). It is occasionally found as un-
even cubes and octahedra, but more often as dendritic or earthy
masses, with a blackish lead-grey colour and metallic lustre.
The cubic cleavage, which is so prominent a feature in galena,
is here present only in traces. The mineral is perfectly sectile
and has a shining streak; hardness 2-5, specific gravity 7-3. It
occurs in mineral veins, and when found in large masses, as in
Mexico and in the Comstock lode in Nevada, it forms an im-
portant ore of silver. The mineral was mentioned so long ago
as 1529 by G. Agricola, but the name argentite (from the Lat.
or centum, "silver") was not used till 1845 and is due to W.
von Haidingcr. Old names for the species are Glascrz, silver-
glance and vitreous silver. A cupriferous variety, from Jalpa in
Tabasco, Mexico, is known as jalpaite. Acanthitc is a supposed
dimorphous form, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system,
but it is. probable that the crystals are really distorted crystals
of argentite. (L. J. S.)
ARGENTON, a town of western France, in the department of
Indre, on the Crcuse, 19 m. S.S.W. of Chateau roux on the Orleans
railway. Pop. (1906) 5638. The river is crossed by two bridges,
and its banks arc bordered by picturesque old houses. There
arc numerous tanneries, and the manufacture of boots and shoes
and linen goods is carried on. The site of the ancient Argcnto-
magus lies a little to the north.
ARGHANDAB, a river of Afghanistan, about 250 m. in
length. It rises in the Hazara country north-west of Ghazni,
and flowing south-west falls into the Hclmund 20 m. below
Girishk. Very little is known about its upper course. It is said
to be shallow, and to run nearly dry in height of summer; but
when its depth exceeds 3 ft. its great rapidity makes it a serious
obstacle to travellers. In its lower course it is much used for
irrigation, and the valley is cultivated and populous; yet the
water is said to be somewhat brackish. It is doubtful whether
the ancient Arachotus is to be identified with the Arghandab or
with its chief confluent the Tarnak, which joins it on the left
about 30 m. S. W. of Kandahar. The two rivers run nearly
parallel, inclosing the backbone of the Ghilzai plateau. The
Tarnak is much the shorter (length about 200 m.) and less copious.
The ruins at Ulin Robat, supposed to represent the city Arach-
osia, are in its basin; and the lake known as Ab-i-Istada, the
most probable representative of Lake Arachotus, is near the
head of the Tarnak, though not communicating with it. The
Tarnak is dammed for irrigation at intervals, and in the hot
season almost exhausted. There is a good deal of cultivation
along the river, but few villages. The high road from Kabul
to Kandahar passes this way (another, reason for supposing the
Tarnak to be Arachotus), and the people live off the road to
avoid the -onerous duties of hospitality.
ARGHOUL, Arghool, or Arohul (in the Egyptian hiero-
glyphs, As or As-rr), 1 an ancient and modern Egyptian and Arab/
wood-wind instrument, with cylindrical bore and- single reed
mouthpiece of the clarinet type. The arghoul consists of two
reed pipes of unequal lengths bound together by means of waxed
thread, so that the two mouthpieces lie side by side, and can be
taken by the performer into his mouth at the same time. The
mouthpiece consists of a reed having a small tongue detached
by means of a longitudinal slit which forms the beating reed,
as in the clarinet mouthpiece. The shorter pipe has six holes
on which the melody is played; the three upper holes being
covered by the fingers of the right hand, and the lower by those
of the left hand. The longer pipe has no lateral holes; it is a
fft t-J*
■jpsfr
3B
(From Edward William Lane's An Account $f On Mamntn ami Custom* #f Ike
Midtrm EtypHami.) .
Modern Arghoul, 3 ft. 2 J in. long.
drone pipe with one note only, which, however, can be varied
by the addition of extra lengths of reed. In the illustration
all three lengths arc shown in use. An arghoul belonging to the
collection of the Conservatoire Royal at Brussels, described by
Victor Mahillon in his catalogue 1 (No. 113), gives the following
scale: —
Short Pips. Droke Pipe.
M.
rnjmm^
Without ad- WUb shortest With short- With loof-
ditiotul Joint, additional est and est addi-
' Joist. medium ad- tional
dit tonal joints. Joint.
01 s s 4 S 6
Holes uncovered.
The total length of the shorter pipe, including the mouthpiece,
is 043 s m.; of the longer pipe, without additional joints,
o*555 rn. An Egyptian arghoul,' presented by the khedivc
to the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures 4 ft. 8} in.
For further information see Victor Loret, VEgypte au temps des
Pharaons (Paris, 1889), 8vo, pp. 139, 143, 144; C. A. Villoteau,
Description historique technique et UlUraire des instruments de
musique des orienlaux (Description de VEgypte, Paris, l823,tome xiii.
pp. 456-473). - (K- S.)
ARGOL, the commercial name of crude tartar (?.*.). It is
a semi-crystalline deposit which forms on wine vats, and is
generally grey or red in colour.
ARGON (from the Gr. d-, privative, and tpyov, work; hence
meaning " inert "), a gaseous constituent of atmospheric air.
For more than a hundred years before 1894 it had been supposed
that the composition of the atmosphere was thoroughly known.
Beyond variable quantities of moisture and traces of carbonic
acid, hydrogen, ammonia, &c, the only constituents recognized
were nitrogen and oxygen. The analysis of air was conducted
by determining the amount of oxygen present and assum-
ing the remainder to be nitrogen. Since the time of Henry
Cavendish no one seemed even to have asked the question
whether the residue was, in truth, all capable of conversion
into nitric acid.
The manner in which this condition of complacent ignorance
came to be disturbed is instructive. Observations undertaken
mainly in the interest of Prout's law, and extending over many
years, had been conducted to determine afresh the densities
of the principal gases— hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In
the latter case, the first preparations were according to the
1 See Victor Loret, " Les flute* 6gyptiennes antiques," Journal
Asiatique, 8cmc scrie, tome xiv., Paris, 1889, pp. 129, 130 and 13^
' Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musie du Conservatoire
Royal de Bruxelles (Ghent. 1880), p. 141.
» A Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments in the South
Kensington Museum, by Carl Engel (London, 1874), p. 143.
476
ARGON
convenient method devised by Vernon Harcourt, in which air
charged with ammonia is passed over red-hot copper. Under
the influence of the heat the atmospheric oxygen unites with
the hydrogen of the ammonia, and when the excess of the latter
is removed with sulphuric acid, the gas properly desiccated
should be pure nitrogen, derived in part from the ammonia, but
principally from the air. A few concordant determinations of
density having been effected, the question was at first regarded
as disposed of, until the thought occurred that it might be desir-
able to try also the more usual method of preparation in which
the oxygen is removed by actual oxidation of copper without
the aid of ammonia. Determinations made thus were equally
concordant among themselves, but the resulting density was
about to'ct part greater than that found by Harcourt's method
(Rayleigh, Nature, vol. xlvi. p. 5x2, 1892). Subsequently when
oxygen was substituted for air in the first method, so that all
(instead of about one-seventh part) of the nitrogen was derived
from ammonia, the difference rose to J %. Further experiment
only brought out more clearly the diversity of the gases hitherto
assumed to be identical. Whatever were the means employed
to rid air of accompanying oxygen, a uniform value of the density
was arrived at, and this value was } % greater than that apper-
taining to nitrogen extracted from compounds such as nitrous
oxide, ammonia and ammonium nitrite. No impurity, consist-
ing of any known substance, could be discovered capable of
explaining an excessive weight in the one case, or a deficiency
in the other. Storage for eight .months did not disturb the
density of the chemically extracted gas, nor had the silent
electric discharge any influence upon cither quality. (" On an
Anomaly encountered in determining the Density of Nitrogen
Gas," Proc. Roy. Soc, April 1894.)
At this stage it became clear that the complication depended
upon some hitherto unknown body, and probability inclined
to the existence of a gas in the atmosphere heavier than nitrogen,
and remaining unacted upon during the removal of the oxygen
— a conclusion afterwards fully established by Lord Rayleigh
and Sir William Ramsay. The question which now pressed
was as to the character of the evidence for the universally
accepted view that the so-called nitrogen of the atmosphere
was all of one kind, that the nitrogen of the air was the same
as the nitrogen of nitre. Reference to Cavendish showed that
he had already raised this question in the most distinct manner,
and indeed, to a certain extent, resolved it In his memoir of
1785 he writes: —
" As far as the experiments hitherto published extend, we scarcely
know more of the phlogisticatcd part of our atmosphere than that
it is not diminished by lime-water, caustic alkalies, or nitrous air;
that it is unfit to support fire or maintain life in animals; and that
its specific gravity is not much less than that of common air; so
that, though the nitrous acid, by "being united to phlogiston, is con-
verted into air possessed of these properties, and consequently,
though it was reasonable to suppose, that part at least of the phlo-
gisticated air of the atmosphere consists of this acid united to
Ehlogiston, yet it may fairly be doubted whether the whole is of this
ind. or whether there arc not in reality many different substances
confounded together by us under the name of phlogisticatcd air. 1
therefore made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a
given portion of the phlogisticatcd air of the atmosphere could be
reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there was not a part of a different
nature to the rest which would refuse to undergo that change. The
foregoing experiments indeed, in so -j— :j— 1 -l: : nt>
as much the greatest part of air let ui y ;
.... : — 1 -unabsorbec un
same natu lis
milar mixt n]
same mai cr
to a small ;n,
is much as lir
d in the tu ed
he spark u ok
means com he
p some sol rb
; after whi lir
hich certai of
sticated ai ,. . it,
he dephlogisticatcd air of our atmosphere
st, and cannot be reduced to nitrous acid,
wc may safely conclude that it is not more than rfe part of the
whole.
Although, as was natural, Cavendish was satisfied with las
result, and does not decide whether the small residue was genuine,
it is probable that his residue was really of a different kind from
the main bulk of the " phlogisticatcd air," and contained the
gas afterwards named argon.
The announcement to the British Association in 1804 by
Rayleigh and Ramsay of a new gas in the atmosphere was
received with a good deal of scepticism. Some doubted the
discovery of a new gas altogether, while others denied that it
was present in the atmosphere. Yet there was nothing incon-
sistent with any previously ascertained fact in the asserted
presence of 1 % of a non-oxiduable gas about half as heavy again
as nitrogen. The nearest approach to a difficulty lay in the
behaviour of liquid air, from which it was supposed, as the event
proved erroneously, that such a constituent would separate
itself in the solid form. The evidence of the existence of a new
gas (named Argon on account of its chemical inertness), and a
statement of many of its properties, were communicated to the
Royal Society (see Phil. Trans, dxxxvi. p. 187) by the dis-
coverers in January 1805. The isolation of
the new substance by removal of nitrogen
from air was effected by two distinct
methods. Of these the first is merely a ^
development of that of Cavendish. The
gases were contained in a test-tube A
(fig. 1) standing over a large quantity of
weak alkali B, and the current was con- r
veyed in wires insulated by U-shapcd glass 1
tubes CC passing through the liquid and
round the mouth of the test-tube. The
inner platinum ends DD of the wire may
be scaled into the glass insulating tubes,
but reliance should not be placed upon
these sealings. In order to secure tight-
ness in spite of cracks, mercury was placed
in the bends. With a battery of five
Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of
medium size, a somewhat short spark, or
arc, of about 5 mm. was found to be more
favourable than a longer one. When the Fig. i.
mixed gases were in the right propor-
tion, the rate of absorption was about 30 c.c. per hour, about
thirty times as fast as Cavendish could work with the elec-
trical machine of his day. Where it is available, an alternat-
ing electric current is much superior to a battery and break.
This combination, introduced by W. Spottiswoode, allows the
absorption in the apparatus of fig. 1 to be raised to about 80 c.c.
per hour, and the method is very convenient for the purification
of small quantities of argon and for determinations of the amount
present in various samples of gas, e.g. in the gases expelled from
solution in water. A convenient adjunct to this apparatus
is a small voltameter, with the aid of which oxygen or hydrogen
can be introduced at pleasure. The gradual elimination of the
nitrogen is tested at a moment's notice with a miniature spectro-
scope. For this purpose a small Lcydcn jar is connected as usual
to the secondary terminals, and if necessary the force of the
discharge is moderated by the insertion of resistance in the
primary circuit. When with a fairly wide slit the yellow line is
no longer visible, the residual nitrogen may be considered to have
fallen below 2 or 3 %. During this stage the oxygen should be
in considerable excess. When the yellow line of nitrogen has
disappeared, and no further contraction seems to be in progress,
the oxygen maybe removed by cautious introduction of hydrogen.
The spectrum may now be further examined with a more powerful
instrument The most conspicuous group in the argon spectrum
at atmospheric pressure is that first recorded by A. Schuster
(fig. 2). Water vapour and excess of oxygen in moderation do
not interfere seriously with its visibility. It is of interest to
note that the argon spectrum may be fully developed by operating
upon a miniature scale, starling with only 5 c.c of air {Phil.
Mag. vol. i. p. 103, 1001).
The development of Cavendish's method upon a large scale
ARGON
477
tnvohres arrangements different from what would at first be
expected. The transformer working from a public supply should
give about 6000 volts on open circuit, although when the electric
flame a established the voltage on the platinums is only from
1600 to 2000. No sufficient advantage is attained by raising
the pressure of the gases above atmosphere, but a capacious
vessel is necessary. This may consist of a glass sphere of 50 litres'
capacity, into the neck of which, presented downwards, the
necessary tubes are fitted. The whole of the interior surface is
washed with a fountain of alkali, kept in circulation by means
of a small centrifugal pump. In this apparatus, and with about
one horse-power utilized at the transformer, the absorption of
gas is 21 litres per hour ("The Oxidation of Nitrogen Gas,"
Trans. CJUm. Soc. t 2897).
In one experiment, specially undertaken for the sake of
measurement, the total air employed was 9250 c.c.» and the
oxygen consumed, manipulated with the aid of partially de-
aerated water, amounted to 10,820 c.c The oxygen contained
in the ait would be 1942 cc; so that the quantities of atmo-
spheric nitrogen and of total oxygen which enter into combination
would be 7308 cc. and 1 2,762 c.c respectively. This corresponds
to N-f 1-75 O, the oxygen being decidedly in excess of the pro-
portion required to form nitrous acid. The argon ultimately
found was 75-0 c.c, or a little more than 1 % of the atmospheric
nitrogen used. A subsequent determination over mercury by
A. M. Kellas (Proc. Roy. Soc. lix. p. 66, 1895) gave 1*186 cc
as the amount of argon present in zoo cc of mixed atmospheric
nitrogen and argon. In the earlier stages of the inquiry, when
it was important to meet the doubts which had been expressed
as to the presence of the new gas in the atmosphere, blank
experiments were executed in which air was replaced by nitrogen
from ammonium nitrite. The residual argon, derived doubtless
from the water used to manipulate the gases, was but a small
^ 2__2 t ?,. ,f. T
AfgM
Hydrogen
H 7
Fic. 2.
fraction of what would have been obtained from a corresponding
quantity of air.
The other method by which nitrogen may be absorbed on a
considerable scale is by the aid of magnesium. The metal in
the form of thin turnings is charged into hard glass or iron tubes
heated to a full red in a combustion furnace. Into this air,
previously deprived of oxygen by red-hot copper and thoroughly
dried, is led in a continuous stream. At this temperature the
nitrogen combines with the magnesium, and thus the argon is
concentrated. A still more potent absorption is afforded by
calcium prepared in situ by heating a mixture of magnesium
dust with thoroughly dehydrated quick-lime. The density of
argon, prepared and purified by magnesium, was found by
Sir William Ramsay to be 19-941 on the 0=*i6 scale. The
volume actually weighed was 163 cc. Subsequently large-scale
operations with the same apparatus as had been used for the
principal gases gave an almost identical result (19-940) for argon
prepared with oxygen*
Argon is soluble in water at 12 9 C. to about 4*0%, that is,
it is about 2) times more soluble than nitrogen. We should
thus expect to find it in increased proportion in the dissolved
gases of rain-water. Experiment has confirmed this anticipation.
The weight of a mixture of argon and nitrogen prepared from the
dissolved gases showed an excess of 24 mg. over the weight of true
nitrogen, the corresponding excess for the atmospheric mixture
being only 1 1 mg. Argon is contained in the gases liberated by
many thermal springs, but not in special quantity. The gas
collected from the King's Spring at Bath gave only \ %, i.e. half
the atmospheric proportion.
The most remarkable physical property of argon relates to
the constant known as the ratio of specific heats. When a gas
is wanned one degree, the heat which must be supplied depends
upon whether the operation is conducted at a constant volume
or at a constant pressure, being greater in the latter case. The
ratio of specific heats of the principal gases is 1*4, which, accord-
ing to the kinetic theory, is an indication that an important
fraction of the energy absorbed is devoted to rotation or vibration.
If, as for Boscovitch points, the whole energy is translatory,
the ratio of specific heats must be 1*67. This is precisely the
number found from the velocity of sound in argon as determined
by Kundt's method, and it leaves no room for any sensible
energy of rotatory or vibrational motion. The same value had
previously been found for mercury vapour by Kundt and
Warburg, and had been regarded as confirmatory of the mon-
atomic character attributed on chemical grounds to the mercury
molecule. It may be added that helium has the same character
as argon in respect of specific heats (Ramsay, Proc. Roy. Soc.
I. p, 86, 1895).
The refractivity of argon is •961 of that of air. This low.
refractivity is noteworthy as strongly antagonistic to the view
at one time favoured by eminent chemists that argon was a
condensed form of nitrogen represented by N* The viscosity of
argon is 1-21, referred to air, somewhat higher than for oxygen,
which stands at the head of the list of the principal gases (" On
some Physical Properties of Argon and Helium," Proc Roy,
Soc. vol lix. p. 198, 1896).
The spectrum shows remarkable peculiarities. According to
circumstances, the colour of the light obtained from a Plueker
vacuum tube changes " from red to a rich steel blue," to use the
words of Crookes, who first described the phenomenon. A third
spectrum is distinguished by J. M. Eder and Edward Valenta.
The red spectrum is obtained at moderately low pressures
(5 mm.) by the use of a Ruhmkorff coil without a jar or air-gap.
The red lines at 7056 and 6965 (Crookes) are characteristic The
blue spectrum is best seen at a somewhat lower pressure (1 mm.
to 2*5 mm.), and usually requires a Lcyden jar to be connected
to the secondary terminals. In some conditions very small
causes effect a transition from the one spectrum to the other.
The course of electrical events attending the operation of a
Ruhmkorff coil being extremely complicated, special interest
attaches to some experiments conducted by John Trowbridge
and T. W. Richards, in which the source of power was a secondary
battery of 5000 cells. At a pressure of 1 mm. the red glow of
argon was readily obtained with a voltage of 2000, but not with
much less. After the discharge was once started, the difference
of potentials at the terminals of the tube varied from 630 volts
upwards.
The introduction of a capacity between the terminals of the
Gassier tube, for example two plates of metal 1600 so. cm. in area
separated by a glass plate 1 cm. thick, made no difference in the
red glow so long as the connexions were good and the condenser was
quiet. As soon as a spark-gap was introduced, or the condenser
began to emit the humming sound peculiar to it, the beautiful blue
glow so characteristic of argon immediately appeared. {Pkil. Mag.
xliii. p. 77. 1807.)
The behaviour of argon at low temperatures was investigated
by K. S. Olszewski (Pkil. Trans., 1895, p. 253). The following
results are extracted from the table given by him: —
Name.
Critical
Tempera-
ture, Cent.
Critical
Pressure,
Atmos.
Boiling
Point,
Cent.
Freezing
Point,
Cent.
Ill
—146-0
— 121-0-
-1188
35*0
50*6
50-8
-1944
— 187-0
-1827
—214-0
-180-6
The smallness of the interval between the boiling and freezing
points is noteworthy.
From the manner of its preparation it was clear at an early
stage that argon would not combine with magnesium or calcium
at a red heat, nor under the influence of the electric discharge
with oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen. Numerous other attempts
to induce combination also failed. Nor does it appear that any
well-defined compound of argon has yet been prepared. It was
478
ARGONAUTS
found, however, by M. P. £. Berthelot that under the influence
of the silent electric discharge, a mixture of benzene vapour
and argon underwent contraction, with formation of a gummy
product from which the argon could be recovered.
The facts detailed in the original memoir led to the conclusion
that argon was an element or a mixture of elements, but the
question between these alternatives was left open. The behaviour
on liquefaction, however, seemed to prove that in the latter
case either the proportion of the subordinate constituents
was small, or else that the various constituents were but little
contrasted. An attempt, somewhat later, by- Ramsay and
J. Norman Collie to separate argon by diffusion into two parts,
which should have different densities or refractivities, led to
no distinct effect. More recently Ramsay and M. W. Travers
have obtained evidence of the existence in the atmosphere of
three new gases, besides helium, to which have been assigned
the names of neon, krypton and xenon. These gases agree with
argon in respect of the ratio of the specific heats and in being
non-oxidizable under the electric spark. As originally defined,
argon included small proportions of these gases, but it is now
preferable to limit the name to the principal constituent and to
regard the newer gases as " companions of argon." The physical
constants associated with the name will scarcely be changed,
since the proportion of the " companions " is so small. Sir
William Ramsay considers that probably the volume of all of
them taken together does not exceed jfath part of that of the
argon. The physical properties of these gases are given in the
following table (Proc. Roy. Soc. lxvii. p. 331, 1900): —
Helium.
Neon.
Argon.
Krypton.
Xenon.
Refractivities
(air- 1)
Densities
(O-16)
Boiling points
at 760 mm.
Critical tem-
peratures
Critical pres-
sures
Weight of ice.
olliquid
•1238
I-98
c.6°»
abs.
?
?
?
•*345
997
?
below
68° abs.
?
?
.968
1996
82*
,5 .tf
40-2
metres.
I-2I2
gm.
1-449
40-88
12I-33*
abs.
210-5°
abs!
41-24
metres.
3-155
gtn.
2-364
64
163-9*
abs.
287-7°
abs. -
435
metres.
3-5*
gm.
The glow obtained in vacuum tubes is highly characteristic,
whether as seen directly or as analysed by the spectroscope.
Now that liquid air is available in many laboratories, it forms
an advantageous starting-point in the preparation of argon.
Being less volatile than nitrogen, argon accumulates relatively
as liquid air evaporates. That the proportion of oxygen in-
creases at the same time is little or no drawback. The following
analyses (Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., June 1003) of the vapour arising
from liquid air at various stages of the evaporation will give
an idea of the course of events: —
Percentage of
Oxygen.
Percentage of
Argon
Argon as a Percentage
of the Nitrogen and
Argon.
30
8
75
90
1-3
20
JO
2-1
2-0
19
!!
20-0
(R-)
ARGONAUTS ('ApTowiOnu, the sailors of the " Argo"), in Greek
legend a band of heroes who took part in the Argonautic ex-
pedition under the command of Jason, to fetch the golden fleece.
This task had been imposed on Jason by his uncle Pelias (q.v.),
who had usurped the throne of Iolcus in Thessaly, which
rightfully belonged to Jason's father Aeson. The story of the
fleece was as follows. Jason's uncle Athamas had two children,
Phrixus and Helle, by his wife Nephele, the cloud goddess.
But after a time he became enamoured of Ino, the daughter of
Cadmus, and neglected Nephele, who disappeared in anger.
Ino, who hated the children of Nephele, persuaded Athamas,
1 Sir James Dewar, Cempt. Rend. (1904), 139, 261 and 241.
by means of a false oracle, to offer Phrixus as a sacrifice, as the
only means of alleviating a famine which she herself had caused
by ordering the grain to be secretly roasted before it was sown.
But before the sacrifice the shade of Nephele appeared to Fhrixos,
bringing a ram with a golden fleece on which he and his sister
Helle endeavoured to escape over the sea. Helle fell off and was
drowned in the strait, which after her was called the Hellespont.
Phrixus, however, reached the other side in safety, and proceeding
by land to Aea in Colchis on the farther shore of the Euxine Sea,
sacrificed the ram, and hung up its fleece in the grove of Ares,
where it was guarded by a sleepless dragon
Jason, having undertaken the quest of the fleece, called upon
the noblest heroes of Greece to take part in the expedition.
According to the original story, the crew consisted of the chief
members of Jason's own race, the Minyae. But when the legend
became common property, other and better-known hemes were
added to their number— Orpheus, Castor and Polydeuces
(Pollux), Zetes and Calais, the winged sons of Boreas, Melcager.
Theseus, Heracles. The crew was supposed to consist of fifty,
agreeing in number with the fifty oars of the " Argo," so called
from its builder Argos, the son of Phrixus, or from o>y6f (swift).
It was a larger vessel than had ever been seen before, built of
pine-wood that never rotted from Mount Pelion. The goddess
Athena herself superintended its construction, and inserted in
the prow a piece of oak from Dodona, which was endowed with
the power of speaking and delivering oracles. The outward
course of the " Argo " was the same as that of the Greek traders,
whose settlements as early as the 6th century B.C. dotted the
southern shores of the Euxine. The first landing-place was the
island of Lemnos, which was occupied only by women, who had
put to death their fathers, husbands and brothers. Here the
Argonauts remained some months, until they were persuaded
by Heracles to leave. It is known from Herodotus (iv. 145)
that the Minyae had formed settlements at Lemnos at a very
early date. Proceeding up the Hellespont, they sailed to the
country of the Doliones, by whose king, Cyzicus, they were
hospitably received. After their departure, being driven back
to the same place by a storm, they were attacked by the Doliones,
who did not recognize them, and in a battle which took place
Cyzicus was killed by Jason. After Cyzicus had been duly
mourned and buried, the Argonauts proceeded along the coast
of Mysia, where occurred the incident of Heracles and Hylas
(q.v.). On reaching the country of the Bebryces, they again
landed to get water, and were challenged by the king, Amyous,
to match him with a boxer. Polydeuces came forward, and in
the end overpowered his adversary, and bound him to a tree, or
according to others, slew him. At the entrance to the Euxine,
at Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace, they met Phineus, the
blind and aged king whose food was being constantly polluted
by the Harpies. He knew the course to Colchis, and offered
to tell it, if the Argonauts would free him from the Harpies.
This was done by the winged sons of Boreas, and Phineus now
told them their course, and that the way to pass through the
Symplegades or Cyanean rocks — two cliffs which moved on their
bases and crushed whatever sought to pass— was first to fly a
pigeon through, and when the cliffs, having closed on the pigeon,
began to retire to each side, to row the " Argo " swiftly through.
His advice was successfully followed, and the " Argo " made
the passage unscathed, except for trifling damage to the stern.
From that time the rocks became fixed and never closed again.
The next halting-places were the country of the Maryandini,
where the helmsman Tiphys died, and the land of the Amazons
on the banks of the Thermodon. At the island of Aretias they
drove away the Slymphalian birds, who used their feathers of
brass as arrows. Here they found and took on board the four
sons of Phrixus who, after their father's death, had been sent
by Aeetes, king of Colchis, to fetch the treasures of Orchomenus,
but had been driven by a storm upon the island. Passing near
Mount Caucasus, they heard the groans of Prometheus and the
napping of the wings of the eagle which gnawed his liver. They
now reached their goal, the river Phasis, and the following
morning Jason repaired to the palace of Aeetes, mad demanded
ARGONNE— ARGOS
479
the golden fleece. Aeetes required of Jason that he shoold first
yoke to a plough his bulls, given him by Hephaestus, which
snorted fire and had hoofs of brass, and with them plough the field
of Ares. That done, the field was to be sown with the dragons'
teeth brought by Phrixus, from which armed men were to spring.
Successful so far by means of the mixture which Medea, daughter
of Aeetes, had given him as proof against fire and sword, Jason
was next allowed to approach the dragon which watched the
fleece ; Medea soothed the monster with another mixture, and
Jason became master of the fleece. Then the voyage homeward
began, Medea accompanying Jason, and Aeetes pursuing them.
To delay him and obtain escape, Medea dismembered her young
brother Absyrtus, whom she had taken with her, and cast his
limbs about in the sea for his father to pick up. Her plan suc-
ceeded, and while Aeetes was burying the remains of his son at
Totni, Jason and Medea escaped. In another account Absyrtus
had grown to manhood then, and met his death in an encounter
with Jason, in pursuit of whom he had been sent. Of the home-
ward course various accounts are given. In the oldest (Pindar)
the " Argo " sailed along the river Phasis into the eastern
Oceanus, round Asia to the south coast of Libya, thence to the
mythical lake Tritonis, after being carried twelve days over
land through Libya, and thence again to Iolcus. Hecatacus
of Miletus (Schol. ApoUon. Rhod. iv. 259) suggested that from
the Oceanus it may have sailed into the Nile, and so to the
Mediterranean. Others, like Sophocles, described the return
voyage as differing from the outward course only in taking the
northern instead of the southern shore of the Euxine. Some
(pseudo-Orpheus) supposed that the Argonauts had sailed up
the river Tanals, passed into another river, and by it reached
the North Sea, returning to the Mediterranean by the Pillars of
Hercules. Again, others (Apollonius Rhodius) laid down the
course as up the Danube (Ister), from it into the Adriatic by a
supposed mouth of that river, and on to Corcyra, where a storm
overtook them. Next they sailed up the Eridanus into the
Rhodanus, passing through the country of the Celts and Ligurians
to the Stoechades, then to the island of Aethalia (Elba), finally
reaching the Tyrrhenian Sea and the island of Circe, who absolved
them from the murder of Absyrtus. Then they passed safely
through Scylla and Charybdis, past the Sirens, through the
Planctae, over the island of the Sun, Trinacria and on to Corcyra
again, the land of the Phaeadans, where Jason and Medea held
their nuptials. They had sighted the coast of Peloponnesus when
a storm overtook them and drove them to the coast of Libya,
where they were saved from a quicksand by the local nymphs.
The "*Argo " was now carried twelve days and twelve nights to
the Hesperides, and thence to lake Tritonis (where the seer
Mopsus died), whence Triton conducted them to the Medi-
terranean. At Crete the brazen Talos, who would not permit
them to land, was killed by the Dioscuri. At Anaphe, one of the
Sporades, they were saved from a storm by Apollo. Finally,
they reached Iolcus, and the " Argo " was placed in a groove
sacred to Poseidon on the isthmus of Corinth. Jason's death,
it is said, was afterwards caused by part of the stern giving
way and falling upon him.
The story of the expedition of the Argonauts is very old.
Homer was acquainted with it and speaks of the "Argo" as
well known to all men; the wanderings of Odysseus may have
been partly founded on its voyage. Pindar, in the fourth
Pythian ode, gives the oldest detailed account of it In Greek,
there are also extant the Argonautico of Apollonius Rhodius
and the pseudo-Orpheus (4th century aj>.), and the account in
Apollodorus (i. 9), based on the best extant authorities; in Latin,
the imitation of Apollonius (a free translation or adaptation of
whose Argonautica was made by Terentius Varro Atacinus in the
time of Cicero) by Valerius Flaccus. In ancient times the expedi-
tion was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening
up of the Euxine to Greek commerce and colonization.. Its
object was the acquisition of gold, which was caught by the
inhabitants of Colchis in fleeces as it was washed down the rivers.
Suidas says that the fleece was a book written on parchment, which
taught how to make gold by chemical processes. The rationalists
explained the ram on which Phrixus crossed the sea as the name
or ornament of the shipon which he escaped. Several interpreta-
tions of the legend have been put forward by modern scholars.
According to C. O. Mailer, it had its origin in the worship of
Zeus Laphystius; the fleece is the pledge of reconciliation;
Jason is a propitiating god of health, Medea a goddess akin to
Hera; Aeetes is connected with the Cokhian sun-worship.
Forchhammer saw in it an old nature symbolism; Jason, the
god of healing and fruitfulness, brought the fleece— the fertilizing
rain-cloud— to the western land that was parched by the heat
of the sun. Others treat it as a solar myth; the ram is the light
of the sun, the flight of Phrixus and the death of Helle signify
its setting, the recovery of the fleece its rising again.
There are numerous treatises on the subject: F. Vater, Der
ArgonauUntur (1845); J. Stender, De Argonautarum ExfaiUiciu
(1874); D - Kennerknccht, De Argonautarum Fabula (1886); M.
Groeger, De Argonautarum Fabularum Historia (1880); see also
Grote, History of Greece, part i. ch. 13; Preller, Gruchuche Mytko-
hgie; articles in Pauly-Wisaowa's ReaUncyclopddie, Roscher's
Lexikon der Mytkofagie, and Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnairt
des Antiquitis.
ARGONNE, a rocky forest-clad plateau in the north-east of
France, extending along the borders of Lorraine and Cham-
pagne, and forming part of the departments of Ardennes, Meuse
and Marne. The Argonne stretches Trom S.S.E. to N.N.W., a
distance of 63 m. with an average breadth of 19 m., and an average
height of 1 1 50 ft. It forms the connecting-link between the
plateaus of Haute Marne and the Ardennes, and is bounded E.
by the Meuse and W. by the Ante and the Aisne, which rises in
its southern plateau. The valleys of the Aire and other rivers
traverse it longitudinally, a fact to which its importance as a
bulwark of north-eastern France is largely due. Of the numerous
forests which clothe both slopes of the plateau, the chief is that
of Argonne, which extends for 25 m. between the Aire and the
Aisne.
For Dtrmouriez*s Argonne campaign in 1792, see French Revolu-
tionary Wars.
ARGKB, the name of several ancient Greek cities or districts,
but specially appropriated in historic times to the chief town in
eastern Peloponnese, whence the peninsula of Argous derives
its name. The Argeia, or territory of Argos proper, consisted
of a shelving plain at the head of the Gulf of Argolis, enclosed
between the eastern wall of the Arcadian plateau and the central
highlands of Argons. The waters of this valley (Inachus, Chara-
drus, Erasinus), when properly regelated, favoured the growth
of excellent crops, and the capital standing only 3 m. from the
sea was well placed for Levantine trade. Hence Argos was
perhaps the earliest town of importance in Greece; the legends
indicate its high antiquity and its early intercourse with foreign
countries (Egypt, Lyda, &c). Though eclipsed in the Homeric
age, when it appears as the seat of Diomedes, by the later
foundation of Mycenae, it regained its predominance after the
invasion of the Dorians (?.».), who seem to have occupied this
site in considerable force. In accordance with the tradition
which assigned the portion to the eldest-born of the Heracleid
conquerors, Argos was for some centuries the leading power in
Peloponnesus. There is good evidence that its sway extended
originally over the entire Argolis peninsula, the land east of
Parnon, Cythera, Aegina and Sicyon. Under King Pheidon
the Argive empire embraced all eastern Peloponnesus, and its
influence spread even to the western distracts.
This supremacy was first challenged about the 6th century
by Sparta. Though organized on similar lines, with a citisen
population divided into three Dorian tribes (and one containing
other elements), with a class of Perioeri (neighbouring depend-
ents) and of serfs, the Argivcs had no more constant foe than
their Lacedaemonian kinsmen. In a protracted struggle for the
possession of the eastern seaboard of Laconia in spite of the
victory at Hysiae (apparently in 669) they were gradually
driven back, until by 550 they had lost the whole coast strip
of Cynuria. A later attempt to retrieve this loss resulted is
a crushing defeat near Tiryns at the hands of King Cleomenes I.
(probably in 495), which so weakened the Argrves that they
had to open the franchise to their Perioed. By this time they
480
ARGOS
had also lost control over the other cities of Argelis, which they
never succeeded in recovering. Partly in consequence of its
defeat, partly out of jealousy against Sparta, Argos took no part
in the war against Xerxes. Indeed on this, as on later occasions,
its relations with Persia seem to have been friendly. About 470
the conflict with Sparta was renewed in concert with the
Arcadians, but all that the Argives could achieve was to destroy
their revolted dependencies of Mycenae and Tiryns (468 or 464).
In 461 they contracted an alliance with Athens, thus renewing
a connexion established by Peisistiatus (q.v.). In spite of this
league Argos made no headway against Sparta, and in 451 con-
sented to a truce. A more important result of Athenian inter-
vention was the substitution of the democratic government
for the oligarchy which had succeeded the early monarchy; at
any rate forty years later we find that Argos possessed complete
democratic institutions.
During the early Peloponnesian War Argos remained neutral;
after the break-up of the Spartan confederacy consequent upon
the peace of Nicias the alliance of this state, with its unimpaired
resources and flourishing commerce, was courted on all sides.
By throwing in her lot with the Peloponnesian democracies and
Athens, Argos seriously endangered Sparta's supremacy, but
the defeat of Mantineia (418) and a successful rising of the Axgive
oligarchs spoilt this chance. The speedily restored democracy
put little heart into the conflict, and beyond sending mercenary
detachments, lent Athens no further help in the war (see
Peloponnesian Was).
At the outset of the 4th century, Argos, with a population
and resources equalling those of Athens, took a prominent part
in the Corinthian League against Sparta. In 304 the Argives
helped to garrison Corinth, and the latter state seems for a while
to have been annexed by them. But the peace of Antalcidas
(q.v.) dissolved this connexion, and barred Argive pretensions
to control all Argolis. After the battle of Leuctra Argos ex-
perienced a political crisis; the oligarchs attempted a revo-
lution, but were put down by their opponents with such vin-
dictiveness that 1200 of them are said to have been executed
(370). The democracy consistently supported the victorious
Thebans against Sparta, figuring with a large contingent on the
decisive field of Mantineia (362). When pressed in turn by their
old foes the Argives were among the first to call in Philip of
Macedon, who reinstated them in Cynuria after becoming
master of Greece. In the Lamian War Argos was induced to
side with the patriots against Macedonia; after its capture
by Cassander from Polyperchon (317) it fell in 303 into the hands
of Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 272 the Argives joined Sparta in
resisting the ambition of King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whose death
ensued in an unsuccessful night attack upon the dty. They
passed instead into the power of Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia,
who maintained his control by means of tyrants. After several
unavailing attempts Aratus (q.v.) contrived to win Argos for the
Achaean League (220), in which it remained save during a brief
occupation by the Spartans Cleomenes IIL (q.v.) and Nabis
(224 and xo6).
The Roman conquest of Achaea enhanced the prosperity of
Argos by removing the trade competition of Corinth. Under
the Empire, Argos was the headquarters of the Achaean synod,
and continued to be a resort of Roman merchants. Though
plundered by the Goths in aj>. 267 and 395 it retained some of
its commerce and culture in Byzantine days. The town was
captured by the Franks in 1210; after 1246 it was held in fief
by the rulers of Athens. In later centuries it became the scene
of frequent conflicts between the Venetians and the Turks, and
on two occasions (1307 and 1500) its population was massacred
by the latter. Repeopled with Albanian settlers, Argos was
chosen as seat of the Greek national assembly in the wars of
independence. Its citadel was courageously defended by the
patriots (1822); in 1825 the dry was burnt to the ground by
Ibrahim Pasha. The present town of 10,000 inhabitants is
a purely agricultural settlement. The Argive plain, though not
yet sufficiently reclaimed, yields good crops of corn, rice and
In the early days of Greece the Argives enjoyed high repute
for their musical talent. Their school of bronze sculpture,
whose first famous exponent was Ageladas (Hagelaidas), the
reputed master of Pheidias, reached its climax towards the end
of the 5th century in the atelier of Polyclitus (q.v.) and his
pupils. To this period also belongs the new Heraeum (see
below), one of the most splendid temples of Greece.
Remains of the early city are still visible 'on the Larissa
acropolis, which towers 000 ft high to the north-west of the
town. A few courses of the ancient ramparts appear under the
double enceinte of the surviving medieval fortress. An aque-
duct of Greek times is represented by some fragments on the
south-western edge. In the slope above the town was hewn a
theatre equalling that of Athens in size. The Aspis or smaller
dtadd to the north-east has revealed traces of an early Mycenaean
settlement; the Deiras or ridge connecting the two heights
contains a prehistoric cemetery.
Authorities. — Herodotus, Thucydides, Xcnophon; Plutarch,
yirAiw, 30-34; Strabo pp. 373-374*. Pausanias h. 15-24; W. M.
Leake, Travels \n the Morea (London, 1835), "• chs. 19" 32 ' E- Curt i us,
Pyrrhus, 30-34.; Strabo pp. 373374 *. Pausanias h. 15-24; W. M.
Leake, Travels \n the Morea (London, 1835), "• chs. 19" 32 ' E- Curt i us,
Pehponnesos (Gotha, 1851), ii. 350-364; H. F. lozer, Geography
of Greece (London, 1873), pp. 292-294; J* K. Kophiniotts, 1«ro^a
'Apywn (Athens, 1892-1893); W. Vollgrarf in Bulletin de Cont-
spondance Hdtenique (1904, pp. 364-399; 1906, pp. 1-45; 1007,
pp. 139-184). (M.O.B.C.)
The Argive Heraeum. — Since 1892 investigation has added
considerably to our knowledge concerning the Argive Heraeum
or Heraion, the temple of Hera, which stood, according to
Pausanias, " on one of the lower slopes of Euboea." The terra
Euboea did not designate the eminence upon which the Heraeum
is placed, or the mountain-top behind the Heraeum only, but,
as Pausanias distinctly indicates, the group of foothills of the
hilly district adjoining the mountain. When once we admit that
this designated not only the mountain, which is 1730 ft. high,
but also the hilly district adjoining it, the general scale of distance
for this site grows larger. The territory of the Heraeum was
divided into three parts, namely Euboea, Acraea and Prosymna.
Pausanias tells us that the Heraeum is 15 stadia from Mycenae.
Strabo, on the other hand, says that the Heraeum was 40 stadia
from Argos and 10 from Mycenae. Both authors underestimate
the distance from Mycenae, which is about 25 stadia, or a little
more than 3 m. f while the distance from Argos is 45 stadia, or a
little more than 5 m. The distance from the Heraeum to the
ancient Midea is slightly greater than to Mycenae, while that
from the Heraeum to Tiryns is about 6 m. The Argive Heraeum
was the most important centre of Hera and Juno worship in the
andent world; it always remained the chief sanctuary of the
Argive district, and was in all probability the earliest site of
civilized life in the country inhabited by the Argive people. In
fact, whereas the site of Hissarlik, the andent Troy, is not in
Greece proper, but in Asia Minor, and can thus not furnish the
most direct evidence for the earliest Hellenic civilization as such;
and whereas Tiryns, Mycenae, and the dty of Argos, each
represent only one definite period in the successive stages of
civilization, the Argive Heraeum, holding the central site of
early civilization in Greece proper, not only retained its import-
ance % during the three periods marked by the supremacy of
Tiryns, Mycenae and the dty of Argos, but in all probability
antedated them as a centre of civilized Argive life. These con-
ditions alone account for the extreme archaeological importance
of this ancient sanctuary.
According to tradition the Heraeum was founded by Phore-
neus at least thirteen generations before Agamemnon and the
Achaeans ruled. It is highly probable that before it became
important merely as a temple, it was the fortified centre uniting
the Argive people dwelling in the plain, the dtadd which was
superseded in this function by Tiryns. There is ample evidence
to show that it was the chief sanctuary during the Tiryntbiaa
period. When Mycenae was built under the Perselds it was
still the chief sanctuary for that centre, which superseded Tiryns
in its dominance over the district, and which this temple dearly
antedated in construction. According to the Dktys Crttensis,
it was at this Heraeum that Agamemnon assembled the leaders
ARGOS
4.8 1
before setting out for Troy. In the period of Dorian supremacy,
in spite of the new cults which were introduced by these people,
the Heraeum maintained its supreme importance: it was here
that the tablets recording the succession of priestesses were kept
which served as a chronological standard for the Argive people,
and even far beyond their borders; and it was here that
Pbeidon deposited the 6/fcXlmcat when he introduced coinage
into Greece.
We learn from Strabo that the. Heraeum was the joint
sanctuary for Mycenae and Argos. But in the 5th century the
city of Argos vanquished the Mycenaeans, and from that time
onwards the city of Argos becomes the political centre of the
district, while the Heraeum remains the religious centre. And
when in the year 423 B.C., through the negligence of the priestess
Chryscis, the old temple was burnt down, the Argives erected a
splendid new temple, built by Eupoleroos, in which was placed the
great gold and ivory statue of Hera, by the sculptor Polyditus,
the Cydopean wall and below it were found traces of small
houses of the rudest, earliest masonry which are pre-Mycenacaq,
if not pre-Cydopean.
We then descend to the second terrace, in the centre of which
the substructure of the great second temple was revealed,
together with so much of the walls, as well as the several archi-
tectural members forming the superstructure, that it has been
possible for £. L. Til ton to design a complete restoration of the
temple. On the northern side of this terrace, between the second
temple and the Cyclopean supporting wall, a long stoa or colon-
nade runs from east to west abutting at the west end in structures
which evidently contained a well-house and waterworks; while
at the eastern end of this stoa a number of chambers were erected
against the hill, in front of which were placed statues and
inscriptions, the bases for which are still extant. At the eastern-
most end of this second terrace a large hall with three rows of
columns in the interior, with a porch and entrance at the west
Plan op the Heraeum (surveyed and drawn by Edward L. Tilton).
I. Old Temple. IV. East Building. VII. West Building. X. Lower Stoa.
II. Stoa. V. sth-Ccntury Temple. VI 1 1. North-Wcst Building. XI. Phylakeion.
III. Stoa. VI. South Stoa. IX. Roman Building. A, B, C, D, E, F, Cisterns.
the contemporary and rival of Phcidias, which was one of the
most perfect works of sculpture in antiquity. Pausanias
describes the temple and its contents (ii. 17), and in his time
he still saw the ruins of the older burnt temple above the
temple of Eupolemos.
All these facts have been verified and illustrated by the
excavations of the American Archaeological Institute and School
of Athens, which were carried on from 1802 to 1895. 1° l8 54
A. R. Rhangabt made tentative excavations on this site, digging
a trench along the north and east sides of the second temple.
Of these excavations no trace was to be seen when those of
1892 were begun. The excavations have shown that the
sanctuary, instead of consisting of but one temple with the ruins
of the older one above it, contained at least deven separate
buildings, occupying an area of about 975 ft. by 325.
On the uppermost terrace, defined by the great Cydopean
supporting wall, exactly as described by Pausanias, the excava-
tions revealed a layer of ashes and charred wood, below which
were found numerous objects of earliest date, together with
some remains of the walls resting on a polygonal platform— all
forming part of the earliest temple. Immediately adjoining
end facing the temple, is built upon elaborate supporting walls
of good masonry.
Below the second terrace at the south-west end a large and
complicated building, with an open courtyard surrounded on three
sides by a colonnade and with chambers opening out towards the
north, may have served as a gymnasium or a sanatorium. It is
of good early Greek architecture, earlier than the second temple.
A curious, ruder building to the north of this and to the west of
the second terrace is probably of much earlier date, perhaps of
the Mycenaean period, and may have served as propylaea.
Immediately below the second temple at the foot of the eleva-
tion on which this temple stands, towards the south, and thus
facing the dty of Argos, a splendid stoa or colonnade, to which
large nights of steps lead, was erected about the time of the
building of the second temple. It is a part of the great plan to
give worthy access to the temple from the city of Argos. To the
east of this large flights of steps lead up to the temple proper.
At the western extremity of the whole site, immediately beside
the river-bed, we again have a huge stoa running round two sides
of a square, which was no doubt connected with the functions of
this sanctuary as a health resort, especially for women, the goddess
482
ARGOSTOLI— ARGUMENT
Hera presiding over and protecting married life and childbirth.
Finally, immediately to the north of this western stoa there is
an extensive house of Roman times also connected with baths.
While the buildings give archaeological evidence for every
period of Greek life and history from the pre- Mycenaean period
down to Roman times, the topography itself shows that the
Heraeum must have been constructed before Mycenae and
without any regard to it. The foothills which it occupies form
the western boundary to the Argive plain as it stretches down
towards the sea in the Gulf of Nauplia. While it was thus
probably chosen as the earliest site for a citadel facing the sea,
its second period points towards Tiryns and Midca. It could not
have been built as the sanctuary of Mycenae, which was placed
farther up towards the north-west in the hills, and could not
be seen from the Heraeum, its inhabitants again not being able
to see their sanctuary. The west building, the traces of bridges
and roads, show that at one time it did hold some.relation to
Mycenae; but this was long after its foundation or the building
of the huge Cyclopean supporting wall which is coeval with the
walls of Tiryns, these again being earlier than those of Mycenae.
There are, moreover, traces of still more primitive walls, built
of rude small stones placed one upon the other without mortar,
which are in character earlier than those of Tiryns, and have
their parallel in the lowest layers of Hissarlik.
Bearing out the evidence of tradition as well as architecture,
the numerous finds of individual objects in tcrra-cotta figurines,
vases, bronzes, engraved stones, &c., point to organized civilized
life on this site many generations before Mycenae was built,
a fortiori before the life as depicted by Homer flourished— nay,
before, as tradition has it, under Proetus the walls of Tiryns
were erected. We are aided in forming some estimate of the
chronological sequence preceding the Mycenaean age, as suggested
by the finds of the Heraeum, in the new distribution which
Ddrpfeld has been led to make of the chronological stratifica-
tion of Hissarlik. For the layer, which he now assigns to the
Mycenaean period, is the sixth stratum from below. Now, as some
of the remains at the Heraeum correspond to the two lowest layers
of Hissarlik, the evidence of the Argive temple leads us far beyond
the date assigned to the Mycenaean age, and at least into the
second millennium b.c. (see also Aegean Civilization). As to
its chronological relation to the Cretan sites — Cnossus, Phaestus,
&c, and the " Minoan" civilization as determined by Dr A.Evans,
see the discussion under Crete.
This sanctuary still holds a position of central importance as
illustrating the art of the highest period in Greek history, namely,
the art of the 5th century B.C. under the great sculptor Poly-
ditus. Though the excavations in the second temple have
dearly revealed the outlines of the base upon which the great
gold and ivory statue of Hera stood, it is needless to say that
no trace of the statue itself has been found. From Pausanias
we learn that " the image of Hera is seated and is of colossal
size: it is made of gold and ivory, and is the work of Poly-
clinic" Based on the computations made by the architect of the
American excavations, E. L. Tilton, on the ground of the height
of the nave, the total height of the image, including the base
and the top of the throne, would be about 26 ft., the seated figure
of the goddess herself about 18 ft. It is probable that the face,
neck, arms and feet were of ivory, while the rest of the figure
was draped in gold. Like the Olympian Zeus of Pheidias, Hera
was seated on an elaborately decorated throne, holding in her
left hand the sceptre, surmounted in her case by the cuckoo
(as that of Zeus had an eagle), and in her right, instead of an
elaborate figure of Victory (such as the Athena Parthenos and
the Olympian Zeus held), simply a pomegranate. The crown
was adorned with figures of Graces and the Seasons. A Roman
imperial coin of Antoninus Pius shows us on a reduced scale the
general composition of the figure; while contemporary Argive
coins of the 5th century give a fairly adequate rendering of the
head. A further attempt has been made to identify the head
in a beautiful marble bust m the British Museum hitherto
known as Bacchus (Waldstein, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
voL xxi., 1 901, pp. 30 seq.)
We also learn from Pausanias that the temple was decorated
with " sculptures over the columns, representing some the birth
of Zeus and the battle of the gods and giants, others the Trojan
War and the taking of Ilium." It was formerly supposed that
the phrase " over the columns" pointed to the existence of sculp-
tured metopes, but no pedimental groups. Finds made in the
excavations, however, have shown that the temple also had pedi-
mental groups. Besides numerous fragments of nude and draped
figures belonging to pedimental statues, a well-preserved and
very beautiful head of a female divinity, probably Hera, as well
as a draped female torso of excellent workmanship, both belong-
ing to the pediments, have been discovered. Of the metopes
also a great number of fragments have been found, together
with two almost complete metopes, the one containing the torso
of a nude warrior in perfect preservation, as wdl as ten well-
preserved heads. These statues bear the same relation to the
sculptor Polyditus which the Parthenon marbles hold to
Pheidias; and the excavations have thus yielded most important
material for the illustration of the Argive art of Polyditus in
the 5th century B.C.
See Waldstein, The Argue Heraeum (vol. L, Boston and New York,
1902; vol. u., the Vases by J. C Hoppin, the Bronzes by H. F. de
Cosa, 1905); Excavations of the American School of Athens at the
Ileraion of Areas (1802); and numerous reports and articles in the
American Archaeological Journal since 1892. (C. \V.*)
ARGOSTOLI (anc. CcphalUnia), the capital of CephaJonia
(one of the Ionian islands), and the seat of a bishop of the Greek
church. Pop. about 10,000. It possesses an excellent harbour,
a quay a mile in length, and a fine bridge. Shipbuilding and
silk-spinning are carried on. Near at hand are the ruins of
Cranii, which afford fine examples of Greek military architecture;
and at the west side of the harbour there is a curious stream,
flowing from the sea, and employed to drive mills before losing
itself in caverns inland.
See Sir C. Fellows's Journal of an Excursion in Asia Minor in
1838, and Wiebel's Die Insel Kcpkalonia und die MeermuVeu as*
Argostoli (Hamburg, 1873).
ARGOST (a corruption, by transposition of letters, of the
name of the seaport Ragusa), the term originally for a carrack
or merchant ship from Ragusa and other Adriatic ports, now used
poetically of any vessel carrying rich merchandise. In English
writings of the x6th century the seaport named is variously
spelt Ragusa, Aragouse or Aragosa, and ships coming thence
were named Ragusyes, Arguzes and Argosies; the last form
surviving and passing into literature. The incorrect derivation
from Jason's ship, the " Argo," is of modern origin.
ARGUIN, an island (identified by some writers with Hanno's
Cernc), off the west coast of Africa, a little south of Cape Blanco,
in 20° 25^ N., 16 37' W. It is some 4 m. long by 2$ broad,
produces gum-arabic, and is the seat of a lucrative turtle-fishery.
Off the island, which was discovered by the Portuguese in the
15th century, are extensive and very dangerous reefs. Arguin
was occupied in turn by Portuguese, Dutch, English and French;
and to France it now belongs. The aridity of the soil and the
bad anchorage prevent a permanent settlement. The fishery
is mostly carried on by inhabitants of the Canary Isles. In
July 1816 the French frigate " Medusa," which carried officers
on their way to Senegal to take possession of that country for
France, was wrecked off Arguin, 350 lives being lost.
ARGUMENT, a word meaning " proof," " evidence," corre-
sponding in English to the Latin word argument urn, from which
it is derived; the originating Latin verb arguerc t to make dear,
from which comes the English " argue," is from a root meaning
bright, appearing in Greek apyys, white. From its primary
sense are derived such applications of the word as a chain of
reasoning, a fact or reason given to support a proposition, a
discussion of the evidence or reasons for or against some theory
or proposition and the like. More particularly " argument "
means a synopsis of the contents of a book, the outline of a novd,
play, &c. In logic it is used for the middle term in a syllogism,
and for many species of fallacies, such as the argumentum ad
kominem, ad baculum, &c. (sec Fallacy). In mathematics the
term has received special meanings ; in mathematical tables
ARGUS— ARGYLL
+83
the *' argument " is the quantity upon which the other quantities
in the table are made to depend; in the theory of complex
variables, e.g. such as a+ib where *-V-i, the "argument"
(or " amplitude ") is the angle 6 given by tan =>bja. In
astronomy, the term is used in connexion with the Ptolemaic
theory to denote the angular distance on the epicycle of a planet
from the true apogee of the epicycle; and the " equation to the
argument " is the angle subtended at the earth by the distance
of a planet from the centre of the epicycle.
ARGUS, in ancient Greek mythology, the son of InachuSy
Agenor or Arestor, or, according to others, an earth-born hero
(autochthon). He was called Panoptes (all-seeing), from having
eyes all over his body. After performing several feats of valour,
he was appointed by Hera to watch the cow into which Io had
been transformed. While doing this he was slain by Hermes,
who stoned him to death, or put him to sleep by playing on the
flute and then cut off his head. His eyes were transferred
by Hera to the tail of the peacock. Argus with his countless
eyes originally denoted the starry heavens (Apollodorus ii. 1;
Aeschylus, P. V, 560; Ovid, Melam. I 364).
Another Argus, the old dog of Odysseus, who recognized his
master on his return to Ithaca, figures in one of the best-known
incidents in Homer's Odyssey (xvii. 291-326).
ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The rise of this family
of Scottish peers, originally the Campbells of Lochow, and first
ennobled as Barons Campbell, is referred to in the article Argyll-
Archibalo 'Campbell, 5th earl of Argyll (1530-1573), was
the elder son of Archibald, 4th carl of Argyll (d. 1558), and a
grandson of Colin, the 3rd earl (d. 1 530). His great-grandfather
was the 2nd earl, Archibald, who was killed at Flodden in 15x3,
and this nobleman's father was Colin, Lord Campbell (d. 1493),
the founder of the greatness of the Campbell family, who was
created earl of Argyll in 1457. With Lord James Stuart, after-
wards the regent Murray, the 5th earl of Argyll became an
adherent of John Knox about 1556, and like his father was one
of the most influential members of the party of religious reform,
signing what was probably the first " godly band " in December
1557. As one of the " lords of the congregation " he was .one of
James Stuart's principal lieutenants during the warfare between
the reformers and the regent, Mary of Lorraine; and later with
Murray be advised and supported Mary queen of Scots, who
regarded him with great favour. It was about this time that
William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, referred to Argyll as
"a goodly gentleman universally honoured of all Scotland."
Owing to his friendship with Mary, Argyll was separated from
the party of Knox, but he forsook the queen when she deter-
mined to marry Lord Darnley; he was, however, again on
Mary's side after Queen Elizabeth's refusal to aid Murray in 1565.
Argyll was probably an accomplice in the murder of Rizzio;
he was certainly a consenting party to that of Darnley, and then
separating himself from Murray he commanded Mary's soldiers
after her escape from Lochleven, and by his want of courage and
resolution was partly responsible for her defeat at Langside
in May 1568. Soon afterwards he made bis peace with Murray,
but it is possible that he was accessory to the regent's murder
in 1570. After this event Argyll became lord high chancellor
of Scotland, and he died on the xath of September 1573. His
first wife was an illegitimate daughter of James. V., and he was
thus half-brother-in-law to Mary and to Murray. His relations
with her were not harmonious; he was accused of adultery,
and in 1568 he performed a public penance at Stirling.
He left no children, and on his death his half-brother Colin
(d. 1584) became 6th earl of ArgylL This nobleman, whose life
was partly spent in feuds with the regent Morton, died in October
1584. He was succeeded as 7 th earl by his young son Archibald
(1576-1638), who became a Roman Catholic, fought for Philip III.
of Spain in Flanders, whither he had gone to avoid his creditors,
and, having entrusted the care of his estates to his son, died
in London.
Archibald Campbell, 1st marquess and 8th earl of Argyll
(1607-1661), eldest son of Archibald, 7th earl, by his first wife,
Lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William, xst earl of Morton, was
born in 1607 s and educated at St Andrews University, where he
matriculated on the 25th of January 1622. He had early in
life, as Lord Lome, been entrusted with the possession of the
Argyll estates when his father renounced Protestantism and took
service with Philip of Spain; and he exercised over his clan ah
authority almost absolute, disposing of a force of 20,000 retainers,
and being, according to BailUe, " by far the most powerful subject
in the kingdom." On the outbreak of the religious dispute
between the king and Scotland in 1637 his support was eagerly
desired by Charles I. He had been made a privy councillor in
1628, and in 1638 the king summoned him, together with Tra-
quair and Roxburgh, to London; but he refused to be won over,
openly .and courageously warned Charles against his despotic
ecclesiastical policy, and showed great hostility towards Laud.
In consequence a secret commission was given to the earl of
Antrim to invade Argyllshire and stir up the Macdonalds against
the Campbells, a wild and foolish project which completely
miscarried. Argyll, who inherited the title by the death of his
father in 1638, had originally no preference for Presbyterianism,
but now definitely took the side of the Covenanters in defence of
the national religion and liberties. He continued to attend the
meetings of the Assembly after its dissolution by the marquess of
Hamilton, when Episcopacy was abolished. In 1630 he sent a
statement to Laud, and subsequently to the king, defending the
Assembly's action; and raising a body of troops he seized
Hamilton's castle of Brodick in Arran. After the pacification
of Berwick he carried a motion, in opposition to Montrose, by
which the estates secured to themselves the election of the lords
of the articles, who had formerly been nominated by the king, a
fundamental change in the Scottish constitution, whereby the
management of public affairs was entrusted to a representative
body and withdrawn from the control of the crown. An attempt
by the king to deprive him of his office as justiciary of Argyll and
Tarbet failed, and on the prorogation of the parliament by
Charles, in May 1640, Argyll moved that it should continue its
sittings and that the government and safety of the kingdom
should be secured by a committee of the estates, of which, though
not a member, he was himself the guiding spirit In June he was
entrusted with a " commission of fire and sword " against the
royalists in Atholl and Angus, which, after succeeding in entrap-
ping the earl of Atholl, he carried out with completeness and
some cruelty. It was on this occasion that took place the burning
of " the bonnie house of Airlie." By this time the personal
rivalry and difference in opinion between Montrose and Argyll
had led to an open breach. The former arranged that on the
occasion of Charles's approaching visit to Scotland, Argyll should
be accused of high treason in the parliament The plot, how-
ever, was disclosed, and Montrose with other! was imprisoned.
Accordingly when the king arrived he found himself deprived of
every remnant of influence and authority. It only remained for
Charles to make a series of concessions. He transferred the
control over judicial and political appointments to the parlia-
ment, created Argyll a marquess (1641) with a pension of £1000 a
year, and returned home, having in Clarendon's words " made a
perfect deed of gift of that kingdom." Meanwhile the king's
policy of peace and concession had, as usual, been rudely and
treacherously interrupted by a resort to force, an unsuccessful
attempt, known as the "incident," being made to kidnap
Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark. Argyll was mainly instrumental
at this crisis in keeping the national party faithful to what was
to him evidently the common cause, and in accomplishing the
alliance with the Long Parliament in 2643* In January 1644 he
accompanied the Scottish army into England as a member of the
committee of both kingdoms and in command of a troop of horse,
but was soon in March compelled to return to suppress royalist
movements in the north and to defend his own territories. He
compelled Huntly to retreat in April, and in July advanced to
meet the Irish troops now landed in Argyllshire, which were
acting in conjunction with Montrose, who had put himself at the
* The date of 1598, previously accepted, is shown by WiUcock to
be incorrect
4«+
ARGYLL
head of the royalist forces in Scotland. "A campaign followed in
the north in which, neither general succeeded in obtaining any
advantage over the other, or even in engaging battle. Argyll
then returned to Edinburgh, threw up his commission, and
retired to Inveraray Castle. Thither Montrose unexpectedly
followed him in December, compelled him to flee to Roseneath,
and devastated his territories. On the 2nd of .February 1645,
when following Montrose northwards, Argyll was surprised by
him at Inverlochy and witnessed from his barge on the lake, to
which he had retired owing to a dislocated arm, a fearful slaughter
of his troops, which included z 500 of the Campbells. He arrived
at Edinburgh on the x 2th of February and was again present
at Montrose's further great victory on the 15th of August at
Kilsyth, whence he escaped to Newcastle. Argyll was at last
delivered from his formidable antagonist by Montrose's final
defeat at Philiphaugh on the x 2th of September. In 1 646 he was
sent to negotiate with the king at Newcastle after his surrender
to the Scottish army, when he endeavoured to moderate the
demands of the parliament and at the same time to persuade the
king to accept them. On the 7th of Jury 1646 he was appointed
a member of the Assembly of Divines.
Up to this point the statesmanship of Argyll had been highly
successful. The national liberties and religion of Scotland- had
been defended and guaranteed, and the power of the king in
Scotland reduced to a mere shadow. In addition, these privi-
leges had been still further secured by the alliance with
the English opposition, and by the subsequent triumph of the
parliament and Presbyterianism in the neighbouring kingdom.
The sovereign himself, after vainly contending in arms, was a
prisoner in their midst. But Argyll's influence could not survive
the rupture of the alliance between the two nations on which his
whole policy was constructed. He opposed in vain the secret
treaty now concluded between the king and the Scots against the
parliament, and while Hamilton marched into England and was
defeated by Cromwell at Preston, Argyll, after a narrow escape
from a surprise at Stirling, joined the Whiggamores, a body of
Covenanters at Edinburgh; and, supported by Loudon, Leven
and Leslie, he established a new government, which welcomed
Cromwell on his arrival there on the 4th of October. This alliance,
however, was at once destroyed by the execution of Charles I.,
which excited universal horror in Scotland. In the series of
tangled incidents which followed, Argyll lost control of the
national policy. He describes himself at this period as " a
distracted man ... in a distracted time " whose " remedies
. . . had the quite contrary operation." He supported the
invitation from the Covenanters to Charles II. to land in Scotland,
gated upon the captured Montrose, bound on a cart on his way to
execution at Edinburgh, and subsequently, when Charles II.
came to Scotland 1 , having signed the Covenant and repudiated
Montrose, Argyll remained at the head of the administration.
After the defeat of Dunbar, Charles retained his support by the
promise of a dukedom and the Garter, and an attempt was made
by Argyll to marry the king to his daughter. On the xst of
January 1651 he placed the crown on Charles's head at Scone.
But his power had now passed to the Hamilton party. He
strongly opposed, but was unable to prevent, the expedition into
England, and in the subsequent reduction of Scotland, after
having held out in Inveraray Castle for nearly a year, was at last
surprised in August 1652 and submitted to the Commonwealth.
His ruin was then complete. His policy had failed, his power had
vanished. In his estate he was hopelessly in debt, and on terms
of such violent hostility with his eldest son as to be obliged to
demand a garrison in his house for his protection. During his
visit to Monk at Dalkeith in 1654 to complain of this, he was
subjected to much personal insult from his creditors, and on
visiting London in September 1655 to obtain money due to him
from the Scottish parliament, he was arrested for debt, though
soon liberated. In Richard Cromwell's parliament of 1659
Argyll sat as member for Aberdeenshire. At the Restoration he
pn-scnted himself at Whitehall, but was at once arrested by order
of Charles and placed in the Tower (1660), being sent to Edinburgh
to stand his trial for high treason. He was acquitted of 00
plicity in the death of Charles I., and his escape from the whole
charge seemed imminent, but the arrival of a packet of letters
written by Argyll to Monk showed conclusively his collaboration
with Cromwell's government, particularly in the suppression
of Glencairn's royalist rising in 1652. He was immediately
sentenced to death, his execution by beheading taking place on
the 27th of May 1661, before even the death warrant had been
signed by the king. His head was placed on the same spike
upon the west end of the Tolbooth on which that of Montrose
had previously been exposed, and his body was buried at the
Holy Loch, where the head was also deposited in 1664. A
monument was erected to his memory in St Giles's church m
Edinburgh in 1805.
While imprisoned in the Tower he wrote Instructions to a
Son (1661; reprinted in 1689 and 1743). Some of his speeches,
including the one delivered on the scaffold, were published
and are printed in the Harleian Miscellany. He married Lady
Margaret Douglas, daughter of William, 2nd earl of Morton, and
had two sons and four daughters.
See also the Life and Times of Archibald Marquis 0/ Argyll (1903),
by John Willcock, who prints for the first time the six incriminating
letters to Monk; Eng. Hist. Renew ; xviii. 369 and 624; ScottiaK
History Society, vol. xvii. (1894) ; Charles I J. and Scotland in m6$c±
ed. by S. R. Gardiner, and vol. xviii. (1895) ; History of Scotland*
by A. Lang, vol. iti. (1904)'
Archibald Campbell, 9th earl of Argyll (1629-1685), eldest
son of the 8th earl, studied abroad, and at the age of thirteen
was appointed captain in the Scottish regiment serving in
Prance under his uncle the earl of Irvine. He returned home
at the close of 1649, and was made captain of Charles II/s life
guards on the king's arrival in Scotland in 1650. He declared
himself a royalist in opposition to his father, with the view, as
some said, of securing the family estates in any event. He
fought at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, and after the
battle of Worcester joined Glencairn in the Highlands. Bitter
disputes arose, and on the 2nd of January 1654 Lome, quitting
his troops, fled to avoid arrest In 1655 he submitted to Monk.
He appears, however, to have maintained communications with
Charles, and on his refusal to take the oath renouncing allegiance
to the Stuarts in 1657 he was imprisoned, remaining in confine-
ment probably till a short time before the Restoration. He
was then well received at court by Charles II. After the execu-
tion of his father, he endeavoured to obtain the restitution of his
forfeited estates and title, but having incautiously attacked
certain members of the government in letters which were made
public, he was indicted at Edinburgh on the capita] charge of
" leasing-making " and was sentenced to death on the 26th of
August. He remained a prisoner in Edinburgh Castle till the
4th of June 1663, when the sentence was cancelled and he was
re-created earl and restored to his estates. He disapproved
of the severities practised upon the Covenanters in the west,
and in 1671 pleaded for milder methods. His staunch Protest-
antism rendered him exceedingly obnoxious to James, duke of
York, who in 1680 arrived as high commissioner in Scotland
and at once expressed his jealousy of Argyll's immense terri-
torial influence. Argyll moved the re-enactment of " all the acta
against popery " omitted on James's account, and opposed the
exemption of the royal family from the test, though allowing
it in the case of James. In signing the test himself, in its final
form both ambiguous and self-contradictory, he made the
reservation " so far as consistent with itself and the Protestant
faith," and declined to engage himself not to promote any altera-
tion of advantage in church or state. On his refusal to record
his oath in writing and to sign it, he was dismissed from the
Scottish privy council, and on the 9th of November 1681 was
accused of treason, a charge which Halifax declared openly in
England "they would not hang a dog upon." A trial followed,
a scandalous exhibition of illegality and injustice, at the close
of which Argyll was sentenced to death and to the forfeiture of
his estates. Shortly afterwards, through the instrumentality
of his step-daughter, Sophia Lindsay, he succeeded in making
his escape, and after some adventures retired to Holland. His
subsequent movements are uncertain, but he appears to have
ARGYLL
+85
again visited London, and was in correspondence with the Rye
House plotters and proposing to head a rebellion in Scotland
in 1683. In 1685 he joined the conspiracy in Holland to set
Monmouth on the throne instead of James II., arriving in Orkney
on the 6th of May and making his way to his own country. But
his clansmen refused to join him, and whatever small chances of
success remained were destroyed by constant and paralysing
disputes. His ships and ammunition were captured, and after
some aimless wanderings he found himself deserted, with but
one companion, Major Fullerton. On the 18th of June he was
taken prisoner at Inchinnan and arrived at Edinburgh on the
20th, where he was paraded through the streets and put in
irons in the castle. - James ordered his summary execution on
the 29th, and it was carried out by beheading on the following
day, on the old charge of 1681. His head was exposed on the
west side of the Tolbooth, where his father's and Montrose's
had also been exhibited, his body 'finding its final place of burial
at Inveraray.
By ids first wife, Lady Mary Stewart, daughter of the 4th
earl oT Moray (Murray), he had four sons and three daughters.
See Argyll Papers (1834) I Letters from Archibald, Qth Earl ofArgyle,
to the Duke of Lauderdale (1829) ; Hist. MSS. Comm. vi. Rep. 606;
Life of Mr Donald Cargile, by P. Walker, po. 45 et seq.; The 3rd
Part o'f the Protestant Plot . . . anda Brief Account of Ike Case of the
Earl of ArgyU (1682); Sir George Mackenzie's Hist, of Scotland,
p. 70; and J. Willcock, A Scots Earl in Covenanting Times (1908).
Archibald Campbell, 1st duke of Argyll (?i6si-i703), was
the eldest son of the 9th earL He tried to get his father's
attainder reversed by seeking the king's favour, but being un-
successful he went over to the Hague and joined William of
Orange as an active promoter of the revolution of 1688. In
spite of the attainder, he was admitted in 1689 to the convention
of the Scottish estates as earl of Argyll, and he was deputed,
with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John Dalrymple, to present
the crown to William III. in its name, and to tender him the
coronation oath. In 1690 an act was passed restoring his title
and estates, and it was in connexion with the refusal of the
Macdonalds of Glencoe to join in the submission to him that
he organized the terrible massacre which has made his name
notorious. In 1696 he was made a lord of the treasury, and his
political services were rewarded in 1701 by his being created
duke of ArgylL - He had two sons by his wife Elizabeth, daughter
of Sir Lionel Talmash, John (the 2nd duke) and Archibald (the
3rd duke).
John Campbell, 2nd duke of Argyll and duke of Greenwich
(1678-1743), was born on the 10th of October 1678. ■ He entered
the army in 1694, and in 1701 was promoted to the command
of a regiment On the death of his father in 1703, he was ap-
pointed a member of the privy council, and at the same time
colonel of the Scotch horse guards, and one of the extraordinary
lords of session. In return for his services in promoting the
Union, he was created (1705) a peer of England, by the titles
of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, and in 1710 was
made a knight of the Garter. He first distinguished himself
in a military capacity at the battle of Oudenarde (1708), where
he served as a brigadier-general; and was afterwards present
under the duke of Marlborough at the sieges of Lille, Ghent,
Bruges and Tournay, and did remarkable service at the battle
of Malplaquet in 1709. • He was very popular with the troops,
and his rivalry with Marlborough on this account is thought to
have been the cause of the enmity shown by Argyll afterwards
to his old commander. In 17 11 he was sent to take command
in Spain; but being seized with a violent fever at Barcelona, and
disappointed of supplies from home, he returned to England.
Having a seat in the House of Lords, and being gifted with an
extraordinary power of oratory, he censured the measures of the
ministry with such freedom that all his places were disposed of
to other noblemen; but at the accession of George L he recovered
his influence. On the breaking out of the rebellion in 1715 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in North Britain,
and was principally instrumental in effecting the total extinc-
tion of the rebellion in Scotland without much bloodshed. He
arrived in London early in March 17 16, and at first stood high
in the favour of the king, but in a few months was stripped of
his offices. This disgrace, however, did not deter him from the
discharge of his parliamentary duties; he supported the bill
for the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, and lent his aid to
his countrymen by opposing the bill for punishing the city of
Edinburgh for the Porteous riot. In the beginning of the year
1719 he was again admitted into favour, appointed lord steward
of the household, and, in April following, created duke of Green-
wich; he held various offices in succession, and in 1735 was
made a field marshal. He continued in the administration till
after the accession of George II., when, in April 1740, a violent
speech against the government led again to his dismissal from
office. He was soon restored on a change of the ministry, but
disapproving the measures of the new administration, and
apparently disappointed at not being given the command of the
army, he shortly resigned all his posts, and spent the rest of
his life in privacy and retirement. • He died on the 4th of
October 1743. * A monument by Roubillac was erected to his
memory in Westminster Abbey. He was twice married, and
by his second wife, Jane Warburton, had five daughters; his
Scottish titles passed to his brother, but his English titles became
extinct, and though his eldest daughter was created baroness of
Greenwich in 1767 this title also became extinct on her death
in 1794.
Archibald Campbell, 3rd duke of Argyll (1682-1761), was
born at Ham House in Surrey, in June 1682. On his father
being created a duke, he joined the army, and served for a short
time under the duke of Marlborough. In 1 705 he was appointed
treasurer of Scotland, and in the following year was one of the
commissioners for treating of the Union; on the consummation
of which, having been raised to the peerage of Scotland as earl
of Islay, he was chosen one of the sixteen peers for Scotland in
the first parliament of Great Britain. In 171 x he was called to
the privy council, and commanded the royal army at the battle
of Sheriflfmuir in 1715. He was appointed keeper of the privy
seal in 1721, and was afterwards entrusted with the principal
management of Scottish affairs to an extent which caused him
to be called " king of Scotland." In 1733 he was made keeper
of the great seal, an office which he held till his death. He
succeeded to the dukedom in 1 743. Both as earl of Islay and as
duke of Argyll he was prominently connected (with Duncan
Forbes of Culloden) .with the movement for consolidating
Scottish loyalty by the formation of locally recruited highland
regiments. The duke was eminent not only for his political
abilities, but also for his literary accomplishments, and he
collected dne of the most valuable private libraries in Great
Britain. He died suddenly on the 15th of April 1761. He was
married but had no legitimate issue, and his English property
was left to a Mrs Williams, by whom he had a son, William
CampbelL
The succession now passed to the descendants of the younger
son of the 9th carl, the Campbells of Mamore; the 4th duke died
in 1770, and was succeeded by his son John, the 5th duke (1723*
1806). He was a soldier who had fought at Dcttingen and
Culloden, and became colonel of the 42nd regiment (Black
Watch), and eventually a field marshal. He sat in the House
of Commons for Glasgow from 1744 to 1761, when on his father's
succession to the dukedom he became legally disqualified, as
courtesy marquess of Lome, for a Scottish constituency; he could
sit, however, for an English one, and was returned for Dover,
which be represented till 1766, when he was created an English
peer as Baron Sundridge, the title by which till 1892 the dukes
of Argyll sat in the House of Lords. The 5th duke was an
active landlord, and was the first president of the Highland and
Agricultural Society. In 1759 he had married the widowed
duchess of Hamilton (the beautiful Elizabeth Gunning), by whom
he had two sons and two daughters. The eldest of his sons,
George (d. 1841), became 6th duke, and on his death was
succeeded as 7 th duke by his brother John (r 7 7 7-1 847) , N who
from 1 799-1822 sat in parliament as member for Argyllshire.
He was thrice married, and by his second wife, Joan Glassell
(d. 182S), had two sons, the eldest of whom (b. 1821) died
486
ARGYLLSHIRE
in 1837, and two daughters, the second of whom died in
infancy.
George John Douglas Campbell, 8th duke (1823-1900),
the second son of the 7 th duke, was born on the 30th of April
1823, and succeeded his father in April 1847. He had already
obtained notice as a writer of pamphlets on the disruption of the
Church of Scotland, which he strove to avert, and he rapidly
became prominent on the Liberal side in parliamentary politics.
He was a frequent and eloquent speaker in the House of Lords,
and sat as lord privy seal (1852) and postmaster-general (1855)
in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and Lord Palmerston. In
Mr Gladstone's cabinet of 1868 he was secretary of state for
India, and somewhat infelicitously signalized his term of office
by his refusal, against the advice of the Indian government,
to promise the amir of Afghanistan support against Russian
aggression, a course which threw that nilcr into the arms of
Russia and was followed by the second Afghan War. His
eminence alike as a great Scottish noble, and as a British states-
man, was accentuated in 1871 when his son, the marquess of
Lome, married Princess Louise, the fourth daughter of Queen
Victoria; but in the political world few memorable acts on his
part call for record except his resignation of the office of lord
privy seal, which he held in Mr Gladstone's administration of
1880, from his inability to assent to the Irish land legislation
of 1 88 1. He opposed the Home Rule Bill with equal vigour,
though Mr Gladstone subsequently stated that, among all the
old colleagues who dissented from his course, the duke was the
only one whose personal relations with him remained entirely
unchanged. Detached from party, the duke took an independent
position, and for many years spoke his mind with great freedom
in letters to The Times on public questions, especially such as
concerned the rights or interests of landowners. He was no less
active on scientific questions in their relation to religion, which
he earnestly strove to reconcile with the progress of discovery.
With this aim he published The Reign of Law (1866), Primeval
Man (1869), The Unity of Nature (1884), The Unseen Founda-
tions pf Society (1893), and other essays. He also wrote on the
Eastern question, with especial reference to India, the history
and antiquities of Iona, patronage in the Church of Scotland, and
many other subjects. The duke (to whose Scottish title was added
a dukedom of the United Kingdom in 1892) died on the 24th of
April 1000. He was thrice married: first (1844) to a daughter
of the second duke of Sutherland (d. 1878); secondly (1881) to
a daughter of Bishop Claughton of St Albans (d. 1894); and
thirdly (r8os) to Ina Erskine M'Neill. Few men of the duke's
era displayed more versatility of intellect, and he was remarkable
among the men of his time for his lofty eloquence.
He was succeeded as 9th duke by his eldest son John Douglas
Sutherland Campbell (1845- ), whose marriage in 1871
to H.R.H. Princess Louise gave him a special prominence in
English public life. He was governor-general of Canada from
1878 to 1883; member of parliament for South Manchester, in
the Unionist interest, 1895 to 1900; and he also became known
as a writer both in prose and verse. In 1907 he published his
reminiscences, Pages from the Past.
See the Autobiography and Memoirs of the 8th duke, edited by
his widow (1906), which is full of interesting historical and personal
detail.. (P. C Y.; H. Ch.)
ARGYLLSHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland, the
second largest in the country, embracing a large tract of country
on the mainland and a number of the Hebrides or Western Isles.
The mainland portion is bounded N. by Inverness -shire; E. by
Perth and Dumbarton, Loch Long and the Firth of Clyde;
S. by the North Channel (Irish Sea); and W. by the Atlantic.
Its area is 1,990,47 r Acres or 31 10 sq. m. The principal districts
are Ardnamurchan on the Atlantic, Ardnamurchan Point being
the most westerly headland of Scotland; Morvcn or Morvcrn,
bounded by Loch Sunart, the Sound of Mull and Loch Linnhe;
Appin, on Loch Linnhe, with piers at Ballachulish and Port
Appin; Bcndcrloch, lying between Loch Creran and Loch Etive;
Lome, surrounding Loch Etive and giving the title of marquess
to the Campbells; Argyll, in the middle of the shire, containing
Inveraray Castle and furnishing the titles of earl and duke to
the Campbells; Cowall, between Loch Fyne and the Firth of
Clyde, in which lie Dunoon and other favourite holiday resorts;
Knapdale between the Sound of Jura and Loch Fyne; and
Kin tyre or Cantyre, a long narrow peninsula (which, at the
isthmus of Tarbert, is little more than 1 m. wide), the southern-
most point of which is known as the Mull, the nearest part of
Scotland to the coast of Ireland, only 13 m. distant.
There are no navigable rivers. The two principal mountain
streams are the Orchy and Awe. The Orchy flows from Loch
Tulla through Glen Orchy, and falls into the north-eastern end
of Loch Awe; and the Awe drains the loch at its north-western
extremity, discharging into Loch Etive. Among other streams
are the Add, Aray, Coe or Cona, Creran, Douglas, Eachaig, Etive,
Euchar, Feochan, Finart, Fyne, Kinglass, Nell, Rucl, Shi J,
Shira, Strae and Uisge-Dhu. The county is remarkable for the
numerous sea-lochs which deeply indent the coast, the princi[nl
being Loch Long (with its branches Loch Goil and the Holy
Loch), Loch Striven (Rothesay's "weather glass"), Lx*h
Riddon, Loch Fyne (with Loch Gilp and Loch Gair), Lochs
Tarbert, Killisport, Swin, Crinan, Craignish, Melfort, Feochan.
Etive, Linnhe (with its branches Loch Creran, Loch Leven and
Loch Eil) and SunarL. • There are also a large number of inland
lakes, the total area of which is about 25,000 acres. Of these the
principal are Lochs Awe, Avich, Eck, Lydoch and Shiel. The
principal islands are Mull, Islay, Jura, Colonsay, Lismore, Tyrce,
Coll, Gigha, Luing and Kerrera. ■ Besides these there are the two
small but interesting islands of Staffa and Iona. The mountains
are so many as to give the shire a markedly rugged character.
Some of them arc among the loftiest in the kingdom, as Ben
Cruachan with its summit of twin pyramids (3689 ft.), Ben More,
in Mull (3172), Ben Ima (3318), Buachaillc Etive (3345). Ben
Bui (3106), Ben Lui (or Loy), on the confines of the shires of
Perth and Argyll (3708), Ben Starav near the head of Loch Etive
(3S4i)» and Ben Arthur, called from its shape " The Cobbler "
(2891), on the borders of Dumbartonshire. There are many
picturesque glens, of which the best-known are Glen Aray, Glen
Croc, Glen Etive, Glendaruel, Glen Lochy (" the wearisome glen"
— some 10 m. of bare hills and boulders — between Tyndrum and
Dalmally),Glen Strae, Hell's Glen (off Loch Goil) and Glcncoe. the
scene of the massacre in 1692. The waterfalls of Cruachan are
beautiful; and those of Connel, which are more in the nature of
rapids, caused by the rush of the ebbing tide over the rocky bar
at the narrowing mouth of Loch Etive, have been made cele-
brated by Ossian, who called them " the Falls of Lora." In
several of the glens, as Glen Aray, small falls may be seen,
enhanced in beauty when the rivers are in flood. Pre-eminently
Argyll is the shire of the sportsman. The lovely Western Isles
provide endless enjoyment for the yachtsman; the lochs and
rivers abound with salmon and trout; the deer forests and
grouse moors are second to none in Scotland.
Geology. — The mainland portion of the county consists chiefly of
the mctamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands, nearly all the sub-
divisions of that series (sec Scotland: Geology) being represented.
They form parallel belts of varying width trending north-east and
south-west. The slates and phyllitcs referred to the lowest group
occur along the shore at Dunoon, and arc followed by the Beinn
Bheula grits and albite schists, forming nearly all the highest ground
in Cowall between Loch Fyne and the Firth of Clyde and the gnrat.'r
part of Kintyre. The green beds, Glensluan mica-schists and Lo.h
Tay limestones arc developed in Glendaruel, and have been traced
north-cast to Glen Fyne and at intervals south-west to Campbetto* n.
The next prominent zone is that of the Ardrishaig phyllites, «ith
quartzites in the lower portion and soft phyllites in trie upper pan.
which cover a belt from 1 to 6 m. across, stretching from Glen brura
J>y Inveraray and Ardrishaig to south Knapdale.
Next in order come the Easdale slates, phyllites with thin dark
limestone, the main limestone of Loch Awe and the pebbly quartz. te
(Schiehallion), which are repeated by innumerable Folds and spr. j.J
northwards to Loch Linnhe and westwards to Jura and IsUv. TV
slates of this horizon have been largely quarried at Easdale and
Ballachulish, and this main limestone is typically developed nnr
Loch Awe, near Kilmnrtin, on the islands of Lismore and Shuru.
and in Islay between Bridgend and Portaskaig. The quartzites w>
this series form the highest hills in the south of Islay, occupy ncariv
the whole of Jura, and arc continued in the mainland, where, by
ARGYLLSHIRE
487
means of the rapid isoclinal folding, they form lenticular masses. In
Islay and at various localities on the mainland a conglomerate
occurs at or near the base of the quartzitcs, which contains frag-
ments of the underlying rocks and boulders of granite not now found
in place in that region.
On the mainland, on the north side of the compound synclinal
folding of Loch Awe, the Ardrishaig phyllites reappear at Craignish
near Kilmartin, and the quaruites of this group are supposed to
come to the surface again in Glencoe, not far from the outcrop of the
Schiehallion quartzite.
The* metamorphic rocks are associated with bands of epidiorite
which have shared in the folding and metamorphism of the region.
These are largely developed near Loch Awe, in Knapdale, and on the
south-east coast of Islay. They have been usually regarded as
intrusive, but south of Tayvallicn on the mainland, lavas and tuffs,
which have escaped deformation, occur in the Easdale slates and the
pebbly limestone.
The Lower Old Red Sandst
rocks — lavas and tuffs — rests u f
series. These rocks cover a ^ 1
Melfort, Oban and the Pass of
lofty mountains on both sides 1
formation are found in Kintyn
sediments prevail. The intmsi 1
period are widely distributed ai
ptutonic masses are represented
the diorite of Gleann Domhain
rock related to the monsonitcs),
Lome volcanic plateau there
which likewise traverse the sch 1
granite Sheets of quartx-porF-..,.,, — r ._ r .., ■
also represented, the first of these types being quarried at Crar&c on
the north shore of Loch Fync.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone forms isolated patches resting
onconforrnably on all older rocks, on the west coast of Kintyrc,
and be t we en Campbeltown and Southend. In the district of
Campbeltown these red sandstones and cornstones are followed by
the volcanic rocks of the Calcifcrous Sandstone scries, which lie
to the south of the depression at Machrihanish, and arc succeeded
by the lower limestones and coals of the Carboniferous Limestone
On the north and south shores of the promontory of Ardnamu rchan
there are small patches of Jurassic strata ranging from the Lower
Lias to the Oxford Clay, and in Morvern on the shores of Loch Aline
representatives of the Upper Grecnsand are covered by the basaltic
lavas of Tertiary age. The acid and basic plutonic rocks feabbros
and granophyres) of Tertiary time occur in Ardnamurchan. A
striking geological feature of the county is the number of dolcrite
and basalt dykes trending in a north-west direction, which are
referred to the same period of intrusion. There is, however, another
group of dolcrite dykes running east and west near Dunoon and
elsewhere, which are cut by the former and are probably of older
date.
Lead veins occur at Strontian which have yielded a number of
minerals, including sphalerite, fluorite, strontianite, harmotone,
brewsterite and pilolite. Near Inveraray, nickeliferous ore has been
obtained at two localities.
Climate.— the rainfall is very abundant At Oban, the
average annual amount is 64*18 in.; in Glen Fyne, 104*11 in.;
at the bridge of Orchy, 1x3*62 in., and at Upper Glencoe 127*65.
The prevailing winds, as observed near Crinan, are south-west
and south-east, and next in frequency are the north-west and
north-east. The average yearly temperature is 48 F.
Agriculture, — Argyllshire was formerly partly covered with
natural forests, remains of which, consisting chiefly of oak, ash,
pine and birch, are still visible in the mosses; but, owing to
the clearance of the ground for the introduction of sheep, and
to past neglect of planting, the county is now remarkable for
its lack of wood, except in the neighbourhood of Inveraray,
where there are extensive and flourishing plantations, and a few
other places. Replanting, however, has been carried on. Most
of the county is unfitted for agriculture; but 'many districts
afford fine pasturage for mountain sheep; and some of the
valleys, such as Gtendaruei, are very fertile. The chief crop
is oats; there is a little barley, but no wheat. The shire is one
of those where the crofting system exists; but it is by no means
universal. It is predominant in Tyree and the western district
of the mainland, but elsewhere farms of moderate size are the
rule. The cattle, though small, are equal to any other breed
in the kingdom, and are marketed in large numbers in the south.
Dairy tanning is carried on to some extent in the southern parts
of KintyTe, where there is a large proportion of arable land.
In the higher tracts sheep have taken the place of cattle with
excellent results. The black-faced is the species most generally
reared.
Industries.— Whisky is manufactured at Campbeltown, in
Islay, at Oban, Ardrishaig and elsewhere. Gunpowder is made
at Karnes (Kylesof Bute), Melfort and Furnace. Coarse woollens
are made for home use; but fishing is the most important
industry, Loch Fyne being famous for its herrings. The season
lasts from June to January, but white fishing is carried on at
one or other of the ports all the year round. Slate and granite
quarrying and some coal-mining are the only other industries
of any consequence.
Communications. — Owing partly to the paucity of trading
industries and partly to the fact that, owing to its greatly
indented coast-line, no place in the shire is more than 12 m.
from the sea, the railway mileage in the county is very small.
The Tyndrum to Oban section of the Caledonian railway com-
pany's system is within the county limits; a small portion of
the track of the North British railway company's line to Mallatg
skirts the extreme west of the shire, and the Caledonian line
from Oban to Ballachulish serves the northern coast districts of
the Argyllshire mainland. In connexion with this last route
mention should be made of the cantilever bridge crossing the
Falls of Lora with a span of 500 ft. at a height of 125 ft. above
the water-way. The chief means of communication is by
steamers, which maintain regular intercourse between Glasgow
and various parts of the coast. In order to avoid the circuitous
passage round the Mull of KintyTe the Crinan Canal, across the
isthmus from Ardrishaig to Loch Crinan, a distance of 9 m.,
was constructed in 179301801, at a cost of £142,000. It has
15 locks, an average depth of 10 ft., a surface width of 66 ft., and
bottom width of 30 ft., is navigable by vessels of 200 tons, and
runs through a district of remarkable beauty. • Another canal
unites Campbeltown with Dalavaddy. In summer the mails
for the islands and the great bulk of the tourist traffic by the
MacBrayne fleet is conveyed through the Crinan Canal, tran-
shipment being effected at Ardrishaig and Crinan. Throughout
the year goods traffic between the Clyde and elsewhere and the
West Highland ports is conveyed by deep-sea steamers round
the Mull. Before the advent of railways the shire contained
many famous coaching routes, but now coaches only run during
the tourist season, either in connexion with train and steamer,
or in districts still not served by either.
Population and Government. — Owing to emigration, chiefly
to Canada, the population has declined, almost without a
break, since 1831, when it was 100,973, to 74.085 in 1891 and
73,642 in -1901, in which year there were 24 persons to the
sq. m. In 1001 the number of Gaelic-speaking persons was
34,224, of whom 3313 spoke Gaelic bnly. The chief towns are
Campbeltown (population in tooi, 8286), Dunoon (6779) and
Oban (5427), with Ardrishaig (1285), Ballachulish (1143)1
Lochgilphead (13x3) and Tarbert (1697). The county returns
a member to parliament. Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban
belong to the Ayr district group of parliamentary burghs.
Argyllshire is a sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs-
substitute at Inveraray, Campbeltown and Oban; courts are
held also at Tobermory, Lochgilphead, Bowmore in Islay,
and Dunoon. Both Presbyterian bodies are strongly repre-
sented; there are Roman Catholic and (Anglican) Episcopal
bishops of Argyll and the Isles, and there is a Roman Catholic
pro-cathedral at Oban. Campbeltown, Dunoon and Oban have
secondary schools, Tarbert public school has a secondary de-
partment, and several other schools earn grants for giving
higher education. Part of the " residue " grant is spent by the
county council on classes of navigation and other subjects in
various schools, short courses in agriculture for tanners, and
in providing bursaries.
History.— -The early history of Argyll (Airergaidheal) is very
obscure. At the close of the 5th century Fergus, son of Ere,
a descendant of Conor II., airdrigh or high king of Ireland, came
over with a band of Irish Scots and established himself in Argyll
and Kintyrc. Nothing more is known till, in the days of Conall I.,
the descendant of Fergus in the fourth generation, St Columba
488
ARGYRODITE— ARGYROPULUS
appears. Conall died in 574, and Columba was mainly instru-
mental in establishing his first cousin, Aidan, founder of the
Dalriad kingdom and ancestor of the royal house of Scotland,
in power. In the 8th century Argyll, with the Western Islands
and Man, fell under the power of the Norsemen until, in the
1 2th century, Somcrled (or Somhairlc), a descendant of Colla-
Uais, airdrigh of Ireland (327-331), succeeded in ousting them
and established his authority, not only as thane of Argyll, but
also in Kin tyre and the Western Islands. Somcrled died in
1164 and his descendants maintained themselves in Argyll
and the islands, between the conflicting claims of the kings
of Scotland, Norway and Man, until the end of the 15th
century.
Up to 1222 Argyll had formed an independent Celtic prince-
dom; but in that year it was reduced by Alexander II., the
Scottish king, to a sheriffdom, and was henceforth regarded
as an integral part of Scotland. * Among the various clans
in Argyll, the Campbells of Loch Awe, a branch of the clan
McArthur, now began to come to the fore, though the mainland
was still chiefly in the possession of the MacDougals. The
position of the lords of the house of Somcrled was now curious,
since they were feudatories of the king of Norway for the isles
and of the king of Scotland for Argyll. Their policy in the wars
between the two powers was a masterly neutrality. Thus,
during the expedition of Alexander II. to the Western Isles in
1249, Ewan (Eoghan), lord of Argyll, refused to fight against the
Norwegians; in 1263 the same Ewan refused to join Haakon
of Norway in attacking Alexander III. Forty years later the
clansmen of Argyll, mainly MacDougals, were warring on the
side of Edward of England against Robert Bruce, by whom they
were badly beaten on Loch Awe in 1309. The clansmen of the
house of Somcrled in the isles, on the other hand, the MacDonalds,
remained loyal to Scotland in spite of the persuasions of John
of Argyll, appointed admiral of Edward II. 's western fleet;
and, under their chief Angus Og, they contributed much to the
victory of Bannockburn. The alliance of John, earl of Ross and
lord of the Isles, with Edward IV. of England in 1461 led to
the breaking of the power of the house of Somerled, and in 1478
John was forced to resign Ross to the crown and, two years later,
his lordships of Knapdale and Kintyre as well. In Argyll itself
the Campbells had already made the first step to supremacy
through the marriage of Colin, grandson of Sir Duncan Campbell
of Lochow, first Lord Campbell, with Isabel Stewart, eldest
of the three co-heiresses of John, third lord of Lome.- He
acquired the greater part of the lands of the other sisters by
purchase, and the lordship of Lome from Walter their uncle, the
heir in tail male, by an exchange for lands in Perthshire. In
1457 be was created, by James II., earl of Argyll. He died on
the xoth of May 1493. From him dates the greatness of the house
of the earls and dukes of Argyll (q.v.), whose history belongs to
that of Scotland. The house of Somerled survives in two main
branches — that of Macdonald of the Isles, Alexander Macdonald
(d. 1795) having been raised to the peerage in 1776, and that
of the Macdonnclls, earls of Antrim in Ireland. The principal
clans in Argyll, besides those already mentioned, were the
Macleans, the Stewarts of Appin, the Macquarrics and the
Macdonalds of Glencoe, and the Macfarlancs of Glencroe. The
Campbells are still very numerous in the county.
Argyllshire men have made few contributions to English
literature. For long the natives spoke Gaelic only and their
bards sang in Gaelic (see Celt: Literature: Scottish). Near
Inistrynich on the north-eastern shore of Loch Awe stands the
monumental cairn erected in honour of Duncan Ban Mclntyrc
(1724-18x2), the most popular of modem Gaelic bards. But
the romantic beauty of the country has made it * favourite
setting for the themes of many poets and story-tellers, from
" Ossian " and Sir Walter Scott to Robert Louis Stevenson,
while not a few men distinguished in affairs or in learning have
been natives of the county.
The antiquities comprise monoliths, circles of standing stones,
crannogs and cairns. In almost all the burying-grounda— as
at Campbeltown, Keil, Soroby, Kilchousland, Kilmun— there
are specimens of sculptured crosses and slabs. Besides the
famous ecclesiastical remains at Iona (9.9.), there are robs
of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay, and of a church founded
in the 12th century by Somerled, thane of Argyll, at Sadddl.
Among castles may be mentioned Dunstaffnage, Ardtornkh,
Skipness, Kilchurn (beloved of painters), Ardchonnei, Dunolly,
Stalker, Dundcraw and Carrick.
Authorities. — The (Eighth) Duke of Argyll, Commercial Prm-
ciptes Applied to the Hire of Land (London, 1877) ; Crofts and Farms
in the Hebrides (Edinburgh, 1883) ; lona (Edinburgh, 1889) ; Scot-
land as it Was and Is (Edinburgh, 1887); House of Argyll (Glasgow,
1871); A. Brown, Memorials of Argyllshire (Greenock, 1*^9);
Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the
Inner Hebrides (Edinburgh, 1892) ; D. Clerk, " On the Agriculture
of the County of Argyll ,r (Trans. o/H. and A. Soc, 1878) ; T. Gray.
Week at Oban (Edinburgh, 1881); Stewart, Collection of Views cf
Campbeltown. For antiquities see The Sculptured Stones of Scotland,
vol. ii. t published by the Spalding Club, and Capt. T. P. White'*
Archaeological Sketches in Kintyre and Proc. Antiq. Soc. of Scotland,
vols, iv., v., viii.
ARGYRODITE, a mineral which is of interest as being that
in which the element germanium was discovered by C. Winkler
in 1886. It is a silver sulpho-germanate, AgtGeSe, and crystal-
lizes in the cubic system. The crystals have the form of the
octahedron or rhombic dodecahedron, and are frequently
twinned. The botryoidal crusts of small indistinct crystals
first found in a silver mine at Freiberg in Saxony were originally
thought to be monoclinic, but were afterwards proved to be
identical with the more distinctly developed crystals recently
found in Bolivia. The colour is iron-black with a purplish tinge,
and the lustre metallic There is no cleavage; hardness ?),
specific gravity 62. • It is of interest to note that the Freiberg
mineral was long ago imperfectly described by A. Breithaupt
under the name Plusinglcnz, and that the Bolivian crystals
were incorrectly described in 1849 as crystallised brongniardite.
The name argyrodite is from the Greek Apyvp&htx, rich in
silver.
Isomorphous with argyrodite is the corresponding tin
compound AgiSnSt, also found in Bolivia as cubic crystals,
and known by the name canfieldite. Other Bolivian crystals
are intermediate in composition between argyrodite and
canfieldite. (L. J. S)
ARGYROKASTRO, or Arcykocastron (Turkish, Ergeri;
Albanian, Ergir Castri), a town of southern Albania, Turkey, in
the vilayet of Iannina. Pop. (1900) about 1 z ,000. Argyrokastro
is finely situated 1060 ft above sea-level, on the eastern slopes
of the Acroceraunian mountains, and near the left bank of the
river Dhrynos, a left-hand tributary of the Viossa. It is the
capital of a sanjak bearing the same name, and was formerly
important as the headquarters of the local Moslem aristocracy,
partly owing to the mountainous and easily defensible nature
of the district It contains the ruins of an imposing castellated
fort. • A fine kind of snuff, known as fuli, is manufactured here.
Argyrokastro has been variously identified with the ancient
Hadrianopolis and Antigonea. In the x8th century it is said
to have contained 20,000 inhabitants, but it was almost de-
populated by plague in 1814. Albanian Moslems constitute the
greater part of the population.
ARGYROPULUS, or Axcyhopulo, JOHN (c. 1416-1486).
Greek humanist, one of the earliest promoters of the revival of
learning in the West, was bora in Constantinople, and became
a teacher there, Constantine Lascaris being his pupiL He then
appears to have crossed over to Italy, and taught in Padua in
1434, being subsequently made rector of the university. About
1441 he returned to Constantinople, but after its capture by the
Turks, again took refuge in Italy. About 1456 he was invited to
Florence by Cosimo de'Medid, and was there appointed professor
of Greek in the university. In 1471, on the outbreak of the
plague, be removed to Rome, where he continued to act as
a teacher of Greek till his death. Among his scholars were
Angelus Politianus and Johann Reuchlin. His principal works
were translations of the following portions of Aristotle.—
Categoriae, Dt Interpretatiotie, Analylica Poskriora, Physica, De
Caelo t De Anima, Metaphysics, Ethka Nicamacke*, Poittua;
ARIA
489
and an Expasitio Etkicorum ArisioteHs. Several el his writings
exist still in manuscript
See Humphrey Hody, De Craeeis Illustrious, 1743, and Smith's
Dictionary of Creek and Roman Biography, s.v. Joannes.
(Ital. for " air "), a musical term, equivalent to the
English " air/' signifying a melody apart from the harmony, but
especially a musical composition for a single voice or instrument,
with an accompaniment of other voices or instruments.
The aria originally developed from the expansion of a single
vocal melody, generally on the lines of what is known as binary
form (sec Sonata and Sonata Fours). Accordingly, while the
germs of aria form may be traceable in the highest developments
of folk-song, the aria as a definite art-form could not exist before
the middle of the 17th century; because up to that time the
whole organization of music was based upon polyphonic principles
which left no room for the development of melody for melody's
sake. When at the beginning of the x 7th century the Monodists
(see Harmony and Monteverde) inaugurated a new era and
showed in their first experiments the enormous possibilities
latent in their new art of accompanying single voices by instru-
ments, it was natural that for many years the mere suggestiveness
and variety of their experiments should suffice to retain the
attention of contemporary listeners, without any real artistic
coherence in the works as wholes. But, even at the outset,
mere novelty of harmony, however poignant its emotional
expression, was felt by the profounder spirits of the new art
to be an untrustworthy guide to progress. And Monteverde's
famous lament of the deserted Ariadne is one of many early
examples that appeal to an elementary sense of form by making
the last phrase identical with the first. As instrumental music
grew, and the modern sense of key became strong and consistent,
composers felt themselves more and more able to appeal to that
sense of harmonically consistent melody which has asserted
itself in folk-music before the history of harmonic music may be
said to have begun. The technique of solo singers grew as
rapidly as that of solo players, and composers soon found their
chief musical interest in doing justice to both. In Sir Hubert
Parry's work, The Music of the 17th Century (Oxford History
of Music, vol iii.), will be found numerous illustrations of the
early development of aria forms, from their first indications
b Monteverde's instinctive struggles after coherence, to their
complete maturity in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti.
By Scarlatti's time it was thoroughly established that the binary
form of melody was that which could best be expanded into a
form which should do justice both to singers and to the players
who accompanied them. . Thus the aria became on a small scale
the prototype of the Concerto; and under that heading will
accordingly be found all that need be said as to the relation
between the instrumental ritorncllo and the material of the voice
part in an aria.
So far we have spoken only of the main body of the aria;
but the addition of a middle section with a da Capo, which
constitutes the universal 18th-century da Capo form of aria,
adds a very simple new principle to the essential scheme without
really modifying it. A typical aria of the Scarlatti or Handelian
type is a very large melody in binary form, delivered by the
voice, which expands it with florid perorations before each
cadence (and sometimes also with florid preludes); while relief
is given to the voice, further spaciousness to the form, and
justice done to the accompaniment, by the addition of an
instrumental ritomello containing the gist of the melody not only
at the beginning and end, but also in suitable shorter forms
at the principal intermediate cadences in foreign keys. A
smaller scheme of the same kind in a new group of related keys,
but generally without much new material, is then appended as
a middle section after which follows the main section da Capo*
The result is generally a piece of music of considerable length,
in a form which cannot fail to be effective and coherent; and
there is little cause for wonder in the extent to which it dominated
18th-century music. It was not, however, invariable. In the
Cavatina we find a form too small for the da Capo; and in
the oratorios of Handel and the choral works of Bach we find
a majority of arias in a larger form which evades the possibility
of exact repetition.
The aria forms are profoundly influenced by the difference
between the Sonata style and the style of Bach and Handel.
But the scale of the form is inevitably small, and in any opera
an aria is hardly possible except in a situation winch is a tableau
rather than an action. Consequently there is no such difference
between the form of the classical operatic aria of Mozart and that
of the Handelian type as there is between sonata music and
suite music. • The scale, however, has become too large for the
da Capo, which was in any case too rigid to survive in music
designed to intensify a dramatic situation instead of to distract
attention from it • The necessary change of style was so success-
fully achieved that, until Wagner succeeded in devising music
that moved absolutely pari passu with his drama, the aria
remained as the central formal principle in dramatic music;
and few things in artistic evolution are more interesting than
the extent to which Mozart's predecessor, the great dramatic
reformer Gluck, profited by the essential resources of his pet
aversion, the aria style, when he had not only purged it of what
had become the stereotyped ideas of ritornellos and vocal
flourishes, but animated it by the new sense of dramatic climax
to which the sonata style appealed.
In modern opera the aria is almost always out of place, and
the forms in which definite melodies nowadays appear are rather
those of the song in its limited sense as that of a poem in formal
stanzas all set to the same music. In other words, a song in a
modern opera tends to be something which would be sung even
if the drama had to be performed as a play without music;
whereas a classical aria would in non-musical drama be a soliloquy.
This can be shown by works at such opposite poles of musical
and dramatic technique as Bizet's Carmen and the later works
of Wagner. In Carmen the librettist has so managed that, if
his work were performed as a play, almost the whole of it would
have to be sung; and the one exception of musical importance
is the developed soliloquy of Micaela in the third act, which,
although treated in no old-fashioned or commonplace spirit by the
composer, Is the one thing in the opera which sounds " operatic."
In the later works of Wagner those passages in which we can
successfully detach complete melodies from their context have,
one and all, dramatically the aspect of songs and not of soli-
loquies. Siegmund sings the song of Spring to his sister-bride;
Mime teaches Siegfried lessons of gratitude in nursery rhymes;
and the whole story of the Meistersinger is a series of opportunities
for song-singing.
The distinctions and gradations between aria and song are
of great aesthetic importance, but their history would carry
us too far. The distinction is obviously of the same import-
ance as that between dramatic and lyric poetry. Beethoven's
Adelaide is a famous example of what is called a song when it is
really entirely in aria style; while the operas of Mozart and
Weber naturally contain in appropriate situations many numbers
which really are songs. The composers themselves generally give
appropriate names. Thus Mozart, in Figaro, calls " Non so
piu cosa son " an aria, because of its free style, though Cherubino
actually sings it as a song he has just invented; while " Voi
chc sapete," being more purely lyric, is called Canzona.
The term aria form is applied, generally most inaccurately,
to all kinds of slow can ta bile instrumental music of which the
general design can be traced to the operatic aria. Mozart, for
example, is very fond of slow movements in large binary form
without development, and this is constantly called aria-form,
though the term ought certainly to be restricted to such examples
as have some traits of the aria style, such as the first slow move-
ment in the great serenade in B flat At all events, until writers
on music have agreed to give the terra some more accurate use,
it is as well to avoid it and its cognate version, Lied-form, alto-
gether in speaking of instrumental music.
The air or aria in a suite is a short binary movement in a
flowing rhythm in common or duple time and by no means of
the broadly tunelike quality which its name would seem to
imply. (D. F. T.)
49°
ARIADNE— ARIEGE
ARIADNE (in Greek mythology), was the daughter of Minos,
king of Crete, and Pasiphae, the (laughter of Helios the Sun-god.
When Theseus landed on the island to slay .the Minotaur (q.v.),
Ariadne fell in love with him, and gave him a due of thread to
guide him through the mazes of the labyrinth. After he had
slain the monster, Theseus carried her off, but, according to
Homer {Odyssey, xi. 322) she was slain by Artemis at the request
of Dionysus in the island of Dia near Cnossus, before she could
reach Athens with Theseus. In the later legend, she was
abandoned, while asleep on the island of Naxos, by Theseus,
who had fallen a victim to the charms of Aegle (Plutarch,
Theseus, 20; Diodorus, iv. 60, 61). Her abandonment and
awakening are celebrated in the beautiful Epithalamium of
Catullus. On Naxos she is discovered by Dionysus on his return
from India, who is enchanted with her beauty, and marries her
when she awakes. She receives a crown as a bridal gift, which
is placed amongst the stars, while she herself is honoured as a
goddess (Ovid, Mctam. viii. 152, Fasti, iii. 459).
The name probably means "very hory M m Lpi-ayry;
another (Cretan) form 'ApiM)\a (*=4>avtp&. ) indicates the return
to a " bright " season of nature. Ariadne is the personification
of spring. In keeping with this, her festivals at Naxos present
a double character; the one, full of mourning and sadness,
represents her death or abandonment by Theseus, the other,
full of joy and revelry, celebrates her awakening from sleep
and marriage with Dionysus. Thus nature sleeps and dies during
winter, to awake in springtime to a life of renewed luxuriance.
With this may be compared the festivals of Adonis and Osiris
and the myth of Persephone. Theseus himself was said to have
founded a festival at Athens in honour of Ariadne and Dionysus
after his return from Crete. The story of Dionysus and Ariadne
was a favourite subject for reliefs and wall-paintings. Most
commonly Ariadne is represented asleep on the shore at Naxos,
while Dionysus, attended by satyrs and bacchanals, gazes
admiringly upon her; sometimes they are seated side by side
under a spreading vine. The scene where she is holding the
clue to Theseus occurs on a very early vase in the British
Museum. There is a statue of the sleeping Ariadne in the Vatican
Museum.
Kanter, De Ariadne (1879); PaHat, be Fabtda Ariadnea (1891).
ARIANO DI PUGLIA, a town and episcopal see, which, de-
spite its name, now belongs to Campania, Italy, in the province
of Avellino, 1509 ft above sea-level, on the railway between
Benevento and Foggia, 24 m. E. of the former by rail. ' Pop.
(1001) town, 8384; commune, 17,653. It lies in the centre of
a fertile district, but has no buildings of importance, as it has
often been devastated by earthquakes. A considerable part of
the population still dwells in caves. ■ It has been supposed to
occupy the site of Aequum Tuticum, an ancient Samnite town,
which became a post-station on the Via Traiana 1 in Roman
times; but this should probably be sought at S. Eleutcrio
5$ m. north. It was a military position of some importance in
the middle ages. Thirteen miles south-south-east is the Sorgcntc
Mcfita, identical with the pools of Ampsanctus (q.v.). (T. As.)
ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO (1527-1598), Spanish Orientalist
and editor of the Antwerp Polyglot, was born at Fregenal de la
Sierra, in Estrcmadura, in 1527. After studying at the uni-
versities of Seville and Alcala, he took orders about the year
j 559 and in 1562 he was appointed consulting theologian to the
council of Trent. He retired to Pefia de Aracena in 1564, wrote
his commentary on the minor prophets (1571), and was sent to
Antwerp by Philip II. to edit the polyglot Bible projected by
Christopher Plan tin. The work appeared in 8 volumes folio,
between 1568 and 1573. Le6n de Castro, a professor at Sala-
manca, thereon brought charges of heresy against Arias Montano,
who was finally acquitted after a visit to Rome in 1 575-1 576.
He was appointed royal chaplain, but withdrew to Pefia de
Aracena from 1579 to 1583; he resigned the chaplaincy in 1584,
1 This has generally been supposed to be the place referred to by
Horace (Sat. I 5. 87), as one which the metre would not allow him
to mention by name; but H. Niwen (Halische Landeshunde, Berlin,
1903, ii. 845) proposes Ausculum instead.
and went into complete seclusion at Santiago de la Espada in
Seville, where he died in 1508.
He is the subject of an Ehgio historico by Tomas Gonzalez Car-
vajal in the Memorial de la Real Academia de la Historic (Madrid,
1832), vol. vti.
ARICA (San Marcos de Arica), a town and port of the
Chilean-governed province of Tacna, situated in 18P 28' 08' S.
lat. and 70 20' 46' W. long. It is the port for Tacna, the capital
of the province, 38 m. distant, with which it is connected by rail,
and is the outlet for a large and productive mining district.
Arica at one time had a population of 30,000 and enjoyed much
prosperity, but through civil war, earthquakes and conquest,
its population had dwindled to 2853 in 1895 and 2824 in 1902.
The great earthquake of 1868, followed by a tidal wave, nearly
destroyed the town and shipping. Arica was captured, looted
and burned by the Chileans in 1880, and in accordance with the
terms of the treaty of Ancon (1883) should have been returned to
Peru in 1894, but this was not done. Late in 1906 the town
again suffered severely from an earthquake.
ARICIA (mod. Ariccia), an ancient city of Latium, on the Via
Appia, 16 m. S.E. of Rome.. The old town, or at any rate its
acropolis, now occupied by the modern town, lay high (1350 ft.
above sea-level) above the circular Valle Aricdana, which is
probably an extinct volcanic crater; some remains of its fortifica-
tions, consisting of a mound of earth supported on each side by a
wall of rectangular blocks of peperino stone, have been discovered
(D. Marchetti, in Notizie degli scavi, 1892, 52). The lower town
was situated on the north edge of the valley, close to the Via
Appia, which descended into the valley from the modern Albano,
and re-ascended partly upon very fine substructions of opus
quadratum, some 200 yds. in length, to the modern Genxano.
Remains of the walls of the lower town, of the cella of a temple
built of blocks of peperino, and also of later buildings in brick-
work and opus reticule turn, connected with the post-station
(Aricia being the first important station out of Rome, of. Horace,
Sat. i. 5. x, Egressum magna me exec pit Aricia Roma hospitio
modico) on the highroad, may still be seen (cf. T. Ashby in
Milanges de Ytcolc franchise de Rome, 1903, 399). Aricia was
one of the oldest cities of Latium, and appears as a serious
opponent of Rome at the end of the period of the kings and
beginning of the republic' In 338 B.C. it was conquered by
C. Macnius and became a civitas sine sujfragio, but was soon given
full rights. Even in the imperial period its chief magistrate was
styled dictator, and its council scnatus, and it preserved its own
calendar of festivals. Its vegetables and wine were famous, and
the district is still fertile. (T. As.)
ARICINI, the ancient inhabitants of Aricia (q.v.), the form of
the name ranking them with the Sidicini, Marrudni (q.v.), &c,
as one of the communities belonging probably to the earlier or
Volsdan stratum of population on the west side of Italy, who
were absorbed by the Sabine or Latin immigrants. Special
interest attaches to this trace of their earlier origin, because of
the famous cult of Diana Ncmorensis, whose temple in the forest
dose by Aricia, beside the locus Ncmorensis, was served by " the
priest who slew the slayer, and shall himself be slain "; that is to
say, the priest, who was called rex Ncmorensis, held office only so
long as he could defend himself from any stronger rival. This
cult, which is unique in Italy, is picturesquely described in the
opening chapter of J. G. Frazcr's Golden Bough (2nd ed., 2900)
where full references will be found. Of these references the most
important are, perhaps, Strabo v. 3. 12; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 263-272;
and Suetonius, Calig. 35, whose wording indicates that the old-
world custom was dying out in the zst century a.d. It is a
reasonable conjecture that this extraordinary relic of barbarism
was characteristic of the earlier stratum of the population who
presumably called themselves Arid.
On the anthropological aspect of the cult, see also A. B. Cook, Oast.
ARlftGE, an inland department of southern France, bounded
S. by Spain, W. and N. by the department of Haute- Garonne,
N.E. and E. by Aude, and S.E. by Fyrenees-Orientaks. It
ARIES— ARIOBARZANES
491
embraces the old countship of Foix t and a portion of Langue-
doc and Gascony. Area, 1893 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 205,684.
Ariege is for the most part mountainous. Its southern border is
occupied by the snow-dad peaks of the eastern Pyrenees, the
highest of which within the department is the Pic de Montcalm
(10,5x2 ft.). Communication with Spain is afforded by a large
number of ports or cols, which are, however, for the most part
difficult paths, and only practicable for a few months in the year.
Farther to the north two lesser ranges running parallel to the
main chain traverse the centre of the department from south-
east to north-west The more southerly, the Montague de Tabe,
contains, at its south-eastern end, several heights between 7200
and 9200 ft., while the Montagnes de Plantaurel to the north of
Foix are of lesser altitude. These latter divide the fertile
alluvial plains of the north from the mountains of the centre
and south. The department is intersected by torrents belonging
to the Garonne basin— the Salat, the Arize, which, near Mas
d'Aztl, flows through a subterranean gallery, the Ariege and the
Hers. The climate is mild in the south, but naturally very
severe among the mountains. Generally speaking, the arable
land, which is chiefly occupied by small holdings, is confined to
the lowlands. Wheat, maize and potatoes are the chief crops.
Good vineyards and market gardens are found in the neighbour-
hood of Pamiers in the north. Flax and hemp are also cultivated.
The mountains afford excellent pasture, and a considerable
number of cattle, sheep and swine are reared. Poultry- and bee-
farming flourish. : Forests cover more than one-third of the
department and harbour wild boars and even bears. Game,
birds of prey and fish are plentiful. There is abundance of
minerals, including lead, copper, manganese and especially iron.
Grindstones, building-stone, talc, gypsum, marble and phosphates
are, also produced. Warm mineral springs of note are found at
Ax, Aulus and Ussat. Pamiers and St Girons are the most im-
portant industrial towns. Iron founding and forging, which have
their chief centre at Pamiers, are principal industries. Flour-
nulling, paper-making and cloth-weaving may also be mentioned.
Ariege is served by the Southern railway. It forms the diocese
of Pamiers and belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Toulouse.
It is within the circumscriptions of the academic (educational
division) and of the court of appeal of Toulouse and of the XVII.
army corps. Its capital is Foix; it comprises the arrondisse-
ments of Foix, St Girons and Pamiers, with 20 cantons and
338 communes. Foix, Pamiers, St Girons and St Lizier-de-Cou-
atrans are the more noteworthy towns. Mention may also be made
of Mirepoix, once the seat of a bishopric, and possessing a cathe-
dral (25th and 1 6th centuries) with a remarkable Gothic spire.
ARIES ("The Ram"), in astronomy, the first sign of the
zodiac (?.».)» denoted by the sign T, in imitation of a ram's head.
The name is probably to be associated with the fact that when
the sun is in this part of the heavens (in spring) sheep bring forth
their young; this finds a parallel in Aquarius t when there is
much rain. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus
(4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy
catalogued eighteen stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-one, and
Hevelius twenty-seven. According to a Greek myth, Ncphelc,
mother of Phrixus and Helle, gave her son a ram with a golden
fleece. To avoid the evil designs of Hera, their stepmother,
Phrixus and Helle fled on the back of the ram, and reaching the
sea, attempted to cross. Helle fell from the ram and was drowned
(hence the Hellespont); Phrixus, having arrived in Colchis and
been kindly received by the king, Aeetes, sacrificed the ram to
Zeus, to whom he also dedicated the fleece, which was afterwards
carried away by Jason. Zeus placed the ram in the heavens as
the constellation.
AR1KARA, or Akicara (from ariki, horn), a tribe of North
American Indians of Caddoan stock. They are now settled
with the Hidatsas and the MandanS on the Fort Berthold
Reservation, North Dakota. They originally lived in the Platte
Valley, Nebraska, with the Pawnees, to whom they are related.
They number about 400.
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington,
tW)
ARIMA8VT, an ancient people in the extreme N.E. of Scythia
(q.v.), probably the eastern Altai. All accounts of them
go back to a poem by Aristeas of Proconnesus, from whom
Herodotus (iii. 116, iv. 27) drew his information. They were
supposed to be one-eyed (hence their Scythian name), and to
steal gold from the griffins that guarded it. In art they are
usually represented as richly dressed Asiatics, picturesquely
grouped with their griffin foes; the subject is often described
by poets from Aeschylus to Milton. They are so nearly mythical
that it is impossible to insist on the usual identification with
the ancestors of the Huns. Their gold was probably real, as
gold still comes from the Altai.
ABIMINUM (mod. Rimini), a city of Aemilia, on the N.E.
coast of Italy, 69 m. S.E. of Bononia. It was founded by the
Umbriahs, but in 268 B.C. became a Roman colony with Latin
rights. It was reached from Rome by the Via Flaminia, con-
structed in 220 B.C., and from that time onwards was the bulwark
of the Roman power in Cisalpine Gaul, to which province it even
gave its name. Its harbour was of some importance, but is
now silted up, the sea having receded. The remains of its moles
were destroyed in 1807-1809. Ariminum became a place of
considerable traffic owing to the construction of the Via Aemilia
(187 B.C.) and the Via PopQia (132 B.C.), and is frequently men-
tioned by ancient authors. In 90 B.C. it acquired Roman citizen-
ship, but in 82 B.C. having been held by the partisans of Marius,
it was plundered by those of Sulla (who probably made the
Rubicon the frontier of Italy instead of the Aesis), and a mili-
tary colony settled there. Caesar occupied it in 49 B.C. after
his crossing of the Rubicon. It was one of the eighteen richest
cities of Italy which the triumviri selected as a reward for their
troops. In 27 B.C. Augustus planted new colonists there, and
divided the dty into seven vici after the model of Rome, from
which the names of the vici were borrowed. He also restored
the Via Flaminia {Man. Ancyr. c. 20) from Rome to Ariminum.
At the entrance to the latter the senate erected, in his honour,
a triumphal arch which is still extant— a fine simple monument
with a single opening. At the other end of the decumanus
maximus or main street (3000 Roman ft. in length) is a fine
bridge over the Ariminus (mod. Marecchia) begun by Augustus
and completed by Tiberius in a.d. 20. It has five wide arches,
the central one having a span of 35 ft., and is well preserved.
Both it and the arch are built of fstrian stone. The present
Piazza Giulio Cesare marks the site of the ancient forum. The
remains of the amphitheatre are scanty; many of its stones
have gone to build the city wall, which must, therefore, at
the earliest belong to the end of the classical period. In
a.d. x Augustus's grandson Gaius Caesar had all the streets of
Ariminum paved. In a.d. 69 the town was attacked by the
partisans of Vespasian, and was frequently besieged in the Gothic
wars. It was one of the five seaports which remained Byzantine
until the time of Pippin. (See Rimini.)
See A. Tonini, Storia della Citld di Rimini (Rimini, 1848-1862).
(t.As.)
ARIOBARZANES, the name of three ancient kings or satraps
of Pontus, and of three kings of Cappadoda and a Persian
satrap.
Of the Pontic rulers two are most famous. (1) The son of
Mithradates I., who revolted against Artaxerxes in 362 B.C. and
may be regarded as the founder of the kingdom of Pontus (7.9.).
According to Demosthenes he and his three sons received from
the Athenians the honour of citizenship. (2) The son of Mithra-
dates III., who reigned c. 266-240 B.C., and was one of those
who enlisted the help of the invading Gauls (see Galatia).
Of the Cappadocian rulers the best-known one ("Philo-
Romaeus " on the coins) reigned nominally from 93 to 63 B.C.,
but was three times expelled by Mithradates the Great and as
often reinstated by Roman generals. Soon after the third
occasion he formally abdicated in favour of his son Ariobarzanes
" Philopator," of whom we gather only that he was murdered
some time before 51. His son Ariobarzanes, called " Eusebes "
and " Philo-Romaeus," earned the gratitude of Cicero during
his proconsulate in Cilicia, and fought for Pompey in the civil
492
ARION— ARIOSTO
ware, but was afterwards received with honour by Julius Caesar,
who subsequently reinstated him when expelled by Pharnaces
of Pontus. In 42 B.C. Brutus and Cassius declared him a traitor,
invaded his territory and put him to death.
The Persian satrap of this name unsuccessfully opposed Alex-
ander the Great on his way to Persepolis (331 B.C.).
ARION, of Mcthymna, in Lesbos, a semi-legendary poet and
musician, friend of Pcriander, tyrant of Corinth. He flourished
about 625 B.C. Several of the ancients ascribe to him the in-
vention of the dithyramb and of dithyrambic poetry; it is
probable, however, that his real service was confined to the
organization of that verse, and the conversion of it from a mere
drunken song, used in the Dionysiac revels, to a measured
an tis trophic hymn, sung by a trained body of performers. The
name Cycleus given to his father indicates the connexion of the
son with the " cyclic " or circular chorus which was the origin
of tragedy. According to Suidas he composed a number of songs
and proems; none of these is extant; the fragment of a hymn
to Poseidon attributed to him (Aelian, Hist.An.xii.4s) is spurious
and was probably written in Attica in the time of Euripides.
Nothing is known of the life of Anon, with the exception of
the beautiful story first told by Herodotus (i. 23) and elaborated
and embellished by subsequent wri ters. According to Herodotus,
Arion being desirous of exhibiting his skill in foreign countries
left Corinth, and travelled through Sicily and parts of Italy,
where he gained great fame and amassed a large sum of money.
At Taras (Tarentum) he embarked for his homeward voyage in a
Corinthian vessel The sight of his treasure roused the cupidity
of the sailors, who resolved to possess themselves of it by putting
him to death. In answer to his entreaties that they would spare
his life, they insisted that he should either die by his own hand
oh shipboard or cast himself into the sea. Arion chose the latter,
and as a last favour begged permission to sing a parting song.
The sailors, desirous of hearing so famous a musician, consented,
and the poet, standing on the deck of the ship, in full minstrel's
attire, sang a dirge accompanied by his lyre. - He then threw
himself overboard; but instead of perishing, he was miraculously
borne up in safety by a dolphin, supposed to have been charmed
by the music. Thus he was conveyed to Taenarum, whence he
proceeded to Corinth, arriving before the ship from Tarentum.
Immediately on his arrival Arion related his story to Pcriander,
who was at first incredulous, but eventually learned the truth
by a stratagem. Summoning the sailors, he demanded what had
become of the poet. They affirmed that he had remained
behind at Tarentum; upon which they were suddenly confronted
by Arion himself, arrayed in the same garments in which he had
leapt overboard. The sailors confessed their guilt and were
punished. Arion's lyre and the dolphin were translated to the
stars. Herodotus and Pausanias (iii. 25. 7) both refer to a brass
figure at Taenarum which was supposed to represent Arion seated
on the dolphin's back. But this story is only one of several
in which the dolphin appears as saving the lives of favoured
heroes. For instance, it is curious that Taras, the mythical
founder of Tarentum, is said to have been conveyed in this
manner from Taenarum to Tarentum. On Tarcntinc coins a
man and dolphin appear, and hence it may be thought that
the monument at Taenarum represented Taras and not Arion.
At the same time the connexion of Apollo with the dolphin must
not be forgotten. Under this form the god appeared when he
founded the celebrated oracle at Delphi, the name of which
commemorates the circumstance. * He was also the god of music,
the special preserver of poets, and to him the lyre was sacred.
Among the numerous modern versions of the story, particular
mention may be made of the pretty ballad by A. \V. Schlcgcl ; sec
also Lehrs, Pofnddre Aufsdtte aus dtm AlUrtkum (1 844-1 846);
Clement, Arion (1898). ^* ^
ARIOSTO, LODOVICO (1474-1 533) Italian poet, was born at
Rcggio, in Lombardy, on the 8th of September 1474. ' His father
was Niccolo Ariosto, commander of the citadel of Rcggio. He
showed a strong inclination to poetry from his earliest years,
but was obliged by his father to study the law — a pursuit in
which he lost five of the best years of his life. Allowed at last to
follow his inclination, he applied himself to the study of the
classics under Gregorio da Spoleto. But after a short time,
during which he read the best Latin authors, he was deprived of
his teacher by Grcgorio's removal to France as tutor of Francesco
Sforza. Ariosto thus lost the opportunity of learning Greek,
as he intended. His father dying soon after, he was compelled
to forego his literary occupations to undertake the management of
the family, whose affairs were embarrassed, and to provide for
his nine brothers and sisters, one of whom was a cripple. He
wrote, however, about this time some comedies in prose and a
few lyrical pieces. Some of these attracted the notice of the
cardinal Ippolito d'Estc, who took the. young poet under his
patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his
household. This prince usurped the character of a patron of
literature, whilst the only reward which the poet received for
having dedicated to him the Orlando Furioso, was the question,
" Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovic ?" The
poet himself tells us that the cardinal was ungrateful; deplores
the time which he spent under his yoke; and adds, that if he
received some niggardly pension, it was not to reward him for
his poetry, which the prelate despised, but to make some just
compensation for the poet's running like a messenger, with the
risk of his life, at his eminence's pleasure. ' Nor was even this
miserable pittance regularly paid during the period that the
poet enjoyed it. The cardinal went to Hungary in 151s, and
wished Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused himst.li,
pleading ill health, his love of study, the care of his private
affairs and the age of his mother, whom it would have been
disgraceful to leave. His excuses were not received, and even
an interview was denied him. Ariosto then boldly said, that
if his eminence thought to have bought a slave by assigning him
the scanty pension of 75 crowns a year, he was mistaken and
might withdraw his boon — which it seems the cardinal did.
The cardinal's brother, Alphonso, duke of Ferrara, now took
the poet under his patronage. This was but an act of simple
justice, Ariosto having already distinguished himself as a
diplomatist, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as
ambassador to Pope Julius II. The fatigue of one of these hurried
journeys brought on a complaint from which he never recovered,
and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the
violent pope, who happened at the time to be much incensed
against the duke of Ferrara. On account of the war, his salary
of only 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn
altogether after the peace; in consequence of which Ariosto
asked the duke either to provide for him, Or to allow him to
seek employment elsewhere. A province, situated on the wildest
heights of the Apennines, being then without a governor, ArioMo
received the appointment, which he held for three years. The
office was no sinecure. The province was distracted by factions
and banditti, the governor had not the requisite means to enforce
his authority and the duke did little to support his minister.
Yet it is said that Ariosto's government satisfied both the sover-
eign and the people confided to his care; and a story is added
of his having, when walking out alone, fallen in with a party
of banditti, whose chief, on discovering that his captive was
the author of Orlando Furioso, humbly apologized for not having
immediately shown him the respect which was due to his rank.
Although he had little reason to be satisfied with his office, he
refused an embassy to Pope Clement VII. offered to him by the
secretary of the duke, and spent the remainder of his life at
Ferrara, writing comedies, superintending their performance
as well as the construction of a theatre, and correcting his
Orlando Furioso, of which the complete edition was published
only a year before his death. He died of consumption on the
6th of June 1533.
That Ariosto was honoured and respected by the first men of
his age is a fact; that most of the princes of Italy showed him
great partiality is equally true; but it is not less so that their
patronage was limited to kind words. It is not known that he
ever received any substantial mark of their love for literature;
he lived and died poor. He proudly wrote on the entrance of a
house built by himself,
ARISTAENETUS— ARISTAGORAS
" Parva, sed apta mihi, scd nulli obnoxia, scd non
Sordida, parta mco scd tamch acre domus ;"
which serves to show the incorrectness of the assertion* of
flatterers, followed by Tiraboschi, that the duke of Fcrrara built
that bouse for him. The only one who seems to have given
anything to Ariosto as a reward for his poetical talent was the
marquess del Vasto, who assigned him an annuity of too crowns
on the revenues of Casteleone in Lombardy; but it was only
paid, if ever, from the end of 1 53 1 That he was crowned as poet
by Charles V seems untrue, although a diploma may have been
issued to that effect by the emperor.
The character of Ariosto seems to have been fully and justly
delineated by Gabricle, bis brother:-"
" Ornabat pictas ct grata modestia Vat cm, .
Sancta fides, dictiquc memor, munitaquc recto
Justitia, ct nullo pattcntia victa la bore,
Et eon«;tans virtus animi. ct dementia mitisi
Ambitionc procul pulsa, fast usque tumore."
His satires, in which we see him before us such as he was,
show that there was no flattery in this portrait. In these com-
positions we are struck with the noble independence of the poet.
He loved liberty with a most jealous fondness. His disposition
was changeable withal, as he himself very frankly confesses in
his Latin verses, as well as in the satires.
Hoc oltm ingenio vitalcs hausimus auras,
Multa cito ut placeant, displicitura brcvi.
Non in amorc modo mens hacc. scd in omnibus impar
Ipsa sibi longa non retinenda mora."
Hence he never would bind himself, either by going into orders,
or by marrying, till towards the end of his life, when he espoused
Alessandra, widow of Tito Strozzi. He had no issue by his wife,
but he kft two natural sons by different mothers.
His Latin poems do not perhaps dcscrve.to.be noticed: in.
the age of Flamtnio, Vida, Fracastoro and Sannazaro, better
things were due from a poet like Ariosto. "His lyrical composi-
tions show the poet, although they do not seem worthy of his
powers. His comedies, of which he wrote four, besides one which
he left unfinished, are avowedly imitated from Plautus and
Terence; and although native critics may admire in them the
elegance of the diction, the liveliness of the dialogue and the
novelty of some scenes, few will feci interest cither in the subject
or in the characters, and it is hard to approve the immoral
passages by which they are disfigured, however grateful these
might be to the audiences and patrons of theatrical representa-
tions in Ariosto's own day.
Of all the works of Ariosto, the most solid monument of his
fame is the Orlando Furioso, the extraordinary merits of which
have cast into oblivion the numberless romance poems which
inundated Italy during the 15th, z6th and 17th centuries.
The popularity which an earlier poem on the same theme,
Orlando Innamorato, by Boiardo, enjoyed in Ariosto's time,
cannot be well conceived, now that the enthusiasm of the
crusades, and the interest which was attached to a war against
the Moslems, have passed away. Boiardo wrote and read his
poem at the court of Ferrara, but died before he was able to
finish it. Many poets undertook the difficult task of its com-
pletion; but it was reserved for Ariosto both to finish and to
surpass, his original. Boiardo did not, perhaps, yield to Ariosto
either in vigour or in richness of imagination, but he lived in
a less refined age, and died before he was able to recast or even
finish the poetical romance which he had written under the
impulse of his exuberant fancy. Ariosto, on the other hand,
united to a powerful imagination an elegant and cultivated taste.
He began to write his great poem about 1503, and after having
consulted the first men of the age of Leo X., he published it in
1 5 16, in only 40 cantos (extended afterwards to 46); and up
to the moment of his death never ceased to correct and improve
both the subject and the style. It is in this latter quality that
he excels, and for which he had assigned him the name of Divino
Lodovico. Even when he jests, he never compromises his
dignity; and in pathetic description or narrative he excites
the reader's deepest feelings. In his machinery he displays a
vivacity of fancy with which no other poet can vie; but he
never lets his fancy carry him to far as to omit to ei
an art peculiar to himself, those simple and nat
strokes which, by imparting to the most extraorc
a colour of reality, satisfy the reason without disenc
imagination. The death of Zcrbino, the complaints
the effects of discord among the Saracens, the High
to the moon, the passion which causes Orlando's ma
with beauties of every variety. The supposition th.
is not connected throughout is wholly unfounded ,
connexion which, with a little attention, will becoi
The love of Ruggcro and Bradamante forms the a
of the Furioso; every part of it, except some cpiso
upon this subject; and the poem ends with their ma
'•'..The first complete edition of the Orlando Furioso w,
'at Ferrara in 1533. as noted above. The edition of Mi
18 18) follows the text of the 1532 edition with great
Of editions published in England, those of Baskcrvillc (1
1773) and Panizzi^ (London, 1834) arc the most impc
indifferent translations into English of Sir John Harrii
and John Hoolc (1783) have been superseded by the spi
ing of W. Stewart Rose (1823). See also E. Gardner,
Prince of Court Poets (1906).
ARISTAENETUS, Greek epistolographer, flouris
5th or 6th century a.d. He was formerly identifier
tacnetus of Nicaca (the friend of Symmachus), w
in an earthquake at Kicomcdia, a.d. 35$, but intcrr
points to a much later date. Under his name two b
stories, in the form of letters, are extant; the s
borrowed from the erotic elegies of such Alexandria
Callimachus, and the language is a patchwork of p
Plato, Lucian, Alciphron and others. The stories
and insipid, and full of strange and improbable incic
Text: Boissonadc (1822); Herchcr, Epistolograpki G,
English translations; Boyer (1701); Thomas Bro
R. B. Sheridan and Halkcd (1771 and later).
ARISTAETJS, a divinity whose worship was wi(
throughout ancient Greece, but concerning whom
arc somewhat obscure. The account most genera!
connects him specially with Thcssaly. Apollo carri
Mount Pclion the nymph Cyrcnc, daughter or grand
the river-god Pcncus, and conveyed her to Libya, wh<
birth to Aristacus. From this circumstance the tow;
took its name. The child was at first handed over
of the Hours, or the nymph Melissa and the ccnta
He afterwards left Libya and went to Thebes* where
instruction from the Muses in the arts qf healing an*
and married Autonoc, 'daughter of Cadmus, by wl
several children, among others, the unfortunate Ac
is said to have visited Ccos, where, by erecting a ten
Icmaeus (the giver of moisture), he freed the inhab
a terrible drought. The islanders worshipped him
sionaUy identified him with Zeus, calliug him Zeu:
After travelling through many of the Aegean islan
Sicily, Sardinia and Magna Graecia, everywhere
benefits and receiving divine honours, Aristacus rcac
where he was initiated into the mysteries of Die
finally disappeared near Mount Haemus. While in '
said to have caused the death of Eurydicc, who w:
a snake while fleeing from him. Aristacus was c
benevolent deity; he was worshipped as the first whe
the cultivation of bees (Virgil, Ccorg. iv. 315-558),
vine and olive; he was the protector of herdsmen a
he warded off the evil effects of the dog-star; he i>
arts of healing and prophecy. He was often ide
Zeus, Apollo and Dionysus. In ancient sculptures ;
is represented as a young man, habited like a sht
sometimes carrying a sheep on his shoulders. Co
exhibit the head of Aristacus and Sir i us in the foi
crowned with rays.
Pindar, Pythia, ix. 5-65; Apollonius Rhodius, schol
500; Diodorus, iv. 81.
ARISTAGORAS (d. 497 B.C.), brother-in-law -an
Histiacus, tyrant of Miletus. While Histiaeus was
a prisoner at the court of Darius, he acted as regent
+94
ARISTANDER— ARISTIDES
In 500 B.C. he persuaded the Persians to join him in an attack
upon Naxos, but he quarrelled with Mega bates, the Persian
commander, who warned the inhabitants of the island, and the
expedition failed. Finding himself the object of Persian sus-
picion, Artstagoras, instigated by a message from Histiacus,
raised the standard of revolt in Miletus, though it seems likely
that this step had been under consideration for some time (see
Ionia). After the complete failure of the Ionian revolt he
emigrated to Myrcinus in Thrace. Here he fell in battle (497),
while attacking Ennea Hodoi (afterwards Amphipolis) on the
Strymon, which belonged to the Edonians, a Thracian tribe.
The aid given to him by Athens and Eretria, and the burning of
Sardis, were the immediate cause of the invasion of Greece by
Darius.
See Herodotus v. 30-51, 97-126; Thucydidcs iv. 102; Diodorus
•xii. 68 , for a more favourable view see G. B. Grundy, Great Persian
War (London. 1001).
ARISTANDER, of Telmcssus in Lycia, ,was the favourite
soothsayer of Alexander the Great; who consulted him on all
occasions. After the death of the monarch, when his body had
lain unburicd for thirty days, Aristander procured its burial by
foretelling that the country in which it was interred would be
the most prosperous in the world. He is frequently mentioned
by the historians who wrote about Alexander, and was probably
the author of a work on prodigies, which is referred to by Pliny
(Nat. Hist. xvii. 38) and Lucian.
Philopatris, 21 ; Arrian. Anabasis, ii. 26, iu. 2, iv. 4; Plutarch,
Alexander; Curtius iv. 2, 6, 15, vii. 7,
ARISTARCHUS, of Samos, Greek astronomer, flourished about
250 B.C. He is famous as having been the first to maintain
that the earth moves round the sun. On this account he was
accused of impiety by the Stoic Cleanthes, just as Galileo, in
later years, was attacked by the theologians. His only extant
work is a short treatise (with a commentary by Pappus) On the
Magnitudes and Distances of Ike Sun and Moon. His method
of estimating the relative lunar and solar distances is geometri-
cally correct, though the instrumental means at his command
rendered his data erroneous. Although the heliocentric system
is not mentioned in the treatise, a quotation in the Arcnarius
of Archimedes from a work of Aristarchus proves that he anti-
cipated the great discovery of Copernicus. Further, Copernicus
could not have known of Aristarchus's doctrine, since Archi-
medes's work was not published till after Copcrnicus's death.
Aristarchus is also said to have invented two sun-dials, one hemi-
spherical, the so-called scaphion, the other plane.
Editiojprinccps by Wallis (1688); Fortia d'Urban (1810); Ni«e
(1856). Sec Bcrgk-Hinrichs, Aristarchus von Samos (1883) ; Tannery,
Arislarque do Samos; also Astronomy.
ARISTARCHUS, of Samothrace (c. 220-143 B.C.), Greek gram-
marian and critic, flourished about 155. He settled early in
Alexandria, where he studied under Aristophanes of Byzantium,
whom he succeeded as librarian of the museum. On the accession
of the tyrant Ptolemy Physcon (his former pupil), he found his
life in danger and withdrew to Cyprus, where he died from
dropsy, hastened, it is said, by voluntary starvation, at the age
of 72. Aristarchus founded a school of philologists, called after
hhn " Aristarcheans," which long flourished in Alexandria and
afterwards at Rome. He is said to have written 800 com-
mentaries alone, without reckoning special treatises. He edited
Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles and other authors; but
his chief fame rests on his critical and exegetical edition of
Homer, practically the foundation of our present recension. In
the time of Augustus, two Aristarcheans, Didymus and Aris-
tonicus, undertook the revision of his work, and the extracts
from these two writers in the Venetian scholia to the Iliad
give an idea of Aristarchus's Homeric labours. To obtain a
thoroughly correct text, he marked with an obelus the lines
he considered spurious; other signs were used by him to indicate
notes, varieties of reading, repetitions and interpolations. He
arranged the Iliad and the Odyssey in twenty-four books as we
now have them. As a commentator bis principle was that the
author should explain himself, without recourse to allegorical
interpretation; in grammar, be- laid chief ilres* on analogy
and uniformity, of usage and construction. His views were
opposed by. Crates of Mallus, who wrote a treatise Il^i
XvufiaXlas, especially directed against them.
Sec Lehrs. De Aristarchi Stud. Homer ids (3rd ed., 188a) ; Ludwfcb.
Arislarchs komeriukc Textcritik (1884): especially Sandys, Hist, of
Class. Schol. (ed. 1906), vol. L with authorities; also Hoxsa.
ARISTEAS, a somewhat mythical personage In ancient
Greece, said to have lived in the time of Cyrus and Croesus,
or, according to some,, ca. 600 B.C. We are chiefly indebted
to Herodotus (iv. 13-15) for our knowledge of him and his poem
Arimaspeia. He belonged to a noble family of Prooonncsus,
an island colony from Miletus in the Propontis, and was sup-
posed to be inspired by Apollo. He travelled through the
countries north and east of the Euxine, and visited the Hyper-
boreans, Issedonians and Arimaspians, who fought against the
gold-guarding griffins. An important historical 1 fact which
seems to be indicated in his poem is the rush of barbarian' hordes
towards Europe under pressure from their neighbours. 'Twelve
lines of the poem are preserved'vin^-TzeUes and* Longinus.
Wonderful stories are told of Aristea&3 ,At' Proconnesus; he fell
dead in a shop; simultaneously a i traveller- declared he (had.
spoken with him near Cyzicus; his body<vanished;ssix»yeais
afterwards, he returned. Again disappearing, 240 yearsi later
he was at Mctapontum, and commanded the inhabitants to
raise a statue to himself and an altar to Apollo, whom he had ac-
companied in the form of a raven, at the founding of the city.
According to Suidas, Aristcas also wrote a prose tbcogony.
The genuineness of his works is disputed by Dionysius of
Halicarnassus.
Sec Tournier, De Aristea Proconneso(i&6$) ; Macaa,£W, iv.14 note.
ARISTEAS, the pseudonymous author of a famous Letter in
which is described, in legendary form, the origin of the Greek
translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint
(q.v.). Aristeas represents himself as a Gentile Greek, but was
really an Alexandrian Jew who lived under one of the later
Ptolemies. Though the Letter is unauthentic, it is now recognized
as a useful source of information concerning both Egyptian and
Palestinian affairs in the 2nd and possibly in the 3rd century B.C.
An English translation, based on a critical Greek text, was pub-
lished by H. St J. Thackeray in the Jewish Quarterly Reviem, vol. xv.
There are two modern editions of the Greek, one by the last named
(in Swcte's Introduction to the Old Testament in Creek. Cambridge,
1900), the other by P. Wcndland (Leipzig, 1900).
ARISTIDES {' hpi<TTtlbrii\ (c. 530-468 B.C.), Athenian statesman,
called " the Just," was the son of Lysimachus, and a member
of a family of moderate fortune. Of his early life we are told
merely that he became a follower of the statesman Cleisthcncs
and sided with the aristocratic party in Athenian pontics.
He first comes into notice as strategus in command of his native
tribe Antiochis at Marathon, and it was no doubt in consequence
of the distinction which he then achieved that he was elected
chief archon for the ensuing year (480-488). In pursuance of
his conservative policy which aimed at maintaining Athens as
a land power, he was one of the chief opponents of the naval
policy of Thcmistocles (q.v.). The conflict between the two
leaders ended in the ostracism of Aristides, at a date variously
given between 485 and 482. It is said that, on this occasion,
a voter, who did not know him, came up to him, and giving
him his sherd, desired him to write upon it the name of Aristides.
The. latter asked if Aristides had wronged him. "No," was
the reply, " and I do not even know him, but it irritates me to
hear him everywhere called the just.'*
Early in 4S0 Aristides profited by the decree recalling the
post-Marathonian exiles to help in the defence of Athens against
the Persian invaders, and was elected strategus for the year
480-470. In the campaign of Salamis he rendered loyal support
to Thcmistocles, and crowned the victory by landing Athenian
infantry on the island of Psyttaleia and annihilating the Persian
garrison stationed there (see Salamis). In 470 he was re-elected
strategus, and invested with special powers as commander of
the Athenian contingent at Plataca; he is also said to have
Judiciously suppressed a conspiracy among some oligarchic
malcontents in the army, and to have played a prominent part
ARISTIDES
495
in arranging for the celebration of the victory. In 478 or
477 Aristides was in command of the Athenian squadron off
Byzantium, and so far won the confidence of the Ionian allies
that, after revolting from the Spartan admiral Pausanias, they
offered him the chief command and left him with absolute
discretion in fixing the contributions of the newly formed con-
federacy (see Delian League). His assessment was universally
accepted as equitable, and continued as the basis of taxation
for the greater part of the league's duration; it was probably
from this that he won the title of " the Just." Aristides soon
left the command of the fleet to his friend Cimon (q.v.), but
continued to hold a predominant position in Athens. At first
he seems to have remained on good terms with Themistocles,
whom he is said to have helped in outwitting the Spartans over
the rebuilding of the walls of Athens. But in spite of state-
ments in which ancient authors have represented Aristides as
a democratic reformer, it is certain that the period following
the Persian wars during which he shaped Athenian policy was
one of conservative reaction. (For the theory based on Plutarch,
Aristid. 23, that Aristides after Plataca threw open the archon*
ship to all the citizens, see Akchon.)
He is said by some authorities to have died at Athens, by
others on a journey to the Euxine sea. The date of his death
is given by Nepos as 468; at any rate he lived to witness the
ostracism of Themistocles, towards whom he always displayed
a generous conduct, but had died before the rise of Pericles.
His estate seems to have suffered severely from the Persian
invasions, for apparently he did not leave enough money to
defray the expenses of his burial, and it is known that his
descendants even in the 4th century received state pensions.
(Sec Athens; Themistocles.)
Authorities.— Herodotus viiL 79-81, 95; ix. 28 r " Constitution
Nepos, Vita Aristidis. Sec atso E. Meyer, GeschichU des AlUrtums
(Stuttgart, iooi), iii. pp. 481, 492. In the absence of positive
information the 4th-ccntury writers (on whom Plutarch ana Nepos
mainly rely) seized upon his surname of " Just," and wove round it
a number of anecdotes more picturesque than historical. Herodotus
js practically our only trustworthy authority. (M. 0. B. C.)
ARISTIDES, of Miletus, generally regarded as the father of
Greek prose romance, flourished 150-100 B.C. He wrote six
books of erotic Milesian Tabs ( MtXij<na* A) , which enjoyed great
popularity, and were subsequently translated into Latin by
Cornelius Sisenna (x 19-67 B.C.). They are lost, with the excep-
tion of a few fragments, but the story of the Ephesian matron
jn Petronius gives an idea of their nature. They have been
compared with the old French fabliaux and the tales of
Boccaccio..
Plutarch, Crassus, 32; Ovid, Tristia, ii. 413, 443: M tiller, Frog-
vunta Historicorum Graecorum, iv.
ARISTIDES, of Thebes, a Greek painter of the 4th century
J.c. He is said to have excelled in expression. For example,
a picture of his representing a dying mother's fear lest her infant
should suck death from her breast was much celebrated. Ho
also painted one of Alexander's battles. One of his pictures
is said to have been bought by King Attalus for 100 talents
(more than £20,000).
ARISTIDES, AEUUS, surnamed Theodqrus, Greek rheto-
rician and sophist, son of Eudaemon, a priest of Zeus, was born
atHadriani in Mysia, a.d. 117 (or 129). He studied under
Herodes Atticus of Athens, Polemon of Smyrna, and Alexander of
Cotyaeum, in whose honour he composed a funeral oration still
extant. Is the practice of his calling he travelled through
Greece, Italy, Egypt and Asia, and in many places the in-
habitants erected statues to him in recognition of his talents.
In 156 he was attacked by an illness which lasted thirteen years,
the nature of which has caused considerable speculation. How-
ever, it in no way interfered with his studies; in fact, they were
prescribed as part of his cure. Aristides' favourite place of
residence was Smyrna. In 178, when it was destroyed by an
earthquake, he wrote an account of the disaster to Aurelius,
which deeply affected the emperor and induced him to rebuild
the city. The grateful inhabitants set up a statue in honour of
Aristides, and styled him the " builder " of Smyrna, He refused
all honours from them except that of priest of Asclepius, which
office he held till his death, about 189. The extant works of
Aristides consist of two small rhetorical treatises and fifty-five
declamations, some not really speeches at all. The treatises are
on political and simple speech, in which he takes Demosthenes
and Xcnophon as models for illustration; some critics attribute
these to a later compiler (Spengel, Rhctorcs Graeci). The six
Sacred Discourses have attracted some attention. They give a
full account of his protracted illness, including a mass of super-
stitious details of visions, dreams and wonderful cures, which
the god Asclepius ordered him to record. These cures, from his
account, offer similarities to the effects produced by hypnotism.
The speeches proper are cpideictic or show speeches — on certain
gods, panegyrics of the emperor and individual cities (Smyrna,
Rome); justificatory — the attack on Plato's Gorgias in defence
of rhetoric and the four statesmen, Thucydides, Miltiadcs,
Pericles, Cimon; symbouleutic or political, the subjects being
taken from the past history of free Greece — the Sicilian expedi-
tion, peace negotiations with Sparta, the political situation after
the battle of Lcuctra. The Panalhenaicus and Encomium of
Rome were actually delivered, the former imitated from Isocratcs.
The Lcplinea — the genuineness of which is disputed— contrast
unfavourably with the speech of Demosthenes. Aristides' works
were highly esteemed by his. contemporaries; they were much
used for school instruction, and distinguished rhetoricians wrote
commentaries upon them. His style, formed on the best models,
is generally clear and correct, though sometimes obscured by
rhetorical ornamentation; his subjects being mainly fictitious,
the cause possessed no living interest, and his attention was
concentrated on form and diction.
Editio princepa (52 declamations only) (15 17); Dindorf (1829):
Keil (1899) ; Sandys, Hist, of Class. SchoL I 312 (ed. 1906).
ARISTIDES, QUINTIUAKUS, the author of an ancient treatise
on music, who lived probably in the third century A.D. According
to Meibomius, in whose collection (Antiq. Musicae Auc. Scplcm,
1652) this work is printed, it contains everything on music that is
to be found in antiquity. (Sec Pauly-Wissowa, Rcakncyc. ii. 894.)
ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF. Until 1878 our knowledge of the
early Christian writer Aristides was confined to the statement of
Eusebius that he was an Athenian philosopher, who presented an
apology " concerning the faith " to the emperor Hadrian. In
that year, however, the Mechitharists of S. Lazzaro at Venice
published a fragment in Armenian * from the beginning of the
apology; and in 1889 Dr Rendel Harris found the whole of it in a
Syriac version on Mount Sinai. While his edition was passing
through the press, it was observed by the present writer that all
the while the work had been in our hands in Greek, though in a
slightly abbreviated form, as it had been imbedded as a speech
in a religious novel written about the 6th century, and entitled
" The Life of Barlaam and JosaphaL" The discovery of the
Syriac version reopened the question of the date of the work.
For although its title there corresponds to that given by the
Armenian fragment and by Eusebius, it begins with a formal
inscription to " the emperor Titus Hadrianus Antoninus
Augustus Pius "; and Dr R. Harris is followed by Harnack and
others in supposing that it was only through a careless reading
of this inscription that the work was supposed to have Been
addressed to Hadrian. If this be the case, it must be placed
somewhere in the long reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161).
There are, however, no internal grounds for rejecting the thrice-
attested dedication to Hadrian his predecessor, and the picture of
primitive Christian life which is here found points to the earlier
rather than to the later date. It is possible that the Apology was
read to Hadrian in person when he visited Athens, and that the
Syriac inscription was prefixed by a scribe on the analogy of
Justin's Apology, a mistake being made in the amplification of
Hadrian's name.
The Apology opens thus: "I, O king, by the providence of
God came into the world; and having beheld the heaven, and
the earth, and the sea, the sun and moon, and all besides, I
* Codex Vend, on*., 9*t, and Codex Elchmia*. of the nth century.
496
ARISTIDES
marvelled at their orderly disposition; and seeing the world and
all things in it, that it is moved by compulsion, I understood that
He that moveth and govcrneth it is God. For whatsoever
moveth is stronger than that which is moved, and whatsoever
f'ovcrncth is stronger than that which is governed." Having
ricfly spoken of the divine nature in the terms of Greek philo-
sophy, Aristidcs proceeds to ask which of all the races of men
have at alUpartakcn of the truth about God. Here we have the
first attempt at a systematic comparison of ancient religions.
For the purpose of his inquiry he adopts an obvious threefold
division into idolaters, Jews and Christians. Idolaters, or, as he
more gently terms them in addressing the emperor, " those who
worship. what among you arc said to be gods," he subdivides
into the three great world-civilizations— Chaldeans, Greeks and
Egyptians. He chooses this order so as to work up to a climax
of error and absurdity in heathen worship. The direct nature-
worship of the Chaldeans is shown to be false because its objects
arc works of the Creator, fashioned for the use of men. They obey
fixed laws and have no power over themselves. " The Greeks
have erred worse than the Chaldeans . . . calling those gods who
arc no gods, according to their evil lusts, in .order that having
these as advocates of their wickedness they may commit adultery,
and plunder and kill, and do the worst of deeds." The gods of
Olympus arc challenged one by one, and shown to be cither vile or
helpless, or both at once. A heaven of quarrelling divinities
cannot inspire a reasonable worship. These gods are not even
respectable; how can they be adorable ? " The Egyptians have
erred worse than all the nations; for they were not content with
the worships of the Chaldeans and Greeks, but introduced,
moreover, as gods even brute beasts of the dry land and of the
waters, and plants and herbs. . . . Though they see their gods
eaten by others and by men, and burned, and slain, and rotting,
they do not understand concerning them that they are no
gods."
Throughout the whole of the argument there is strong common-
sense and a stern severity unrelieved by conscious humour.
Aristidcs is engaged in a real contest; he strikes hard blows, and
gives no quarter. He cannot see, as Justin and Clement see,
a striving after truth, a feeling after God, in the older religions,
or even in the philosophies of Greece. He has no patience with
attempts to find a deeper meaning in the stories of the gods.
" Do they say that one nature underlies these diverse forms ?
Then why docs god hate god, or god kill god ? Do they say
that the histories are mythical? Then the gods themselves
are myths, and nothing more."
The Jews arc briefly treated. After a reference to their
descent from Abraham and their sojourn in Egypt, Aristidcs
praises them for their worship of the one God, the Almighty
Creator; but blames them as worshipping angels, and observing
" sabbaths and new moons, and the unleavened bread, and the
great fast, and circumcision, and cleanness of meats." He then
proceeds to the description of the Christians. He begins with a
statement which, when purged of glosses by a comparison of
the three forms in which it survives, reads thus: " Now the
Christians reckon their race from the Lord Jesus Christ; and
He is confessed to be the Son of God Most High. " Having by the
Holy Spirit come down from heaven, and having been born of
a Hebrew virgin, He took flesh and appeared unto men, to call
them back from their error of many gods; and having completed
His wonderful dispensation, He was pierced by the Jews, and
after three days He revived and went up to heaven. And the
glory of His coming thou canst learn, O king, from that which
is called among them the cvr.ngclic scripture, if thou wilt read it.
He had twelve disciples, who after His ascent into heaven went
forth into the provinces of the world and taught His greatness;
whence they who at this day believe their preaching are called
Christians." This passage contains striking correspondences
with the second section of the Apostles' Creed. The attribution
of the Crucifixion to the Jews appears in several znd-ccntury
documents; Justin actually uses the words "He was pierced
by you " in his dialogue with Trypho the Jew.
"These arc they," he proceeds, "who beyond all the nations
of the earth have found the truth: for they know God as Creator
and Maker of all things, and they worship no other god beside
Him; for they have His commandments graven on their hearts,
and these they keep in expectation of the world to come, ....
Whatsoever they would not should be done unto them, they do
not to another. . . . He that hath supplieth him that hath not
without grudging: if they see a stranger they bring him under
their roof, and rejoice over him, as over a brother indeed, for they
call not one another brethren after the flesh, but after the spirit
They arc ready for Christ's sake to give up their own lives; for
His commandments they securely keep, living holily and right-
eously, according as the Lord their God hath commanded them,
giving thanks to Him at all hours, over all their food and drink,
and the rest of their good things." This simple description is
fuller in the Syriac, but the additional details must be accepted
with caution: for while it is likely that the monk who appro-
priated the Greek may have cut it down to meet the exigencies
of his romance, it is the habit of certain Syriac translators to
elaborate their originals. After asserting that " this is the way
of truth," and again referring for further information to " the
writings of the Christians," he says: " And truly this is a new
race, and there is something divine mingled with it." At the
close we have a passage which is found only in the Syriac, but
which is shown by internal evidence to contain original elements:
" The Greeks, because they practise foul things . . . turn the
ridicule of their foulness upon the Christians. " This is an allusion
to the charges of Thycstcan banquets and other immoralities,
which the early apologists constantly rebut. "But the Christians
offer up prayers for them, that they may turn from their error;
and when one of them turns, he is ashamed before the Christians
of the deeds that were done by him, and he confesses to God
saying: ' In ignorance I did these things '; and he cleanses his
heart, and his sins, arc forgiven him, because he did them in
ignorance in former time, when be was blaspheming the true
knowledge of the Christians."
These last words point to the use in the composition of this
Apology of a lost apocryphal work of very early date, The Preach-
ing of Peter. This book is known to us chiefly by quotations
in Clement of Alexandria: it was widely circulated, and at one
time claimed a place within the Canon. It was used by the
Gnostic Hcradcon and probably by the unknown writer of the
epistle to Diognetus. From the fragments which survive r.%
sec that it contained: (i) a description of the nature of God,
which closely corresponds with Arist. i., followed by (2) a warning
not to worship according to the Greeks, with an exposure of
various forms of idolatry; (3) a warning not to worship according
to the Jews — although they alone think they know the true God
— for they worship angels and are superstitious about moons
and sabbaths, and feasts, comp. Arist. xiv.; (4) a description
of the Christians as being " a third race," and worshipping God
in " a new way " through Christ; (5) a proof of Christianity
from Jewish prophecy; (6) a promise of forgiveness to Jews
and Gentiles who should turn to Christ, because they had sinned
" in ignorance " in the former time. Now all these points, except
the proof from Jewish prophecy, axe taken up and worked out
by Aristidcs with a frequent use of the actual language of
The Preaching of Peter. A criterion is thus given us for the
reconstruction of the Apology, where the Greek which we have
has been abbreviated, and we arc enabled to claim with certainty
some passages of the Syriac whkh might otherwise be suspected
as interpolations.
The style of the Apology is exceedingly simple. It is curiously
misdescribed by Jerome, who never can have seen it, as " Apolo-
gcticum pro Christians contcxtum philosophorum sententiis "
Its merits arc its recognition of the helplessness of the old
heathenism to satisfy human aspiration after the divine, and
the impressive simplicity with which it presents the unfa 'ling
argument of the lives of Christians.
The student may consult The Apology of AriUides. Syriac te«t
and translation (J- R< Harris), with an appendix containing the
Greek text, Texis and Studies, i. 1 (i&oi). and a critical discussion
by R. Sccberg in Zahn's Porsehungen. v. 2 (1893); also, brief
ARISTIPPUS— ARISTOCRACY
+97
dbcutrionsby A. Harnack, AltchrisQ. Litleratur t 1 96 ff., Chronohtie,
i 271 ff., where references to other writers may be found. The
Epistota ad omnes phitosophos and the Homily on tin PtuiUnt Tkuf,
ascribed by Armenian tradition to Aristides, are really of Jth-century
origin. Trans, of Apology by W. S. Walford (1909). (J. A. R.)
ARISTIPPUS (c 435*356 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the founder
of the Cyrenaic school, was the son of Aritadas, a merchant of
Cyrene. At an early age he came to Athens, and was induced
to remain by the fame of Socrates, whose pupil he became.
Subsequently he travelled through a number of Grecian cities,
and finally settled in Cyrene, where he founded his school.
His philosophy was eminently practical (see Cyrenaics).
Starting from the two Socratic principles of virtue and happiness,
be emphasized the second, and made pleasure the criterion
of life. That he held to be good which gives the maximum
of pleasure. In pursuance of this he indulged in all forms of
external luxury. At the same time he remained thoroughly
master of himself and had the self-control to refrain or to enjoy.
Diogenes Laertius (ii. 65), quoting Phanjas the peripatetic, says
that he received money for his teaching, and Aristotle (Md. ii. 2)
expressly calls him a sophist. Diogenes further states that he
wrote several treatises, but none have survived. The five
letters attributed to him are undoubtedly spurious. His
daughter Arete, and her son Aristippus (/inrpo&oajcros, " pupil
of his mother "), carried on the school after his death. A
cosmopolitan on principle, and a convinced disbeliever in the
ethics of his day, he comes very near to modern empiricism and
especially to the modern Hedonist school.
ARISTO or Ariston, of Chios (c. 250 B.C.), a Stoic philosopher
and pupil of Zeno. He differed from Zeno on many points,
and approximated more closely to the Cynic school. He was
eloquent (hence his nickname " the Siren ") but controversial
in tone. He despised logic, and rejected the philosophy of nature
as beyond the powers of man. Ethics alone he considered
worthy of study, and in that only general and theoretical ques-
tions. He rejected Zeno's doctrine of desirable things, inter-
mediate between virtue and vice. There is only one virtue —
a dear, intelligent, healthy state of mind (hygeia). Aristo Is
frequently confounded with another philosopher of the same
name, Ariston of Iulis, in Ccos, who, about 230 B.C., succeeded
Lyco as scholarch of the Peripatetics. (See Stoics.)
ARISTO, of Pella, a Jewish Christian writer of the middle of
the 2nd century, who like Hegesippus (q.v.) represents a school
of thought more liberal than that of the Pharisaic and Esscne
Ebionites to which the decline of Jewish Christianity mainly
led. Aristo is cited by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 6. 3) for a decree
of Hadrian respecting the Jews, but he is best known as the
writer of a Dialogue (between Papiscus, an Alexandrian Jew,
and Jason, who represents the author) on the witness of prophecy
to Jesus Christ, which was approvingly defended by Origen
against the reproaches of Celsus. The little book was perhaps
used by Justin Martyr in his own Dialogue with Trypho, and
probably also by Tertullian and Cyprian, but it has not been
preserved.
The literature is cited in G. KrQgcr's Early Christian Literature,
pp. 104 f.
ARISTOBTJLTJS, of Cassandreia, Greek historian, accompanied
Alexander the Great on his campaigns, of which he wrote an
account, mainly geographical and ethnological. His work was
largely used by Arrian.
MQller, Hisloricorum Craecorum Fragmenta; Schtine, De Rerum
AUxandri Magni Scriptoribus (1870).
ARISTOBTJLTJS, of Paneas (c 160 B.C.), a Jewish philosopher
of the Peripatetic school. Gcrcke places him in the time of
Ptolemy X. Phflometor (end of 2nd century), Anatolius in that
of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, but the middle of the 2nd century
is more probable. He was among the earliest of the Jewish-
Alexandrian philosophers whose aim was to reconcile and
identify Greek philosophical conceptions with the Jewish religion.
Only a few fragments of his work, apparently entitled Comment-
aries on the Writings of Moses, are quoted by Clement, Eusebius
and other theological writers, but they suffice to show its object.
He endeavoured to prove that early Greek philosophers had
"9
borrowed largely from certain parts of Scripture, and quoted
from Linus, Orpheus, Musaeus and others, passages which
strongly resemble the Mosaic writings. These passages, however,
were obvious forgeries. It is suggested that the name Aristo-
bulus was taken from 2 Mace. i. xo. The hypothesis (Schlatter,
Das neugefundene hebr&ischc Stiick des Sirach) that it was from
Aristobulus that the philosophy of Ecclesioslicus was derived
is not generally accepted.
See E. Schilrcr, History of the Jewish People (Eng. trans., 1800*
1891), ii. 237 seq.; article Alexandrian School: Philosophy;
and s.v. " Anstobulus " in Jewish Encyclopedia (Paul Wendland).
ARISTOCRACY (Gr. aptoros, best; xparfci, government),
etymologically, the " rule of the best," a form of government
variously defined and appreciated at different times and by
different authorities. In Greek political philosophy, aristocracy
is the government of those who most nearly attain to the ideal
of human perfection. Thus Plato in the Republic advocates
the rule of the " philosopher-king " who, in the social scheme,
is analogous to Reason in the intellectual, and alone is qualified
to control the active principles, i.e. the fighting population and
the artisans or workers. Aristocracy is thus the government
by those who are superior both morally and intellectually, and*
therefore, govern directly in the interests of the governed, as
a good doctor works for the good of his patient. Aristotle
classified good governments under three heads — monarchy,
aristocracy and commonwealth (roXtrcta), to which he opposed
the three perverted forms — tyranny or absolutism, oligarchy
and democracy or mob-rule. The distinction between aristocracy
and oligarchy, which are both necessarily the rule of the few,
is that whereas the few aptorot will govern unselfishly, the
oligarchs, being the few wealthy (" plutocracy " in modern
terminology), will allow their personal interests to predominate.
While Plato's aristocracy might be the rule of the wise and
benevolent despot, Aristotle's is necessarily the rule of the few.
Historically aristocracy develops from primitive monarchy
by the gradual progressive limitation of the regal authority.
This process is effected primarily by the nobles who have hitherto
formed the council of the king (an excellent example will be found
in Athenian politics, see Akchon), whose triple prerogative—
religious, military and judicial— is vested, e.g., in a magistracy of
three. These are cither members of the royal house or the heads
of noble families, and are elected for life or periodically by their
peers, i.e. by the old royal council (cf. the Areopagus at Athens,
the Senate at Rome), now the sovereign power. In practice
this council depends primarily on a birth qualification, and thus
has always been more or less inferior to the Aristotelian ideal;
it is, by definition, an " oligarchy " of birth, and is recruited
from the noble families, generally by the addition of emeritus
magistrates. From the earliest times, therefore, the word
" aristocracy " became practically synonymous with " oligarchy,"
and as such it is now generally used in opposition to democracy
(which similarly took the place of Aristotle's roXtrcia), in which
the ultimate sovereignty resides in the whole citizen body.
The aristocracy of which we know most in ancient Greece
was that of Athens prior to the reforms of Cleisthcncs, but all
the Greek city-states passed through a period of aristocratic
or oligarchic government. Rome, between the regal and the
imperial periods, was always more or less under the aristocratic
government of the senate, in spite of the gradual growth of
democratic institutions (the Lat. optimates is the equivalent
of LpiOTOi). There is, however, one feature which distinguishes
these aristocracies from those of modern states, namely, that
they were all slave-owning. The original relation of the slave-
population, which in many cases outnumbered the free citizens,
cannot always be discovered. But in some cases we know that
the slaves were the original inhabitants who had been overcome
by an influx of racially different invaders (of. Sparta with its
Helots) ; in others they were captives taken in war. Hence even
the most democratic states of antiquity were so far aristocratic
that the larger proportion of the inhabitants had no voice in the
government. In the second place this relation gave rise to a
philosophic doctrine, held even by Aristotle, that there were
10
4^8
ARISTODEMUS— ARISTOMENES
peoples who were inferior by nature and adapted to submission
(4frct JoOXot); such people had no " virtue " in the technical
civic sense, and were properly occupied in performing the menial
functions of society, under the control of the ipumx. Thus,
combined with the criteria of descent, civic status and the
ownership of the land, there was the further idea of intellectual
and social superiority. These qualifications were naturally, in
course of time, shared by an increasingly large number of the
lower class who broke down the barriers of wealth and education.
From this stage the transition is easy to the aristocracy of
wealth, such as we find at Carthage and later at Venice, in periods
when the importance of commerce was paramount and mercantile
pursuits had cast off the stigma of inferiority (in Gr. fiavavcia).
It is important at this stage to distinguish between aristocracy
and the feudal governments of medieval Europe. In these it is
true that certain power was exercised by a small number of
families, at the expense of the majority. But under this system
each noble governed in a particular area and within strict
limitations imposed by his sovereign; no sovereign authority
was vested in the nobles collectively.
Under the conditions of the present day the distinction
of aristocracy, democracy and monarchy cannot be rigidly
maintained from a purely governmental point of view. In no
case does the sovereign power in a state reside any longer in an
aristocracy, and the word has acquired a social rather than a
political sense as practically equivalent to " nobility," though
the distinction is sometimes drawn between the " aristocracy
of birth " and the " aristocracy of wealth.** Modern history,
however, furnishes many examples of government in the hands
of an aristocracy. Such were the aristocratic republics of Venice,
Genoa and the Dutch Netherlands, and those of the free imperial
cities in Germany, Such, too, in practice though not in theory,
was the government of Great Britain from the Revolution of
1689 to the Reform Bill of 1832. The French nobles of the
Ancien Rtgime, denounced as " aristocrats " by the Revolution-
ists, had no share as such in government, but enjoyed exceptional
privileges (e.g. exemption from taxation). This privileged posi-
tion is still enjoyed by the heads of the German mediatized
families of the " High Nobility." In Great Britain, on the other
hand, though the aristocratic principle is still represented in the
constitution by the House of Lords, the " aristocracy " generally,
apart from the peers, has no special privileges.
ARIST0DEMU3 (8th century B.C.), semi-legendary ruler of
Hessenia in the time of the first Mcssenian War. Tradition
relates that, after some six years' fighting, the Messenians were
forced to retire to the fortified summit of Ithome. The Delphic
oracle bade them sacrifice a virgin of the house of Acpytus.
Aristodemus offered his own daughter, and when her lover,
hoping to save her life, declared that she was no longer a maiden,
he slew her with his own hand to prove the assertion false.
In the thirteenth year of the war, Euphaes, the Messeiu'an king,
died. Ashe left no children, popular election was resorted
to, and Aristodemus was chosen as his successor, though the
national soothsayers objected to him as the murderer of his
daughter. As a ruler he was mild and conciliatory. He was
victorious in the pitched battle fought at the foot of Ithome
in the fifth year of his reign, a battle in which the Messenians,
reinforced by the entire Arcadian levy and picked contingents
from Argos and Sicyon, defeated the combined Spartan and
Corinthian forces. Shortly afterwards, however, led by un favour-
able omens to despair of final success, he killed himself on his
daughter's tomb. Though little is known of his life and the
chronology is uncertain, yet Aristodemus may fairly be regarded
as a historical character. His reign is dated 731-724 B.C. by
Pausanias, and this may be taken as approximately correct,
though Duncker (History of Greece, Eng. trans., ii. p. 69) inclines
to place it eight years later.
Piussniai Iv. 9-13 Is practically our only authority. He followed
m hit chief source the prow history of Myron of Priene, an untrust-
worthy writer, probably of the and century B.C. ; hence a good deal of
his story must be regarded as fanciful, though we cannot distinguish
accurately between the true and the fictitious. (M. N. T.)
ARISTOLOCHIA (Gr. fipurrot, best, Xoxtfc, child-birth, in
allusion to its repute in promoting child-birth), a genus of shrubs
or herbs of the natural order Aristolocbiaceae, often with climb-
ing stems, found chiefly in the tropics. The flower forms a tube
inflated at the base. A. CUmattiis, birthwort, is a central and
southern European species, found sometimes in England appar-
ently wild on ruins and similar places, but not a native. A.
Sipho, Dutchman's pipe, or pipe vine, is a climber, native in
the woods of the Atlantic United States, and grown in Europe
as a garden plant The flower is bent like a pipe.
A member of the same order is the asarabacca (A scrum euro-
patum), a small creeping herb with kidney-shaped leaves and
small purplish bell-shaped flowers. It is a native of the woe -is
of Europe and north temperate Asia, and occurs wild in some
English counties. It was formerly grown for medicinal pur-
poses, the underground stem having cathartic and emetic
properties. An allied species, A. canadense, is the Canadian
snake-root, a native of Canada and the Atlantic United States.
ARISTOMENES, of Andania, the semi-legendary hero of the
second Messenian war. He was a member of the Aepytid family,
the son of Nicomedes (or, according to another version, of
Pyrrhus) and Nicoteleia, and took a prominent part in stirring
up the revolt against Sparta and securing the co-operation of
Argos and Arcadia. He showed such heroism in the first en-
counter, at Derae, that the crown was offered him, but he would
accept only the title of commander-in-chief. His daring is
illustrated by the story that he came by night to the temple of
Athene " of the Brazen House " at Sparta, and there set up his
shield with the inscription, "Dedicated to the goddess by
Aristomenes from the Spartans." His prowess contributed
largely to the Mcssenian victory over the Spartan and Corinthian
forces at " The Boar's Barrow " in the plain of Stenydarus,
but in the following year the treachery of the Arcadian king
Aristocrates caused the Messenians to suffer a crushing defeat
at " The Great Trench." Aristomenes and the survivors retirt J
to the mountain stronghold of Eira, where they defied the
Spartans for eleven years. On one of his raids he and fifty of hi>
companions were captured and thrown into the Caeadas, tie
chasm on Mt. Taygetus into which criminals were cast. Aristo-
menes alone was saved, and soon reappeared at Eira: legend
told how he was upheld in his fall by an eagle and escaped by
grasping the tail of a fox, which led him to the hole by which
it had entered. On another occasion he was captured during
a truce by some Cretan auxiliaries of the Spartans, and wis
released only by the devotion of a Messenian girl who afterwards
became his daughter-in-law. At length Eira was betrayed
to the Spartans (668 B.C. according to Pausanias), and after a
heroic resistance Aristomenes and his followers had to evacuate
Mcsscnia and seek a temporary refuge with their Arcadiin
allies. A desperate plan to seize Sparta itself was foiled by
Aristocrates, who paid with his life for his treachery. Aristo-
menes retired to Ialysus in Rhodes, where Darhagetus, his
son-in-law, was king, and died there while planning a jourcey
to Sardis and Ecbatana to seek aid from the Lydian and Mediaa
sovereigns (Pausanias iv. 14-24). Another tradition represents
him as captured and slain by the Spartans during the »u
(Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 187; Val. Maximus i. 8, 15; Stcph.
Byzant s.v. 'Avkurta). Though there seems to be no conclusive
reason for doubting the existence of Aristomenes, his history,
as related by Pausanias, following mainly the Uessenua of
the Cretan epic poet Rhianus (about 330 B.C.), is evidently
largely interwoven with fictions. These probably arose after
the foundation of Mcssene in 369 B.C. Aristomenes' statu*
was set up in the stadium there: his bones were fetched from
Rhodes and placed in a tomb surmounted by a column (Paus iv
32. 3, 6); and more than five centuries later we still find htrck
honours paid to him, and his exploits a popular subject of 50&C
(ib.iv. 14. 7; 16.6).
For further details see Pausanias iv.; Polyaenus ii. 31: G. Crr*.
History of Greece, pt. ii. chap, vii.; M. Duncker, History of Ct ft • ••
Eng. trans., book iv. chap, viii.; A. Holm, History of Cte*^,
Eng. trans., vol. t. chap. xvi. (M. >»\ T.j
ARISTONICUS— ARISTOPHANES
+99
ARISIOOTCUS* of Alexandria, Greek grammarian, lived during
the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He taught at Rome and
wrote commentaries and grammatical treatises. His chief work
was Uepl Iqfjtba* 'O/ifaot/, in which he gave an account of the
" critical marks " inserted by Aristarchus in the margin of his
recension of the text of the Iliad and Odyssey. Important frag*
merits are preserved in the scholia of the Venetian Codex A of
the Iliad.
Friedlander, Aristoniei Ibpt ZwmImv OXiAfet reliquiae (1853);
Carouth, it rtsfwrici Otpl Z«mW 'Oforvuat reliquiae (1869).
ARISTOPHANES (c. 446-385 a.c. 1 ), the great comic dramatist
and poet of Athens. His birth-year is uncertain. He is known
to have been about the same age as Eupolis, and is said to have
been " almost a boy " when his first comedy {The Banqueters)
was brought out in 427 B.C. His father Philippus was a land*
owner in Aegioa. Aristophanes was an Athenian citizen of the tribe
Pandionis, and the deme Cydathene. The stories which made
him a native of Camirus in Rhodes, or of the Egyptian Naucratis,
had probably no other foundation than an indictment for usur-
pation of civic rights (Ifrtos 7P«<H) which appears to have been
more than once laid against him by Cleon. His three sons—
Philippus, Araros and Nicostratus — were all comic poets.
Philippus, the eldest, was a rival of Eubulus, who began to ex-
hibit in 376 B.C. Araros brought out two of his father's latest
comedies— the Coealus and the Aeolosicon, and in 375 began to
exhibit works of his own. Nicostratus, the younger, is assigned
by Athenaeus to the Middle Comedy, but belongs, as Is shown by
some of the names and characters of bis pieces, to the New
Comedy also.
Although tragedy and comedy had their' common origin in
the festivals of Dionysus, the regular establishment of tragedy
at Athens preceded by half a century that of comedy. The Old
Comedy may be said to have lasted about eighty years (470-
3qo b.c), and to have flourished about fifty-six (460-404 B.C.).
Of the forty poets who are named as having illustrated it the
chief were Cratinus, Eupolis and Aristophanes. The Middle
Comedy covers a period of about seventy years (300-3*0 B.C.),
its chief poets being Antiphanes, Alexis, Theopompus and
Strattis. The New Comedy was in vigour for about seventy years
(320-250 B.c), having for its foremost representatives Menander,
Philemon and Diphilus. The Old Comedy was possible only for
a thorough democracy. Its essence was a satirical censorship,
unsparing in personalities, of public and of private life— of
morality, of statesmanship, of education, of literature, of social
usage — in a word, of everything which had an interest for the
city or which could amuse the citizens. Preserving all the free-
dom of banter and of riotous fun to which its origin gave it an
historical right, it aimed at associating with this a strong practical
purpose — the expression of a democratic public opinion in such
a form that no misconduct or folly could altogether disregard it.
That licentiousness, that grossness of allusion which too often
disfigures it, was, it should be remembered, exacted by the
sentiment of the Dionysiac festivals, as much as a decorous
cheerfulness is expected at the holiday times of other worships.
This was the popular element. Without this the entertainment
would have been found flat and unseasonable. But for a comic
poet of the higher calibre the consciousness of a recognized power
which he could exert, and the desire to use this power for the
good of the dty, must always have been the uppermost feelings.
At Athena the poet of the Old Comedy had an influence analogous,'
perhaps, rather to that of the journalist than to that of the
modern dramatist. But the established type of Dionysiac
comedy gave him an instrument such as no public satirist has
ever wielded. When Moliere wished to brand hypocrisy he
could only make his Tartuffe the central figure of a regular
drama, developed by a regular process to a just catastrophe.
He had no choice between touching too lightly and using sus-
tained force to make a profound impression. The Athenian
dramatist of the Old Comedy worked under no such limitations
i rThe dates in the text, as given by Jebb, are retained.
According to R. G. Kent, Classical Review (April 1905, Apnl 1006),
Arittophaaes was bora to 453. sad died in 37s *o«l
of form. The wildest flights of extravagance were permitted
to him. Nothing bound him to a dangerous emphasis or a
wearisome insistence. He could deal the keenest thrust, or
make the most earnest appeal, and at the next moment— if his
instinct told him that it was time to change the subject— vary
the serious strain by burlesque. He bad, in short, an incom-
parable scope for trenchant satire directed by sure tact.
k Aristophanes Is for us the representative of the Old Comedy.
But his genius, while it includes, also transcends the genius of
the Old Comedy. He can denounce the frauds of a Cleon, he can
vindicate the duty of Athens to herself and to her allies, with
a stinging scorn and a force of patriotic indignation which
makes the poet almost forgotten in the citizen. He can banter
Euripides with an ingenuity of light mockery which makes it
seem for the time as if the leading Aristophanic trait was the
art of seeing all things from their prosaic side. Yet it is neither
in the denunciation nor in the mockery that he is most individual
His truest and highest faculty is revealed by those wonderful
bits of lyric writing in which he soars above everything that can
move laughter or tears, and makes the clear air thrill with the
notes of a song as free, as musical and as wild as that of the
nightingale invoked by his own chorus in the Birds. The speech
of Dikaios Logos in the Clouds, the praises of country life in the
Peace, the serenade in the EccUsiaxusae, the songs of the Spartan
and Athenian maidens in the Lysislrata, above all, perhaps, the
chorus in the Frogs, the beautiful chant of the Initiated,— these
passages, and such as these, are the true glories of Aristophanes.
They are the strains, not of an artist, but of one who warbles for
pure gladness of heart in some place made bright by the presence
of a god. Nothing else in Greek poetry has quite this wild
sweetness of the woods. Of modern poets Shakespeare alone,
perhaps, has it in combination with a like richness and fertility
of fancy.
Fifty-four* comedies were ascribed to Aristophanes. Forty-
three of these are allowed as genuine by Bergk. Eleven only
are extant. These eleven form a running commentary on the
outer and the inner life of Athens during thirty-six years. They
may be ranged under three periods. The first, extending to
420 b.c, includes those plays in which Aristophanes uses an
absolutely unrestrained freedom of political satire. The second
ends with the year 405. Its productions are distinguished from
those of the earlier time by a certain degree of reticence and
caution. The third period, down to 388 B.C., comprises two
plays in which the transition to the character of the Middle
Comedy is well marked, not merely by disuse of the parabasis,
but by general self-restraint.
I. First Period. (1) 425 B.C. The Achamians.— Since the
defeat in Boeotia the peace party at Athens had gained ground,
and in this play Aristophanes seeks to strengthen their hands.
Dicaeopolis, an honest countryman, is determined to make
peace with Sparta on his own account, not deterred by the angry
men of Acharnae, who crave vengeance for the devastation of
their vineyards. He sends to Sparta for samples of peace; and
he is so much pleased with the flavour of the Thirty Years'
sample that he at once concludes a treaty for himself and his
family. All the blessings of life descend on him ; while Lamachus,
the leader of the war party, is smarting from cold, snow and
wounds.
(2) 424 b.c The JftugAJf.— Three years before, in his Baby-
lonians, Aristophanes had assailed Cleon as the typical dema-
gogue. In this play he continues the attack. The Demos, or
State, is represented by an old man who has put himself and
his household into the hands of a rascally Paphlagonian steward.
Nicias and Demosthenes, slaves of Demos, contrive that the
Paphlagonian shall be supplanted in their master's favour by
a sausage-seller. No sooner has Demos been thus rescued than
his youthfulness and his good sense return together.
(3) 423 B.C. The Clouds (the first edition; a second edition
was brought out in 422 B.C.).— This play would be correctly
described as an attack on the new spirit of intellectual inquiry
and culture rather than on a school or class. Two classes of
* [Or " forty-four " (reading *V tor *»' in StttdasM
Soo
ARISTOPHANES
thinkers or teachers ate, however, specially satirized under the
general name of " Sophist " (v. 331)—!. The Physical Philo-
sophers—indicated by allusions to the doctrines of Anaxagoras,
Heraclitus and Diogenes of Apollonia. a. The professed
teachers of rhetoric, belles Icttres, &c, such as Protagoras and
Prodicus. Socrates is taken as the type of the entire tendency.
A youth named Pheidippides — obviously meant for Alcibiades
—is sent by his father to Socrates to be cured of his dissolute
propensities. Under the discipline of Socrates the youth becomes
accomplished in dishonesty and impiety. The conclusion of the
play shows the indignant father preparing to burn up the
philosopher and his hall of contemplation.
(4) 423 B.C. The Wasps.— This comedy, which suggested Les
Plaideurs to Racine, is a satire on the Athenian love of litigation.
The strength of demagogy, while it lay chiefly in the ecdesia,
lay partly also in the paid dicasteries. From this point of
view the Wasps may be regarded as supplementing the Knights.
Philodeon (admirer of Cleon), an old man, has a passion for law-
suits—a passion which his son, Bdclycleon (detester of Cleon)
falls to check, until he bits upon the device of turning the house
into a law-court, and paying his father for absence from the
public suits. The house-dog steals a Sicilian cheese; the old
man is enabled to gratify his taste by trying the case, and, by an
oversight, acquits the defendant. In the second half of the
play a change comes over the dream of Philodeon; from liti-
gation he turns to literature and music, and is congratulated
by the chorus on his happy conversion.
(5) 421 B.c. L The Peace.— In. its advocacy of peace with Sparta,
this play, acted at the Great Dionysia shortly before the con-
clusion of the treaty, continues the purpose of the Acharnians.
Trygaeus, a distressed Athenian, soars to the sky on a beetle's
back. There he finds the gods engaged in pounding the Greek
states in a mortar. In order to stop this, he frees the goddess
Peace from a well in which she is imprisoned. The pestle and
mortar are laid aside by the gods, and Trygaeus marries one of
the handmaids of Peace.
II. Second Period. (6) 414 B.C. The Birds.— Peisthetaerus; an
enterprising Athenian, and his friend Euelpides persuade the
birds to build a city — " Cloud-Cuckoo-borough " — in mid-air,
so as to cut off the gods from men. The plan succeeds; the
gods send envoys to treat with the birds; and Peisthetaerus
marries Basileia, daughter of Zeus. Some have found in the
Birds a complete historical allegory of the Sicilian expedition;
others, a general satire on the prevalence at Athens of head-
strong caprice over law and order; others, merely an aspiration
towards a new and purified Athens— a dream to which the poet
had turned from his hope for a revival of the Athens of the past.
In another view, the piece is mainly a protest against the religious
fanaticism which the inddent of the Hennae had called forth.
(7) 41 1 b.c The Lysistrata. — This play was brought out during
the earlier stages of those intrigues which led to the revolution
of the Four Hundred. It appeared shortly before Peisander
had arrived in Athens from the camp at Samoa for the purpose
of organizing the oligarchic policy. The Lysistrata expresses
the popular desire for peace at any cost. As the men can do
nothing, the women take the question into their own hands,
occupy the citadel, and bring the tituen* to surrender.
(8) 411 b.c. The Thesmophoriasusae (Priestesses of Demeter).—
This came out three months later than the Lysistrata, during
the reign of terror established by the oligarchic conspirators,
but before their blow had been struck. The political meaning
of the play lies in the absence of political allusion. Fear silences
even comedy. Only women and Euripides are satirized. Euri-
pides is accused and condemned at the female festival of the
Thesmophoria.
(9) 405 B.C. The Frogs.— Una piece was brought out Just
when Athens had made her last effort in the Peloponnesian War,
eight months before the battle of Aegospotami, and about fifteen
months before the taking of Athens by Lysander. It may be
considered as an attempt to distract men's minds from public
Affairs. It is a literary criticism. Aeschylus and Euripides
1 SeeE. Curtius, HisLoJ Greece, UL (Eng. trans, p. 975).
were both lately dead. Athens is beggared of poets; and Diony-
sus goes down to Hades to bring back a poet Aeschylus and
Euripides contend in the under-world for the throne of tragedy;
and the victory is at last awarded to Aeschylus.
III. Third Period* (10) 303 B.C.* The Ecdesiasusae (women
in parliament). — The women, disg u ised as men, steal into the
ecdesia, and succeed in decreeing a new constitution. At this
time the demagogue Agyrrhius led the assembly; and the play
is, in fact, a satire on the general demoralization of public life.
(11) 388 b.c. The Piutus (Wealth).— The first edition of
the play had appeared in 408 B.C., being a symbolical represen-
tation of the fact that the victories won by Alcibiades in the
Hellespont had brought back the god of wealth to the treasure-
chamber of the Parthenon. In its extant form the Piutus is
simply a moral allegory. Chremylus, a worthy but poor man,
falls in with a blind and aged wanderer, who proves to be the god
of wealth. Asdepius restores eyesight to Piutus; whereupon
all the just are made rich and all the unjust are reduced to
poverty.
Among the lost plays, the following are the chief of which anything
is known: —
1. The Banqueters (AatraXm), 427 B.C.— A satire on youm
Athens. A father has two sons; one is brought up in the good old
school, another in the tricky subtleties of the new; and the contrast
of results is the chief theme.
a. The Babylonians, 426 B.C. — Under this name the subject-allies
of Athens are represented as " Babylonians " — barbarian slaves,
employed to grind in the mill. The oppression of the allies by the
demagogues — a topic often touched elsewhere — was, then, the main
subject of the piece, in which Aristophanes is said to have attacked
especially the system of appointing to offices by lot. The comedy
is memorable as opening that Aristophanic war upon Cleon which
was continued in tne Knights and the Wasps.
The Merchantmen, The Farmers, The Preliminary Contest (Proagon).
by the war on the insular tributaries. The TriphaUs was probably
a satire on Alcibiades ; the Storhs, on the tragic poet Patrocles.
In the Aeolosicon — produced by his son Araros in ^87 a.c—
Aristophanes probably parodied the Aeolus of Euripides. The
Cocalus is thought to nave been a parody of the legend, according
to which a Sidhan king of that name slew Minos.
A sympathetic reader of Aristophanes can hardly fail to per-
ceive that, while his political and intellectual tendencies arc well
marked, his opinions, in so far as they colour his comedies, are
too indefinite to reward, or indeed to tolerate, analysis. Aristo-
phanes was a natural conservative. His ideal was the Athens
of the Persian wars. He disapproved the policy which had made
Athenian empire irksome to the allies and formidable to Greece;
he detested the vulgarity and the violence of mob-rule; he clave
to the old worship of the gods; he regarded the new ideas of
education as a tissue of imposture and impiety. How far he
was from clearness or precision of view in regard to the intellectual
revolution which was going forward, appears from the Clauds,
in which thinkers and literary workers who had absolutdy
nothing in common are treated with sweeping ridicule as prophets
of a common heresy. Aristophanes is one of the men for whom
opinion is mainly a matter of feeling, not of reason. His imagina-
tive susceptibility gave him a warm and loyal love for the
traditional glories of Athens, however dim the past to which
they belonged; a horror of what was ugly or ignoble in the
present; a keen perception of what was offensive or absurd in
pretension. The broad preferences and dislikes thus generated
were enough not only to point the moral of comedy, but to make
him, in many cases, a really useful censor for the dty. The
service which he could render in this way was, however, only
negative. He could hardly be, in any positive sense, a political
or a moral teacher for Athens. His rooted antipathy to in-
tellectual progress, while it affords easy and wide scope for his
wit, must after all, lower his intellectual rank. The great minds
are not the enemies of ideas. But as a mocker— to use the word
which seems most dosely to describe him on this side — he is
incomparable for the union of subtlety with riot of the <
* [The date is uncertain ; others give 39a and 3S9.]
ARISTOPHANES— ARISTOTLE
Soi
r)-
imagination. As a poet, he is immortal And, among Athenian
poets, he has it for his distinctive characteristic that he is inspired
less by that Greek genius which never allows fancy to escape
from the control of denning, though spiritualizing* reason, than
by such ethereal rapture of the unfettered fancy as lifts Shake-
speare or Shelley above it, —
" Pouring his full heart
In pro! use strains of unpremeditated art.
Bibliography.— Editio princeps (Aldine, Venice. 1498). by
Marcus Musurus (not including the Lysislrata and Thesmofkoria-.
tusae)'. S. Bergler fed. P. Burmann. 1760): Invernizi-Beck*
Dindorf (1794-1834); I. Bekker (1829); H. A. Holden (expurgated
text, 1868). with Onomasticon (new ed., 1902) ; F. H. M. Blaydes
(1&0-1893), and critical edition (1886); J. van Leeuwen (1893
fail.); F. W. Hall and E. M. Geldart (text. 1900-1901), with the
fragment (from the Oxyrhynchus papyri) of a dialogue between two
women concerning a leathern phallus, perhaps from Aristophanes.
There is a complete edition of the valuable scholia by F. Dubner
(1842, Didot series), with the ant L? t? - ' ' u Tt;
of the Ravenna MS. by A. Mart rd
(1896-1905). Among English tn de
of those of WJ. Hickie (prose, in e)
J. Hookham Frere, five plays; T. ve
all, B. B. Rogers, a brilliant woi re
is a concordance to the plays and \).
On Aristophanes generally see 1 \es
mud die kistorische Kritik (1873); 1 y-
Wissowa's Realencyclopddu, it. 1 et
Tnncunm comUU attiqm (1889) ; to-
phane (3rd ed., 1892) ; G. Dantu,
sur U wunmmeui potitiave et int
For the numerous editions and u>
English and other languages set s's
edition, and. for the literature, the e's
edition of the HtoJ* (1897) ;W.Ei >):
and " Bericht fiber die Literatur 1 en
Jahren 1892-1901 " in C. Bursian 1 Ue
der clastiuken AUertunuwi s s e ns c lu
ARISTOPHANES, of Byzantium, Greek critic and grammarian,
was born about 257 B.C. He removed early to Alexandria, where
he studied under Zenodotus and Callimachus. At the age of
sixty he was appointed chief librarian of the museum. He died
about 185-180 B.C. Aristophanes chiefly devoted himself to
the poets, especially Homer, who had already been edited by
his master Zenodotus. He also edited Hesiod, the chief lyric,
tragic and comic poets, arranged Plato's dialogues in trilogies,
and abridged Aristotle's Nature of Animals. His arguments
to the plays of Aristophanes and the tragedians are in great part
preserved. His works on Athenian courtesans, masks and
proverbs were the results of his study of Attic comedy. He
further commented on the Hoaxes of Callimachus, a sort
of history of Greek literature. As a lexicographer, Aristophanes
compiled collections of foreign and unusual words and expressions,
and special lists (words denoting relationship, modes of address).
As a grammarian, he founded a scientific school, and in his
Analogy systematically explained the various forms. He
introduced critical signs—except the obelus; punctuation
prosodiacal, and accentual marks were probably already in
use. The foundation of the so-called Alexandrian " canon "
was also due to his impulse (Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol., ed. 1906,
L129O.
Nauck, Aristophonis Bytantii Grammatici Fragmenta (1848).
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.), the great Greek philosopher, was
born at Stagira, on the Strymonic Gulf, and hence called " the
Stagnate." Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his Epistle on Demo-
sthenes and Aristotle (chap. 5), gives the following sketch of his
life 2— Aristotle ('AptrrorcXip) was the son of Nicomachus, who
traced back his descent and his art to Machaen,son of Aesculapius;
his mother being Phaestis, a descendant of one of those who carried
the colony from Chalcis to Staginu He was bom in the 99th
Olympiad in the archonship at Athens of Diotrephes (384-383) >
three years before Demosthenes. In the archonship of Polyzelus
(367-366), after the death of his father, in his eighteenth year, he
came to Athens, and having joined Plato spent twenty years with
him. On the death of Plato (May 347) in the archonship of
Theophilus (348-347) he departed to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus,
and, after three years' stay, during the archonship of Eubulus
(345-344) he moved te Mitylene, whence he went to Philip of
Macedon in the archonship of Pythodotus (343-342), and spent
eight years with him as tutor of Alexander. After the death
of Philip (336), in the archonship of Euaenetus (335-334)1 he
returned to Athens and kept a school in the Lyceum for twelve
years. In the thirteenth, after the death of Alexander (June 3 23)
in the archonship of Ccphisodorus (323-322), having departed to
Chalcis, he died of disease (322), after a Hfe of three-and-sixty
yean.
I. Ajustotle's Lite
This account is practically repeated by Diogenes Laertius in his
Life of Aristotle, on the authority of the Chronicles of Apollodorus,
who lived in the 2nd century B.C. Suiting then from this
tradition, near enough to the time, we can confidently divide
Aristotle's career into four periods: his youth under his parents
till his eighteenth year; his philosophical education under Plato
at Athens till his thirty-eighth year; his travels in the Greek
world till his fiftieth year; and his philosophical teaching in the
Lyceum till his departure to Chalcis and his death in his sixty-
third year. But when we descend from generals to particulars,
we become less certain, and must here content ourselves with
few details. '
Aristotle from the first profited by having a father who, being
physician to Amyntas II., king of Macedon, and one of the
Asclepiads who, according to Galen, practised their sons in dis-
section, both prepared the way for his son's influence at the
Macedonian court, and gave him a bias to medicine and biology,
which certainly led to his belief in nature and natural science,
and perhaps induced him to practise medicine, as he did, accord-
ing to his enemies, Tlmaeus and Epicurus, when he first went to
Athens. At Athens in his second period for some twenty years he
acquired the further advantage of balancing natural science by
metaphysics and morals in the course of reading Plato's writings
and of hearing Plato's unwritten dogmas (cf. k* rots XtTojiems
6.yp6i4x*t Soypaaur, Ar. Physics, iv. 2, 209 b is, Berlin ed,).
He was an earnest, appreciative, independent student. The
master is said to have called his pupil the intellect of the school
and his "house a reader's. He is also said to have complained
that his pupil spurned him as colts do their mothers. Aristotle,
however, always revered Plato's memory (Nic. Ethics, I 6),
and even in criticizing his master counted himself enough of a
Platonist to cite Plato's doctrines as what " we say" (cf. toier.
Metaphysics, i. 9, 000 b 16). At the same time, he must have
learnt much from other contemporaries at Athens, especially from
astronomers such as Eudoxus and Callippus, and from orators
such as Isocrates and Demosthenes. He also attacked Isocrates,
according to Cicero, and perhaps even set up a rival school of
rhetoric. At any rate he had pupils of his own, such as Eudemus
of Cyprus, Theodectes and Hermias, books of his own, especially
dialogues, and even to some extent his own philosophy, while he
.was still a pupil of Plato.
Well grounded in his boyhood, and thoroughly educated in his
manhood, Aristotle, after Plato's death, had the further advan-
tage of travel in his third period, when he was in his prime. The
appointment of Plato's nephew, Speusippus, to succeed his uncle
in the Academy induced Aristotle and Xenocrates to leave
Athens together and repair to the court of Hermias. Aristotle
admired Hermias, and married his friend's sister or niece, Pythias,
by whom be had his daughter Pythias. After the tragic death of
Hermias, he retired for a time to Mitylene, and in 343-34? wa *
summoned to Macedon by Philip to teach Alexander, who was
then a boy of thirteen. According to Cicero (De Oraiore, Hi. 4 0.
Philip wished his son, then a boy of thirteen, to receive from
Aristotle "agendi praecepta et eloquendi." • Aristotle is said to
have written on monarchy and on colonies for Alexander; and
the pupil is said to have slept with his master's edition of Homer
under his pillow, and to have respected him, until from hatred of
Aristotle's tactless relative, Callisthenes, who was done to death
in 328, he turned at last against Aristotle himself. Aristotle
had power to teach, and Alexander to learn. Still we must not
exaggerate the result. Dionysius must have spoken too strongly
502
ARISTOTLE*
when he says that Aristotle was tutor of Alexander for eight
yean; for in 340, when Philip went to war with Byzantium,
Alexander became regent at home, at the age of sixteen. From
this date Aristotle probably spent much time at his paternal house
in .his native city at Stagira as a patriotic citizen. Philip had
sacked it in 348: Aristotle induced him or his son to restore it,
made for it a new constitution, and in return was celebrated in
a festival after his death. All these vicissitudes made him a man
of the world, drew him out of the philosophical circle at Athens,
and gave him leisure to develop his philosophy. Besides
Alexander he had other pupils: Callisthenes, Cassander, Marsyas,
Phanias, and Theophrastus of Eresus, who is said to have had
lanjd at Stagira. He also continued the writings begun in his
second period; and the Macedonian kings have the glory of
having assisted the Stagirite philosopher with the means of
conducting his researches in the History of Animals.
At last, in his fourth period, after the accession of Alexander,
Aristotle at fifty returned to Athens and became the head of
his own school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium near the temple of
Apollo Lyceius in the suburbs. The master and his scholars were
called Peripatetics (oi kit roO repes-drou), certainly from meet-
ing, like other philosophical schools, in a walk (rcphraros), and
perhaps also, on the authority of Hermippus of Smyrna, from
walking and talking there, like Protagoras and his followers as
described in Plato's Protagoras (3x4 £,315 c). Indeed, according
to Ammonius, Plato too had talked as he walked in the Academy;
and all his followers were called Peripatetics, until, while the
pupils of Xenocrates took the name "Academics," those of
Aristotle retained the general name. Aristotle also formed his
Peripatetic school into a kind of college with common meals
under a president (apx*?) changing every ten days; while the
philosopher himself delivered lectures, in which his practice, as his
pupil Aristoxenus tells us (Harmonics, ii. ink.), was, avoiding the
generalities of Plato, to prepare his audience by explaining the
subject of investigation and its nature. But Aristotle was an
author as well as a lecturer; for the hypothesis that the Aris-
totelian writings are notes of his lectures taken down by his pupils
is contradicted by the tradition of their learning while walking,
and disproved by the impossibility of taking down such compli-
cated discourses from dictation. Moreover, it is clear that
Aristotle addressed himself to readers as well as hearers, as in
concluding his whole theory of syllogisms he says, " There would
remain for all of you or for our hearers (xavrosr itp&r 4 rur
flKpoapbwv) a duty of according to the defects of the investiga-
tion consideration, to its discoveries much gratitude " (Sophisti-
cal EUnchi, 34, 184 b 6). In short, Aristotle was at once a student,
a reader, a lecturer, a writer and a book collector. He was, says
Strabo (608), the first we knew who collected books and taught
the kings in Egypt the arrangement of a library. In his library
no doubt were books of others, but also his own. There we must
figure to ourselves the philosopher, constantly referring to his
autograph rolls; entering references and cross-references; cor-
recting, rewriting, collecting and arranging them according to
their subjects; showing as well as reading them to his pupils;
with little thought of publication, but with his whole soul con-
centrated on being and truth.
On his first visit to Athens, during which occurred the fatal
battle of Mantineia (362 B.C.), Aristotle had seen the confusion of
Greece becoming the opportunity of Macedon under Philip; and
on his second visit he was supported at Athens by the complete
domination of Macedon under Alexander. Having witnessed the
unjust exactions of a democracy at Athens, the dwindling
population of an oligarchy at Sparta, and the oppressive selfish-
ness of new tyrannies throughout the Greek world, he condemned
the actual constitutions of the Greek states as deviations (vapac-
0ao as) directed merely to the good of the government; and
he contemplated a right constitution (Apft) sroXtrda), which
might be either a commonwealth, an aristocracy or a monarchy,
directed to the general good; but he preferred the monarchy of
one man, pre-eminent in virtue above the rest, as the best of all
governments {Nicomachean Ethics, vni. 10; Politics, V 14-18).
Moreover, by adding {Politics, H 7, 1327 b 29-33) that the Greek
race could govern the world by obtaining one constitution (naSt
Tvyx&vo* xobrflat), he indicated some leaning to a universal
monarchy under such a king as Alexander. On the whole,
however, he adhered to the Greek city-state (r6to), partly
perhaps out of patriotism to his own Stagira. Averse at all
events to the Athenian democracy, leaning towards Macedonian
monarchy, and resting on Macedonian power, he maintained
himself in his school at Athens, so long as he was supported by the
friendship of Antipater, the Macedonian regent in Alexander's
absence. But on Alexander's sudden death in 3 23, when Athens
in the Laraian war tried to reassert her freedom against Antipater,
Aristotle found himself in danger. He was accused of impiety
on the absurd charge of deifying the tyrant Hermias; and,
remembering the fate of Socrates, he retired to Chalois in Euboea,
There, away from his school, in 322 he died. (A tomb has been
found in our time inscribed with the name of Biote, daughter of
Aristotle. But is this our Aristotle ?)
Such is our scanty knowledge of Aristotle's life, which seems
to have been prosperous by inheritance and position, and happy
by work and philosophy. His will, which was quoted by Her-
mippus, and, as afterwards quoted by Diogenes Laertius, has
come down to us, though perhaps not complete, supplies some
further details, as follows:— Antipater is to be executor with
others. Nicanor is to marry Pythias, Aristotle's daughter, and
to take charge of Nicomachus his son. Theophrastus is to be one
of the executors if he will and can, and if Nicanor should die to
act instead, if he will, in reference to Pythias. The executors and
Nicanor are to take charge of Herpyllis, " because," in the words
of the testator, " she has been good to me," and to allow her to
reside either in the lodging by the garden at Chakis or in the
paternal house at Stagira. They arc to provide for the slaves,
who in some cases are to be freed. They are to see after the
dedication of four images by Gryllion of Nicanor, Proxenus,
Nicanor's mother and Arimnestus. They are to dedicate an
image of Aristotle's mother, and to see that the bones of his wife
Pythias arc, as she ordered, taken up and buried with him. On
this will we may remark that Proxenus is said to have been
Aristotle's guardian after the death of his father, and to have
been the father of Nicanor; that Herpyllis of Stagira was the
mother of Nicomachus by Aristotle; and that Arimnestus was
the brother of Aristotle, who also had a sister, Arimneste. Every
clause breathes the philosopher's humanity.
U. Development fkom Platomism
Turning now from the man to the philosopher as we know him
best in his extant writings (see Aristotdcs, ed. Bekker, Berlin,
1 83 1, the pages of which wc use for our quotations), we find,
instead of the general dialogues of Plato, special didactic treatises,
and a fundamental difference of philosophy, so great as to have
divided philosophers into opposite camps, and made Coleridge
say that everybody is born cither a Platonist or an Aristotelian.
Platonism is the doctrine that the individuals we call things only
become, but a thing is always one universal form beyond many
individuals, e.g. one good beyond seeming goods; and that
without supernatural forms, which arc models of individuals,
there is nothing, no being, no knowing, no good. Aristoteh'anism
is the contrary doctrine: a thing is always a separate individual,
a substance (oWa), natural such as earth or supernatural such
as God; and without these individual substances, which have
attributes and unfversals belonging to them, there is nothing, to
be, to know, to be good. Philosophic differences are best felt by
their practical effects: philosophically, Platonism is a philosophy
of universal forms, Aristotelianism a philosophy of individual
substances: practically, Plato makes us think first of the super-
natural and the kingdom of heaven, Aristotle of the natural and
the whole world.
So diametrical a difference could not have arisen at once.
For, though Aristotle was different from Plato, and brought with
him from Stagira a Greek and Ionic but colonial origin, a medical
descent and tendency, and a matter-of-fact worldly kind of
character, nevertheless on coming to Athens as pupil of Plato he
must have begun with his master's philosophy. What then in
ARISTOTLE
5°3
more detail was the philosophy which the pupil learnt from the
master? When Aristotle at the age of eighteen came to Athens,
Plato, at the age of sixty-two, had probably written all his
dialogues except the Laws; and in the course of the remaining
twenty years of his life and teaching, he expounded " the so-
called unwritten dogmas " in his lectures on the Good. There
was therefore a written Flatonism for Aristotle to read, and an
unwritten Platonism which he actually heard.
To begin with the written philosophy of the Dialogues.
Individual so-called things neither are nor are not, but become:
the real thing is always one universal form beyond the many in-
dividuals, e.g. the one beautiful beyond all beautiful individuals;
and each form (I6ia) is a model which causes individuals by par-
ticipation to become like, but not the same as, itself. Above
all forms stands the form of the good, which is the cause of all
other forms being, and through them of all individuals becoming.
The creator, or the divine intellect, with a view to the form of the
good, and taking all forms as models, creates in a receptacle
(forofotffr, Plato, Timaeus, 49 a) individual impressions which
are called things but really change and become without attaining
the permanence of being. Knowledge resides not in sense but
in reason, which, on the suggestion, of sensations of changing
individuals, apprehends, or (to be precise) is reminded of, real
universal forms, and, by first ascending from less to more general
until it arrives at the form of good and then descending from this
unconditional principle to the less general, becomes science a!hd
philosophy, using as its method the dialectic which gives and
receives questions and answers between man and man. Happi-
ness in this world consists proximately in virtue as a harmony
between the three parts, rational, spirited and appetitive, of our
souls, and ultimately in living according to the form of the good;
but there is a far higher happiness, when the immortal soul,
divesting itself of body and passions and senses, rises from earth
to heaven and contemplates pure forms by pure reason. Such
in brief is the Platonism of the written dialogues; where the
main doctrine of forms is confessedly advanced never as a dogma
but always as a hypothesis, in which there are difficulties, but
without which Plato can explain neither being, nor truth nor
goodness, because throughout he denies the being of individual
things. In the unwritten lectures of his old age, he developed
this formal into a mathematical metaphysics. In order to
explain the unity and variety of the world, the one universal form
and the many individuals, and how the one good is the main
cause of everything, he placed as it were at the back of his own
doctrine of forms a Pythagorean mathematical philosophy. He
supposed that the one and the two, which is indeterminate, and is
the great and little, are opposite principles or causes. Identifying
the form of the good with the one, he supposed that the one, by
combining with the indeterminate two, causes a plurality of forms,
which like every combination of one and two are numbers but
peculiar in being incommensurate; with one another, so that each
form is not a mathematical number (fiaBynatutds Ap(0/i6$),
but a formal number (eWijn*ds dpi0/t6s). Further he sup-
posed that in its turn each form, or formal number, is a limited
one which, by combining again with the indeterminate two,
causes a plurality of individuals. Hence finally he concluded
that the good as the one combining with the indeterminate
two is directly the cause of all forms as formal numbers, and
indirectly through them all of the multitude of individuals in
the world.
Aristotle knew Plato, was present at his lectures on the Good,
wrote a report of them (rtpl riyaBov), and described this latter
philosophy of Plato in his Metaphysics. Modern critics, who
were not present and knew neither, often accuse Aristotle of mis-
representing Plato. But Heracleides and Hestiacus, Speusippus
and Xenocrates were also present and wrote similar reports.
What is more, both Speusippus and Xenocrates founded their
own philosophies on this very Pythagoreanism of Plato. Speu-
sippus as president of the Academy from 347 to 330 taught that
the one and the many are principles, while abolishing forms and
reducing the good from cause to effect. Xenocrates as president
from 339 onwards taught that the one and many are principles,
only without distinguishing mathematical from formal numbers.
Aristotle's critics hardly realise that for the rest of his life he
had to live and to straggle with a formal and a mathematical
Platonism, which exaggerated first universals and attributes
and afterwards the quantitative attributes, one and many, into
substantial things and real causes.
Aristotle had no sympathy with the unwritten dogmas of
Plato. But with the written dialogues of Plato he always
continued to agree almost as much as he disagreed. Like Plato,
he beheved in real universals, real essences, real causes; he
believed m the unity of the universal, and in the immateriality
of essences; he believed in the good, and that there is a good of
the universe; he believed that God is a livins being, eternal and
best, who is a supernatural cause of the motions and changes of
the natural world, and that essences and matter are also necessary
causes; he believed in the divine intelligence and in the immor-
tality of our intelligent souls; he believed in knowledge going
from sense to reason, that science requires ascent to principles
and is descent from principles, and that dialectic is useful to
science; he believed in happiness involving virtue, and in moral
virtue being a control of passions by reason*, while the highest
happiness is speculative wisdom. All these inspiring meta-
physical and moral doctrines the pupil accepted from his master's
dialogues, and throughout his life adhered to the general spirit of
realism without materialism pervading the Platonic philosophy.
But what he refused to believe with Plato was that reality is not
here, but only above] and what he maintained against Plato was
that it is both, and that universals and forms, one and many, the
good, are real but not separate realities. This deep metaphysical
divergence was the prime cause of the transition from Platonism
to Aristotelianism.
Fragmenta yinj/okfo.^ Aristotle's originality soon asserted
itself in early writings, of which fragments have come down to
us, and have been collected by Rose (see the Berlin edition of
Aristotle's works, or more readily m the Teubner series, which
we shall use for our quotations). Many, no doubt, are spurious;
but some are genuine, and a few perhaps cited in Aristotle's
extant works. Some are dialogues, others didactic works. A
special interest attaches to the dialogues written after the manner
of Plato but with Aristotle as principal interlocutor; and some
of these, e.g. the repl ttouitQp and the Eudetnu, seem to have
been published. It is not always certain which were dialogues,
which didactic like Aristotle's later works; but by comparing
those which were certainly dialogues with their companions in
the list of Aristotle's books as given by Diogenes Laertius, we
may conclude with Bcrnays that the books occurring first in that
list were dialogues. Hence we may perhaps accept as genuine
the following.*—
1. Dialogues: —
*tpl SucoLOobpris : On justice.
**<pi tqvut&v: On poets (perhaps cited in Poetics, 15,
1 4 54 b 18, kp roil fcrfcJOAitattf \070tf).
repl frXoaojlas: On philosophy (perhaps dted in Physics,
ii. 2, 104 a 35-30)-
rcpi toXituoO: A politician.
T€pl faropucip $ TpvXkn: On rhetoric.
Tporpeirrucfo: An exhortation to philosophy (probably
in dialogue, because it is the model of Cicero's dialogue
Hortensius).
EG&r/ief 4 *fpl ¥vxv*'- On soul (perhaps cited in De
Animc, i. 4, 407 b 29, teal rots h kow<j> ytrtpboit
\dy<Ks).
9. Didactic writings^
(1) Metaphysical: —
x«pi rbyaBov: On the good (probably not a dialogue
but a report of Plato's lectures).
irtpl i&t&v: On forms,
(a) Political:—
Ttpl pafftXelas: On monarchy.
'AXt{ar6pot 4} &Wp h*ci*<av: On colonies.
5°4
ARISTOTLE
<3> Rhetorical. —
rex**"* rm Ossstxrov ovraytoy^: The TheodecUa (cited
in the Preface to the Rhetoric to Alexander (chap, i.),
and as rd Ocotetma in the Rhetoric (iii. 9, 1410 b a),
TOP**' wmyorrhi A historical collection of arts of
rhetoric.
Difficult as it is to determine when Aristotle wrote all these
various works, some of them indicate their dates. Gryllus,
celebrated in the dialogue on rhetoric, was Xenophon's son
who fell at Mantineia in 36a ; and Eudemus of Cyprus, lamented
in the dialogue on soul, died in Sicily in 35a. These then were
probably written before Plato died in 347; and so probably were
most of the dialogues, precisely because they were imitations of
the dialogues of Plato. Among the didactic writings, the not
rhyoJhv would probably belong to the same time, because it was
Aristotle's report of Plato's lectures. On the other hand, the
two political works, if written for Alexander, would be after
343-343 when Philip made Aristotle his tutor. So probably
were the rhetorical works, especially the TheodecUa; srace both
politics and oratory were the subjects which the father wanted
the tutor to teach his son, and, when Alexander came to Phaselis,
he is said by Plutarch {Alexander, 17) to have decorated the
statue of Theodectes in honour of his association with the man
through Aristotle and philosophy. On the whole, then, it seems
as if Aristotle began with dialogues during his second period
under Plato, but gradually came to prefer writing didactic
works, especially in the third period after Plato's death, and
in connexion with Alexander.
These early writings show clearly how Aristotle came to depart
from Plato. In the first place as regards style, though the
Stagirite pupil Aristotle could never rival his Attic master in
literary form, yet he did a signal service to philosophy in
gradually passing from the vague generalities of the dialogue to
the scientific precision of the didactic treatise. The philosophy
of Plato is dialogue trying to become science; that of Aristotle
science retaining traces of dialectic Secondly as regards subject-
matter, even in his early writings Aristotle tends to widen the
scope of philosophic inquiry) so as not only to embrace meta-
physics and politics, but also to encourage rhetoric and poetics,
which Plato tended to discourage or limit. Thirdly as regards doc-
trines, the surpassing interest of these early writings is that they
show the pupil partly agreeing, partly disagreeing, with his master.
The Eudemus and Protrepticus are with Plato; the dialogues
on Philosophy and the treatise on Forme are against Plato.
The Eudemus. on the k>u1 (Frogmenta, 37 sea,.), must have been in
style and thought the most Platonic of all the Aristotelian writings.
Plato's theory of the soul and its immortality was not the ordinary
Greek view derived from Homer, who regarded the body as the self,
the soul as a shade having a future state but an obscure, existence,
and stamped that view on the hearts of his countrymen, and affected
Aristotle himself. After Homer there had come to Greece the new
view that the soul is more real than the body, that it is imprisoned in
the carcase as a prison-house, that it is capable of enjoying a happier
life freed from the body, and that it can transmigrate from body to
body. This strange, exotic, ascetic view was adopted by some
philosophers, and especially by the Pythagoreans, and so transmitted
to Plato. Aristotle in the Eudemus, written about 35a, when he was
thirty-two, also believed in it. Accordingly, the soul of Eudemus,
when it left his body, is said to be returning home: the soul is made
subject to the casting of lotSj and in coming from the other world to
this it is supposed to forget its former visions: but its disembodied
life is regarded as its natural life in a better world. The Eudemus
also contained a celebrated passage, preserved by Plutarch (Consolat.
ad A poll. 27; Fragm. 44). Here we can read the young Aristotle,
writing in the form of the dialogue like Plato, avoiding hiatus like
Isocrates, and justifying the praises accorded to his style by Cicero,
Quintilian and Dionysius. It shows how nearly the pupil could
imitate his master's dialogues, and still more how exactly he at first
embraced his master's doctrines. It makes Silenus, captured by
Midas, say that the best of all things is not to have been born, and
the next best, having been born, to die as soon as possible. Nothing
could be more like rlato's Phardo, or more unlike Aristotle's later
work on me Soul, which entirely rejects transmigration and allows
the next life to sink into the background.
Hardly less Platonic is the Protrepticus (Fragm. 30 set).), an
exhortation to philosophy which, according to Zeno the Stoic, was
studied by his master Crates. It is an exhortation, whose point is
that the chief good is philosophy, the contempUtion of the universe
by divine and immortal intellect. This is indeed a doctrine of
Platonic ethics from which Aristotle in his later days never swerved.
But in the Protrepticus he goes on to say that seeming goods, such
as strength, size, beauty, honours, opinions, are mere fllosioa
(r««v#c4te). worthless and ridiculous, as we should know if we
had Lynceaa eyes to compare them with the vision of the eternal.
This indifference to goods of body and estate is quite Platonic, but is
very different from Aristotle's later ethical doctrine that such goods,
though not the earence, are nevertheless ne c e s sar y conditions of
happiness. Finally, in the spirit of Plato's Phaedo and the dialogue
Eudemus, the Protrepticus holds that thesoul is bound to the sentient
members of the body as prisoners in Etruria are bound face to lace
with corpses; whereas the later view of the De A nima is that the soul
is the vital principle of the body and the body the necessary organ of
the soul.
' Thus we find that at first, under the influence of his master.
Aristotle held somewhat ascetic views on soul and body and on goods
of body and estate, entirely opposed both in psychology and in ethics
to the moderate doctrines of his later writings. This perhaps is om
reason why Cicero, who had Aristotle's early writings, saw no differ-
ence between the Academy and the Peripatetics (Acod. Post* i. 4,
17-18).
On the other hand, the dialogue on Philosophy (**pt *Xo*a#lu.
Fragm. 1 sea.) strikingly exhibits the origin of Aristotle's divergence
from Platonism, and that too in Pistol lifetime. The young son
of a doctor from the colonies proved too fond of this world to
stomach his Athenian master's philosophy of the supernatural
Accordingly in this dialogue he attacked Plato's fundamental
position, both in its written and in its unwritten presentment, as a
hypothesis both of forms and of formal numbers. First, he attacked
the hypothesis of forms (rs> *Ar U«A»Mf •*-«*, Fragm. 8), exclaiming
in his dialogues, according to Proclus, that he could not sympathise
with the dogma even if it should be thought that he was opposing
it out of contentiousness; while Plutarch says that his attacks 00
the forms by means of his exoteric dialogues were thought by some
persons more contentious than philosophical, as presuming to disdain
Plato's philosophy: so far was he, says Plutarch, from following it.
Secondly, in the same dialogue (Fragm. 9), according to Syrianus,
he disagreed with the hypothesis of formal numbers (r*It dornnmrnt
kptBiuit). If, wrote Aristotle, the forms are another sort of
number, not mathematical, there would be no understanding of it.
Lastly, in the same dialogue (Fragm. 18 acq.) he revealed his
emphasis on nature by contending that the universe is uncreate and
indestructible. According to Plato, God caused the natural world to
become: according to Aristotle it is eternal. This eternity of the
world became one of his characteristic doctrines, and subsequ ent ly
enabled him to explain how essences can be eternal without bring
separate from this world which is also eternal (cf. Metaph, Z 8).
Thus early did Aristotle begin, even in Plato's lifetime, to oppose
Plato's hypothesis of' supernatural forms, and advance his own
hypothesis of the eternity of the world.
He made another attack on Platonism in the didactic work *ul
IhQp (Fragm. 185 seq.), contending that the Platonic arguments
prove not forms (IMtu) but only things common (r* mri).
Here, according to Alexander the commentator, he first brought
against Plato the argument of" the third man " (* rplrm 4>*V*»«0 ;
that, if there is the form, one man beyond many men. there will be
a third man predicated of both man and men, and a fourth predi-
cated of all three, and so on to infinity (Fragm. 188). Here, too. he
examined the hypothesis of Eudoxus that things are caused by
mixture of forms, a hypothesis which formed a kind of transition to
his own later views, but failed to satisfy him on account of its diffi-
culties. Lastly, in the didactic work «-«ptr*y«#o& (Fragm. 27 seq.).
containing his report of Plato's lectures on the Good, he waa dealing
with the same mathematical metaphysics which in his dialogue om
Philosophy he criticised for converting forms into formal numbers.
Aristoxcnus, at the beginning of the second book of the Harmonics.
gives a graphic account of the astonishment caused by these lectures
of Plato, and of their effect on the lectures of Aristotle. In contend-
ing, as Aristotle's pupil, that a teacher should begin by proposing his
subject, he tells us how Aristotle used to relate that most of Plato's
hearers came expecting to get something about human goods and
happiness, but that when the discourses turned out to be all about
mathematics, with the conclusion that good is one, it appeared to
them a paradox, which some despised and others condemned. The
reason, He adds, was that they were not informed by Plato before-
hand; and for this very reason, Aristotle, as he told Aristoxenu*
himself, used to prepare his hearers by informing them of the nature
of the subject. From this rare personal reminiscence we see at a
5 lance that the mind of Plato and the mind of Aristotle were so
iffcrent, that their philosophies must diverge; the one towards the
supernatural, the abstract, the discursive, and the other towards the
natural, the substantial, the scientific.
Aristotle then even in the second period of his life, while Plato
was still alive, began to differ from him in metaphysics. He rejected
the Platonic hypothesis of forms, and affirmed that they are nut
separate but common, without however as yet having advanced to a
constructive metaphysics of his own; while at the same time, afur
having at first adopted his master's dialectical treatment of meta-
physical problems, he soon passed from dialogues to didactic works*
which had the result of separating metaphysics from dialectic The
ARISTOTLE
505
(•important consequence of this first departure from Platonism
is that Aristotle became and remained primarily a metaphysician,
ftcr Plato's death, coming to his third period he made a further
alMi
was
After Plato's death, coming to his third' period
departure from Piatonism in his didactic works on politics and
rhetoric, written in connexion with Alexander and Theodcctes. Those
on politics (Fragm. 646-648) were designed to instruct Alexander
on monarchy and on colonization; and in them Aristotle agreed
with Plato in assigning a moral object to the state, but departed from
him by saying that a king need not be a philosopher, as Plato had
■aid in the Republic, but does need to listen to philosophers. Still
more marked was his departure from Plato as regards rhetoric
Plato in the Corgias, (501 a) had contended that rhetoric is not an
art but an empirical practice [rptfi^ *al ittmpla); Aristotle in the
GryUus (Fragm. 68-60), written in his second period, took according
to Quintilian a similar view. But in his third period, in the
Theodectca (Fragm. 125 seq.), rhetoric is treated as an art* and is
laid out somewhat in the manner of his later Art of Rhetoric; white
he also showed his interest in the subject by writing a history of
other arts of rhetoric called «x»«r vumtw^ (Fragm. 136 seq.).
Further, in treating rhetoric as an art in the Theodectea he* was forced
into a conclusion, which carried him far beyond Plato's rigid notions
of proof and of passion : he concluded that it is the work 01 an orator
to use persuasion, and to arouse the passions (r*ra w^itayupat),
e.g. anger and pity (16. 133-134)- Nor could he treat poetry as he is
said to have done without the same result.
On the whole then, in his early dialectical and didactic writings,
of which mere fragments remain, Aristotle had already diverged
from Plato, and first of all in metaphysics. During his master's
life, in the second period of his own life, he protested against
the Platonic hypothesis of forms, formal numbers and the
one as the good, and tended to separate metaphysics from
dialectic by beginning to pass from dialogues to didactic works.
After his master's death, in the third period of his own life, and
during his connexion with Alexander, but before the final con-
struction of his philosophy into a system, he was tending to write
more and more in the didactic style; to separate from dialectic,
not only metaphysics, but also politics, rhetoric and poetry; to
admit by the side of philosophy the arts of persuasive language;
to think it part of their legitimate work to rouse the passions; and
in all these ways to depart from the ascetic rigidity of the philo-
sophy of Plato, so as to prepare for the tolerant spirit of his own,
and especially for his ethical doctrine that virtue consists not in
suppressing but in moderating almost all human passions. In
both periods, too, as we shall find in the sequel, he was already
occupied in composing some of the extant writings which were
afterwards to form parts of his final philosophical system. But
as yet he had given no sign of system, and — what is surprising —
no trace of logic. Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician
against Plato; a metaphysician before he was a logician; a
metaphysician who made what he called primary philosophy
(rpirrn dHkovotbla) the starting-point of his philosophical
development, and ultimately of his philosophical system.
III. Composition or ms Extant Works
The system which was taught by Aristotle at Athens in the
fourth period of his life, and which is now known as the Aristo-
telian philosophy, is contained not in fragments but in extant
books. It will be best then to give at once a list of these extant
works, following the traditional order in which they have long
been arranged, and marking with a dagger (t) those which are
now usually considered not to be genuine, though not always
with sufficient reason.
A. Logical
1. Kary?«pUu: Categoriae: On simple expressions signifying
different kinds of things and capable of predication (probably an
early work of Aristotle, accepting species and genera as "secondary
substances " in deference to Plato's teaching!.
2. rtpl 'Zpnri*tl*\: De inter pretatione: On language as
expression of mind, and especially on the enunciation or assertion
U»*+«»vis. Aw+tmss Xtyt) I rejected oy Andronicus according
to Alexander; but probably an early work of Aristotle, based on
Plato's analysis of the sentence into noun and verb].
3. 'AraXvruA wp6npa: Ana lytic a Prior a: On syllogism, with
a view to demonstration.
4. 'AiwAstu* fertpa: Analytic* Posterior*: On demonstration,
or demonstrative or scientific syllogism ( aribniu, awohMrucst 4
twtsrwortMm evkXayiopAt).
5. Tom*: Topica: On dialectical syllogism (8taX»ru*r
#vXX0?4rp£«), so called from consisting mainly of commonplaces
(rim, feci), or general sources of argument.
6. Zo*irrtcai Rrrxoi : Sopkistici Elenchi: On sophistic
(oo4«<iTi*6t) or eristic syllogism (torrurAt ovWoyieum), so called
from the fallacies used by sophists in refutation (IXryxoc) of
their opponents.
(Numbers 1-6 were afterwards grouped together as the Organon.]
B. Physical
1. vwun) itcplacit: Physica Auscuttatio: On Nature as cause
of change, and the general principles of natural science.
2. rtpl oipmrov: Decoclo: On astronomy, &c.
3. rtpl yttiotun *al 46opa%\ De generalione el corruption*:
On generation and destruction in general.
4. MtrtupoXoyua: Meteerolojnca: On sublunary chanj
changes,
•posed by
,f *>«pi nfcrpov: Demundo: On the universe. (Supposed by Zeller
to belong to the latter half of the 1st century a.c.)
6. wipt+vxfo: De animai On soul, conjoined with organic
body.
7. rtpl *Utyr*on **l alafafT&p: De sensu et sensili: On sense
and objects of sense.
8. nipt M**M»r* mI AM*ij4ra«: De memoria el reminiscentia:
On memory and recollection.
9. repltTKjv K*Uyprty6f#w%: De somno et vigilia: On sleep
and waking.
10. TtpllrvrrLtp : De insomniis: On dreams.
11. wtpl r^f co? (mr jiairufo or rtpl pmmm)i rip Jfr -rbct
vrmts: De divinatione per somnum : On prophecy in sleep.
12. rtpl pexpo0t6nrr»c ««1 0/»x»0iArvrof : De longitudine et brevitale
vitae: On length and shortness of life.
13. rtpl pt6rwrot uU yiput cat rtpl fwijt ml fanAroi/: De juventute et
senectute et de vtta et morte: On youth and age, and on life and death.
14. rtpl AMS-Kott: De respirations: On respiration.
(Numbers 7-14 are grouped together as Parte naturalia.)
iS.f rtpl «W>M«r©t: De spirilu: On innate spirit (spiritus
vitatis).
16. wtplri JV« loropUt: Historic animalium'. Description of
facts about animals, *'.«. their organs, Ac.
17. rtpl {tfuw poplw. De pvrtibus animalium: Philosophy of
the causes of the facts about animals, i.e. their functions.
18. f rtpl frfo? Ktr4<nut'. De animalium motione: On the motion
of animals. (Ascribed to the school of Theophrastus and Strato
by Zeller.|
19. rtpl ft»»» roptUi: De animalium incessu: On the going of
animals.
20. rtpl few 7«i4*<wt: De animalium generalione: On the
generation of animals.
«i.t 9tpi xpw*t*»»: Decoloribus: On colours. (Ascribed to the
school of Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller.)
22.f wtpl feowrwr: De audibilibus. [Ascribed to the school of
Theophrastus and Strato by Zeller. 1
23.t ♦wu>7»«*A»i'«a: Physiognomonica: On physiognomy, and
the sympathy of body and soul..
2a.f Ttpi+vrZv. Deptantis: On plants. (Not Aristotle's work
on this subjcct.J
25J rtpl $aviMoL*p AxoiwM&rwr: De mirabilibus auscuUationibus:
On phenomena chiefly connected with natural history.
26.f M«c«m«*; Quaestienes nechauicaei Mechanical questions.
C. Miscellaneous
ft Upofl\iitara: ProbUmala: Problems on various subjects
[gradually collected by the Peripatetics from partly Aristotelian
materials, according to Zeller).
2.f rtpl Iroittam ypapjt&r: De insecabilibus lineis: On indivisible
lines. [Ascribed to Theophrastus, or his time, by Zellcr.J
3.t 4Wmw» <!»«» cat rpoorycplai: Ventorum situs et appella-
iiones: A fragment on the winds.
4.f rtpl Sue+Arow. rtpl 24"***, rtpl Topyio*: De Xtnopkane,
Zenone et Corgia: On Xenophanes, Zeno and Gorgias.
D. Primary Philosophy ok Theology or Wisdom
re per* r* 4kmtik&: Mctapkysica: On being as being and its
properties, its causes and principles, and on God as the motive motor
of toe world.
E. Practical
1. *HAka Nu»fi4xtt«: Eihica Nicomacheai 6n the good of the
individual.
a.f 'IMmA p.ty&Xa : Magna M or alia: On the same subject.
(According to Zeller, an abstract of the Nicomachean and the
Eudemian Ethics, tending to follow the latter, but possibly an early
draft of the Nicomachean Ethics.]
3.t *HA«4 EA&wii. or rpbt EM*i»»: Eihica ad EmUmum: On
the same subject. (Usually supposed to be written by Eudemus, but
possibly an early draft of the Nicomachean Ethics.]
4.f rtpl kptruw k*1 cojuQp: De virtutibus et vitiis: On virtues'
and vices. (An eclectic work of the 1st century B.C., half Academic
and half Peripatetic, according to Zeller.)
5. fleXtruA: De re publicai Politics, on the good of the state.
6.f OUovopuca: Decura rei familiaris : Economics, on the good
of the family. [The first book a work of the school of Theophrastus
or Eudemus, the second later Peripatetic, according to Ztlltr.)
Sob
ARISTOTLE
F. Ait
i. rlxt *Pvf«p<«4: Ars rhetorical On the art of oratory.
a. t'Pvrepuri *&' 'AMSartpof. Rketorica ad AUxandrum: On
the same subject. (Ascribed to Anaximcnes of Lampsacus (fl. 365,
Diodorus xv. 76) by Petrus Victorius, and Spengel, but possibly an
earlier rhetoric by Aristotle.)
3. «pi Qotaricvs: De poettca: On the art of poetry [fragmentary).
G. Historical
K$ri»aUaP *oXtr«fc>: De rcpublka Atheniensium: On the Con-
stitution of Athens. (One of the DoXtrctat, said to have been
158 at least, the genuineness of which is attested by the defence
which Polybius (xuO makes of Aristotle's history of the Epizcphyrian
Locrians against Timaeus, Aristotle's contemporary and critic
Hitherto, only fragments have come down to us (cT. Fraem. 381-603).
The present treatise, without however its beginning and end, written
on a papyrus discovered in Egypt and now in the British Museum,
was first edited by F. G. Kenyon 1690-1891.] (See the article
Constitution of Athens.)
The Difficulty.— The genuineness of the Aristotelian works, as
Leibnitz truly said (De Stilo Phil. Nizolii, xxx.), is ascertained
by the conspicuous harmony of their theories, and by their
uniform method of swift subtlety. Nevertheless difficulties lurk
beneath their general unity of thought and style. In style they
are not quite the same: now they are brief and now diffuse:
sometimes they are carelessly written, sometimes so carefully as
to avoid hiatus, e.g. the Metaphysics A, and parts of the De
Coelo and Parva Naturalia, which in this respect resemble the
fragment quoted by Plutarch from the early dialogue Eudemus
(Fragm. 44). They also appear to contain displacements,
interpolations, prefaces such as that to the Meteorologua, and
appendices such as that to the Sophistical Elenchi, which may
have been added. An Aristotelian work often goes on continu-
ously at first, and then becomes disappointing by suddenly
introducing discussions which break the connexion or are even
inconsistent with the beginning; as in the Posterior Analytics,
which, after developing a theory of demonstration from necessary
principles, suddenly makes the admission, which is also the main
theory of science in the Metaphysics, that demonstration is about
either the necessary or the contingent, from principles either
necessary or contingent, only not accidental. At times order is
followed by disorder, as in the Politics. Again, there are re-
petitions and double versions, e.g. those of the Physics, vii.,
and those of the De Anima, ii., discovered by Torstrik; or two
discussions of the same subject, e.g. of pleasure in the Nko-
machean Ethics, vii. and x.; or several treatises on the same
subject very like one another, viz. the Nicomachean Ethics, the
Eudemian Ethics and the Magna M or alia; or, strangest of all,
a consecutive treatise and other discourses amalgamated, e.g. in
the Metaphysics, where a systematic theory of being running
through several books (B, I\ E, Z, H, 6) is preceded, interrupted
and followed by other discussions of the subject. Further, there
are frequently several titles of the same work or of different
parts of it. Sometimes diagrams (Stay pafaL br vroypdaxd) are
mentioned, and sometimes given (e.g. in De Inter p. 13, 22 a 22;
Nicomachean Ethics, iL 7; Eudemian Ethics f -n. 3), but sometimes
only implied (e.g. in Hist. An. i. 17, 497 a 32; Hi. i, 510 a 30;
iv. 1 , 5 2 5 a 9). The different works are more or less connected by
a system of references, which give rise to difficulties, especially
when they are cross-references: for example, the Analytics and
Topics quote one another: so do the Physics and the Meta-
physics; the De Vita and De Respiroiione and the De Portions
Animalium', this latter treatise and the Do Ammalium Incessu;
the De Interpretation and the De Anima. A late work may
quote an earlier; but how, it may be asked, can the earlier
reciprocally quote the later?
Besides these difficulties in and between the works there are
others beyond them. On the one hand, there is the curious story
given partly by Strabo (608-609) and partly in Plutarch's Sulla
(c. ?6), that Aristotle's successor Theophrastus left the books
of both to their joint pupil, Neleus of Scepsis, where they were
hidden in a cellar, till in Sulla's time they were sold to Apellicon,
who made new copies, transferred after Apeilicon's death by
Sulla to Rome, and there edited and published by Tyrannio and
Andronkos. On the other hand, there arc the curious and
puzzling catalogues of Aristotelian books, one given by Diogenes
Laertius, another by an anonymous commentator (perhaps
Hcsychius of Miletus) quoted in the notes of Gilles Manage on
Diogenes Laertius, and known as " Anonymus Menagii," and a
third copied by two Arabian writers from Ptolemy, perhaps King
Ptolemy Philattelphus, son of the founder of the library at
Alexandria. (See Rose, Fra^m. pp. 1-22.) But the extraordinary
thing is that, without exactly agreeing among themselves, the
catalogues give titles which do not agree well with the Aristotelian
works as we have them. A title in some cases suits a given work
or a part of it; but in other cases there are no titles for works
which exist, or titles for works which do not exist.
These difficulties are complicated by various hypotheses
concerning the composition of the Aristotelian works. Zcller
supposes that, though Aristotle may have made preparations for
his philosophical system beforehand, still the properly didactic
treatises composing it almost all belong to the last period of his
life, i.e. from 335-334 to 322; and from the references of one
work to another Zeller has further suggested a chronological
order of composition during this period of twelve years, beginning
with the treatises on Logic and Physics, and ending with that on
Metaphysics. There is a further hypothesis that the Aristotelian
works were not originally treatises, but notes of lectures either
for or by his pupils. This easily passes into the further and still
more sceptical hypothesis that the works, as we have them, under
Aristotle's name, are rather the works of the Peripatetic school,
from Aristotle, Theophrastus and Eudemus downwards. " We
cannot assert with certainty," says R. Shute in his History 0/ the
Aristotelian Writings (p. 176), " that we have even got throughout
a treatise in the exact words of Aristotle, though we may be
pretty clear that we have a fair representation of his thought.
The unity of style observable may belong quite as much to the
school and the method as to the individual." This sceptical
conclusion, the contrary of that drawn by Leibnitz from the
harmony of thought and style pervading the works, shows us
that the Homeric question has been followed by the Aristotelian
question.
The Solulion.Such hypotheses attend to Aristotle's philo-
sophy to the neglect of his life. He was really, as we have seen,
a prolific writer from the time when he was a young man under
Plato's guidance at Athens; beginning with dialogues in the
manner of his master, but afterwards preferring to write didactic
works during the prime of his own life between thirty-eight and
fifty (347-335-334), and with the further advantage of leisure
at Atarneus and Mitylene, in Macedonia and at home in Stagira.
When at fifty he returned to Athens, as head of the Peripatetic
school, he no doubt wrote much of his extant philosophy during
the twelve remaining years of his life (335-322). But he was
then a busy teacher, was growing old, and suffered from a disease
in the stomach for a considerable time before it proved fatal at
the age of sixty-three. It is therefore improbable that he could
between fifty and sixty-three have written almost the whole
of the many books on many subjects constituting that grand
philosophical system which is one of the most wonderful works of
man. It is far more probable that he was previously composing
them at his leisure and in the vigour of manhood, precisely as his
contemporary Demosthenes composed all his great speeches
except the De Corona before he was fifty.
Turning to Aristotle's own works, we immediately light upon
a surprise: Aristotle began his extant scientific works during
Plato's lifetime. By a curious coincidence, in two different
works he mentions two different events as contemporary with
the time of writing, one in 357 and the other in 356. In the
Politics (E 10, 1312 b xo), he mentions as now (w) Dion's
expedition to Sicily which occurred in 357. In the Meteor ologica
(iii. 1, 371 a 30), he mentions as now (vw) the burning of the
temple at Ephesus, which occurred in 356. To save his hypo-
thesis of late composition, Zeller resorts to the vagueness of
the word " now " (rGr). But Aristotle is graphically describing
isolated events, and could hardly speak of events of 357 and 356
as happening " now " in or near 335. Moreover, these two works
contain further proofs that they were both begun earlier than thai
ARISTOTLE
5o7
date. The Politics (B 10) mentions as having happened lately
(wfuxrrt) the expedition of Phalaecus to Crete, which occurred
towards the end of the Sacred War in 346. The Mettorologica
(r 7) mentions the comet of 341. It is true that the Politics
also mentions much later events, e.g. the assassination of Philip
which took place in 336 (E 10, 131 1 b 1-3), Indeed, the whole
truth about this great work is that it remained unfinished at
Aristotle's death. But what of that ? The logical conc'usion is
that Aristotle began writing it as early as 357, and continued
writing it in 346, in 336, and so on till he died. Similarly, he
began the Meteorologica as early as 356 and was still writing it
in 341. Both books were commenced some years before Plato's
death: both were works of many years: both were destined to
form parts of the Aristotelian- system of philosophy. It follows
that Aristotle, from early manhood, not only wrote dialogues
and didactic works, surviving only in fragments, but also began
some of the philosophical works which are stilt parts of his extant
writings. He continued these and no doubt began others during
the prime of his life. Having thus slowly matured his separate
writings, he was the better able to combine them more and more
into a system, in his last years. No donbt, however, he went on
writing and rewriting well into the last period of his life; for
example, the recently discovered 'AoVok" roXircca mentions
on theone hand (c 54) thearchonshipof Cepbisophon (329-3*8),
on the other hand (c 46) triremes and quadriremes but without
quinqueremes, which first appeared at Athens in 325-324; and
as it mentions nothing later it probably received its final touches
between 320 and 324. But it may have been begun long before,
and received additions and changes. However early Aristotle
began a book, so long as he kept the manuscript, he could always
change it. Finally he died without completing some of his
works, such as the Politics, and notably that work of his whole
philosophic career and foundation of his~whole philosophy— the
Metaphysics — which, projected in his early criticism of Plato's
philosophy of universal forms, gradually developed into his
positive philosophy of individual substances, but remained
unfinished after all.
On the whole, then , Aristotle was writing his extant works very
gradually for some thirty-five years (357-3"). like Herodotus
(iv. 30) contemplated additions, continued writing them more or
less together, not so much successively as simultaneously, and
had not finished writing at his death.
There is a curious characteristic connected with this gradual
composition. An Aristotelian treatise frequently has the appear-
ance of being a collection of smaller discourses (X^yot), as, e.g.,
K. L. Michelet has remarked.
This is obvious enough in the Metaphysics: It has two open-
ings (Books A and a); then comes a nearly consecutive theory
of being ( B, I\ E, Z, H, 6), but interrupted by a philosophical
lexicon A; afterwards follows a theory of unity (I); then a
summary of previous books and of doctrines from the Physics (K) ;
next a new beginning about being, and, what is wanted to com-
plete the system, a theory of God in relation to the world (A);
finally a criticism of mathematical metaphysics (M, N), in which
the argument against Plato (A 9) is repeated almost word for
word (M 4-5). The Metaphysics is clearly a compilation formed
from essays or discourses; and it illustrates another character-
istic of Aristotle's gradual method of composition. It refers \
back to passages "in the first discourses" (h rots rp&rott X67019)
—an expression not uncommon in Aristotelian writings. Some-
times the reference is to the beginning of the whole treatise;
e.g. Met. B 2,007 b 3*5i referring back to A 6 and 9 about Platonic
forms. Sometimes, on the other hand, the reference only goes
back to a previous part of a given topic, e.g. Met. 61, 1045 b
27-32, referring back to Z r, or at the earliest to T 2. On
either alternative, however, " the first discourses " mentioned
may have originally been a separate discourse; for Book T
begins quite fresh with the definition of the science of being,
long afterwards called " Metaphysics," and Book Z begins
Aristotle's fundamental doctrine of substance.
Another indication of a treatise having arisen out of separate
discourses is its consistingof different parts imperfectly connected.
Thus the Nkotoachean Ethics begins by identifying the good with
happiness (eMot/iona), and happiness with virtuous action.
But when it comes to the moral virtues (Book iu\ 6), a new
motive of the " honourable " (rod raXou *r«a) is suddenly
introduced without preparation, where one would expect the
original motive of happiness. Then at the end of the moral
virtues justice is treated at inordinate length, and in a different
manner from the others, which are regarded as means between
two vices, whereas justice appears as a mean only because it is
of the middle between too much and too little. Later, the
discussion on friendship (Books viii.-ix.) is again inordinate in
length, and it stands alone. Lastly, pleasure, after having been
first defined (Book vii.) as an activity, is treated over again
(Book x.) as an end beyond activity, with a warning against
confusing activity and pleasure. The probability is that the
Nicomachean Ethics is a collection of separate discourses worked
up into a tolerably systematic treatise; and the interesting point
is that these discourses correspond to separate titles in the list of
Diogenes Laertius (rtpl xaXoC, rcpi bucaUav, irept ^tXtar, *«pl
qoovrjt, and xepi ibovar) . The same list also refers to tentative
notes (vrtyftrfinara irtxain/iarura), and the commentators
speak of ethical notes (i)0wA faropi^/fare). Indeed, they some-
times divide Aristotle's works into notes (farojinrpaTtxa) and
compilations (awraypanxa). How can it be doubted that in the
gradual composition of bis works Aristotle began with notes
(uro/jj^aara) and discourses (X6701), and proceeded to treatises
(xpo7/xar«icu) ? He would even be drawn into this process by
his writing materials, which were papyrus rolls of some magni-
tude; he would tend to write discourses on separate rolls, and
then fasten them together in a bundle into a treatise.
If then Aristotle was for some thirty-five years gradually and
simultaneously composing manuscript discourses into treatises
and treatises into a system, he was pursuing a process which
solves beforehand the very difficulties which have since been
found in his writings. He could very easily write in different
styles at different times, now avoiding hiatus and now not, some-
times writing diffusely and sometimes briefly, partly polishing
and partly leaving in the rough, according to the subject, his own
state of health or humour, his age, *nd the degree to which he had
developed a given topic; and all this even in the same manu-
script as well as in different manuscripts, so that a difference
of style between different parts of a work or between different
works, explicable by one being earlier than another, does not
prove either to be not genuine. As he might write, so might he
think differently in his long career. To put one extreme case,
about the soul he could think at first in the Eudemus like Plato
that it is imprisoned in the body, and long afterwards in the De
Auima like himself that it is the immaterial© essence of the
material bodily organism. Again, he might be inconsistent;
now, for example, calling a universal a substance in deference
to Plato, and now denying that a universal can be a substance
in consequence of his own doctrine that every substance is
an individual; and so as to contradict himself in the same
treatise, though not in the same breath or at the same moment
of thinking. Again, in developing his discourses Into larger
treatises he might fall into dislocations; although it must be
remembered that these are often inventions of critics who do not
understand the argument, as when they make out that the treat-
ment of reciprocal justice in the Ethics (v. 5-6) needs rearrange-
ment through their not noticing that, according to Aristotle,
reciprocal justice, being the fairness of a commercial bargain, is
not part of absolute or political justice, but is part of analogical
or economical, justice. Or be might make repetitions, as in the
same book, where he twice applies the principle, that so far as the
agent does the patient suffers, first to the corrective justice of the
taw court {Eth. v. 4) in order to prove that in a wrong the injurer
gains as much as the injured loses, and immediately afterwards
to the reciprocal justice of commerce (ib. 5) in order to prove
that in a bargain a house must be exchanged for as many shoes as
equal it m value. Or he might himself, without double versions,
repeat the same argument with a different shade of meaning;
as when in the NU. Ethics (vii 4) he first argues that incontinence
5o8
ARISTOTLE
about utch natural pleasures as that of gain is only modified
incontinence, a sign (as causa cognoscenti) of which is that it is not
so bad as incontinence about carnal pleasures, and then argues
that, because (as causa essendi) it is only modified incontinence,
therefore it is not so bad. Or he might return again and again
to- the same point with a difference: there is a good instance in
his conclusion that the speculative life is the highest happiness;
which he first infers because it is the life of man's highest and
divine faculty, intelligence (i 176 b-i 178a 8), then after an interval
infers a second time because our speculative life is an imitation of
that of God (1178b 7-32), and finally after another interval infers
a third time, because it will make man most dear to God (t 170 a
aa-32). Or, extending himself as it were still more, he might
write two drafts, or double versions of his own, on the same
subject; e.g. Physics, vii. and De Anima, it. Or he might, going
still further, in his long literary career write two or more treatises
on the same subject, different and even more or less inconsistent
with each other, as we shall find in the sequel. Finally, having
a great number of discourses and treatises, containing all those
small blemishes, around him in his library, and determined to
collect, consolidate and connect them into a philosophical system,
he would naturally be often taking them down from their places
to consult and compare one with another, and as naturally enter
in them references one to the other, and cross-references between
one another. Thus he would enter in the Metaphysics a reference
to the Physics, and in the Physics a reference to the Metaphysics,
precisely because both were manuscripts in his library. For the
same purpose of connexion he would be tempted to add a preface
to a book like the MeUorcAogica. In order to refer back to the
Physics, the Dt Coeio, and the Dt Generation*, this work begins by
stating that the first causes of all nature and all natural motion,
the stars ordered according to celestial motion and the bodily
elements with their transmutations, and generation and corrup-
tion have all been discussed; and by adding that there remains
to complete this investigation, what previous investigators called
meteorology. To suppose this preface, presupposing many
sciences, to have been written in 356, when the Meteorologica had
been already commenced, would be absurd; but equally absurd
would it be to reject that date on account of the preface, which
even a modern author often writes long after his book. Nor is it
at all absurd to suppose that,long after he began the Meteorologica,
Aristotle himself added the preface in the process of gathering his
general treatises on natural science into a system. So he might
afterwards add the preface to the Dt Interpretation*, in order to
connect it with the De Anima, though written afterwards, in order
to connect his treatises on mind and on its expression. So also
he might add the appendix to the Sophistical Elenchi, long after
he had written that book, and perhaps, to judge from its being a
general claim to have discovered the syllogism, when the founder
of logic had more or less realized that he had written a number
of connected treatises on reasoning.
The Question 0/ Publication.— Then is still another point which
would facilitate Aristotle's gradual composition of discourses into
treatises and treatises into a system; there was no occasion for
him to publish his manuscripts beyond his school. Printing has
accustomed us to publication, and misled us into applying to
ancient times the modern method of bringing out one book after
another at definite dates by the same author. But Greek authors
contemplated works rather than books. Some of the greatest
authors were not even writers: Homer, Aesop, Thales, Socrates.
Some who were writers were driven to publish by the occasion;
and after the orders of government, which were occasionally
published to be obeyed, occasional poems, such as the poems of
Solon, the odes of Pindar and the plays of the dramatists, which
all had a political significance, were probably the first writings
to be published or, rather, recited and acted, from written
copies. With them came philosophical poems, such as those of
Xenophanes and Empedocles; the epical history of Herodotus;
the dramatic philosophy of Plato. On a larger scale speeches
written by orators to be delivered by litigants were published
and encouraged publication; and, as the Attk orators were his
contemporaries, publication- had become pretty common in the
time of Aristotle, who speaks of many bundles (topes) of
judicial speeches by Isocrates being hawked about by the book-
sellers (Fragm. 140).
No doubt then Aristotle's library contained published copies of
the works of other authors, as well as the autographs of his own.
It does not follow that his own works went beyond his library
and his school. Publication to the world is designed for readers,
who at all times have demanded popular literature rather than
serious philosophy such as that of Aristotle. Accordingly it
becomes a difficult question, how far Aristotle's works were
published in his lifetime. In answering it we must be careful
to exclude any evidence which refers to Aristotle as a man, not
as a writer, or refers to him as a writer but does not prove
publication while he was alive.
Beginning then with his early writings, which are now lost, the
dialogues On Poetry and the Eudemus were probably the pub-
lished discourses to which Aristotle himself refers (Poetics, 1 5; Dt
Anima, i. 4); and the dialogue Protreptieus was known to the
Cynic Crates, pupil of Diogenes and master of Zeno (Fragm. 50),
but not necessarily in Aristotle's lifetime, as Crates was still
alive in 307. Again, Aristotle's early rhetorical instructions
and perhaps writings, as well as his opinion that a collection of
proverbs is not worth while, must have been known outside
Aristotle's rhetorical school to the orator Cephisodorus, pupil of
Isocrates and master of Demosthenes, for him to be able to write
in his Replies to Aristotle (er reTs rpds 'ApurrorcXijr bmypafaut)
an admired defence of Isocrates (Dionys. H. De Isoc. 18). But
this early dialectic and rhetoric, being popular, would tend to be
published. History comes nearer to philosophy; and Aristotle's
Constitutions were known to his enemy Timaeus, who attacked
him for disparaging the descent of the Locrians of Italy, according
to Potybius (xii.), who defended Aristotle. But as Timaeus
brought his- history down to 264 B.C. (Polyb. i. 5), and therefore
might have got his information after Aristotle's death, we cannot
be sure that any of the Constitutions were published in the author's
lifetime. We are equally at a loss to prove that Aristotle pub-
lished his philosophy. He had, like all the great, many enemies,
personal and philosophical; but in his lifetime they attacked the
man, not his philosophy. In the Mcgarian school, first Eubulides
quarrelled with him and calumniated him (Diog. Laert. ii. 109)
in his lifetime; but the attack was on his life, not on his writings:
afterwards Stilpo wrote a dialogue ('AptaroriXnt), which may
have been a criticism of the Aristotelian philosophy from the
Mcgarian point of view; but he outlived Aristotle thirty years.
In the absence of any confirmation, " the current philosopher
mata " (ra lynvKXia ^iXoa^fiara), mentioned in the De Coci*
(i. 0,279 a 30), are sometimes supposed to be Aristotle's published
philosophy, to which he is referring his readers. But the example
there given, that the divine is unchangeable, is precisely such a
religious commonplace as might easily be a current philosopheme
of Aristotle's day, not of Aristotle; and this interpretation suits
the parallel passage in the Nic. Ethics (i. 5, 1096 a 3) where
opinions about the happiness of political life are said to have been
sufficiently treated " even in current discussions " (*ol *r rait
eyjtiNtXioit).
There is therefore no contemporary proof that Aristotle
published any part of his mature philosophical system in his life*
time. It is true that a book of Andronicus, as reported by Aulus
Gellius (xx. 5), contained a correspondence between Alexander
and Aristotle in which the pupil complained that his master
had published his " acroatic discourses " (rovt dxpoaruovt r£r
X6? w). But ancient letters are proverbially forgeries, ami in the
three hundred years which elapsed between the supposed corre-
spondence and the time of Andronicus there was plenty of time
for the forgery of these letters. But even if the correspondence
is genuine, " acroatic discourses " must be taken to mean what
Alexander would mean by them in the time of Aristotle, and not
what they had come to mean by the time of Andronicus.
Alexander meant those discourses which Aristotle, when he was
his tutor, intended for the ears of himself and his fellow-pupils;
such as the early political works on Monarchy and on Colonies,
and the early rhetorical works, the Thoodtcioo, the Collection oj
ARISTOTLE
509
Arts, and possibly the Rhetoric la Alexander, in the preface to
which the writer actually says to Alexander: " You wrote to me
that nobody else should receive this book." These few early
works may have been published, and contrary to the wishes
of Alexander, without affecting Aristotle's later system. But
even so, Alexander's complaint would not justify writers three
centuries later in taking Alexander to have referred to mature
•dentine writings, which were not addressed, and not much
known, to him, the conqueror of Asia; although by the times
of Andronicus and Aulas Gellius, Aristotle's scientific writings
were all called acrostic, or acroamatic, or sometimes esoteric,
in distinction from exoteric— a distinction altogether unknown
to Aristotle, and therefore to Alexander. In the absence of any
contemporary evidence, we cannot believe that Aristotle in his
lifetime published any, much less all, of his scientific books. The
conclusion then is that Aristotle on the one hand to some extent
published his early dialectical and rhetorical writings, because
they were popular, though now they are lost, but on the other
band did not publish any of the extant historical and philosophical
works which belong to his mature system, because they were best
adapted to his philosophical pupils in the Peripatetic school.
The object of the philosopher was not the applause of the public
but the truth of things. Now this conclusion has an important
bearing on the composition of Aristotle's writings and on the
difficulties which have been found in them. If he had like a
modern author brought out each of his extant philosophical
works on a definite day of publication, he would not have been
able to change them without a second edition, which in the case
of serious writings so little in demand would not be worth while.
But as he did not publish them, but kept the unpublished manu-
script* together in his library and used them in his school, he was
able to do with them as he pleased down to the very end of his
life, and so gradually to consolidate his many works into one
system.
While Aristotle did not publish his philosophical works to the
world, he freely communicated them to the Peripatetic school.
They are not mere lectures ; but he used them for lectures: he
allowed his pupils to read them in his library, and probably to
take copies from them. He also used diagrams, which are
sometimes incorporated in his works, but sometimes are only
mentioned, and were no doubt used for purposes of teaching.
He also availed himself of his pupils' cooperation, as we may
judge from his description in the Ethics (x. 7) of the speculative
philosopher who, though he is self-sufficing, is better having
co-operators (ovrtpyoin txaw). From an early time he had a
tendency to address bis writings to his friends. For example,
he addressed the Theedettea to his pupil Theodecjes; and even
in ancient times a doubt arose whether it was a work of the
master or the pupil. It was certainly by Aristotle, because it
contained the triple grammatical division of words into noun,
verb and conjunction, which the history of grammar recognised
as his discovery. But we may explain the share of Theodcctes
by supposing that he had a hand in the work (cf. Dionys. H.
De Comp. Verb, a; Quintilian i. 4. 18). Similarly in astronomy,
Aristotle used the assistance of Eudoxus and Callippus. Indeed,
throughout his writings he shows a constant wish to avail himself
of what is true in the opinions of others, whether they are
philosophers, or poets or ordinary people expressing their
thoughts in sayings and proverbs. With one of his pupils in
particular, Theophrastus, who was born about 370 and therefore
was some fifteen years younger than himself, he had a long and
intimate connexion; and the wock of the pupil bears so close a
resemblance to that of his master, that, even when he questions
Aristotle's opinions (as he often does) , he seems to be writing in an
Aristotelian atmosphere; while he shows the same acuteness in
raising difficulties, and has caught something of the same encyclo-
paedic genius. Another pupil, Eudemus of Rhodes, wrote and
thought so like his master as to induce Simplicius to call him the
most genuine of Aristotle's companions (6 tvnoifarann tS»v
'AfiuTTorkXovs Iraipup). It is probable that this extraordinary
resemblance is due to the pupils having actually assisted their
master; and this supposition enables us to surmount a diffi-
culty we feel in reading Aristotle's works, How otherwise, we
wonder, could one man writing alone and with so few predecessors
compose the first systematic treatises on the psychology of the
mental powers and on the logic of reasoning, the first natural
history of animals, and the first civil history of one hundred and
fifty-eight constitutions, in addition to authoritative treatises on
metaphysics, biology, ethics, politics, rhetoric and poetry; in all
penetrating to the very essence of the subject, and, what is most
wonderful, describing more facts than any other man has ever
done on so many subjects ?
The Uncompleted Works.— Suck then was the method of
composition by which Aristotle began in early manhood to
write his philosophical works, continued them gradually and
simultaneously, combined shorter discourses into longer treatises,
compared and connected them, kept them together in his library
without publishing them, communicated them to his school, used
the co-operation of his best pupils, and finally succeeded in
combining many mature writings into one harmonious system.
Nevertheless, being a man, he did not quite succeed. He left
some unfinished; such as the Categories, in which the main part
on categories is not finished, while the last part, afterwards called
postpredicaments, is probably not his, the Politics and the
Poetics. He left others imperfectly arranged, and some of the
most important, the Metaphysics, the Politics and the logical
writings. Of the imperfect arrangement of the Metaphysics we
have already spoken; and we shall speak of that of his logical
writings when we come to the order of his whole system. At
present the Polities will supply us with a conspicuous example
of the imperfect arrangement of some, as well as of the gradual
composition of all, of Aristotle's extant writings.
The Politics was begun as early as 357, yet not finished in 332.
It betrays its origin from separate discourses. First comes a
general theory of constitutions, right and wrong (Books A,B,D;
and this part is afterwards referred to as " the first discourses "
iv rats wp&mt Xbyots). Then follows the treatment of oli-
garchy, democracy, commonwealth and tyranny, and of the
various powers of government (A), and independent investiga-
tion of revolution, and of the means of preserving states (E), and
a further treatment of democracy and oligarchy, and of the
different offices of the state (Z), and finally a return to the dis-
cussion of the right form of constitution (H, 6). But A and Z
are a group interrupted by E, and H and 9 are another group
unconnected with the previous group and with E, and are also
distinguished in style by avoiding hiatus. Further, the group
(A, Z) and the group (H, 6) are both unfinished. Finally the
group (A, Z), the book (E) and the group (H, 9), though
unconnected with one another, are all connected though im-
perfectly with " the first discourses " ( A,B,r). This complicated
arrangement may be represented in the following diagram:—
A, B, r
r
A,Z
E
ii, e
The simplest explanation is that Aristotle began by writing
separate discourses, four at least, on political subjects; that he
continued to write them and perhaps tried to combine them;
but that in the end he failed and left the Politics unfinished and
in disorder. But modern commentators, possessed by the fallacy
that Aristotle hke a modem author must from the first have
comtemplated a whole treatise in a regular order for definite
publication, lose themselves in vain disputes as to whether to go
by the traditional order of books indicated by their letters and
known to have existed as early as the abstract (given in Stobaeus,
Ed. ii 7) ascribed to Didymus (1st century ad.), or to put the
group H, 9, as more connected with A, B, I\ before the group
A, Z, and this group before the book E. It is agreed, says Zeller,
that the traditional order contradicts the original plan. But
what right have we to say that Aristotle had an original plan?
The incomplete state in which Aristotle left the Metaphysics,
the Politics and his logical works, brings us to the hard question
how much he did, and how much his Peripatetic followers did
5™
ARISTOTLE
to his writings after his death. To answer it we should have
to go far beyond Aristotle. But two corollaries follow from our
present investigation of his extant writings; the first, that it was
the long continuance of the Peripatetic school which gradually
caused the publication, and in some cases the forgery, of the
separate writings; and the second, that his Peripatetic successors
arranged and edited some of Aristotle's writings, and gradually
arrived by the time of Andronicus, the eleventh from Aristotle,
at an order of the whole body of writings forming the system.
Now, it is probable that the arrangement of the works which we
are considering was done by the Peripatetic successors of Aristotle.
There is nothing indeed in the Metaphysics to show whether he
left it in isolated treatises or in its present disorder; and nothing
in the Politics. On the other hand, in the case of logic, it is
certain that he did not combine his works on the subject into one
whole, but that the Peripatetics afterwards put them together as
organic, and made them the parts of logic as an organon, as they
are treated by Aridronicus. Perhaps something similar occurred
to the Metaphysics, as Alexander imputed its redaction to
Eudemus, and the majority of ancient commentators attributed
its second opening (Book a) to Pasicles, nephew of Eudemus.
Again, it is not unlikely that the Politics was arranged in the
traditional order of books by Theophrastus, and that this is the
meaning of the curious title occurring in the list of Aristotle's
works as given by Diogenes Laertius, wdXiruc^t ixpoaatuit C*
$ (koQpiunov a'0V«"«'i'$Vi which agrees with the Politics
in having eight books. Although, however, we may concede
that such great works as the Metaphysics, the Politics and the
logical writings did not receive their present form from Aristotle
himself, that concession does not deprive Aristotle of the author-
ship, but only of the arrangement of those works. On the
contrary, Theophrastus and Eudemus, his immediate followers,
both wrote works presupposing Aristotle's Metaphysics and his
logical works, and Dicaearchus, their contemporary, used his
Politics for his own Tripplitictts. It was Aristotle himself then
who wrote these works, whether he arranged them or not; and
if he wrote the Incomplete works, then a fortiori he wrote the
completed works except those which are proved spurious, and
practically consummated the Aristotelian system, which, as
Leibnitz said, by its unity of thought and style evinces its
own genuineness and individuality. We must not exaggerate
the school and underrate the individual, especially such an
individual. What he mainly wanted was the time, the leisure
and the labour, which we have supposed to have been given
to the gradual composition of the extant Aristotelian writings.
Aristotle, asked where dwell the Muses, answered, " In the souls
of those who love work.**
IV. Earlier and Later Writings
Aristotle's quotations of his other books and of historical
facts only inform us at best of the dates of isolated passages,
and cannot decide the dates and sequences of whole philosophical
books which occupied him for many years. Is there then any
way of discriminating between early and late works ? There is
the evidence of the influences under which the books were written.
This evidence applies to the whole Aristotelian literature includ-
ing the fragments. As to the fragments, we are safe in saying
that the early dialogues in the manner of Plato were written
under the influence of Plato, and that the subsequent didactic
writings connected with Alexander were written more under
the influence of Philip and Alexander. Turning to the extant
writings, we find that some are more under the influence of Plato,
while others are more original and Aristotelian. Also some
writings are more rudimentary than others on the same subject;
and some have the appearance of being first drafts of others.
By these differences we can do something to distinguish between
earlier and later philosophical works; and also vindicate as
genuine some works, which have been considered spurious because
they do not agree in style or in matter with his most mature
philosophy. In thirty-five years of literary composition, Aristotle
had plenty of time to change, because any man can differ from
himself at different times.
On these principles, we regard ma early t
works of Aristotle, (i) the Categories', (s) the Da Interpretation*,
(3) the Eudemian Ethics and Magna Moralia\ (4) the Rhetoric U
Alexander*
t. The Categories (xttnryopfat).— This short discourse turns on
Aristotle's fundamental doctrine of individual substances, with-
out which there is«othing. He arrives at it from a classification
of categories, by which he here means " things stated in no
combination " (r A koto, tnjif/ilaj' <rv/frXoxi}r XryojJtya) or what
we should call "names," capable of becoming predicates
(KanrYopobiuva, Karrryoplau). " Every name," says he (chap. 4).
" signifies either substance or something quantitative, or quali-
tative, or relative, or somewhere, or sometimes, or that
it is in a position, or in a condition, or active or passive."
He immediately adds that, by the combination of these
names with one another, affirmation or negation arises. The
categories then are names signifying things capable of becoming
predicates in a proposition. Next lie proceeds to substances
(oixriai), which he divides into primary (vpurcu) and secondary
(Stlmpat). " Substance," says he (chap. 5), u which is properly,
primarily and especially so called, is that Which is neither a
predicate of a subject nor inherent in a subject; for exampk,
a particular man, or a particular horse. Secondary substances
so called are the specie* in which are the primarily called
substances, and the genera of these species: for example, s
particular man is in a species, man, the genus of which is animal:
these then are called secondary substances, man and animal"
Having made these subdivisions of substance, he thereupon
reduces secondary substances and all the rest of the categories
to belongings of individual or primary substances. " All other
things," says he, " are either predicates of primary substances as
subjects " (xa0* faroxst/ifour w wpumav otomur) " or inherent in
them as subjects " (e> fcroKsuttVatf avrati). He explains that
species and genus are predicates of, and that other categories
(e.g. the quality of colour) are inherent in, some individual
substance such as a particular man. Then follows his conclusion •
" without primary substances it is impossible for anything to be "
(jxi) ofafir ofo twk vp&rtar obavuv abiamrov rwr 4Atar ft dru.
Cat. s, 2 b 5-6).
Things are individual substances, without which there »
nothing— this is the fundamental point of Aristot e u 'aniam , as
against Platonism, of which the fundamental point is that things
are universal forms without which there becomes nothing. The
world, according to Aristotle, consists of substances, each of
which is a separate individual, this man, this horse, this animal,
this plant, this earth, this water, this air, this fire; in the
heavens that moon, that sun, those stars; above all, God. On
the other hand, a universal species or genus of substances is a
predicate which, as well as everything else in all the other cate-
gories, always belongs to some individual substance or other as
subject, and has no separate being. In full, then, a substance is
a separate individual, having universals, and things in all other
categories, inseparably belonging to it. The individual substance
Socrates, for example, is a man and an animal (avoia), tall,
(roc6r), white (roto*), a husband (a-pot ri), in the market (rov),
yesterday (wont), sitting (cetetfeu), armed (exes*), talking
Or©*?*), listening (»a*x*u'). Aristotelianism is this philosophy
of substantial things.
The doctrine that all things are substances which vt separate
individuals, stated in the Categories, is expanded in the Malaphyius.
Both works arrive at it from the classification of categories, wnjen
is the same in both ; except that in the former the categories are
treated rather as a logical classification of names signifying thing**
in the latter rather as a metaphysical classification of things, is
neither, however, are they a grammatical classification of *!* rd5 -J2,
their structure ; and in neither are they a psychological cbssincauoa
of notions or general conceptions (»>*4/iara), sucn as they »« CT *
wards became in Kant's Critique and the post-Kantian idealism*
Moreover, even in the Categories as names signifying distinct tmng»
they imply distinct things; and hence the Categories* as wjB 1 *
Metaphysics, draws the metaphysical conclusion that ""fividua
substances are the things without which there is nothing elsCi *"y
thereby lavs the positive foundation of the philosophy running
through all the extant Aristotelian writings.
Again, according to both works, an individual substance is a
ARISTOTLE
5"
subject, a universal its predicate; and they have in common the
Aristotelian metaphysics, which differs greatly from the modern
logic of subject and predicate. Subject (CvomWo*) originally
meant a real thing which is the basis of something, and was used
by Aristotle both for a thing to which something belongs and for
a name of which another is asserted : accordingly " predicate "
(«aTTryopofy«iro») came with him to mean something really belonging
(irmipxop) to a substance as real subject, as well as a name capable of
being asserted of a name as a nominal subject. In other words, to
him subject meant real as well as nominal subject, and predicate
meant real as well as nominal predicate; whereas modern logic
has gradually reduced both to the nominal terms of a proposition.
Accordingly, when he said that a substance is a subject, he meant a
real subject: and when he said that a universal species or genus
is a predicate, he meant that it is a real predicate belonging to a
real subject, which is always some individual substance of the
kind. It follows that Aristotclianism in the Categories and in the
Metaphysics is a realism both of individuals and of universals;
of individual substances as real subjects, and of universals as
real predicates.
Lastly, the two works agree in reducing the Categories to substance
and its belongings (forApxorra). According to both, it is always
some substance, such as Socrates, which is quantitative, qualitative,
relative, somewhere, some time, placed, conditioned, active, passive ;
so that all things in all other categories are attributes which arc
belongings of substances. There are therefore two kinds of belongings,
universals and attributes; and in both cases belonging in the sense
of having no being but the being of the substance.
In brief then the common ground of the Categories and the Mela-
eysics is the fundamental position that all things are substances
ving belonging to them universals and attributes, which have no
separate being as Plato falsely supposed.
This essential agreement suffices to show that the Categories and
the Metaphysics are the result of one mind. Nevertheless, there is a
deep difference between them in detail, which may be expressed by
saying that the Categories is nearer to Platonism. We have seen how
anxious Aristotle was to be considered one of the Platonists, how
reluctant he was to depart from Plato's hypothesis of forms, and
how, in denying the separability, he retained the Platonic belief in the
reality and even in the unity of the universal. We have now to see
that, in writing the Categories, on the one hand he carried his differ-
ences from his master further than he had done in his early criticisms
by insisting that individual substances are not only real, out are the
very things which sustain the universal; but on the other hand, he
clung to further relics of the Platonic theory, and it is those which
differentiate the Categories and the Metaphysics.
In the first place, in the Categories the belonging of things in other
categories to individual substances in the first category is not so
well developed. A distinction (chap. 2) is drawn between things
which are predicates of a subject (««£' Oro*tln€Por) and things which
inhere in a subject (tr hro«tM*»v) ; and, while universals are called
predicates of a subject, things in a subordinate category, i.e. attri-
bute* such as colour (xp4p«) in the qualitative, arc said to inhere in
a subject. It is true that the work gives only a negative definition of
the inherent, namely, that it docs not inhere as a part and cannot
exist apart from that in which it inheres (1 a 24-25), and it admits that
a hat is inherent may sometimes also be a predicate (chap. 5, 2 a 27-34).
The commentators explain this to mean that an attribute as indi-
vidual u inherent, as Universal is a predicate. But even so the
Categories concludes that everything is either a predicate of, or
inherent in, a substance; and the view that this colour belongs to
tnis substance only in the sense of being in it, not of it, leaves the
impression that, like a Platonic form, it is an entity rather in than of
an individual substance, though even in the Categories Aristotle is
careful to deny its separability. The hypothesis of inherence gives
an inadequate account of the dependence of an attribute on a sub-
stance, and is a kind of half-way house between separation and
predication.
On the other hand, in the Metaphysics, the distinction between
inherence and predication disappears; and what is more, the relation
of an attribute to a substance is regarded as so close that an attribute
i* merely the substance modified. " The thing itself and the thing
affected," says Aristotle, " are in a way the same; e.g. Socrates and
Socrates musical " {Met. A 29, 1024 b 30-31). Consequently, all
attributes, as well as universals, belong as predicates of individual
substances as subjects, according to the Metaphysics, and also accord-
ing to the most authoritative works of Aristotle, such as the Posterior
Analytics, where (cf. i. 4, 22) an attribute (ovufafan/n) is said to be
only by being the substance possessing it, and any separation of an
attribute from a substance is held to be entirely a work of human
abstraction (A*a/p«m). At this, point, Plato and Aristotle have
become very far apart: to the master beauty appears to be an
independent thing, and really separate, to the pupil at his best only
something beautiful, an attribute which is only mentally separable
from an individual substance. The first difference then between
the Categories and the Metaphysics is in the nature of an attribute:
and the theory of inherence in the Categories is nearer to Plato and
more rudimentary than the theory of predication in the Metaphysics.
The second difference is still, nearer to Plato and more rudimentary,
and is in the nature of substance. For though both work* rest on
the reality of individual substances, the Categories (chap. 5) admits
that universal species and genera can be called substances, whereas
the Metaphysics (Z 13) denies that a universal can be a substance
at all.
It is evident that in the category of substance, as Aristotle per-
ceived, substance is predicate of substance, e.g. Socrates (otofo) is a
man (ofcrla). and an animal (odria). The question then arises,
what sort of substance can be predicate; and in the Categories
Aristotle gave an answer, which would have been impossible, if he
had not, under Plato's influence, accepted both the unity and the
substantiality of the universal. What he said in consequence was
that the substance in the predicate is not an individual substance,
e.g. this man or this animal, because such a primary substance is not
a predicate; but that the species man or the genus animal is the
substance which is the predicate of Socrates the subject (Cat. 5, 3 a
36 seq.). Finding then that substances arc real predicates, and
supposing that in that case they must be species or genera, he could
not avoid the conclusion that some substances are species or genera,
which were therefore called by him " secondary substances," and by
his Latin followers substantiae universale*. It is true that this con-
clusion gave him some misgivings, because he recognized that it is
a characteristic of a substance to signify an individual (rife rt),
which a species or a genus does not signify (ib. 5, 3 b 10-2 1 ). Never-
theless, in the Categories, he did not venture to deny that in the
category of substance a universal species (e.g. man), or genus (e.g.
animal), is itself a substance. On the other hand, in the Metaphysics
(Z 13), he distinctly denies that any universal can be a substance,
on the ground that a substance is a subject, whereas a universal is
a predicate and a belonging of a subject, from which it follows as
he says that no universal is a substance, and no substance universal.
Here again the Categories forms a kind of transition from Platonism to
the Metaphysics which is the reverse: to call universals " secondary
substances ' is half way between Plato's calling them the only
substances and Aristotle s denial in the Metaphysics that they are
substances at all.
What. conclusion arc- we to draw from these differences between the
Categories and the Metaphysics ? The only logical conclusion is that
the Categories, being nearer to Plato on the nature of attributes, and
still nearer on the relation of universals to substances, is earlier than
the Metaphysics. There arc difficulties no doubt in drawing this
conclusion; because the Metaphysics, though it denies that uni-
versals can be substances, and does not allow species and genera to be
called " secondary substances," nevertheless falls itself into calling
a universal essence (r* rl 4* *t**i) a substance — and that too in
the very book where it is proved that no universal can be a Sub-
stance. But this lapse only shows how powerful a dominion Plato
exercised over Aristotle's soul to the last; for it arises out of the
pupil still accepting from his master the unity of the universal though
now-applying it, not to classes, but to essences. The argument about
essences in the Metaphysics is as follows: — Since a separate individual,
e.g. Socrates, is a substance, and he is essentially a rational animal,
then his essence, being what he is, is a substance; for we cannot
affirm that Socrates is a substance and then deny that this rational
animal is a substance (Met. Z 3). Now, according to the unity of a
universal asserted by Plato and accepted by Aristotle, the universal
essence of species, being one and the same for all individuals of the
kind, is the same as the essence of each individual: e.g. the rational
animal in the humanspecies and in Socrates is one and the same;
"for the essence is indivisible" (Arojior 7 dp rA «I*ot, Met. Z 8,
1034 a 8). It follows that we must call this selfsame essence, at once
individual and universal, substance — a conclusion, however, which
Aristotle never drew in so many words, though he continued always
to call essence substance, and definition a knowledge of substance.
There is therefore a history of Aristotle's metaphysical views,
corresponding to his gradual method of composition. It is as
follows : —
(1) Negative rejection of Plato's hypothesis of forms and formal
numbers, and reduction of forms to the common in the early
dialogue wpl 4<Xo#o4<w and in the early work *tpl Ue&w.
(2) Positive assertion of the doctrine that things are individual
substances in the Categories, but with the admission that attributes
sometimes inhere in substance without being predicates of it, and
that universal species and genera are " secondary substances."
(3) Expansion of the doctrine that things are individual substances
in the Metaphysics, coupled with the reduction of all attributes to
predicates, and the direct denial of universal substances; but never-
theless calling the universal essence of a species of substances
substance, because the individual essence of an individual substance
really is that substance, and the universal essence of the whole species
is supposed to be indivisible and therefore identical with the in-
dividual essence of any individual of the species.
2. The De Interprctaifone.—Anothtr example of Aristotle's
gradual desertion of Plato is exhibited by the De Interpretation*
as compared with the Prior Analytics, and it shows another
gradual history in Aristotle's philosophy, namely, the develop-
ment of subject, predicate and copula, in his logic.
The short discourse on the expression of thought by language
(repl 'Eppnrafas, De Inter prttationc) is based on the Platonic
5"
ARISTOTLE
division of the sentence (Xbyos) into noun and verb (oio/ua and
fintia). Its point is to separate the enunciative sentence, or that
in which there is truth or falsity, from other sentences; and then,
dismissing the rest to rhetoric or poetry (where we should say
grammar), to discuss the enunciative scnU > ncc(dro4ai'riKOs Xtryot),
or enunciation (djro^xwm), or what wc should call the proposi-
tion (De Int. chap. 4). Here Aristotle, starting from the previous
grammar of sentences in general, proceeded, for the first time in
philosophical literature, to disengage the logic of the proposition,
or that sentence which can alone be true or false, whereby it alone
enters into reasoning. But in spite of this great logical achieve-
ment, he continued throughout the discourse to accept Plato's
grammatical analysis of all sentences into noun and verb, which
indeed applies to the proposition as a sentence but docs not give
Its particular elements. The first part of the work confines itself
strictly to noun and verb, or the form of proposition called
tecutidi adjacentis. Afterwards (chap. 10) proceeding to the
opposition of propositions, he adds the form called tertii
adjamttii, in a passage which is the first appearance, or rather
adumbration, of the verb of being as a copula. In the
form irrundi adjacentis wc only gel oppositions, such as the
following: —
mnn i* — man is not
nut -man U— not-man is not
In the form tcrtil adjacentis the oppositions, becoming more
complex, are doubled, as follows:—
man I* junt — mnn Is not just
man in non-just —man is not non-just
not-man is just — not-man is not just
not-man is non-just— not-man » not non-just.
The words introducing this form (orcu» 6c to tan rplroy
wpocnanrropvrai, chap. 10, 19 b 19), which are the origin of the
phrase Urtii adjacentis, disengage the verb of being (tan) partially
but not entirely, because they still treat it as an extra part of the
predicate, and not as a distinct copula. Nor docs the work get
further than the analysis of some propositions into noun and verb
with'" is " added to the predicated verb; an analysis, however,
which was a great logical discovery and led Aristotle further to
the remark that "is" does not mean "exists"; e.g. "Homer is
a poet " does not mean " Homer exists " (De Int. chap, x x).
How then did Aristotle get further in the logical analysis of
the proposition? Not in the De Interpretatione t but in the Prior
Analytics. The first adumbration was forced upon him in the
former work by his theory of opposition; the complete appear-
ance in the latter work by his theory of syllogism. In analysing
the syllogism, he first says that a premiss is an affirmative or
negative sentence, and then that a term is that into which a
premiss is dissolved, i.e. predicate and subject, combined or
divided by being and not being (Pr. An. i. 1 ). Here, for the first
time in logical literature, subject and predicate suddenly appear
as terms, or extremes, with the verb of being (r6 ttviu) or not
being (to 411) efau) completely disengaged from both, but con-
necting them as a copula. Why here? Because the crossing of
terms in a syllogism requires it. In the syllogism " Every man
is mortal and Socrates is a man/' if in the minor premiss the
copula " is " were not disengaged from the predicate " man,"
there would not be one middle term " man " in the two premisses.
It is not necessary in every proposition, but it is necessary in the
arrangement of a syllogism, to extricate the terms of its proposi-
tions from the copula; e.g. mortal — man — Socrates.
This important difference between the De Interpretalione and
the Prior Analytics can only be explained by supposing that the
former is the earlier treatise. It is nearer to Plato's analysis of
the sentence, and no logician would have gone back to it, after
the Prior Analytics. It is not spurious, as some have supposed*
nor later than the De Anima t as Zeller thought, but Aristotle
In an earlier frame of mind.
Moreover we can make a history of Aristotle's thought and
gradual composition thus:
(1) Earlier acceptance in the De Interpretation* of Plato's
grammatical analysts of the sentence into noun and verb (seatndi
***acontis) but gradually disengaging the proposition, and after-
wards introducing the verb of being as a third thing added
(teriiun adjacens) to the predicated verb, for the purpose of
opposition.
(2) Later logical analysis in the Prior Analytics of the proposi-
tion as premiss into subject, predicate and copula, for the purpose
of syllogism; but without insisting that the original form ia
illogical.
3. The Eudemian Ethics and Magna M or alia in relation to
the Nicomachean Ethics. — Under the name of Aristotle, three
treatises on the good of man have come down to us, 'BBui.
Nuojtaxcta (tcos Nuco/iaxov, Porphyry), 'HfcxA Eftftbue (wpot
Ei'6-ntiov, Porphyry), and 'Hffurd peyaXa; so like one another
that there seems no tenable hypothesis except that they are the
manuscript writings of one man. Nevertheless, the most usual
hypothesis is that, while the Nicomachean Ethics (JEJV.) was
written by Aristotle to Nicomachus, the Eudemian (E.E.) was
written, not to, but by, Eudemus, and the Magna M or alia (M.M.)
was written by some early disciple before the introduction of
Stoic and Academic elements into the Peripatetic school The
question is further complicated by the fact that three Nico-
machean books (E.N. v.-vii.) and three Eudemian (E. E. A-ZL
are common to the two treatises, and by the consequent question
whether, on the hypothesis of different authorship, the common
books, as wc may style them, were written for the Nicomachevn
by Aristotle, or for the Eudemian Ethics by Eudemus, or some by
one and some by the other author. Against the " Chorixontes,"
who have advanced various hypotheses on all these points with*
out convincing one another, it may be objected that they have
not considered Aristotle's method of gradual and simultaneous
composition of manuscripts within the Peripatetic school. We
have to remember the traces of his -separate discourses, and his
own double versions; and that, as in ancient times Sunplidos,
who had two versions of the Physics, Book vii., suggested that
both were early versions of Book viii. on the same subject, so
in modern times Torstrik, having discovered that there were two
versions of the De Anima, Book ii., suggested that both were by
Aristotle. Above all, we must consider our present point that
Platonic influence is a sign of earliness in an Aristotelian work;
and generally, the same man may both think and write differently
at different times, especially if, like Aristotle, he has been a
prolific author.
These considerations make it probable that the author of all
three treatises was Aristotle himself; while the. analysis of the
treatises favours the hypothesis that he wrote the Eudemian
Ethics and the Magna Moralia more or less together as the
rudimentary first drafts of the mature Nicomachean Ethics.
As the Platonic philosophy was primarily moral, and its meta-
physics a theory of the moral order of the universe, Aristotle from
the first must have mastered the Platonic ethics. At first he
adopted the somewhat ascetic views of his master about soul and
body, and about goods of body and estate; but before Plato's
death he had rejected the hypothesis of forms, formal numbers
and the form of the good identified with the one, by which Plato
tried to explain moral phenomena; while his studies and teach*
ing on rhetoric and poetry soon began to make him take a irore
tolerant view than Plato did of men's passions. Throughout his
whole subsequent life, however, he retained the fundamental
doctrine, which he had learnt from Plato, and Plato from
Socrates, that virtue is essential to happiness. Twice over this
tenet, which makes Socrates, Plato and Aristotle one ethical
school, inspired Aristotle to attempt poetry: first, in the Elegy
to Eudemus of Cyprus, in which, referring to either Socrates or
Plato, he praises the man who first showed clearly that a good and
happy man are the same (Fragm. 673); and secondly, in the
Hymn in memory of Hermias, beginning " Virtue, difficult to
the human race, noblest pursuit in life " (ib. 675). Moreover, the
successors of Plato in the Academy, Speusippus and Xenooatea,
showed the same belief in the essentiality of virtue. The question
which divided them was what the good is. Speusippus took the
ascetic view that the good is a perfect condition of neutrality
between two contrary evils, pain and pleasure. Xcoocratea
took the tolerant view that it is the possession of appropriate
ARISTOTLE
5*3
virtue mud nobfe actions, requiring as conditions bodily and
external goods. Aristotle was opposed to Speusippus, and nearly
agreed with Xcnocrates. According to him, the good is activity
of soul in accordance with virtue in a mature life, requiring as
conditions bodily and external goods of fortune; and virtue is a
mean state of the passions. It is probable that when, after
Plato's death and the accession of Speusippus in 347, Aristotle
with Xcnocrates left Athens to visit his former pupil Hcrmias,
the three discussed this moderate system of Ethics in which the
two philosophers nearly agreed. At any rate, it was adopted in
each of the three moral treatises which pass under the name of
Aristotle.
The three treatises arc in very close agreement throughout, and
in the following details. The good of Ethics is human good; and
human good is happiness, not the universal good or form of the
good to which Plato subordinated human happiness. Happiness is
activity of soul according to virtue in a mature life : it requires other
goods only as conditions. The soul is partly irrational, partly
rational; and therefore there arc two kinds of virtue. Moral virtue,
which is that of the irrational desires so far as they are obedient to
reason, is a purposive habit in the mean. The motive of the moral
virtues is the honourable (rA *aX6r, konestum). As the rational is
either deliberative or scientific, cither practical or speculative
intellect, there are two virtues of the intellect—prudence of the
deliberative or practical, and wisdom of the scientific or speculative,
intellect. The right reason by which moral virtue is determined is
prudence/which is determined in its turn by wisdom. Pleasure is a
psychical state, and is not a generation in the body supplying a defect
and establishing a natural condition, but an activity of a natural
condition of the soul. It should be specialty noted that this doctrine
like the rest is common to the three treatises: in Book vii. of the
Nicomachean, which is Z of the Eudemian t pleasure is defined as
iwipyttm r*t rard 4*air f|«ut Aptft*6Siarot (chap. 12, II 53 a 14-15);
and in the Magna Moralia as A cbtptts abrov rat 4 M/ryeia
(ii. 7, 1204 b 28; cf. 1205 b 20-28). It is plain from the context
that in the former definition " the natural condition " (4 *ara
0to» f((t) refers to the soul which, while the body is regenerated,
remains unimpaired (cf. 1152 b 35 scq., 1154 b 15 scq.); and in the
latter definition the thing (•tn-ov), whose " motion, that is activity "
is spoken of, is the part of the soul with which we feel pleased.
Down then to their common definition of pleasure as activity the
three treatises present a harmonious system of morals, consistently
with one another, and with the general philosophy of Aristotle,
In particular, the theory that pleasure is activity (Irlpyua) is the
theory of two of his most authoritative works. In the De Anima-
(Hi. 7, 431 a 10-12), being pleaocd and pained are defined by him as
acting r* (4**P7«t») by a sensitive mean in relation to good or evil
as such. In the Metaphysics (A 7, 1072 b 16), in discussing the occu-
pation of God, he says " his pleasure is activity," or " his activity
is pleasure," according to a difference of readings which makes no
difference to the identification of pleasure and activity (Mpyna).
As then we find this identification of pleasure with activity in the
Metaphysics and in the De Anima, as well as in the Nicomachean
Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics and the Magna Moralia, the only logical
conclusion, from which there is no escape, is that, so far as the treat-
ment of pleasure goes, any Aristotelian treatise which defines it as
activity is genuine. There is no reason for doubting that the Nico-
machean Ethics to the end of Book vii., the Eudemian Ethics to the
end of Book Z, and the Magna Moralia as far as Book ii. chap. 7,
were all three written by Aristotle.
Why then doubt at all ? It is because the Nicomachean Ethics
contains a second discourse on pleasure (x. 1-5), in which the author,
while agreeing with the previous treatment of the subject that
pleasure is not a bodily generation, even when accompanied by it.
but something psychical, nevertheless defines it (x. 4, 1174 b 31-33)
not as an activity, but as a supervening end {bnytyp6u«r6» r» r*\©«)
perfecting an activity (rtKntX r4» Mpyttar). He allows indeed
that activity and pleasure are very closely related; that a
pleasure of sense or thought perfects an act of sensation or of think-
ing, depends on it, and is so inseparably conjoined with it as to raise
a doubt whether pleasure is end of life or life end of pleasure, and even
whether the activity is the same as the pleasure. But he disposes
of this doubt in a very emphatic and significant manner. " Pleasure,"
says he, " does not seem to be thinking or perceiving; for it is absurd:
bnt on account of not beine separated from them, it appears to some
persons to be the same.'* Now it is not likely that Aristotle either,
after having so often identified pleasure with activity, would say that
the identification is absurd though it appears true to some persons, of
whom he would In that case be one, or, having once disengaged the
pleasure of perceiving and thinking from the acts of perceiving and
thinking, would go backwards and confuse them. It is more likely
that Anstotle identified pleasure with activity in the De Anima, the
Metaphysics and the three moral treatises, as we have seen; but
that afterwards some subsequent Peripatetic, considering that the
pleasure of perceiving or thinking is not the same as perceiving or
thinking, declared the previous identification of pleasure with activity
absurd. At any rate, if we are to choose, it is the identification that,
is Aristotle's, and the distinction not Aristotle's. Moreover, the
distinction between activity and pleasure in the tenth book is really
fatal to the consistency of the whole Nicomachean Ethics, which
started in the first book with the identification of happiness and
virtuous activity. For if the pleasure of virtuous activity is a super-
vening end beyond the activity, it becomes a supervening end beyond
the happiness of virtuous activity, which thus ceases to be the final
end. Nevertheless, the distinction between activity and pleasure
is true. Some unknown Peripatetic detected a flaw in the Nico-
machean Ethics when he said that pleasure is a supervening end
beyond activity, and, if he had gone on to add that happiness is also
a supervening end beyond the virtuous activities which are necessary
to produce it, he would have destroyed the foundation of his own
founder's Ethics.
t It is further remarkable that the Nicomachean Ethics proceeds to a
different conclusion. After the intrusion of this second discourse on
KIcasure. it goes on {E.N. x. 6-fin.) to the famous theory that the
ighest happiness is the speculative life of intellect or wisdom as
divine, but that happiness as human also includes the practical life
of combining prudence and moral virtue; and that, while both lives
need external goods as necessaries, the practical life also requires
them as instruments of moral action. The treatise concludes with
the means of making men virtuous; contending that virtue requires
habituation, habituation law, law legislative art, and legislative art
politics: Ethics thus passes into Politics. The Eudemian Ethics
proceeds to its conclusion (E.E. H 13-15) differently, with the
consideration of (l) good fortune (ttnv^la), and (2) gcntlcmanliness
(xoXo«&7aMa). Good fortune it divides into two kinds, both
irrational; one divine, according to impulse, and more continuous;
the other contrary to impulse and not continuous. Gcntlemanlincss
it regards as perfect virtue, containing all particular virtues, and all
goods for the sake of the honourable. Finally, it concludes with the
limit (Spot) of goods. First it finds the limit of goods of fortune in
that desire and possession of them which will conduce to the con-
templation of God, whereas that which prevents the service and
contemplation of God is bad. Then it adds that the best limit of the
soul is as little as possible to perceive the other part of the soul {i.e.
desire). Finally, the treatise concludes with saying that the limit
of gcntlcmanliness has thus been stated, meaning that its limit is
the service and contemplation of God and the control of desire by
reason. The Magna Moralia (M.M. ii. 8- to) on these points is
unlike the Nicomachean, and like the Eudemian Ethics in discussing
good fortune and gcntlemanlincss, but it discusses them in a more
worldly way. On good fortune (ii. 8), after recognizing the neces-
sity of external goods to happiness, it denies that fortune is due to
divine grace, and simply defines it as irrational nature (fXoyot
46<m). Gcntlemanlincss (ii. 9) it regards as perfect virtue, and
defines the gentleman as the man to whom really good things are
good and really honourable things honourable. It then adds (ii. 10)
that acting according to right reason is when the irrational part of
the soul does not hinder the rational part of intellect from doing its
work. Thereupon it proceeds to a discourse on friendship, which in
the Nicomachean and Eudemian Ethics is discussed in an earlier
position, but breaks off unfinished.
On the whole, the three moral treatises proceed on very similar
lines down to the common identification of pleasure with activity,
and then diverge. From this point the Eudemian Ethics and the
Magna Moralia become more like one another than like the Nico-
machean Ethics. They also become less like one another than before:
for the treatment of good fortune, gentkmanlincss, and their limit
is more theological in the Eudemian Ethics than in the Magna
Moralia.
How are the resemblances and differences of the three to be
explained? By Aristotle's gradual method of composition. All
three are great works, contributing to the origin of the independent
science oflithics. But the Eudemian Ethics and the Magna Moralia
are more rudimentary than the Nicomachean Ethics, which as it were
seems to absorb them except in the conclusion. They are, in short,
neither independent works, nor mere commentaries, but Aristotle's*
first drafts of his Ethics.
In the Ethics to Eudemus, as Porphyry properly called the
Eudemian Ethics, Aristotle in the first four books successively investi-
gates happiness, virtue, the voluntary and the particular moral
virtues, in the same order and in the same letter and spirit ag in his
Ethics to Nicomachus. But the investigations are never so good.
They are all such rudiments as Aristotle might well polish into the
more developed expositions in the first four books of the Nico-
machean Ethics. On the other hand, nobody would have gone back
afterwards on hb masterly treatment of happiness, in the first book,
or of virtue in the second, or of the voluntary in the third, or of the
particular virtues in the third and fourth, to write the sketchy
accounts of the Eudemian Ethics.
Again, these sketches are rough preparations for the strbsequent
books common to the two treatises. It is true, as Dr Henry Jackson
has pointed out, though with some exaggeration, that the Eudemian
agrees in detail rather better than the Nicomachean treatment of the
voluntary with the subsequent discussion of injury (E.E. & — B.N.
v. 8) ; and. as Th. H. Fritxsche remarks, the distinction between
politics, and economics, and prudence in the Eudemian Ethics (A 8)
is a closer anticipation of the subsequent triple distinction of
5*4
ARISTOTLE
ifina) (&.£. » 33, 122 1 a 12;: tinauy, a distinction
virtue by nature and virtue with prudence (u*rA $po*4i««*i)
id (£.£. T 7, 1231 a 4). In addition to all this confusion
itive and practical knowledge, prudence is absent when it
practical science (£.£. B-EJV. vi 8). On the other hand, there
are still more fundamental points in which the first three books of
the Eudemian Ethics are a very inadequate preparation for the
common books. Notably its treatment of prudence (^pwnoit) is a
chaos. At first, prudence appears as the operation of the philo-
sophical life and* connected with the speculative philosophy of
Anaxagoras (E.E. A 1-5): then it is brought into connexion with
the practical philosophy of Socrates (16. 5) and co-ordinated with
politics and economics (ib. 8): then it is intruded into the diagram
of moral virtues as a mean between villainy (warovpyla) and sim-
plicity («W«a) (E.E. B 33, 122 1 a 12): finally, a distinction
Between virtue "* * J ■""* :••.•«—•- — ' — * ^ — *■ *
is promised .
of speculative and praci «,-. r
ought to be present; #.g. from the division of virtues into moral and
intellectual (£.£. B 1, 1220 a 4-13), and from the definition of
moral virtue (ib. 5, 10); while, in a passage (B 11) anticipating the
subsequent discussion of the relation between prudence and moral
virtue (£.£. R-E.N. vi. 12-13), it is stated that in purpose the end
is made right by moral virtue, the means by another power, reason,
without this right reason being stated to be prudence. Alter this,
it can never be said that the earlier books of the Eudemian Ethics are
so good a preparation as those of the Nicomachean Ethics for the
distinction Det ween prudence (♦pAnjffu) and wisdom (eo&a), which
is the main point of the common books, and one of Aristotle's main
points against Plato's philosophy.
Curiously enough, although little is made of it, this distinction,
absent from the earlier books, is present in the final book H of the
Eudemian Ethics (cf. 1246 b 4 acq., 1248 a 35. 1249 b 14) ; and probably
therefore this part was a separate discourse. Meanwhile, however,
the truth about the Eudemian Ethics la general is that it was an
earlier rudimentary sketch written by Aristotle, when he was still
struggling, without quite succeeding, to get over Plato's view that
there is one philosophical knowledge of universal good, by which
not only the dialectician and mathematician must explain the being
and becoming of the world, but also the individual and the statesman
Side the life of man. Indeed, the final proof that the Eudemian
hies is earlier than the Nicomachean is the very fact that it
is more under Platonic influence. In the first place, the reason
why the account of prudence begins by confusing the speculative
with the practical is that the Eudemian Ethics starts from Plato's
Phiiebus, where, without differentiating speculative and practical
knowledge, Plato asks how far good is prudence ($p6wj»ij), how
far pleasure (4Sw4); and in the Eudemian Ethics Aristotle asks
the same question, adding virtue (kpeHi) in order to correct the
Socratic confusion of virtue with prudence. Secondly, the Eudemian
Ethics, while not agreeing with Plato's Republic that the just can
be happy by justice alone, docs not assign to the external goods of
good fortune Uim/xLa) the prominence accorded to them in the
Nicomachean Ethics as the necessary conditions of all virtue, and
the instruments of moral virtue. Thirdly, the emphasis of the
Eudemian Ethics on the perfect virtue of gentlemanlincss
(«aXM&y«Ma) is a decidedly old-fashioned trait, which descended
to Aristotle from the Greek notion of a gentleman who docs his
duty to his state (cf. Herodotus L 30, Thucydidcs iv. 40) and
to his God (Xenophon, Symp. iv. 49) through Plato, who in the
Corgias (470 E) says that the gentleman is happy, and in the Republic
(489 b) imputes to him the love of truth essential to philosophy.
Moreover, when Plato goes on (ib. 505 d) to identify the form of
good, without which nothing is good, with the gentlemanly thing
(xaXdr Vol AytMv), without which any possession is worthless, he
inspired into the author of the Eudemian Ethics the very limit (V*)
of good fortune and gentlemanlincss with which it concludes, only
without Plato's elevation of the good into the form of the good.
In the Nicomachean Ethics the old notion, we gladly see, survives
(cf. i. 8): virtuous actions are gentlemanly actions, and happiness
accordingly is being at our best and noblest and pleasantest (i^Mirnw
««i K&XAt*T»r tal Wtaror). But gcatlcmanliaess is no longer called
perfect virtue, as in the Eudemian Ethics : its place has been taken
by justice, which is perfect virtue to one's neighbour, by prudence
which I'nitcs all the moral virtues, and by wisdom which is the highest
virtue. Accordingly, in the end the old ideal of gentlemanlincss is
displaced by the new ideal of the speculative and practical life.
Lastly, the Eudemian Ethic* derives from Platonism a strong
theological bias, especially in its conclusion (H 14-15). The opposi-
tion of divine good fortune according to impulse to that which is
contrary to impulse reminds us of Plato's point in the Phaedrus that
there is a.divine as well as a diseased madness. The determination of
the limit of good fortune and of gentlemanliness by looking to the
ruler, God, who governs as the end for which prudence gives its
orders, and the conclusion that the best limit is the most conducive
to the service and contemplation of God, presents the Deity and
man's relation to him as a final and objective standard more
definitely in the Eudemian than in the Nicomachean Ethics, which
only goes so far as to say that man's highest end it the speculative
wisdom which is divine, like God, dearest to God.
Because, then, it is very like, but more rudimentary and more
Platonic, we conclude that the Eudemian is an earlier draft of the
Nicomachean Ethics* written by Aristotle when he was still in
of transition from Plato's ethics to his own.
The Magna Moralia contains similar evidence of being earlier tham
the Nicomachean Ethics. It treats the same subjects, but always io
a more rudimentary manner; and its remarks are always such as
would precede rather than follow the masterly expositions of the
Nicomachean Ethics. This inferiority applies also to its treatment
not only of the early part (i. 1-33 corresponding to E.N. i.-rv.), bat
also of the middle part (i. 34-ii. 7 corresponding to E.N. v.-vii. —
£.£. A-Z). In dealing with justice, it docs not make it clear, as the
Nicomachean Ethics (Book v.) does, that even universal justice is
virtue towards another (M.M. i. 34, 1193 b 1-15), and it omits
altogether the division into distributive and corrective justice. In
dealing with what the Nicomachean Ethics (Book vi.) cans intel-
lectual virtues, but the Magna Moralia (i. 5, 35) virtues of the
rational part of the soul, and right reason, it distinguishes (i. 35.
1 106 b 34-36) science, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, apprehension
(urAXi^if), in a rough manner very inferior to the classification
of science, art, prudence, intelligence, wisdom, all of which are co-
ordinate states of attaining truth, in the Nicomachean Ethics (vi. 3).
It distinguishes prudence (4>pbrna%) and wisdom (eoQU) as the
respective virtues of deliberative and scientific reason; and on the
whole its account of prudence (cf. M.M. i. 5) is more consistent than
that of the Eudemian Ethics. In these points it is a better prepara-
tion for the Nicomachean Ethics. But it falls into the confusion of
first saying that praise is for moral virtues, and not for virtues of the
reason, whether prudence or wisdom (M.M. I. 5, 1185 b 8-12), and
afterwards arguing that prudence is a virtue, precisely because it is
praised (i. 35, 1 197 a 16-18). In dealing with continence and incontin-
ence, the same doubts and solutions occur as in the Nicomachean
Ethics (Book vii. =£.£. Z), but sometimes confusing doubts and
solutions together, instead of first proposing all the doubts and then
supplying the solutions as in the Nicomcchean Ethics. Such rudi-
mentary and imperfect sketches would be quite excusable in a first
draft, but inexcusable and incredible after the Nicomachean Ethics
had been written.
1 1 has another characteristic which points to its being an early work
of Aristotle, when he was still under the influence 01 Plato's style;
namely its approximation to dialogue.- It asks direct questions
(e.g. fca W ; M.M. i. 1 repeatedly, 12; ii. 6, 7), incorporates direct
statements of others (e.g. friel, 1. 12, 13; ii. 3. 6, 7), alternates
direct objections and answers (i. 34), and introduces conversations
between the author and others, expressed interrogatively, indicativcly
and even imperatively (AAV ipu pot, r* woia Itmmh+mro* iryutva s*tm>.
i. 35, 1x96 b 10; cf. ii. 10, 1208 a 20-22). The whole treatise
inclines to run into dialogue. It is also Platonic, like the Endemian
Ethics, in making little of external goods in the account of good
fortune (ii. 8), and in emphasizing the perfect virtue of gentlemanli-
ness (ii. 9). Indeed, in some respects it is more like the Eudemian,
though in the main more like the Nicomachean Ethics. In the fim
book, it has the Eudemian distinction between prudence, virtue and
pleasure (i. 3, 1 184 b 5-6) ; but does not make so much of it as the
distinction between prudence and wisdom blurred in the Eudemian
but defined in the Nicomachean EthUs. In the second book, it rung
parallel to the Eudemian Ethics in placing good fortune and gentle-
manliness (ii. 8-9), where the Nicomachean Ethics places the specu-
lative and the practical life; but it omits the theological element
intellect (koOs), from doing its work.
Because, then, the Magna Moralia is very like the Nicomachean
Ethics, but more rudimentary, nearer to the Platonic dialogues in
style and to a less degree in matter, and also like the Eudemian
Ethics, we conclude that it is also like that treatise in having been
written as an earlier draft of the Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle
himself.
The hypothesis that the Eudemian Ethics, and by consequence the
Magna Moralia, are later than Aristotle has arisen from a simple
misconception, continued in a Scholium attributed to Aspasius, who
lived in the 2nd century a.d. Nicomachean means " addressed to
Nicomachus," and Eudemian "addressed to Eudemus"; but, as
Cicero thought that the Nicomachean Ethics was written by Nico-
machus, so the author of the Scholium thought that the Eudemian
Ethics, at least so far as the first account of pleasure goes, was written
by Eudemus. He only thought so, however, because Aristotle
could not have written both accounts of pleasure; and, taking for
granted that Aristotle had written the second account of pleasure in
the Nicomachean Ethics (Book X.). he concluded that the first
account (Book vii.) was not the work of Aristotle, but of Eudemus
(Comm. in Ar. (Berlin) xix. p. 151). We have seen reason to reverse
this argument: Aristotle did write the first account in Book vii..
because it contains his usual theory; and, if we must choose, he did
not write the second account in Book x. In this way, too, we get a
historical development of the theory of pleasure: Plato and Speu-
sippus said it is generation (cf . Plato's Phiiebus) : Aristotle said it is
psychical activity sometimes requiring bodily generation, sometimes
not (E.N. vii. -£.£.Z) : Aristotle, or some Aristotelian, afterwards
said that it is a supervening end completing an activity (E.N. x.).
Secondly, some modern commentators, starting from the false conclu-
sion that the definition of pleasure as activity (E*N. vii, mE.EJL) m
by Eudtmus. and supposing without proof that he was also author of
ARISTOTLE
$«5
Ike firtt time books of the Eudemian Ethics* have further asserted
that these are a better introduction than the first four books of
the Nicomachean Ethics to the books common to both treatises
(E.N. Books v.-vii.-£.£. Books A-Z), and have concluded that
Eudemus wrote these common books. But we have seen that
Aristotle wrote the first three books of the Eudemian as an
earlier draft of the Nicomachean Elhtcs; so that, even so far as
they form a better introduction, this will not prove the common
books to be by Eudemus. Again, those first three books are a
better introduction only in details; whereas in regard to the
all-important subject of prudence as distinct from wisdom, they
are so bad an introduction that the common book which discusses
that subject at large {E.N. Book vi. -£.£. Book B) must be rather
founded on the first four books of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics.
Further, as Aristotle wrote both the first three Eudemian and the
first four Nicomachean books, there is no reason why sometimes one,
sometimes the other, should not be the best introduction to the
common books by the same author. Finally, the common books are
so integral a part of the Aristotelian system of philosophy that they
cannot be disengaged from it : the book on justice (E.N. v.) quotes
and is quoted in the Politics (cf. 1 130 b 28, 1280 a 16, 1261 a 30) ; the
book on intellectual virtues (E.N. vi.) quotes (vi. 3) the Posterior
Analytics, I 2, and is quoted in the Metaphysics (A 1) ; and we have
seen that the book (EN. vii.) which defines pleasure as activity
is simply stating an Aristotelian commonplace. Thirdly, in order to
prove that the Eudemian Ethics was by Eudemus, it is said that in
its first part it contemplates that there must be a limit («pot) for
virtue as a mean (£.£. B 5, 1222 b 7-8). in its middle part it criticizes
the Nicomachean Ethics tor not being clear about this limit (£.£. E 1),
and in the end it alone assigns this limit, in the service and contem-
plation of God (£.£ H 15, 1249 b 16 seq.). This argument is subtle,
but over-subtle. The Eudemian and the Nicomachean treatments
of this subject do not really differ. In the Nicomachean as in the
Eudemian Ethics the limit above moral virtue is right reason, or
prudence, which is right reason on such matters; and above prudence
wisdom, for which prudence gives its orders; while wisdom b the
intelligence and science of the most venerable objects, of the most
divine, and of Cod. After this agreement, there is a shade of differ-
ence. While the Eudemian Ethics in a more theological vein empha-
sizes God, the object of wisdom as the end for which prudence gives
its orders, the Nicomachean Ethics In a more humanizing spirit
emphasizes wisdom itself, the speculative activity, as that end, and
afterwards as the highest happiness, because activity of the divine
power of intellect, because an imitation of the activity of God,
because most dear to God. This is too fine a distinction to found a
difference of authorship. Beneath it, and behind the curious hesita-
tion which !n dealing with mysteries Aristotle shows between the
divine and the human, his three moral treatises agree that wisdom
is a science of things divine, which the Nicomachean Ethics (vi. 7)
defines as science and intelligence of the most venerable things, the
Magna Moraiia fi. 35) regards as that which is concerned with the
eternal and the divine, and the Eudemian Ethics (II 15) elevates into
the service and contemplation of God.
Aristotle then wrote three moral treatises, -which agree in the
fundamental doctrines that happiness requires external fortune,
but is activity of soul according to virtue, rising from morality
through prudence to wisdom, or that science of the divine which
constitutes the theology of his Metaphysics. Surely, the harmony
of these three moral gospels proves that Aristotle wrote them,
and wrote the Eudemian Ethics and the Magna Moraiia as pre-
ludes to the Nicomachean Ethics. When did he begin? We do
not know; but there is a pathetic suggestivencss in a passage in
the Magna Moraiia (i. 35), where he says, " Clever even a bad
man is called; as Mentor was thought clever, but prudent he
was not." Mentor was the treacherous contriver of the death of
Hermias (345-344 B.C.). Was this passage written when Aristotle
was mourning for his friend?
4. The Rhetoric to Alexander. — This is one of a series of works
emanating from Aristotle's early studies in rhetoric, beginning
with the Cryllus, continuing in the Thcodcctca and the Collection
of Arts, all of which are lost except some fragments; while
among the extant Aristotelian writings as they stand we still
possess the Rhetoric to Alexander ("Pirrop*^ *Po$ 'AA^anSpop)
and the Rhetoric (T<x"7 'rVopurij). But the Rlutoric to Alexander
was considered spurious by Erasmus, for the inadequate reasons
that it has a preface and is not mentioned fn the list of Diogenes
Laertius, and was assigned by Fetrus Victorius, in his preface to
the Rhetoric ', to Anaximenes. It remained for Spengel to entitle
the work Anaximenis Ars Rhelorica in his edition of 1847, and
thus substitute for the name of the philosopher Aristotle that of
the sophist Anaximenes on his title-page. We have therefore to
ask, first who was the author, and secondly what is the relation
of the Rhetoric to Alexander to the Rhetoric, which nowadays alone
passes for genuine.
After a dedicatory epistle to Alexander (chap. 1) the opening of
the treatise itself (chap. 2) is as follows:—" There are three genera
of political speeches; one deliberative, one declamatory, one
forensic: their species are seven; hortative, dissuasive, laudatory,
vituperative, accusatory, defensive, critical." This brief sentence
is enough to prove the work genuine, because it was Aristotle
who first distinguished the three genera (cf. Rhet. i. 3; Quintiliaa
£12. 4, 1. 7, 1), by separating the declamatory (tnUucrudbr)
from the deliberative (dn/iiryo/xxov, avnf3ovXtvTuc6v) and
judicial (6ucaym6v); whereas bis rival Isocrates had con-
sidered that laudation and vituperation, which Aristotle elevated
into species of declamation, run through every kind (Quintilian
iv. 4), and Anaximenes recognized only the deliberative and the
judicial (Dionys. H. de Isaeo, 19). In order, however, to impute
the whole work to Anaximenes, Spengel took one of the most
inexcusable steps ever taken in the history of scholarship. With-
out any manuscript authority he altered the very first words
" three genera " (rpia yivn) into " two genera " (Wo ybn), and
omitted the word3 "one declamatory" (to 6e InUucrucov).
Quintilian (iii. 4) imputes to Anaximenes two genera, deliberative
and judicial, and seven species, " hortandi, dehortandi, Iaudandi,
vituperandi, accusandi, defendendi, exquirendi, quod etercurruor
dicit." But the author of this rhetoric most certainly recognised
three genera (rpta ykvn), since, besides the deliberative and
judicial, the declamatory genus constantly appears in the work
(chaps, a init., 4, 7, 1$, 36, cf. ok byuvoi dXX' bribufan traca
14406 13) ; and, if the terms for it are not always the same, this is
just what one would expect in a new discovery. Moreover, he
could recognize seven species in the Rhetoric to Alexander > though
he recognized only six in the Rhetoric, provided the two works
were not written at the same time; and as a matter of fact
even in the Rhetoric to Alexander the seventh or critical species
(e£eraffruco>0 is in process of disappearing (cf. chap. 37). As
then Anaximenes did not, but Aristotle did, recognize three
genera, and as Aristotle could as well as Anaximenes recognize
seven species, the evidence is overwhelming that the Rhetoric to
Alexander is the work not of Anaximenes, but of Aristotle; on
the condition that its date is not that of Aristotle's confessedly
genuine Rhetoric.
There is a second and even stronger evidence that the Rhetoric
to Alexander is a genuine work of Aristotle. It divides (chap. 8)
evidences (rbrras) into two kinds (1) evidence from arguments,
actions and men (al pi* i£ avrdv ruv Xtrytaw xol nwr xpa£cur xai
tuv AvOpuxruv); (2) adventitious evidences (al 6* brUkroi roU
Xryo^votf nal rots TparTopkvoti). The former are immediately
enumerated as probabilities (tUbra), examples (vapcUly^aTa),
proofs (rtKMpia), considerations (crtopfriara), maxims (yruiuu),
signs (ffijueTa), refutations (fktyxoi); the latter as opinion of
the speaker (W£a tou Vyowot), witnesses UiaprvpLai), tortures
0?d?avot), oaths (dpKot). It is confessed by Spengel himself
that these two kinds of evidences are the two kinds recognized
in Aristotle's Rhetoric as (1) artificial (irr<xrot rumis) and
(2) inartificial (drfxwt r'umit). Now, from the outset of his
Rhetoric Aristotle himself claims to be the first to distinguish
between artificial evidences from arguments and other evidences
which he regards as mere additions; and he complains that the
composers of arts of speaking had neglected the former for the
latter. In particular, rhetoricians appeared to him to have
neglected argument in comparison with passion. No doubt,
rational evidences had appeared in books of rhetoric, as we see
from Plato's Phaedrus, ?66-267,wherc we findproofs.probabilities,
refutation and maxim, but mixed up with other evidences. The
point of Aristotle was to draw a line between rational and other
evidences, to insist on the former, and in fact to found a logic of
rhetoric. But if in the Rhetoric to Alexander, not be, but Anaxi-
menes, had already performed this great achievement, Aristotle
would have been the meanest of mankind; for the logic of
rhetoric would have been really the work of Anaximeqes the
sophist, but falsely claimed by Aristotle the philosopher. As we
cannot without a tittle of evidence accept such a consequence,
S i6
ARISTOTLE
we conclude that Aristotle formulated the distinction between
argumentative and adventitious, artificial and inartificial evi-
dences, both in the Rhetoric to Alexander and in the Rhetoric,
and that the former as well as the latter is a genuine work of
Aristotle, the founder of the logic of rhetoric.
What is the relation between these two genuine Rhetorics?. The
last event mentioned in the Rhetoric to Alexander occurred in 340,
the last in the Rhetoric is the common peace («©in) 4ri*n) made
between Alexander and the Greeks in 336 (Rhet. ii. 23, 1399 b la).
The former treatise (chap. 9), under the head of examples
(vapaittytiara), gives historical examples of the unexpected in war
for the years 403, 371, 358, concluding with the year 340, in which
the Corinthians, coming with nine triremes to the assistance of
the Syracusans, defeated the Carthaginians who were blockading
Syracuse with 150 ships. Spengcl, indeed, tries to bring the latest
date in the book down to 330; but it is by absurdly supposing that
the author could not have got the commonplace, " one ought to
criticize not bitterly but gently," except from Demosthenes, De
Corona (f 265). We may take it then that the last date in the
Rhetoric to Alexander is 340; and by a curious coincidence 340 was
the year when, on Philip's marching against Byzantium, Alexander
was left behind as regent and keeper of the seal, and distinguished
himself so greatly that Philip was only too glad that the Macedonians
called Alexander king (Plutarch, Alexander, 9). It is possible then
that. Aristotle may have written the dedication to Alexander about
340 and treated him as if he were king in the dedicatory epistle.
At the same time, as such prefaces are often forgeries, not prejudic-
ing the body of the treatise, it docs not really matter whether
Aristotle actually dedicated his work to Alexander in that epistle
about that year or not. If he did, then the Rhetoric to Alexander in
340 was at least four years prior to the Rhetoric, which was as late as
336. If he did not. the question still remains, what is the internal
relation between these two genuine Rhetorics ? It will turn out
most important.
The relation between the two Rhetorics turns on their treatment
of rational, argumentative, artificial evidences. Each of them, the
probability (chap. 8), the example (chap. 9), the proof (chap. 10), the
consideration (chap. 11), the maxim (chap. 12), the sign (chap. 13),
the refutation (chap. 14), though very like what it is in the Rhetoric,
receives in the Rhetoric to Alexander a definition slightly different
from the definition in the Rhetoric, which it must be remembered is
also the definition in the Prior Analytics. Strange as this point is, it
is still stranger that not one of these internal evidences m brought
into relation with induction and deduction. Example (wapahmyttn)
is not called rhetorical induction, and consideration (l»Mjwa) is
not called rhetorical syllogism, as they arc in the Rhetoric, and in
the Analytics. Induction (iraywy^) and syllogism (ev\Xcy ttruA%), the
feneral forms of inference, do not occur in the Rhetoric to Alexander.
n fact, this interesting treatise contains a rudimentary treatment of
rational evidences in rhetoric and is therefore earlier than the
Rhetoric, which exhibits a developed analysis of these rational
evidences as special logical forms. Together, the earlier and the later
Rhetoric show us the logic of rhetoric in the making, going on about
340, the last date of the Rhetoric to Alexander, and more developed
in or after 336 B.C., the last date of the Rhetoric.
Nor is tnis all: the earlier Rhetoric to Alexander and the later
Rhetoric show us logic itself in the making. We have already said
that Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician. He gradually became
a logician out of his previous studies: out of metaphysics, for with
him being is always the basis of thinking, and common principles,
such as that of contradiction, arc axioms of things before axioms 01
thought, while categories are primarily things signified by names;
out of the mathematics of the Pythagoreans and the Platonists,
which taught him the nature of demonstration; out of the physics,
of which he imbibed the first draughts from his father, which taught
him induction from sense and the modification of strict demonstra-
tion to suit facts; out of the dialectic between man and man which
provided him with beautiful examples of inference in the Socratic
dialogues of Xenophon and Plato; out of the rhetoric addressed to
large audiences, which with dialectic called his attention to probable
inferences; out of the grammar taught with rhetoric and poetics
which led him to the logic of the pro[>osition. Wc cannot write a
history of the varied origin of logic, beyond putting the rudimentary
logic of the proposition in the De Inter (relatione before the less
rudimentary theory of categories as significant names capable of
becoming predicates in the Categories, and before the maturer analysis
of the syllogism in the Analytics. But at any rate the process was
gradual; and Aristotle was advanced in metaphysics, mathematics,
physics, dialectics, rhetoric and poetics, before he became the founder
V. Osoek or the Philosophical Wbjtincs
Some of Aristotle's philosophical writings then are earlier than
others; because they show more Platonic influence, and are
more rudimentary; e.g. the Categories earlier than some parts of
the Metaphysics, because under the influence of Platonic forms
it talks of inherent attributes, and allows secondary substances
which are universal; the De Interpretation* earlier than the
Analytics, because in it the Platonic analysis of the sentence into
noun, and verb is retained for the proposition; the Eudemian
Ethics and the Magna M or alia earlier than the Niconutchean
Ethics, because they are rudimentary sketches of it, and the one
written rather in the theological spirit, the other rather in the
dialectical style, of Plato; and the Rhetoric to Alexander earlier
than the Rhetoric, because it contains a rudimentary theory of
the rational evidences afterwards developed into a logic of
rhetoric in the Rhetoric and Analytics.
It is tempting to think that we can carry out the chronological
order of the philosophical writings in detail. But in the gradual
process of composition, by which a work once begun was kept
going with the rest,, although a work such as the Politics (begun
in 357) was begun early, and some works more rudimentary came
earlier than others, the general body of writings was so kept
together in Aristotle's library, and so simultaneously elaborated
and consolidated into a system that it soon becomes impossible
to put one before another.
Zcller, indeed, has attempted an exact order of succession: —
I. The logical treatises.
a. The Physics, De Coclo De Generations et Corruption*,
Meteorologica.
3. Historia Animalium, De A nima, Parva Naturalia, De Portions
Animalium, De Animalium Inussu, De Generation*
Animalium.
4. Ethics and Politics.
5. Poetics and Rhetoric.
6. Metaphysics (unfinished).
But Zcller does not give enough weight either to the evidence of
early composition contained in the Politics and Meteorology, or to the
evidence of subsequent contemporaneous composition contained in
the cross-references, e.g between the Physics and the Metaphysics.
On the other hand he gives too much weight to the references from
one book to another, which Aristotle could have entered into his
manuscripts at any time before his death. Moreover, the arrange-
ment sometimes breaks down: for example, though on the whole
the logical books are quoted without quoting the rest, the De Inter-
bretatwne (chap. 1) quotes thtDe Anima, and therefore is falsely taken
by Zcller against its own internal evidence to be subsequent to it and
consequently to the other logical books. Again, the Meteorologica
(iiL 2, 372 b 9) quotes the De Sensu (c. 3), and therefore, on Zeller's
arguments, ought to follow one of the Parva Naturalia. Lastly,
though the Metaphysics often quotes the Physics, and is therefore
regarded as being subsequent, it is itself quoted in the Physics (i. 8,
191 b 29), and therefore ought to be regarded as antecedent. Zcller
tries to get over this difficulty of cross-reference by detaching Meta-
physics, Book A, from the rest and placing it before the Physics.
But this violent and arbitrary remedy is only partial. The truth is
that the Metaphysics both precedes and follows the Physics, because
it had been all along occupying Aristotle ever since be began to
differ from Plato's metaphysical view* and indeed forms a lund of
Eresupposed basis of his whole system. So generally, the references
ackwards and forwards, and the cross-references, are really evidences
that Aristotle mainly wrote his works not successively but simul-
taneously, and entered references as and when he pleased, because
he had not published them.
There arc two kinds of quotations in Aristotle's extant works, the
quotation of another book, and the quotation of a historical fact.
While the former is useless to determine the sequence of books written
simultaneously, the latter is insufficient to determine • complete
chronological order. When Aristotle, e.g. in the Politics, quotes an
event a* now (»*»), he was writing about it at that time; and when
he quotes another event as lately (ttutarl) he was writing about it
shortly after that time; but he might have been writing the rest of
the Politics both before and after either event. When he quotes the
last event mentioned in the book, e.g. in the Rhetoric (ii. 23, 1399 b
12) the " common peace " of Greece under Alexander in 336, he was
writing as late as that date, but be might also have been writing the
Rhetoric both before it and after it. When he quotes what pcrons
used to say in the past, e.g. Plato and Speusippus in the Ethics,
Eudoxus and Callippus in the Metaphysics, he was writing these
passages after the deaths ol these persons; but he might have been
also writing the Ethics and the Metaphysics both beforehand and
afterwards. Lastly, when he is silent about a historical fact, the
argument from silence is evidence only when he could not have failed
to mention it; as, for example, in the Constitution of Athens, when
he could not have failed to mention quinqueremes and other facts
after 325-324. But this is in a historical work; whereas the argu-
ment from silence about historical facts in a philosophical work can
seldom apply.
The chronological order therefore is not sufficiently detailed to
be the real order of Aristotelian writings. Secondly, the traditional
order, which for nearly 2000 years has descended from the edition
of Andronicus to the Berlin edition, is satisfactory in details, but
ARISTOTLE
5i7
unsatisfactory in system. It gives too much weight to Aristotle's
logic, and too little to his metaphysics, on account of two prejudices
oithe commentators which led them to place both logic and physics
before metaphysics. Aristotle rightly used all the sciences of his day,
and especially his own physics, as a basis of his metaphysics. For
example, at the very outset he refers to the Physics {n. 2) for his use
of the four causes, material, efficient, formal and final, in the Meta-
physics (A 2). This and other applications of the science of nature to
the science of all being induced the commentators to adopt this order,
and entitle the science of being the Sequel to the Physics (rd jutA
r* *wn*4). But Aristotle knew nothing of this title, the first known
use of which was by Nicolaus Damascenus, a younger contemporary
of Andronicus, the editor of the Aristotelian writings, and Andronicus
was probably the originator of the title, and of the order. On the
other hand, Aristotle entitles the science of all being " Primary
Philosophy " (rp6rf 4iXo*o4fo), and the science of physical being
" Secondary Philosophy " ykbnp* $iWo#a), which suggests that
his order is from Metaphysics to Physics, the reverse of his editor's
order from Physics to Metaphysics. Thus the traditional order puts
Physics before Metaphysics without. Aristotle's authority, with
some more show of authority it puts Logic before Metaphysics.
Aristotle, on introducing: the principle of contradiction {Mel. T 3),
which belongs to Metaphysics as an axiom of being, says that those
who attempt to discuss the question of accepting this axiom, do so on
account of their ignorance of Analytics, which they ought to know
beforehand (wpoewtvratdiKm). He means that the logical analysis
of demonstration in the Analytics would teach them beforehand that
there cannot be demonstration, though there must be induction, of an
axiom, or any other principle; whereas, if they are not logically pre-
pared for metaphysics, they will expect a demonstration oithe axiom,
as Heraclitus, the Heraclitean Cratylus and the Sophist Protagoras
actually did, — and in vain. Acting on this hint, not Aristotle but the
Peripatetics inferred that all logic is. an instrument (Spyaro*) of all
sciences; and by the time of Andronicus, who was one of them and
sometimes called " the eleventh from Aristotle," the order, Logic-
Physics^ Metaphysics, had become established pretty much as we have
it now. It is, however, not the real order for studying the philosophy
of Aristotle, because there is more Metaphysics in his Physics than
lysics in his Metaphysics, and
Logic in his Metaphysics. The a
1 more Metaphysics in his Logic than
m r e commentators themselves were doubt-
ful about the order : Boethus proposed to begin with Physics, and some
of the Platonists with Ethics or Mathematics; while Andronicus pre-
ferred to put Logic first as Organon (Scholia, 25 b 34 seq.). None of
the parties to the dispute had the authority of Aristotle, what do we
find in bis works? Primary philosophy, Metaphysics, the science of
being, is the solid foundation of all parts of his philosophical system ;
not only in the Physics, but also in the De Coclo (L 8, 277 b 10), in the
De Generations (i. 3, 318 a 6; ii. 10, 336 b 29), in the De Anima (i. 1,
403a 38, cf. b 16), in the De Partibus Animaltum (i. 1,641 a 35), in the
Ntcmnachean Ethics (i. 6, 1096 b 30), in the De Intetpretatione (£, 17 a
14) ; and in short throughout his extant works. The reason is that
Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician half for and half against
Plato, occupied himself with metaphysics all his philosophical
life, made the science of things the universal basis of all sciences
without destroying their independence, and so gradually brought
round philosophy from universal forms to individual substances.
The traditional order of the Aristotelian writings, still continued in
the Berlin edition, beginning with the logical writings on page I,
proceeding to the physical writings on page 184, and postponing
the Metaphysics to page 980. is not the real order of Aristotle s
philosophy.
The real order of Aristotle's philosophy is that of Aristotle's
mind, revealed in his writings, and by the general view of think-
ing, science, philosophy and all learning therein contained. He
classified thinking {Met. E 1) and science {Topics, vi. 6) by the
three operations of speculation (deupia), practice (rpa£is) and
production {roirjais), and made the following subdivisions: —
I. Speculative: about things; subdivided {Met. £ 1;
De An. i. x) into: —
i. Primary Philosophy, Theology, also called
Wisdom, about things as things.
iL Mathematical Philosophy, about quantitative
things in the abstract.
ill Physical Philosophy, about things as changing,
and therefore about natural substances or
bodies, composed of matter and essence.
II. Practical or Political Philosophy, or philosophy of things
human (cf. E.N. x. o-fin.): about human good; sub-
divided {E.N. vi. 8, cf. E.E. A 8, 1218 b 13) into:—
L Ethics, about the good of the individual,
ii. Economics, about the good of the family.
Ui. Politics, about the general good of the state.
III. Productive, or Art (rfc**): about works produced; sub*
divided {Met. A. 1, 081 b 17-20) into:—
1. Necessary (rpdv rdwyicaTa), e.g. medicine.
ii. Fine (rpos ttayvryfy), e.g. poetry.
Aristotle calls all these investigations sciences (erurrv/wu);
but he also uses the term " sciences " in a narrower sense in
consequenceofa classification of their objects, which pervades his
writings, into things necessary and things contingent, as follows.- —
(A) The necessary (rd p4 bbxbtuvov SXkus ZxcuO. what
must be; subdivided into. —
(1) Absolutely (drXus), e.g. the mathematical.
(2) Hypothetically (*£ bro&<s«a%). e.g. matter neces-
sary as means to an end.
(B) The contingent {to WtxbtKPQP AXXbS Ixcf/, what may
be; subdivided into: —
(1) The usual (76 «* brl rd rdU) or natural {t6
Qwruxov), e.g. a man grows grey,
fc) The. accidental (to Kara. w/i/ScpSpfe), e.g. a man
sits or not.
Now, according to Aristotle, science in the narrow sense U
concerned only with the absolutely necessary (E.N. iii. 3), and in
the classification would stop at mathematics, which we still call
exact science: in the wide sense, on the other hand, it extends
to the whole of the necessary and to the usual contingent, but
excludes the accidental {Mel. E 2), and would in the classification
include not only metaphysics and mathematics, but also physics,
ethics, economics, politics, necessary and fine art; or in short
all speculative, practical and productive thinking of a system-
atic kind. Hence the Posterior Analytics, which is Aristotle's
authoritative logic of science, is of peculiar interest because, after
beginning by defining science as investigating necessary objects
from necessary principles (i. 4), it proceeds to say that it is either
of the necessary or of the usual though not of the accidental
(i. 29), and to admit that its principles are some necessary and
some contingent (i. 32, 88 b 7). Philosophy (<£iXoao#a) also is
used by him in a similar manner. Though occasionally he means
by it primary philosophy {Met. T 2-3, K 3), more frequently he
extends it to all three speculative philosophies (E 1, 1026 a 18,
rptis &> div 0tXocro#at (kuprjTiKai, pain/iarijo}, <t>voucfj t Bto-
Xoy udj), and to all three practical philosophies, as we see from
the constant use of the phrase " political philosopher " in the
Ethics; and in short applies it to all sciences except productive
science or art. With him, as with the Greeks generally, the
problems of philosophy are the nature and origin of being and of
good: it is not as with too many of us a mere science of mind.
Aristotle's view of thinking in science and philosophy is essen-
tially comprehensive; but it is not so wide as to become indefinite.
According to him, science at its widest selects a special subject,
e.g. number in arithmetic, magnitude in geometry, stars in
astronomy, a man's good in ethics; concentrates itself on the
causes and appropriate principles of its subject, especially the
definition of the subject and its species by their essences or formal
causes; and after an inductive intelligence of those principles
proceeds by a deductive demonstration from definitions to
consequences: philosophy is simply a desire of this definite
knowledge of causes and effects. Beyond philosophy, not
beyond science, there is art; and beyond philosophy and science
there is history, the description of facts preparatory to philosophy,
the investigation of causes (cf. Pr. An. i. 30); and this may
be natural history, preparatory to natural philosophy, as in the
History of Animals preparatory to the De Partibus Animalium,
or what we call civil history, preparatory to political philosophy,
as in the 158 Constitutions more or less preparatory to the
Politics.
Wide as is all his knowledge of facts and causes, it does not
appear to Aristotle to be the whole of learning and the show of it.
Beyond knowledge lies opinion, beyond discovery disputation,
beyond philosophy and science dialectic between man and man,
which was much practised by the Greeks in the dialogues of
Socrates, Plato, the Megarians and Aristotle himself in his early
manhood. With Plato, who thought that the interrogation of
S i8
ARISTOTLE
nun is the best instrument of truth, dialectic was exaggerated
into a universal science of everything that is. Aristotle, .on
the other hand, learnt to distinguish dialectic (Siatarruc^) from
science (hnorfipui); in that it has no definite subject, else it
would not ask questions (Post. An. i. n, 77 a 3*-33); in that for
appropriate principles it substitutes the probabilities of authority
(rd £j<fo(a) which are the opinions of all, or of the majority, or of
the wise ( Top. i. 1 , xoo b 2 1-23) ; and in that it is not like science a
deduction from true and primary principles of a definite subject
to true consequences, but a deduction from opinion to opinion,
which may be true or false. Sophistry appeared to him to be like
it, except that it is a fallacious deduction either from merely
apparent probabilities in its matter or itself merely apparently
syllogistic in its form (cf. Topics, i. x). Moreover, he compared
dialectic and sophistry, on account of their generality, with
primary philosophy in the Metaphysics (T 2, 1004 b 17-26); to
the effect that all three concern themselves with ail things,
but that about everything metaphysics is scientific, dialectic
tentative, sophistry apparent, not real. He means that a sophist
like Protagoras will teach superficially anything as wisdom for
money; and that even a dialectician like Plato will write a
dialogue, such as the Republic, nominally about justice, but really
about all things from the generality of the form of good, instead
of from appropriate moral principles; but that a primary philo-
sopher selects as a definite subject all things as such without
interfering with the special sciences of different things each in
its kind (Met. T 1), and investigates the axioms or common
principles of things as things (ib. 3), without pretending, like
Plato, to deduce from any common principle the special principles
of each science (Post. An. i. 9, 32). Aristotle at once maintains
the primacy of metaphysics and vindicates the independence of
the special sciences. He is at the same time the only Greek
philosopher who clearly discriminated discovery and 'disputation,
science and dialectic, the knowledge of a definite subject from its
appropriate principles and the discussion of anything whatever
from opinions and authority. On one side he places science and
philosophy, on the other dialectic and sophistry.
Such is the great mind of Aristotle manifested in the large map
of learning, by which we have now to determine the order of his
extant philosophical writings, with a view to studying them in
their real order, which is neither chronological nor traditional,
but philosophical and scientific. Turning over the pages of the
Berlin edition, but passing over works which are perhaps spurious,
we should put first and foremost speculative philosophy, and
therein the primary philosophy of his Metaphysics (980 a 21-
1093 b 29); then the secondary philosophy of his Physics,
followed by his other physical works, general and biological,
including among the latter the Historic Animalium as prepara-
tory to the De Portions Animalium, and the De Anima and Parva
Naturalia, which he called " physical " but we call " psycho-
logical " (184 a 10-967 b 27); next, the practical philosophy of the
Ethics, including the Eudcmian Ethics and the Magna M or alia
as earlier and the Nkomachean Ethics as later (1094-1249 b 35),
and of the Politics (1252-1342), with the addition of the newly
discovered Athenian Constitution as ancillary to it; finally, the
productive science, or art, of the Rhetoric, including the earlier
Rhetoric to Alexander and the later Rhetorical Art, and of the
Poetics, which was unfinished (1354-cnd). This is the real order
of Aristotle's system, based on his own theory and classification
of sciences.
But what has become of Logic, with which the traditional
order of Andronicus begins Aristotle's works (1-148 b 8)? So far
from coming first, Logic comes nowhere in his classification of
science. Aristotle was the founder of Logic; because, though
others, and especially Plato, had made occasional remarks about
reason (X6yot), Aristotle was the first to conceive it as a definite
subject of investigation. As he says at the end of the Sophistical
Elenchi on the syllogism, he had no predecessor, but took pains
and laboured a long time in investigating it. Nobody, not even
Plato, had discovered that the process of deduction is a combina-
tion of premisses (avWoyia^bt) to produce a new conclusion.
Aristotle, who made this great discovery, must have had great
difficulty in developing the new investigation of reasoning pro-
cesses out of dialectic, rhetoric, poetics, grammar, metaphysics,
mathematics, physics and ethics; and in disengaging it from
other kinds of learning. He got so far as gradually to write short
discourses and long treatises, which we, not he, now arrange in
the order of the Categories or names; the De Interpretation*
on propositions; the Analytics, Prior on syllogism, Posterior
on scientific syllogism; the Topics on dialectical syllogism; the
Sophistici Elenchi on eristics! or sophistical syllogism; and,
except that he had hardly a logic of induction, he covered the
ground. But after all this original research he got no further.
First, he did not combine all these works into a system. He
may have laid out the sequence of syllogisms from the
Analytics onwards; but how about the Categories and the De
Interpretation ? Secondly, he made no division of logic. In the
Categories he distinguished names and propositions for the sake
of the classification of names; in the De Interpretation* he
distinguished nouns and verbs from sentences with a view to the
enunciative sentence: in the Analytics he analysed the syllogism
into premisses and premisses into terms and copula, for the
purpose of syllogism. But he never called any of these a division
of all logic. Thirdly, he had no one name for logic. In the
Posterior Analytics (i. ia, 84 a 7-8) he distinguishes two modes
of investigation, analytically (dyaXvruouf) and logically (Xoyuus).
But " analytical " means scientific inference from appropriate
principles, and " logical " means dialectical inference from general
considerations; and the former gives its name to the Analytics,
the latter suits the Topics, while neither analytic nor logic is a
name for all the works afterwards called logic. Fourthly, and
consequently, he gave no place to any science embracing the
whole of those works in his classification of science, but merely
threw out the hint that we should know analytics before
questioning the acceptance of the axioms of being (Met. T 3).
It is a commentator's blunder to suppose that the founder
of logic elaborated it into a system, and then applied it to the
sciences. He really left the Peripatetics to combine his scattered
discourses and treatises into a system, to call it logic, and logic
Organon, and to put it first as the instrument of sciences; and
it was the Stoics who first called logic a science, and assigned it
the first place in their triple classification of science into logic,
physics, ethics. Would Aristotle have consented? Would he
not rather have given the first place to primary philosophy?
Dialectic was distinguished from science by Aristotle. Is logic,
then, according to him, not science but dialectic ? The word logic-
ally (Xoyur&f) means the same as dialect ically (itaKtKrutm). But
the general discussion of opinions, signified by both words, is only a
subordinate part of Aristotle's profound investigation of the whole
process of reasoning. The Analytics, the most important part, so far
from being dialectic or logic in that narrow sense, is called by him not
logic but analytic science (AwiXvti*^ 1-kioHh»i, Rhet. 1.4, 1359 b 10; cf,
t356 b 9, 1 357 a 30, b 25) ; and i n the Metaphys ics he evidently refers to
it as " the science which considers demonstration and science," which
he distinguishes from the three speculative sciences, mathematics,
physics and primary philosophy (Met. K I, 1039 b 0-21). The
Analytics then, which from the beginning claims to deal with science,
is a science of sciences, without however forming any part of the
classification. On the other hand, it docs not follow that Aristotle
would have regarded the Topics, which he calls " the investigation "
and ''the investigation of dialectic" (4 rpa?jt«rti«, Top, i. 1, 4
s-pa-rfiartJa ij mpl t> iiaAssrurfo Pr. An. i. 30, 46 a 30), or the De Inter-
pretation*, which he calls " the present theory (rijt ww 9u*plat, De InL
6, 17 a 7), as science. In fact, as to the Categories as well as the De Inter*
pretatione, we are at a complete loss. But about the Topics we may
venture to make the suggestion that, as in describing consciousness
Aristotle says we perceive that we perceive, and understand that we
understand, and as he calls Analytics a science of sciences, so he
might have called the Topics a dialectical investigation of dialectic.
Now, this suggestion derives support from his own description of the
allied art of Rhetoric, " Rhetoric is counterpart to dialectic " is the
first sentence of the Rhetoric, and the reason is that both are con-
cerned with common objects of no definite science. Afterwards dia-
lectic and rhetoric are said to differ from other arts in taking either
side of a question (i. 1, 1355 a 33-35); rhetoric, since its artificial evi-
dences involve characters, passions and reasoning, is called a kind of
offshoot of dialectic and morals, and a copv 01 dialectic, because
neither is a science of anything definite, but both faculties («V»A>fit)
of providing arguments (i. 2, 1356 a 33); and. since rhetorical argu-
ments arc examples and enth>memes analysed in the Analytics.
rhetoric is finally regarded as a compound of analytic science and of
ARISTOTLE
5i9
morals, while it is like dialectical and sophistic arguments (i. 4, 1359 b
2-17)-
As then Aristotle himself regarded rhetoric as partly science and
partly dialectic, perhaps he would have said that his works on reason-
ing are some science and others not, and that, while the investigation
of syllogism with a view to scientific syllogism in the Analytics is
analytic science, the investigation of dialectical syllogism, in the
Topics, with its abuse, cristical syllogism, in the SophUtui Eknchi, is
dialectic. At any rate, these miscellaneous works on reasoning have
no right to stand first in Aristotle's writings under any one name,
logic or Organon. As he neither put them together, nor on any one
definite plan, we are left to convenience; and the most convenient
place is with the psychology of the Dc Animo-
As for dialectic itself, it would have been represented by Aristotle's
early dialogues, had they not been lost except a few fragments. But
none of his extant writings is so much dialectic, like a Platonic dia-
logue. They contain however many relics of dialectic. The Rhetoric
is declared by him to be partly dialectic The Topics is at least an
investigation of dialectic, which has had an immense influence on the
met hoof of argument. The Magna Moralia almost runs into dialogue.
Besides, all the extant works, though apparently didactic, are full of
dialectical matter in the way of opinions (X*y6j»ra), difficulties and
doubts (Aropfemra, Aroplut), solutions (Xfout), and of dialectical
style in the way of conversational expressions. It is probable also
that the " extraneous discourses " ( (ol IfartpiKol X670O sometimes
mentioned in them here mean dialectical discussions of a subject from
opinions extraneous to its nature, as opposed to scientific deduction
from its appropriate principles. From the eight passages, which refer
to the extraneous discourses, we find (1) that Platonic forms were
made by them matters of common talk (r«0p6Xirr<u, Met. M 1, 1076 a
28) ; (2) that time was made by them matter of doubts, which in this
case are Aristotle's own doubts (Phys. iv. 10, 217 b 31-218 a 30) ; (3)
that the discussions of Platonic forms in them and in philosophical
discourses were different (£J5. i. 8, 12 17 b 22) ; (4) that the ordinary
distinction between goods of mind, body and estate is one which we
make (haipobfuSa) in them (E.E. it x, 1218 b 34); (5) that in them
appeared the division of soul into irrational and rational, used by
Aristotle (E.N. i. 13, 1 102 a 26), and attributed to Plato;. (6) that the
distinction between action and production accepted by Aristotle ap-
peared in them (E.N. vi. 4, 1 140 a 3) ; (7) that a distinction between
certain kinds of rule is one which we make often (4top«f6iM0a . . .
roXAAxu) in them (Pol. T6, 1278 b 31); (8) that a discussion about
the best life, used by Aristotle, was made in them (Pol. H I, 1323 a
22). On the whole, the interpretation which best suits all the pas-
sages is that extraneous discourses mean any extra-scientific dia-
lectical discussions, oral or written, occurring in dialogues by Plato, or
by Aristotle, or by anybody else, or in ordinary conversation, on any
subject under the sun.
Among all the eight passages mentioned above, the most valuable
is that from the Eudemian Ethics (A 8), which discriminates extrane-
ous discourses and philosophical (koI \p toXs Ifrircpucoii \&yois ml
Ir reft mari. **X<xro^or, 12 17 b 22-23); and it is preceded (A 6,
12 16 b 35*37 a 1 7). by a similar distinction between foreign discourses
(AXXorpiot Mym) and discourses appropriate to the thing (oUelot XAyot
rev vpAynarot), which marks even better the opposition intended
between dialectic and philosophy. Now, as in all eight passages
Aristotle speaks, somewhat disparagingly, of " even («*0 extraneous
discourses," and as these include his own early dialogues, they must
be taken to mean that though he might quote them, he no longer
wished to be judged by his early views, and therefore drew a strong
tine of demarcation between his early dialogues and the mature treat-
ises of his later philosophical system. Now, both were in the hands of
his readers in the time of Andronicus. Therefore his contemporary,
Cicero, who knew the early dialogues on Philosophy, the Eudemus
and the Protrepticus, and also among the mature scientific writings
the Topics, Rhetoric, Politics, Physics and De Coelo, to some extent,
was justified by Aristotle's example and precept in drawing the line
between two kinds of books, one written popularly, called exoteric, the
other more accurately (Cic. De Finibus, v. 5). But there was no doubt
a tendency to extend the term "exoteric ' from the dialectical to the
more popular of the scientific writings of Aristotle, to make a new dis-
tinction between exoteric and acroamatic or esoteric, and even to
make out that Aristotle was in the habit of teaching both exoteric-
ally and acroamatically day by day as head of the Peripatetic school
at Athens. Aulus Geliius in the 2nd century a.d. supplies the best
proof of this growth of tradition in his Noctcs AUicae (xx. 5). He
says that Aristotle (1) divided his commentaliones and arts taught to
bis pupils into i(wrcpur& and dxpoarui; (2) taught the latter in
the morning walk (4u0t»6» vtpbrarov), the former in the evening
walk (iaAirov wtflwrow); (3) divided his books in the same
manner; (4) defended himself against Alexander's letter, complain-
ing that it was not right to his pupils to have published his acroa-
matic works, by replying in a letter that they were published and not
Kblished, because they are intelligible only to those who heard them.
Jlius then quotes this correspondence, also given by Plutarch, and
quotes it ex A ndronici philosophi libro. The answer to the first three
points U that Aristotle did not make any distinction between exoteric
and acroamatic, and was not likely to have any longer taught his
exoteric dialogues when he was teaching his mature philosophy at
Athens, but may have alternated the teaching of the latter between
the more abstruse and the more popular parts which had gradually
come to be called "exoteric." As regards the last point, the authority
of Andronicus proves that he at all events did not exaggerate his own
share in publishing Aristotle's works; but it does not prove cither
that this correspondence between Alexander and Aristotle took place,
or that Aristotle called his philosophical writings acroamatic, or that
he had published them wholesale to the world.
The literary career of Aristotle falls into three periods,
(z) The early period; when he was writing and publishing
exoteric dialogues, but also tending to write didactic works, and
beginning his scientific writings, e.g. the Politics in 357, the
Meteor ologica in 356. (2) The immature period; when he was
continuing his didactic and scientific works, and composing first
drafts, e.g. the Categories, the Eudemian Ethics, the Magna
M or alia, the Rhetoric to Alexander. (3) Hie mature period;
when he was finishing his scientific works, completing his system,
and not publishing it but teaching it in the Peripatetic school;
when he would teach not his early dialogues, nor his immature
writings and first drafts, but mature works, e.g. the Metaphysics,
the Nicomachean Ethics, the Rhetoric; and above all teach his
whole system as far as possible in the real order of his classifica-
tion of science.
VI. The Aristotelian Philosophy
We have now (z) sketched the life of Aristotle as a reader and a
writer from early manhood; (2) have watched him as a Platonist,
partly imitating but gradually emancipating himself from his
master to form a philosophy of his own; (3) have traced the
gradual composition of his writings from Plato's time onwards;
(4) have distinguished earlier, more Platonic and rudimentary,
from later, more independent and mature, writings; (5) have
founded the real order of his writings, not on chronology, nor
on tradition, but on his classification of science and learning. It
remains to answer the final question:— What is the Aristotelian
philosophy, which its author gradually formed with so much
labour? Here we have only room for its spirit, which we shall
try to give as if he were himself speaking to us, as head of the
Peripatetic school at Athens, and holding 00 longer the early
views of his dialogues, or the immature views of such treatises as
the Categories, but only his mature views, such as he expresses
in the Metaphysics. Aristotle was primarily a metaphysician, a
philosopher of things, who uses the objective method of proceed-
ing from being to thinking. We shall begin therefore with that
primary philosophy which is the real basis of his philosophy, and
proceed in the order of his classification of science to give his chief
doctrines on:—
(1) Speculative philosophy, metaphysical and physical,
including his psychology, and with it his logic.
(2) Practical philosophy, ethics and politics.
(3) Productive science, or art.
Things are substances (oivlcu), each of which is a separate
individual (x<*purr6v, r65c re, tad' txcurrov) and is variously
affected as quantified, qualified, related, active, passive and so
forth, in categories of things which are attributes (<rvji0e0ijKora),
different from the category of substance, but real only as predi-
cates belonging to some substance, and arc in fact only the
substance itself affected (abrd re*rop$bs). The essence of each
substance, being what it is (rd H lari, t6 rl ty dvcu), is that
substance; e.g. this rational animal, Socrates. Substances are
so similar that the individuals of a species are even the same in
essence or substance, e.g. Callias and Socrates differ in matter but
are the same in essence, as rational animals. The universal (tq
koJB6Xov) is real only as one predicate belonging to many
individual substances: it is therefore not a substance. There
are then no separate universal forms, as Plato supposed. There
are attributes and universal*, real as belonging to individual
substances, whose being is their being. The mind, especially
in mathematics, abstracts numbers, motions, relations, causes,
essences, ends, kinds; and it over-abstracts things mentally
separate into things really separate. But reality consists only
of individual substances, numerous, moving, related, active as
efficient causes, passive as material causes, essences as formal
causes, ends as final causes, and in classes which are real
5*0
ARISTOTLE
unlvormU only *• real predicates of Individual substances.
Nurh Is Aristotle's realism of Individuals and universal*, con-
I nlnrcl In his prlrnnry philosophy, as expressed in the Metaphysics,
especially In Hook Z, his authoritative pronouncement on
brings ml subntitJiro.
Tim Individual substances, of which the universe is composed,
fall lulu three K"-ut Irreducible kinds: nature, God, man.
I, Nature, The obvious substances are natural substances
or bodies (Qvoutal oOaiai, cupara), e.g. animals, plants, water,
earth, moon, sun/ stars. Each natural substance is a compound
(aOvOtrov, 9vvOhr\ ofola) of essence and matter; its essence
(tlhai, ^op4>^. rd rl kan, to rl fy thai) being its actual substance,
Its matter (C\n) not; its essence being determinate, its matter
not; Its essence being immatcriate, its matter conjoined with the
etki'iue; its r»«encc being one in all individuals of a species, its
mutter different in each individual; its essence being cause of
uniformity, its matter cause of accident. At the same time,
matter Is not nothing, but something, which, though not sub-
stance, is potentially substance; and it is either proximate to
the substance, or primary; proximate, as a substance which is
potentially different, e.g. wood potentially a tabic; primary, as
an indeterminate something which is a substratum capable of
becoming natural substances, of which it is always one; and it is
primarily the matter of earth, water, air, fire, the four simple
bodies (arXa <r<*>/iara) with natural rectilineal motions in the
terrestrial world (De Gen. tt Cor. ii. i seq.); while aether (aUHjp)
Is a fifth simple body, with natural circular motion, being the
clement of the stars (rd tvv Hot pur oroixuor) in the celestial
world. Each natural substance is a formal cause, as being what
It Is; a material cause, as having passive power to be changed;
an efficient cause, as having active power to change, by com-
municating the selfsame essence into different matter so as to
produce therein a homogeneous effect in the same species; and
a final cause, as an end to be realized. Moreover, though each
natural substance is corruptible (^apro*), species is eternal
(atfior), because there was always some individual of it to con-
tinue its original essence (expressed by the imperfect tense in
t6 rt V «tou)» which is ungencrated and incorruptible; the
natural world therefore is eternal; and nature is for ever aiming
at an eternal propagation, by efficient acting on matter, of
essence as end. For even .nature does nothing in vain, but aims
at final causes, which she uniformly realizes, except so far as
matter by its spontaneity (at6 roO abronkrov) causes accidental
effects; and the ends of nature are no form of good, nor even the
good of man, but the essences of natural substances themselves,
and, above them all, the good God Himself. Such is Aristotle's
natural realism, pervading his metaphysical and physical
writings.
II. God.— Nature is but one kind of being (If yip r« ykvmrov
oVrot 4 4>{*n* t Met. T 3, 1005 a 34). Above all natural sub-
stances, the objects of natural science, there stands a super-
natural substance, the object of metaphysics as theology.
Naturo's boundary is the outer sphere of the fixed stars, which
Is eternally moved day after day in a uniform circle round the
earth. Now, an actual cause is required for an actual effect.
Therefore, there must be a prime mover of that prime movable,
and equally eternal and uniform. That prime mover is God,
who is not the creator, but the mover directly of the heavens,
and indirectly through the planets of sublunary substances. B ut
God is no mechanical mover. He moves as motive Ounct 61
Crtkpuiiuvor, Met. A 7, 1072 b 3); He is the efficient only as the
final cause of nature. For God is a living being, eternal, very
good (f<JM>i> attiov apurrov, ib. 1072 b 29). While nature aims at
Him as design, as an end, a motive, a final cause, God's occupa-
tion (&iay<ayt) is intelligence (rtVipm); and since essence, not
indeed in all being, but in being understood, becomes identical
with intelligence, God in understanding essence is understanding
Himself; and in short, God's intelligence is at once intelligence
of Himself, of essence and of intelligence, — col fori* 4 *bQoix
roiptut vbrpa (Met. A 7, 1074 b 34). But at the same time the
essence of good exists not only in God and God's intelligence on
the one hand, but also on the other hand on a declining scale in
nature, as both in a general and in his army; bat rather in God,
and more in some parts of nature than in others. Thus even
God is a substance, a separate individual, whose differentiating
essence is to be a living being, eternal and very good ; He is
however the only substance whose essence is entirely without
matter and unconjoined with matter; and therefore He is a
substance, not because He has or is a substratum beneath
attributes, but wholly because He is a separate individual,
different both from nature and men, yet the final good of
the whole universe. Such is Aristotle's theological realism
without materialism and the origin of all spiritualistic realism,
contained in his Metaphysics (A 6-end).
III. Man. — There is a third kind of substance, combining
something both of the natural and of the divine: we men are
that privileged species. Each man is a substance, like any other,
only because he is a separate individual Like any natural
substance, he is composed of matter and immatcriate essence.
But natural substances are inorganic and organic; and a man
is an organic substance composed of an organic body (6p7su»u4r
a&/ia) as matter, and a soul (*hnch) as essence, which is the primary
actuality of an organic body capable of life (fo^). Still a man is
not the only organism; and every organism has a soul, whose
immediate organ is the spirit (n*0/ia), a body which— analogous
to a body diviner than the four so-called elements, namely the
aether, the clement of the stars— gives to the organism its non-
terrestrial vital heat, whether it be a plant or an anima L In an
ascending scale, a plant is an organism with a nutritive soul;
an animal is a higher organism with a nutritive, sensitive,
orcctic and locomotive soul; a man is the highest organism with
a nutritive, sensitive, orectic, locomotive and rational souL
•What differentiates man from other natural and organic sub-
stances, and approximates him to a supernatural substance, God,
is reason (X670S) , or intellect (vovt) . Now, though only one of the
powers of the soul, intellect alone of these powers has no bodily
organ; it alone is immortal: it alone is divine. While the soul
is propagated, like any other essence, by the efficient, which is
the seed, to the matter, which is the germ, of the embryo man,
intellect alone enters from without (ObpaBtr), and is alone divine
(Sttov, not OtM), because its activity communicates with no
bodily activity {De Gen. ii. 3, 736-737). A man then is a third
kind of substance, like a natural substance in bodily matter, like
a supernatural substance in divine reason or intellect. Such is
Aristotle's dual, or rather triple, realism, continued in his De
Anima and other biological writings, especially De Generation*
Animaliutn, ii.
There are three points about a man's life which both connect
him with, and distinguish him from, God. God's occupation is
speculative; man's is speculation, practice and production.
I. Speculation (stapfa). — Since things are individuals, and there
is nothing, and nothing universal, beyond them, there arc two
kind* of knowledge (-yi-t&m), sense (atafan) of individuals, intellect
(povc) of universals. Both powers know by being passively receptive
of essence propagated by an efficient cause; but, while in sense the
efficient cause is an external object (Ifadtr), in intelligence it is active
intellect (nm* iy wwlv) propagating its essence in passive intellect
(lefe ToftjrutAf ). Nevertheless, without sense there is no knowledge.
Sense receives from the external world an essence, e.g. of white, which
is really universal as well as individual, but apprehends it only as
individual, e.g. this white substance: intellect thereupon discovers
the universal essence but only in the individuals of sense. This
intellectual discovery requires sensation and retention of sensation;
so that sense (ofo&Kti) receives impressions, imagination (+*m*lm)
retains them as images, intellect (row) generalizes the universal, and,
when it is intelligence of essence, is always true.
This is the origin of knowledge, psychologically regarded fin the De
Anima). Logically regarded, the origin ofall teaching and learning
of an intellectual kind is a process ofinduction (krayttyi) from par-
ticulars to universal, and of syllogism (wMoytv/ifit) from universal
to further particulars; induction, whenever it starts from sense,
becomes the origin of scientific knowledge (Itut^); while there
is also a third process of example (rnpMttyii*) from particular to
particular, which produces only persuasion. In acquiring; scientific
knowledge, syllogism cannot start from universals without induction,
nor induction acquire universals without sense. At the same time,
there are three species of syllogism, scientific, dialectical and eristical
or sophistical; and in consequence there are different ways of
acquiring premisses. In order to acquire the knowledge of the true
and primary principles of scientific Knowledge, and especially the
ARISTOTLE
521
intelligence of the universal essence of the subject, which is always
true, the process of knowledge consists of (1) sense (atc9ii<rtt), which
receives the essence as individual, (2) memory (jiptyui), which is a
retention of sensible impression ,(3) experience (^rc^a) .which consists
of a number of similar memories, (4) induction (hrayay^), which infers
the universal as a fact (rd 6n) ,. (5) intellect (vmn) , which apprehends the
principle (dpx4) ; because it is a true apprehension that the universal
induced is the very essence* and formal cause of the subject: there-
upon, scientific syllogism (brtmitiovucAf ovMoyiapk), making the defi-
nition (6pt9j*6t) of this essence the middle term (rd pAoov), becomes a
demonstration (ixMatvt) of the consequences which follow from
the essence in the conclusion. Such then is science. In order to
acquire the probabilities (ra 1*So£a) of opinion (Mga), which are the
premisses of dialectical syllogism, the process is still induction, as in
science, but dialectical induction by interrogation from the opinions
of the answerers until the universal is conceded : thereupon the dia-
lectical syllogism (StaXwrwtAj rvXAffytrpfe) deduces consequent opinions
in the conclusion. Nor does the process of acquiring the premisses
of eristical syllogism, which is fallacious either in its premisses or
in its process, diner, except that, when the premisses are fallacious,
the dialectical interrogations must be -such as to cause this fallacy.
Hence, as science and dialectic are different, so scientific induction
and syllogism must be distinguished from dialectical induction and
syllogism. Dialectic is useful, for exercise, for conversation and for
philosophical sciences, where by being critical it has a road to prin-
ciples. But it is by a different process of sense, memory, experience,
induction, intelligence, syllogism, that science becomes knowledge of
real causes, of real effects, and especially of real essences from which
follow real consequences, not beyond, but belonging to real sub-
stances. So can we men, not, as Plato thought, by having in our
souls universal principles innate but forgotten, but by acquiring uni-
versal principles from sense, which is the origin of knowledge, arrive
at judgments which are true, and true because they agree with the
things which we know by sense, by inference and by science. Such
is Aristotle's psychological and logical realism, contained in the De
Anima and logical treatises.
2. Practice (rpS&t). — In this natural world of real substances,
human good is not an Imitation of a supernatural universal form of
the good, but is human happiness; and this good is the same both of
the individual as a part and of the state as a whole. Ethics then is
a kind of Politics. But in Ethics a man's individual good is his own
happiness; and his happiness is no mere state, but an activity of soul
according to virtue in a mature life, requiring as conditions moderate
bodily and external goods of fortune; bis virtue is (r) moral virtue,
which is acquired by habituation, and is a purposive habit of per-
forming actions in the mean determined by right reason or prudence;
requiring him, not to exclude, but to moderate his desires; and (7)
intellectual virtue, which is either prudence of practical, or wisdom of
speculative intellect; and his happiness is a land of ascending scale
of virtuous activities, in which moral virtue is limited by prudence,
and prudence by wisdom ; so that the speculative life of wisdom is
the happiest and most divine, and the practical life of prudence and
mora! virtue secondary and human. Good fortune in moderation is
also required as a condition of his happiness. Must we then, 00 ac-
count of misfortunes, look with Solon at the end, and call no man
happy till he is dead? Or is this altogether absurd for us who say
that nappineas is an activity? Virtuous activities determine happi-
ness, and a virtuous man is happy in this life, in spite of misfortunes
unlets they be too great; while after death be will not feel the mis-
fortunes of the living so much as to change his happiness. Still,
for perfect happiness a man should prefer the speculative life 01
divine intellect, and immortalize (tfaraWfur) as far as possible. For
intellect is what mainly makes a man what he is, ana is divine and
im morta l.
To turn from Ethics to Politics, the good of the individual on a
small scale becomes on a large scale the good of the citizen and the
state, whose end should be no far-off form of good, and no mere
guarantee of rights, but the happiness of virtuous action, the life
according to virtue, which is the general good of the citizen. Hence,
the citizen of the best state is he who has the power and the purpose
to be governed and govern for the sake of the life according to virtue.
A right government is one which aims at the general good, whereas
any government which aims at its own good is a deviation. Hence
governments are to be arranged from best to worst in the following
order: —
I. Right governments (*/*«i *>oXir«fat), aiming at the general
good: —
i. Monarchy, of one excelling in virtue:
XL Aristocracy, of a class excelling in virtue :
iiL Commonwealth, of the majority excelling in virtue.
II* Deviations (?«p«/M*sif), aiming at the good of the govern-
ment:—
i. Democracy, aiming at the good of the majority:
ii. Oligarchy, aiming at the good of the few:
iii. Tyranny, aiming at the good of one.
Such is Aristotle's practical philosophy, contained in his matured
Nicomaekean Ethics, and his unfinished Politics.
3. Production (voln<nt).— Production differs from practice in
being an activity (Mpr««; '•*• building) which is always a means
to a work (l^yor; e.g. a house) beyond itself. Productive science,
or art, is an intellectual habit of true reasoning from appropriate
principles, acquired from experiences, and applied to the production
of the work which is the end of the art. All the arts are therefore at
once rational and productive. They are either for necessity (e.g.
medicine) or for occupation (e.g. poetry), the lormer being inferior
to the latter. Rhetoric is a faculty on any subject of investigating
what may be persuasive \vi0av6»), which is the work of no other
art: its means are artificial and inartificial evidences (wlcrus).
and, among artificial evidences, especially the logical arguments of
example and enthymeme. Poetry is the art of producing represen-
tations; (1) in words, rhythm and harmony (dp«u>»ta, " harmony " in
the original sense) ; (a) of men like ourselves, or better as in tragedy,
or worse as in comedy ; (3) by means of narrative as in epic, or by
action as in the drama. The cause of poetry is man's instinct of re-
presentation and his love of representations caused by the pleasure of
learning. Comedy is representation of men inferior in being ludicrous •
epic is like tragedy a representation of superior men, but by means of
narrative and unlimited in time: tragedy is a representation of an
action superior and complete, in a day if possible, by means of action,
and accomplishing by pity and fear the purgation of such passions
(Poetics, 1449 b 24). Music is a part of moral education; and for
this end we Bhould use the most moral harmonies. But music has
also other ends and uses, and on the whole four; namely amuse-
ment, virtue, occupation and purgation of the affections; for some
men are liable more than others to pity and fear and enthusiasm, but
from sacred melodies we see them, when they have heard those which
act orgiastically on the soul, becoming settled by a kind of medicine
and purgation (cAfapo-it ), and being relieved with pleasure. Finally,
art is not morality, because its end is always a work of art, not
virtuous action : on the other hand, art is subordinate to morality,
because all the ends of art are but means to the end of life, and there-
fore a work of art which offends against morality is opposed to the
happiness and the good of man. Such is Aristotle s productive
science or art, contained in his Rhetoric and Poetics, compared with
his Ethics and Polities.
Aristotle, even in this sketch of his system, shows himself
to be the philosopher of facts, who can best of all men bear
criticism; and indeed it must be confessed that he retained
many errors of Platonism and laid himself open to the following
objections. Two substances, being individuals, e.g. Socrates and
Callias, are in no way the same, but only similar, even in essence,
e.g. Socrates' is one rational animal, Callias another. A universal
e.g. the species man, is not predicate of many individuals
(%v *rard roWuv, Post. An. 1. 11), but a whole number of
similar individuals, e.g. all men; and not a whole species,
but only an individual, is a predicate of such individual, e.g.
Socrates is a man, not all men, and one white thing, not
all white things. Consequently, a spedes or genus is not a
substance, as Aristotle says it is in the Categories (incon-
sistently with his own doctrine of substances), but a whole
number of substances, e.g. all men, all animals. Similarly,
the universal essence of a species is not one and the
same as each individual essence, but is the whole number
of similar individual essences of the similar individuals of the
species, e.g. all rational animals. Consequently, the universal
essence of a species of substances is not one and the same eternal
essence in all the individuals of a species but only similar, and is
not substance as Aristotle calls it in the Metaphysics, incon-
sistently with his own doctrine of substance, but is a whole
number of similar substances, e.g. all rational animals which arc
what all men are. Hence again, the natural world of species and
essences is not eternal, but only endures as long as there are
individual substances. Hence, moreover, a natural substance or
body as an efficient cause or force causes an effect on another,
not by propagating one eternal essence of a species into the matter
of the other, but so far as we really understand force, by their
reciprocally preventing one another from occupying the same
place at the same moment on account of the mutual resistance of
any two bodies. The essence of a natural substance, e.g. wood,
Is not immateriate, but is the whole body as what it is. The
matter of a natural substance is not a primary matter which is
one indeterminate substratum of all natural substances, but is
only one body as able to be changed by a force which is another
substance able to change it, e.g. a seed becoming wood, wood
becoming coal, &c. A natural substance or body, therefore, is
not & heterogeneous compound of essence and matter, but is
essence as what it is, matter as able passively to be changed,
force as able actively to change. The simple bodies which are
the matter of the rest are not terrestrial earth, water, air, fire,
522
ARISTOXENUS— ARISUGAWA
and a different celestial aether, but whatever elementary bodies
natural science, starting anew from mechanics and chemistry,
may determine to be the matter of all other bodies whatever.
Nature does not aim at God as end, but Cod, thinking and
willing ends, produces and acts on nature. Soul is not an
immateriate essence of an organic body capable, but an immateri-
ate conscious substance within an organic body. Sensation is not
the reception of the selfsame essence of an external body, but
one's perception of one's sentient organism as affected, and
especially of its organs resisting one another, e.g. one's lips,
hands, £c, preventing one another from occupying the same
place at the same moment within one's organism. Intelligence
does not differ from sense by having no bodily organ, but the
nervous system is the bodily organ of both. Intelligence is not
active intellect propagating universal essence in passive intellect,
but only logical inference starting from sense, and both requiring
•nervous body and conscious soul. It is not always a true appre-
hension of essence, but often, especially in physical matter, such
as sound or heat or light, takes superficial effects to be the
essence of the thing. Aristotle did not altogether solve the
question, What is, and scarcely solved at all the question, How
do we know the external world?
We might continue to object. But at bottom there remains
the fundamental position of Aristotclianism, that all things are
substances, individuals separate though related; that some
things are attributes, real only as being some individual substance
somehow affected, or, as we should say, modified or determined;
and that without individual substances there is nothing, and
nothing universal apart from individuals. There remains too
the consequence that there are different substances, separate
from but related to one another; and these substances of three
irreducible kinds, natural, supernatural, human. Aristotelian-
ism has to be considered against the philosophy which preceded
it and against the philosophy which has since followed it. Platon-
isra preceded it, and was the metaphysical doctrine that all things
are supernatural— forms, gods, souls. Idealism has since followed
it, and is the metaphysical doctrine that all things are mind and
states of mind. Aristotclianism intervenes between ancient
Platonism and modern Idealism, and is the metaphysical doctrine
that all things are substances, natural and supernatural and
human. It is a philosophy of substantial things, standing as a
via media between a philosophy of the supernatural and a
philosophy of mind. There are three alternatives, which may be
put as questions which every thinker must ask himself. Are the
things which surround me in what I call the environment, — the
men, the animals, the plants, the ground, the stones, the water,
the air, the moon, the sun, the stars and God — are they shadows,
unsubstantial things, as formerly Platonism made all things to be
except the supernatural world of forms, gods and souls? Or are
they, as modern Idealism says, mind and states of mind? Or
are they really substances separate from, though related to,
myself, who am also a substance? The Aristotelian answer is
— " Yes, all things are substances, but not all supernatural, nor
all mental; for some are natural substances, or bodies "; and
by that answer Aristotclianism stands or falls.
Literature. — The Aristotelian philosophy is to be studied, first in
Aristotle's works, which are the best commentaries on one another;
the best complete edition is the Berlin edition (1831-1870), by Bckleer
and Brandis, in which also ant the fragments collected by V. Rose,
the scholia collected by Brandis, and the index compiled bv Bonitz.
After reading the remains of the Peripatetic school, the Greek
commentators should be further studied in this edition. The Latin
commentators, the Arabians and the schoolmen show how Aristotle
has been the chief author of modern culture; while the vindication
of modern independence comes out in his critics, the greatest of whom
were Roger and Francis Bacon. Since the modern discovery of the
science of motion by Galileo which changed natural science, and the
modern revolution of philosophy by Descartes which changed meta-
physics, the study of Aristotle has become less universal; but it did
not die out, and received a fresh stimulus especially from Julius Pacius.
who going back through G. Zabarella to the Arabians, and himself
gifted with great logical powers, always deserves study in his editions
of the Organon ana the Physics, and in his Doctrinal Peripatelicae.
In more recent times, as part of the growing conviction of the essen-
tiality of everything Greek, Aristotle has received marked attention.
(a France there arc the works of Cousin (1835), Felix Ravaisson. who
37-1846), and Bartbekmy St HOafae,
and other works (1844 acq.). la
at of commentaries-, among which we
ted (1844-1846) byF. ThTwaiu (not
uima edited (1 833) by F. A. Trcndelen-
the Historic. Animaltum by H. Aubert
Ethics by K. L. Michelet (1827). the
(1847) and (best of all) by H. Booiu
1 of all commentators, because' to great
he rare gift of confessing when he does
does not know what Aristotle might
e's works before one, with the Index
ind translation of the Metaphysics by
r's Die Philosophic der Griechen, a. 2,
elloe and Muirbead), on the other side,
towards understanding the foundation
take up certain parts of Aristotle's
tended to write a general account of
it his Aristotle went little further than
Cambridge we have J. W. Blakesley's
■ Rhetoric, Dr Henry Jackson's Ntca-
utcber'a Poetics, Hides'* De Ant ma.
titution, Jebb's Rhetoric (ed. Sandys).
ie beginning of the 19th century, has
totle. E. Cardwell in his edition of
J) had the wisdom to found his text
)t (Kb): E. Poste wrote translations
nd Sobhistici EUnchi; R. Congreve
mt edited the Nicomachean Ethics;
nnotated the De Anima; B. Jowett
, Newman has edited the Potttics in
anslated the De Partibus Animaltum,
1 History of the Aristotelian Writings;
> written Notes on the Nicomachean
has issued an annotated edition of
W. D. Ross has translated the Mela-
ere, Oxford men; and it remains to
er, who as an Aristotelian scholar has
mt of Bekker's text, especially of the
Poetics-, and F. G. Ken yon, who has
ig been the first modern editor of the
CT.Ca.)
itum (4th century B.C.), a Greek
writer on music and rhythm. He
*r Spintharus, a pupil of Socrates,
na, Lamprus of Erythrae and Xeno-
ed the theory of music Finally he
thens, and was deeply annoyed, it is
is appointed head of the school on
Lings, said to have numbered four
e in the style of Aristotle, and dealt
music. The empirical tendency of
heory that the soul is related to the
s of a musical instrument. We have
>d by which he deduced this theory
Vers, Eng. trans. 1005, vol. iii. p. 43) •
tes of the scale arc to be judged, not
t mathematical ratio, but by the ear.
s come down to us is the three books
y (Whiko. oroixua), an incomplete
d Hunt's Oxyrhynchus Papyri (voL L,
m fragment of a treatise on metre,
stoxenus.
Aarquard, with German translation and
\chen Frapnente des Aristoxenus (Berlin,
riven in C.W. Muller, Frag. HisL Grate,
2).
j); B. Brill. Aristoxenus' rhythmische
l ) ; R. Westphal, Criechische Rhythmih
) : L. Laloy. A ristoxhte de Tarenle et la
04"). See Peripatetics, Pythagoras
sic" in Grove's Diet, of Music (1904).
it see Classical Review (January 1898),
Tahresbericht, civ. (1901)
f one of the royal families of Japan,
j n of the mikado Go-Yoxei (d. 163S).
I, when the mikado Mutsu-hito was
Taruhito Arisugawa (1835-1805),
became commander-in-chief, and in 187s president of the senate.
ARITHMETIC
523
After his suppression of the Satsuma rebellion he was made a
field-marshal, and he was chief of the staff in the war with China
(1804-95). His younger brother, Prince Takehito Arisugawa
(b. 1862), was from 1879 to 1882 in the British navy, serving
in the Channel Squadron, and studied at the Naval College,
Greenwich. In the Chino- Japanese War of 1804-05 he was
in command of a cruiser, and subsequently became admiral-
superintendent at Yokosuka. Prince Arisugawa represented
Japan in England together with Marquis Ito at the Diamond
Jubilee (1897), and in 1005 was again received there as the
king's guest.
ARITHMETIC (Gr. afuBinrrudifsc- rev"?! the art of counting,
from o/x0/ife, number), the art of dealing with numerical
quantities in their numerical relations.
1. Arithmetic is usually divided into Abstract Arithmetic and
Concrete Arithmetic, the former dealing with numbers and the
Utter with concrete objects. This distinction, however, might
be misleading. In stating that the sum of xid. and od. is zs.8d.
we do not mean that nine pennies when added to eleven pennies
produce a shilling and eight pennies. The sum of money corre-
sponding to xxd. may in fact be made up of coins in several
different ways, so that the symbol " xxd." cannot be taken as
denoting any definite concrete objects. The arithmetical fact is
that xx and 9 may be regrouped as 12 and 8, and the statement
44 xxcL+od-"* is. 8d." is only an arithmetical statement in so far
as each of the three expressions denotes a numerical quantity
(i ix).
a. The various stages in the study of arithmetic may be
arranged in different ways, and the arrangement adopted must
be influenced by the purpose in view. There are three main
purposes, the practical, the educational, and the scientific; i.e.
the subject may be studied with a view to technical skill in deal-
ing with the arithmetical problems that arise in actual life, or for
the sake of its general influence on mental development, or as an
elementary stage in mathematical study.
$. The practical aspect is an important one. The daily
activities of the great mass of the adult population, in countries
where commodities are sold at definite prices for definite
quantities, include calculations which have often to be per*
formed rapidly, on data orally given, and leading in general to
results which can only be approximate; and almost every branch
of manufacture or commerce has its own range of applications
of arithmetic. Arithmetic as a school subject has been largely
regarded from this point of view.
4. From the educational point of view, the value of arithmetic
has usually been regarded as consisting in the stress it lays on
accuracy. This aspect of the matter, however, belongs mainly
to the period when arithmetic was studied almost entirely for
commercial purposes; and even then accuracy was not found
always to harmonize with actuality. The development of
physical science has tended to emphasise an exactly opposite
aspect, viz. the impossibility, outside a certain limited range of
subjects, of ever obtaining absolute accuracy, and the consequent
importance of not wasting time in attempting to obtain results
beyond a certain degree of approximation.
5. As a branch of mathematics, arithmetic may be treated
logically, psychologically, or historically. All these aspects are
of importance to the teacher: the logical, in order that he may
know the end which he seeks to attain; the psychological, that
he may know how best to attain this end; and the historical, for
the light that history throws on psychology.
The logical arrangement of the subject is not the best for
elementary study. The division into abstract and concrete, for
instance, is logical, if the former is taken as relating to number
and the latter to numerical quantity (§ x x). But the result of a
rigid application of this principle would be that the calculation
of the cost of 3 lb of tea at as. a lb would be deferred until
after the study of logarithms. The psychological treatment
recognises the fact that the concrete precedes the abstract and
that the abstract is based on the concrete; and it also recognises
the futility of attempting a strictly continuous development of
the subject.
On the other hand, logical analysis is necessary if the subject
is to be understood. As an illustration, we may take the ele-
mentary processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. These are still called in text-books the " four simple
rules"; but this name ignores certain essential differences,
(i) If we consider that we are dealing with numerical quantities,
we must recognize the fact that, while addition and subtrac-
tion might in the first instance be limited to such quantities,
multiplication and division necessarily introduce the idea of
pure number, (ii) If on the other hand we regard ourselves as
dealing with pure number throughout, then, as multiplication is
continued addition, we ought to include in our classification
involution as continued multiplication. Or we might say that,
since multiplication is a form of addition, and division a»form
of subtraction, there are really only two fundamental processes,
viz. addition and subtraction, (iii) The inclusion of the four
processes under one general head fails to indicate the essential
difference between addition and multiplication, as direct pro-
cesses, on the one hand, and subtraction and division, as inverse
processes, on the other (§50).
6. The present article deals mainly with the principles of the
subject, for which a logical arrangement is on the whole the more
convenient. It is not suggested that this is the proper order to be
adopted by the teacher.
I. Numbes
7. Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers. — One of the primary dis-
tinctions in the use of number is between ordinal end cardinal
numbers, or rather between the ordinal and the cardinal aspects
of number. The usual statement is that one, two, three, ... are
cardinal numbers, and first, second, third, ... are ordinal
numbers. This , however, is an incomplete statement ; the words
one, two, three, . . . and the corresponding symbols x, 2, 3, . . .
or I, II, III, ... are used sometimes as ordinals, i.e. to denote
the place of an individual in a series, and sometimes*** cardinals,
i.e. to denote the total number since the commencement of the
series.
On the whole, the ordinal use is perhaps the more common.
Thus " 100 " on a page of a book does not mean that the page is
100 times the page numbered 1, but merely that it is the page
after 99. Even in commercial transactions, in dealing with
sums of money, the statement of an amount often has reference
to the last item added rather than to a total; and geometrical
measurements are practically ordinal (5 26).
For ordinal purposes we use, as symbols, not only figures, such
as 1, 2, 3, ... but also letters, as a,b,c, . . . Thus the pages of
a book may be numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . and the chapters I, II, III,
. . . but the sheets are lettered A, B, C, . . . . Figures and letters
may even be used in combination; thus 16 may be followed by
1 6a and 16b, and these by 17, and in such a case the ordinal
100 does not correspond with the total (cardinal) number up to
this point.
Arithmetic is supposed to deal with cardinal, not with ordinal
numbers; but it will be found that actual numeration, beyond
about three or four, is based on the ordinal aspect of number,
and that a scientific treatment of the subject usually requires a
return to this fundamental basis.
One difference between the treatment of ordinal and of
cardinal numbers may be noted. Where a number is expressed
in terms of various denominations, a cardinal number usually
begins with the largest denomination, and an ordinal number
with the smallest Thus we speak of one thousand eight hundred
and seventy-six, and represent it by MDCCCLXXVI or 1876;
but we should speak of the third day of August 1876, and repre-
sent it by 3. 8. 1876. It might appear at if the writing of 1876
was an exception to this rule; but in reality 1876, when used
in this way, is partly cardinal and partly ordinal, the first three
figures being cardinal and the last ordinal. To make the year
completely ordinal, weshould have to describe it as the 6th year
of the 8th decade of the 9th century of the 2nd millennium; i.e.
we should represent the date by 3. 8. 6. 8. 9. 2, the total number
of years, months and days completed being 1875. 7* *•
52*
ARITHMETIC
In using in ordinal we direct our attention tot term of a scries,
while in using a cardinal we direct our attention to the interval
between two terms. The total number in the series is the sum
of the two cardinal numbers obtained by counting up to any
interval from the beginning and from the end respectively; but
if we take the ordinal numbers from the beginning and from the
end we count one term twice over. Hence, if there are 365 days
in a year, the 100th day from the beginning is the 266th, not the
965th, from the end.
8. Meowing of Names of Numbers.— What do we mean by any
particular number, e.g. by seven, or by taw hundred and fifty-
three'/ We can define two as one and one, and fare* as one and one
and one; but we obviously cannot continue this method for
ever** For the definition of large numbers we may employ either
of two methods, which will be called the pouting method and
the counting method.
(i) Method of Grouping.— -The first method consists in defining
the first few numbers, and forming larger numbers by groups
or aggregates, formed partly by multiplication and partly by
addition. Thus, on the denary system (§ 16) we can give inde-
pendent definitions to the numbers up to ten, and then regard
{e.g.) fifty-three as a composite number made up of five tens and
three ones. Or, on the quinary •binary system, we need only give
independent definitions to the numbers up to five; the numbers
six, seven,. . . can then be regarded as five and one, five and two,
. . . , a fresh series being started when we get to five and five
or ten. The grouping method introduces multiplication into the
definition of large numbers; but this, from the teacher's point
of view, is not now such a serious objection as it was in the days
when children were introduced to millions and billions before they
had any idea of elementary arithmetical processes.
(ii) Method of Counting.— The second method consists in taking
a series of names or symbols for the first few numbers, and then
repeating these according to a regular system for successive
numbers, so- that each number is denned by reference to the
number immediately preceding it in the series. Thus two still
means one and one, but three means two and one, not one and one
and one. Similarly two hundred and fifty-thru does not mean two
hundreds, five tens and three ones, but one more than two
hundred and fifty4wo; and the number which is called one
hundred is not defined as ten tens, but as one more than ninety-
nine.
9. Concrete and Abstract Numbers. — Number is concrete or
abstract according as It does or does not relate to particular
objects. On the whole, the grouping method refers mainly to
concrete numbers and the counting method to abstract numbers.
If we sort object* into groups of ten, and find that there are five
groups of ten with three over, we regard the five and the three
as names for the actual sets of groups or of individuals. The
three, for instance, are rtgarded as a whole when we name them
three. If, however, we count these three as one, two, three, then
the number of times we count is an abstract number. Thus
number in the abstract is the number of times that the act of
counting is performed in any particular case. This, however,
is a description, not a definition, and we still want a definition for
" number " in the phrase " number of times/
10. Definition of " Number"— Suppose we fix on a certain
sequence of names " one," " two," " three," . . . , or symbols
suchas 1,9,3, . . . ; this sequence being always the same. If we
take a set of concrete objects, and name them in succession " one,"
" two," " three," . . . , naming each once and once only, we shall
not get beyond a certain name, e.g. " six." Then, in saying that
the number of objects is six, what we mean is that the name of
the last object named is six. We therefore only require a definite
law for the formation of the successive names or symbols. The
symbols 1, 1, . . . 9, to, . . . , for instance, are formed according
to a definite law; and in giving 353 as the number of a set of
objects we mean that if we attach to them the symbols z, 9, 3,
... in succession, according to this law, the symbol attached
to the last object will be 253- H we say that this act of attach-
ing a symbol has been performed 253 times, then 953 i» an
abstract (or pure) number.
Underlying this definition is a certain s wiiup l ifln , via. ttart 3
we take the objects in a different order, the last symbol attached
will still be 253. This, in an elementary treatment of thesvhjert,
must be regarded as axiomatic; but it is really a simple case of
mathematical induction. (See Algebsjl) If we take two objects
A and B, it is obvious that whether we take them as A, B. or as
B, A, we shall in each case get the sequence 1, a. Suppose this
were true for, say, eight objects, marked 1 to 8. Then, if we
introduce another object anywhere in the series, all those coming
after it will be displaced so that each will have the mark formerly
attached to the next following; and the last wiB therefore
be 9 instead of 8. This is true, whatever the arrangement of the
original objects may be, and wherever the new one is int r o du ced;
and therefore, if the theorem b true for 8, it is true for o. But it
is true for 2; therefore it is true for 3; therefore for 4, and so on.
x 1. Numerical Quantities. — If the term number is confined to
number in the abstract, then number in the concrete may be
described as numerical quantity. Thus £3 denotes £1 taken
3 times. The £1 is termed the unit. A numerical quantity,
therefore, r ep r esents a certain unit, taken a certain number of
limes. If we take £3 twice, we get £6; and if we take 3s. twice,
we get 6s., ix. 6 times is. Thus arithmetical processes deal with
numerical quantities by dealing with numbers, provided the unit
is the same throughout. If we retain the unit, the arithmetic is
concrete; if we ignore it, the arithmetic is abstract. Bat in the
latter case it must always be understood that there is some unit
concerned, and the results have no meaning until the unit is
reintroduced.
II. Notation, Numebatiok and Numbeb-Ideatjoh
12. Terms used. — The representation of numbers by spoken
sounds is called numeration; their representation by written
signs is called notation. The systems adopted for numeration and
for notation do not always agree with one another; nor do they
always correspond with the idea which the numbers subjectively
present This latter presentation may, in the absence of any
accepted term, be called number-ideation; this word covering
not only the perception or recognition of particular numbers, but
also the formation of a number-concept.
13. Notation of Numbers.— -The system which b now almost
universally in use amongst dvihsed nations for representing
cardinal numbers is the Hindu, sometimes incorrectly called the
Arabic, system. The essential features which distinguish tins
from other systems are (1) the limitation of the number of
different symbols, only ten being used, however large the number
to be represented may be; (2) the use of the tero to indicate the
absence of number; and (3) the principle of local value, by winch
a symbol in effect represents different numbers, according to its
position. The symbols denoting a number are called its digits.
A brief account of the development of the system will be found
under Numzkal. Here we are concerned with the principle,
the explanation of which is different according as we proceed on
the grouping or the counting system.
(i) On the grouping system we may in the first instance con-
sider that we have separate symbols for numbers from " one " to
" nine," but that when we reach ten objects we put them in a
group and denote this group by the symbol used for " one," but
printed in a different type or written of a different sine or (in
teaching) of a different colour. Similarly when we get to ten
tens we denote them by a new represen tation of the figure denot-
ing one. Thus we may have:
ones 123456789
tens 133456789
hundreds,} 1234867*9
Ac. $ Ac. Ac
On this principle ss would represent twenty-four, 94 two
hundred and forty, and 24 two hundred and four. To prevent
confusion the aero or " nought " is introduced, so that the succes-
sive figures, beginning from the right, may represent ones, tens,
hundreds, . . . We then have, e.g., 240 to denote two hundreds
and four tens; and we may now adopt a uniform type for aO the
figures, writing this 240.
ARITHMETIC
525
3 •
3 •
(li) 0* the counting system we may consider that we have a
series of objects (represented in the adjoining diagram by dots),
and that we attach to these objects in succession the
1 * symbols i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o, repeating this series
indefinitely. There is as yet no distinction between
the first object marked 1 and the second object marked
1. We can, however, attach to the o's the same sym-
- '■ bols, i, a, ... .0 in succession, in a separate column,
r m repeating the series indefinitely; then do the same with
10 • every o of this new series; and so on. Any particular
1 a object is then denned completely by the combination
3 • of the symbols last written down in each series; and
3 • this combination of symbols can equally be used to
denote, the number of objects up to and including the
\ \ last one (§ 10). .
In writing down a number in excess of xooo it is
(except where the number represents a particular year) usual
in England and America to group the figures in sets of three,
starting from the right, and to mark off the sets by commas.
On the continent of Europe the figures are taken in sets of
three, but are merely spaced, the comma being used at the
end of a number to denote the commencement of a decimal.
The aero, called " nought," is of course a different thing from
the letter O of the alphabet, but there may be a historical
connexion between them (§ 79). It is perhaps interesting to
note that the latter-day telephone operator calls 1907 " nineteen
O seven " instead of " nineteen nought seven."
14. Directum of the Number-Series.- -There is no settled
convention as to the direction in which the series of symbols
denoting the successive numbers one, two, three, ... is to be
written.
(i) If the numbers were written down in succession, they would
naturally proceed from left to right, thus:— 1, 2, 3,. . . This
system, however, would require that in passing to "double
figures n the figure denoting tens should be written either above
or below the figure denoting ones, e.g.
1
I, 3, .... 8, 9, o, 1, 2, ... or 1, 2 8, 9, o, 1, 2, . . .
1
The pUdng of the tens-figure to the left of the ones-figure will not
seem natural unless the number-series runs either up or down.
(H) In writing down any particular number, the successive
powers of ten are written from right to left, e.g. 5462,198 is
(6> (s) (4) (3> <t) <i> <o)
5462198
the small figures in brackets indicating the successive powers.
On the other hand, in writing decimals, the sequence (of negative
powers) is from left to right.
(iii) In making out lists, schedules, mathematical tables (e.g.
a multiplication-table), statistical tables, &c, the numbers are
written vertically downwards. In the case of lists and schedules
the numbers are only ordinals; but in the case of mathematical
or statistical tables they are usually regarded as cardinals, though,
when they represent values of a continuous quantity, they must
be regarded as ordinals (§§ 26, 93) •
(iv) In graphic representation measurements. are usually made
upwards; the adoption of this direction resting on certain
deeply rooted ideas (§ 23).
This question of direction is of importance in reference to the
development of useful number-forms (§ 23); and the existence
of the two methods mentioned under (iii) and (iv) above produces
confusion in comparing numerical tabulation with graphical
representation. It is generally accepted that the horizontal
direction of increase, where a horizontal direction is necessary,
should be from left to right; but uniformity as regards vertical
direction could only be attained either by printing mathe-
matical tables upwards or by taking " downwards," instead of
" upwards," as the " positive " direction for graphical purposes.
200 The downwards direction will be taken in this article as
5? the normal one for succession of numbers (e.g. in multipli-
_ cation), and, where the arrangement is horizontal, it is to
353 be understood that this is for convenience of printing. If
ssw should be noticed that, in writing the components of a
number 253 as aooy 50 and 3, each component beneath the next
larger one, we are really adopting the downwards principle, since
the figures which make up 253 will on this principle be success-
ively 2, s and 3 (§ 13 (u) ).
15. Roman Numerals. — Although the Roman numerals are
no longer in use for representing cardinal numbers, except in
certain special cases (e.g. clock-faces, milestones and chemists'
prescriptions), they are still used for ordinals.
The system differs completely from the Hindu system. There
are no single symbols for two, three, &c; but numbers are
represented by combinations of symbols for one, five, ten, fifty,
one hundred, five hundred, &c, the numbers which have single
symbols, via. I, V, X, L, C, D, M, proceeding by multiples of five
and two alternately. Thus 1878 is MDCCCLXXVIII, i.e.
thousand five-hundred hundred hundred hundred fifty ten ten
five one one one.
The system is therefore essentially a cardinal and grouping
one, ix. it represents a number as the sum of sets of other
numbers. It is therefore remarkable that it should now only
be used for. ordinal purposes, while the Hindu system, which is
ordinal in its nature, since a single series is constantly, repeated,
is used almost exclusively for cardinal' numbers. This fact
seems to illustrate the truth that the counting principle is the
fundamental one, to which the interpretation of grouped numbers
must ultimately be referred.
The normal process of writing the larger numbers on the left
is in certain cases modified in the Roman system by writing a
number in front of a larger one to denote subtraction. Thus four t
originally written HII, was later written IV. This may have
been due to one or both of two causes; a primitive tendency
to refer numbers, in numeration, to the nearest large number
(§ 24 (iv) ), and the difficulty of perceiving the number of a group
of objects beyond about three (ft 22). Similarly IX, XL and XC
were written for nine, forty and ninety respectively. These,
however, were later developments.
x6. Scales of Notation.— In the Hindu system the numbering
proceeds by tens, tens of tens, &c; thus the figure in the fifth
place, counting from the right, denotes the product of the corre-
sponding number by four tens in succession. The notation is
then said to be in the scale of which ten is the base, or in the
deHary scale. The Roman system, except for the use of symbols
for five, fifty, 4c, is also in the denary scale, though expressed
in a different way. The introduction of these other symbols
produces a compound scale, which may be called a quinary-
binary, or, less correctly, a quinary-denary scale.
The figures used in the Hindu notation might be used to express
numbers in any other scale than the denary, provided new
symbols were introduced if the base of the scale exceeded ten.
Thus 1878 in the quinary-binary scale would be 1x31213, and
1828 would be 1130213; the meaning of these is seen at once
by comparison with MDCCCLXXVIII and MDCCCXXVIII.
Similarly the number which in the denary scale is 215 would in
the quaternary scale (base 4) be 3x13, being equal to 34.44+
14.4+1.4+3.
The use of the denary scale in notation is due to its use in
numeration (§ 18); this again being due (as exemplified by the
use of the word digit) to the primitive use of the fingers for count-
ing. If mankind had had six fingers on each hand and six toes on
each foot, we should be using a duodenary scale (base twelve),
which would have been far more convenient
17. Notation of Numerical Quantities. — Over a large part of the
civilized world the introduction of the metric system (5 xx8) has
caused the notation of all numerical quantities to be in the denary
scale. In Great Britain and her colonies, however, and in the
United States, other systems of notation still survive, though
there is none which is consistently in one scale, other than the
denary. The method is to form quantities into groups, and these
again into larger groups; but the number of groups making one
of the next largest groups varies as we proceed along the scale.
The successive groups or units thus formed are called denomina-
tions. Thus twelve pennies make a shilling, and twenty shillings
a pound, while the penny is itself divided into four farthings (or
5*6
ARITHMETIC
two halfpennies). There are, therefore, four denominations, the
bases for conversion of one denomination into the next being
successively four (or two), twelve and twenty. Within each
denomination, however, the denary notation is employed
exclusively, e.g. "twelve shillings" is denoted by 12s.
The diversity of scales appears to be due mainly to four
causes: (i) the tendency to group into scores (5 20); (ii) the
tendency to subdivide into twelve; (iii) the tendency to sub-
divide into two or four, with repetitions, making subdivision into
sixteen or sixty-four; and (iv) the independent adoption of
different units for measuring the same kind of magnitude.
Where there is a division into sixteen parts, a binary scale may
be formed by dividing into groups of two, four or eight. Thus
the weights ordinarily in use for measuring from { oz. up to
2 lb give the basis for a binary scale up to not more than eight
6gures, only o and x being used. The points of the compass
might similarly be expressed by numbers in a binary scale; but
the numbers would be ordinal, and the expressions would be
analogous to those of decimals rather than to those of whole
numbers.
In order to apply arithmetical processes to a quantity expressed
in two or more denominations, we must first express it in terms of
a single denomination by means of a varying scale of notation.
Thus £254, 13s. 6d. may be written £254 « 13s. • 6d.; each of
the numbers in brackets indicating the number of units in
one denomination that go to form a unit in the next higher
denomination. To express the quantity in terms of £, it ought
(*>) <n) -
to be written £254 » 13 » 6; this would mean £254 -£* or
£(*54+|£+25^), and therefore would involve a fractional
number.
A quantity expressed in two or more denominations is usually
called a compound number or compound quantity. The former
term is obviously incorrect, since a quantity is not a number;
and the latter is not very suggestive. For agreement with the
terminology of fractional numbers (§ 62) we shall describe such a
quantity as a mixed quantity. The letters or symbols descriptive
of each denomination are usually placed after or (in actual
calculations) above the figures denoting the numbers of the
corresponding units; but in a few cases, e.g. in the case of £, the
symbol is placed before the figures. There would be great
convenience in a general adoption of this latter method; the
combination of the two methods in such an expression as
£123, 1 6s. 4$d. is especially awkward.
18. Numeration.— The names of numbers are almost wholly
based on the denary scale; thus eighteen means eight and ten,
and twenty-four means twice ten and four. The words eleven
and twelve have been supposed to suggest etymologically a
denary basis (see, however, Nuhtkal).
Two exceptions, however, may be noted.
(i) The use of dozen, gross ("dozen dozen), and great gross
( - dozen gross) indicates an attempt at a duodenary basis. But
the system has never spread; and the word " dozen " itself is
based on the denary scale.
(ii) The score (twenty) has been used as a basis, but to an even
more limited extent There is no essential difference, however,
between this and the denary basis. As the latter is due to
finger-reckoning, so the use of the fingers and the toes produced
a vigesimal scale. Examples of this are given in \ 20; it is
worthy of notice that the vigesimal (or, rather, quinary-quater-
nary) system was used by the Mayas of Yucatan, and also, in a
more perfect form, by the Nahuatl (Aztecs) of Mexico.
The number ten having been taken as the basis of numeration,
there are various methods that might consistently be adopted for
naming large numbers.
(i) We might merely name the figures contained in the number.
This method is often adopted in practical life, even as regards
mixed quantities; thus £57, 593. x6s- 4d. would be read as Jive
seven, Jive nine three, sixteen and Jour pence.
(ii) The word ten might be introduced, e.g. 593 would be five
ten ten ninety (-nine ten) and three.
(iii) Names might be given to the successive powers of tea, op
to the point to which numeration of ones is likely to go. Partial
applications of this method are found in many languages.
(iv) A compromise between the last two methods would be to
have names for the series of numbers, beginning with ten, each of
which is the " square " of the preceding one. This would in effect
be analysing numbers into components of the form a. to* where
a is less than 10, and the index b is expressed in the binary scale.
e.g. 7,000,000 would be 7. io 4 .io*, and 700,000 would be 7.io*.io*.
The British method is a mixture of the last two, but with aa
index-scale which is partly ternary and partly binary. There are
separate names for ten, ten times ten (—hundred), and ten times
ten times ten ("thousand)', but the next single name is million,
representing a thousand times a thousand. The next name is
billion, which in Great Britain properly means a million nullioa.
and in the United States (as in France) a thousand million.
19. Discrepancies between Numeration and Notation. — Although
numeration and notation are both ostensibly on the denary
system, they are not always exactly parallel. The following
are a few of the discrepancies.
(i) A set of written symbols is sometimes read in more than
one way, while on the other hand two different sets of symbols
(at any rate if denoting numerical quantities) may be read in the
same way. Thus 1820 might be read as one thousand eight
hundred and twenty if it represented a number of men, but it
would be read as eighteen hundred and twenty if it represented a
year of the Christian era; while is. 6d. and i8d. might both be
read as eighleenpence. As regards the first of these two examples,
however, it would be more correct to write 1,820 for the former
of the two meanings (cf. § 13).
(ii) The symbols n and 12 are read as eleven and twelve, not
(except in elementary teaching) as ten-one and ten-two.
(iii) The names of the numbers next following these, op to
19 inclusive, only faintly suggest a ten. This difficulty is not
always recognized by teachers, who forget that they themselves
had to be told that eighteen means eighl-and-ten.
(iv) Even beyond twenty, up to a hundred, the word ten is not
used in numeration, e.g. we say thirty-Jour, not three ten Jour.
(v) The rule that the greater number comes first is not uni-
versally observed in numeration. It is not observed, for inn 1 nee,
in the names of numbers from 13 to 19; nor was it in the names
from which eleven and twelve are derived. Beyond twenty it is
usually, but not always, observed; we sometimes instead of
twenty-Jour say Jour and twenty. (This latter is the universal
system in German, up to 100, and for any portion of 100 in
numbers beyond 100.)
20. Other Methods of Numeration and Notation. — It is only
possible here to make a brief mention of systems other than those
now ordinarily in use.
(i) Vigesimal Scale.— The system of counting by twenties
instead of by tens has existed in many countries; and, though
there is no corresponding notation, it still exhibits itself in the
names of numbers. This is the case, for instance, in the Celtic
languages; and the Breton or Gaulish names have affected the
Latin system, so that the French names for some numbers are on
the vigesimal system. This system also appears in the Danish
numerals. In English the use of the word score to represent
twenty— e.g. in " threescore and ten n for seventy — is super-
imposed on the denary system, and has never formed an essential
part of the language. The word, like dozen and couple, is still in
use, but rather in a vague than in a precise sense.
(ii) Roman System, — The Roman notation has been explained
above ($15). Though convenient for exhibiting the composition
of any particular number, it was inconvenient for purposes of
calculation; and in fact calculation was entirely (or almost en-
tirely) performed by means of the abacus (9. v.). The numeration
was in the denary scale, so that it did not agree absolutely with
the notation. The principle of subtraction from a higher number,
which appeared in notation, also appeared in numeration, but not
for exactly the same numbers or in exactly the same way; thus
XVIII was two-from-twenty, and the next number was one-
from-twenty, but it was written XIX, not IXX.
ARITHMETIC
527
(iii) Other SysUwts of Antiquity.— The Egyptian notation, was
purely denary, the only separate signs being those for 1, 10, 100,
&c The ordinary notation of the Babylonians was denary, but
they also used a sexagesimal scale, i.e. a scale whose base was 60.
The Hebrews had a notation containing separate signs (the
letters of the alphabet) for numbers from 1 to 10, thenfor multiplies
of zo up to 100, and then for multiples of xooup to 400, and later
up to 1000.
The earliest Greek system of notation was similar to the
Roman, except that the symbols for 50, 500, &c, were more
complicated. Later, a system similar to the Hebrew was adopted,
and extended by reproducing the first nine symbols of the series,
preceded by accents, to denote multiplication by 2000.
On the island of Ceylon there still exists, or existed till recently,
a system which combines some of the characteristics of the later
Greek (or Semitic) and the modern European notation; and it is
conjectured that this was the original Hindu system.
For a further account of the above systems see Numeral, and
the authorities quoted at the end of the present article.
21. The Number-Concept. — It is probable that very few people
nave any definite mental presentation of individual numbers
(i.e. numbers proceeding by differences of one) beyond zoo, or at
any rate beyond 144. Larger numbers are grasped by forming
numbers into groups or by treating some large number as a unit.
A person would appreciate the difference between 93,000,000 m.
and 04,000,000 m. as the distance of the centre of the sun from
the centre of the earth at a particular moment; but he cer-
tainly would not appreciate the relative difference between
93,000,000 m. and 93,000001 m. In order to get an idea of
93,000,000, he must take a million as his unit. Similarly, in the
metric system he cannot mentally compare two units, one of
which is 1000 times the other. The metre and the kilometre,
for instance, or the metre and the millimetre, are not directly
comparable; but the metre can be conceived as containing 100
centimetres.
On the other hand, it would seem that, for most educated
people, sixteen and seventeen or twenty-six and twenty-seven,
and even eighty-sis and eighty-seven, are single numbers, just
as six and seven are, and are not made up of groups of tens and
ones. In other words, the denary scale, though adopted in
notation and in numeration, does not arise in the corresponding
mental concept until we get beyond 100.
Again, in the use of decimals, it is unusual to give less than
two figures. Thus 3*142 or 3-14 would be quite intelligible; but
31 does not convey such a good idea to most people as either 3tV
or 3* 10, i.e. as an expression denoting a fraction or a percentage.
There appears therefore to be a tendency to use some larger
number than ten as a basis for grouping into new units or for
subdivision Into parts. The Babylonians adopted 60 for both
these purposes, thus giving us the sexagesimal division of angles
and of time.
This view Is supported, not only by the intelligibility of
percentages to ordinary persons, but also by the tendency, noted
above (| 19), to group years into centuries, and to avoid the use
of thousands. Thus 1876 is not 1 thousand, 8 hundred, 7 tens
and 6, but 18 hundred and 76, each of the numbers 18 and 76
being named as if it were a single number. It is also in accord-
ance with what is so far known about number-forms (| 23).
If there is this tendency to adopt too as a basis instead
of io, the teaching of decimals might sometimes be simplified
by proceeding from percentages to percentages of percentages,
i.e. by commencing with centesimais instead of with decimals.
22. Perception of Number. — In using material objects as a
basis for developing the number-concept, it must be remembered
that it is only when there are a few objects that their number
can be perceived without either counting or the performance of
some arithmetical process such as addition. If four coins are laid
on a table, close together, they can (by most adults) be seen to be
four, without counting; but seven coins have to be separated
mentally into two groups, the numbers of which are added, or
one group has to be seen and the remaining objects counted,
before the number is known to be seven.
The actual limit of the number that can be " seen "—4*.
seen without counting or adding — depends for any individual on
the shape and arrangement of the objects, but under similar
conditions it is not the same for all individuals. It has been
suggested that as many as six objects can be seen at once; bat
this is probably only the case with few people, and with them
only when the objects have a certain geometrical arrangement.
The limit for most adults, under favourable conditions, is about
four*. Under certain conditions it is less; thus IIU, the old
Roman notation iotfour, is difficult to distinguish from III, and
this may have been the main reason for replacing it by IV (§ 15).
In the case of young children the limit is probably two. That
this was also the limit in the case of primitive races, and that the
classification of things was into one, two and many, before any
definite process of counting (e.g. by the fingers) cane to be
adopted, is clear from the use of the " dual number " in language,
and from the way in which the names for three and four are often
based on those for one and two. With the individual, as with the
race, the limit of the number that can be seen gradually increases
up to four or five.
The statement that a number of objects can be seen to be three
or four is not to be taken as implying that there is a simultaneous
perception of all the objects. The attention may be directed
in succession to the different objects, so that the perception u
rhythmical; the distinctive rhythm thus aiding the perception
of the particular number.
In consequence, of this limitation of the power of perception of
number, it is practically impossible to use a pure denary scale in
elementary number-teaching. If a quinary-binary system (such
as would naturally fit in with counting on the fingers) is not
adopted, teachers unconsciously resort . to a binary-quinary
system. This is commonly done where cubes are used; thus
seven is represented by three pairs of cubes, with a single cube
at the top.
23. Visualisation of the Series. — A striking fact, in reference
to ideas of number, is the existence of number-forms, i.e. of
definite arrangements, on an imagined plane or in space, of the
mental representations of the successive numbers from x onwards.
The proportion of persons in whom number-forms exist has been
variously estimated; but there is reason to believe that the forms
arise at a very early stage of childhood, and that they did at some
time exist in many individuals who have afterwards forgotten
them. Those persons who possess them are also apt to make
spatial arrangements of days of the week or the month, months of
the year, the letters of the alphabet, &c; and it is practically
certain that only children would make such arrangements of
letters of the alphabet. The forms seem to result from a general
tendency to visualization as an aid to memory; the letter-forms
may in the first instance be quite as frequent as the number-
forms, but they vanish in early childhood, being of no practical
value, while the number-forms continue as an aid to arithmetical
work.
The forms are varied, and have few points in common; but the
following tendencies are indicated.
(i) In the majority of cases the numbers lie on a continuous
(but possibly zigzag) line.
(ii) There is nearly always (at any rate in English cases) a break
in direction at 1 2. From 1 to 1 2 the numbers sometimes lie in the
circumference of a circle, an arrangement obviously suggested
by a clock-face; in these cases the series usually mounts upwards
from 12. In a large number of cases, however r the direction is
steadily upwards from x to 1 2, then changing. In some cases the
initial direction is from right to left or from left to right; but
there are very few in which it is downwards.
(iii) The multiples of 10 are usually strongly marked; but
special stress is also laid on other important numbers, e.g. the
multiples of 12.
(iv) The series sometimes goes up to very high numbers, but
sometimes stops at 100, or even earlier. It is not stated, in most
cases, whether all the numbers within the limits of the series
have definite positions, or whether there are only certain numbers
which form an essential part of the figure, while others only
528
ARITHMETIC
exist potentially. Probably the latter is almost universally
the case.
These forms are developed spontaneously, without suggestion
from outside. The possibility of replacing them by a standard
form, which could be utilized for performing arithmetical opera-
tions, is worthy of consideration; some of the difficulties in the
way of standardisation have already been indicated (5 14). The
general tendency to prefer an upward direction is important; and
our current phraseology suggests that this is the direction which
increaseis naturally regarded as taking. Thus we speak of counting
up to a certain number; and similarly mathematicians speak of
high and ascending powers, while engineers speak of high pressure,
high speed, high power, &c This tendency is probably aided by
the use of bricks or cubes in elementary number-teaching.
24. Primitive Ideas of Number. — The names of numbers give
an idea of the way in which the idea of number has developed.
Where civilization is at all advanced, there are usually certain
names, the origin of which cannot be traced; but, as we go
farther back, these become fewer, and the names are found to
be composed on certain systems. The systems are varied, and
it is impossible to lay down any absolute laws, but the following
seem to be the main conclusions.
(i) Amongst some of the lowest tribes, as (with a few excep-
tions) amongst animals, the only differentiation is between one
and many, or between one, two and many, or between one, two,
three and many. As it becomes necessary to use higher but still
small numbers, they are formed by combinations of one and two,
or perhaps of three with one or two. Thus many of the Austral-
asian and South American tribes use only one and two; seven,
for instance, would be two two two one.
(ii) Beyond ten, and in many cases beyond five, the names have
reference to the use of the fingers, and sometimes of the toes, for
counting; and the scale may be quinary, denary or vigesimal,
according as one hand, the pair of hands, or the hands and feet,
are taken as the new unit Five may be signified by the word for
hand; and either ten or twenty by the word for man. Or the
words signifying these numbers may have reference to the com-
pletion of some act of counting. Between five and ten, or beyond
ten, the names may be due to combinations, e.g. 16 may be
io-i-5-f 1; or they may be the actual names of the fingers last
counted.
(iii) There are a few, but only a few, cases in which the number
6 or 8 is named as twice 3 or twice 4; and there are also a few
cases in which 7, 8 and 9 are named as 6-f-i» 6+* and 6+3.
In the large majority of cases the numbers 6, 7, 8 and 9 are 5 + 1 ,
5+3, 5+3 and 5+4, being named either directly from their
composition in this way or as the fingers on the second hand.
(i v) There is a certain tendency to name 4, 9, 14 and x 9 as being
one short of 5, xo, 1 5 and 20 respectively; the principle being thus
the same as that of the Roman IV, DC, &c. It is possible that
at an early stage the number of the fingers on one hand or on
the two hands together was only thought of vaguely as a large
number in comparison, with 2 or 3, and that die number did
not attain definiteness until it was linked up with the smaller
by insertion of the intermediate ones; and the linking up might
take place in both directions.
(v) In a few cases the names of certain small numbers are
the names of objects which present these numbers in some
conspicuous way. Thus the word used by the Abipones to denote
5 was the name of a certain hide of five colours. It has been
suggested that names of this kind may have been the origin of
the numeral words of different races; but it is improbable that
direct visual perception would lead to a name for a number
unless a name based on * process of counting had previously
been given to it
25. Growth of the Number-Concept.— The general principle that
the development of the individual follows the development of the
race holds good to a certain extent in the case of the number-
concept, but it is modified by the existence of language dealing
with concepts which are beyond the reach of the child, and also,
of course, by the direct attempts at instruction. One result is
the formation of a number-series as a mere succession of names
without any corresponding ideas of number; the series not being
necessarily correct.
When numbering begins, the names of the successive numbers
are attached to the individual objects; thus the numbers are
originally ordinal, not cardinal.
The conception of number as cardinal, i.e. as something belong-
ing to a group of objects as a whole, is a comparatively late one,
and does not arise until the idea of a whole consisting of its parts
has been formed. This is the quantitative aspect of number.
The development from the name-series to the quantitative
conception is aided by the numbering of material objects and
the performance of elementary processes of comparison, addition,
&c, with them. It may also be aided, to a certain extent, by the
tendency to find rhythms in sequences of sounds. This tendency
is common in adults as well as in children; the strokes of a dock
may, for instance, be grouped into fours, and thus eleven is
represented as two fours and three. Finger-counting is of course
natural to children, and leads to grouping into fives, and ulti-
mately to an understanding of the denary system of notation.
26. Representation of Geometrical Magnitude by Number. —
The application of arithmetical methods to geometrical measure-
ment presents some difficulty. In reality there is a transition
from a cardinal to an ordinal system, but to an ordinal system
which does not agree with the original ordinal system from which
the cardinal system was derived. To see this, we may represent
ordinal numbers by the ordinary numerals 1, 2, 3, . . . and
cardinal numbers by the Roman I, II, HI, . ; . Then in the
earliest stage each object counted is indivisible; either we are
counting it as a whole, or we are not
m .... counting it at all. The symbols 1, a,
P 3, . . . then refer to the individual
' '• objects, as in fig. 1; this is the primary
ordinal stage. Figs. 2 and 3 represent the cardinal stage; fig. a
3
11 • m
J I
Fie. 3.
in
Fie. 2.
showing how the I, II, III, . . . denote the successively larger
groups of objects, while fig. 3 shows how the name II of the
whole is deterxrined by the name 2 of the last one counted.
When now we pass to geometrical measurement, each " one "
is a thing which is itself divisible, and it cannot be said that at
any moment we are counting it; it is only when one is completed
that we can count it. The names 1, a, 3, . . . for the individual
objects cease to have an intelligible meaning, and measurement
is effected by the cardinal numbers I, II, III, . . . , as in fig. 4.
.JU
Fie. 5.
Ftc. 4.
These cardinal numbers have now, however, come to denote
individual points in the line of measurement, i.e. the points of
separation of the individual units of length. The point III in fig. 4
does not include the point II in the same way that the number
III includes the number II in fig. a, and the points must therefore
be denoted by the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3, ... as in fig. 5,
the aero o falling into its natural place immediately before the
commencement of the first unit.
Thus, while arithmetical numbering refers to units, geometrical
numbering does not refer to units but to the intervals between
units.
HI. Axmntrnc or Integral Numbexs
(i.) Preliminary
27. Equality and Identity.— Then is a certain difference
between the use of words referring to equality and identity in
ARITHMETIC
529
Arithmetic and in algebra respectively; what is an equality In
the former becoming an identity in the latter. Thus the state-
ment that 4 times 3 is equal to 3 times 4, or, in abbreviated form,
4X3=3X4(§ 28), is a statement not of identity but of equality;
i.e. 4X3 and 3X4 mean different things, but the operations
which they denote produce the same result But in algebra a X b «*
bXals called an identity, in the sense that it is true whatever a
and b may be; while »XX=»A is called an equation, as being
true, when « and A are given, for one value only of X. Similarly
the numbers represented by A and | are not identical, but are
equal.
28. Symbols of Operation.— The failure to observe the' distinc-
tion between an identity and an equality often leads to loose
reasoning; and in order to prevent this it is important that
definite meanings should be attached to all symbols of operation,
and especially to those which represent elementary operations.
The symbols - and + mean respectively that the first quantity
mentioned is to be reduced or divided by the second; but there
is some vagueness about + and X. In the present article a+b
will mean that a is taken first, and b added to it; but aX 6 will
mean that b is taken first, and is then multiplied by a. In the
case of numbers the X may be replaced by a dot; thus 4.3
means 4 times 3. When it is necessary to write the multiplicand
before the multiplier, the symbol x will be used, so that
bxa will mean the same as aXb.
29. Axioms. — There are certain statements that are some-
times regarded as axiomatic; e.g. that if equals are added to
equals the results are equal, or that if A is greater than B then
A-f-X is greater than B+X. Such statements, however, are
capableof logical proof,and are generalizations of results obtained
empirically at an elementary stage; they therefore belong more
properly to the laws of arithmetic (§ 58).
(ii.) Sums and Differences.
30. Addition and Subtraction. — Addition is the process of
expressing (in numeration or notation) a whole, the parts of which
have already been expressed; while, if a whole has been expressed
and also a part or parts, subtraction is the process of expressing
the remainder.
Except with very small numbers, addition and subtraction,
on the grouping system, involve analysis and rearrangement.
Thus the sum of 8 and 7 cannot be expressed as ones; we caa
either form the whole, and regroup it as 10 and 5, or we can split
up the 7 into 2 and 5, and add the 3 to the 8 to form 10, thus
getting 8+ 7 -8+ (2+5) « (8+2) +5" 10+ 5 "IS- For larger
numbers the rearrangement is more extensive; thus 24+31 =*
(20+4)+(3<>+ x)- (20+30) + (4+ x) - 50+ 5* 55. the process be-
ing still more complicated when the ones together make more
than ten. Similarly we cannot subtract 8 from 15, if 15 means
1 ten + 5 ones; we must either write 15— 8* (10+5)— 8 =
(so— 8)-f 5— 2+5=" 7, or else resolve the 15 into an inexpressible
number of ones, and then subtract 8 of them, leaving 7.
Numerical quantities, to be added or subtracted, must be in
the same denomination; we cannot, for instance, add 55 shillings
and 100 pence, any more than we can add 3 yards and 2 metres.
51. Relative Position in the Series.— The above method of
dealing with addition and subtraction is synthetic, and is
appropriate to the grouping method of dealing with number.
We commence with processes, and see what they lead to; and
thus get an idea of sums and differences. If we adopted the
counting method, we should proceed in a different way, our
method being analytic
One number is less or greater than another, according as the
symbol (or ordinal) of the former comes earlier or later than that
of the latter in the number-series. Thus (writing ordinals in
light type, and cardinals in heavy type) 9 comes after 4, and
therefore 9 is greater than 4; To find how much greater, we
compare two series, in one of which we go up to 9, while in
the other we stop at 4 and then recommence our counting. The
aeries are shown below, the numbers being placed horizontally
for convenience of printing, instead of vertically (§ 14);—
123456789
123412345
This exhibits 9 as the sum of 4 and 5; It being understood that
the sum of 4 and 5 means that we add 5 to 4. That this gives
the same result as adding 4 to 5 may be seen by reckoning the
series backwards.
It is convenient to introduce the zero; thus
0123456789
012345
indicates that after getting to 4 we make a fresh start from 4
as our zero.
To subtract, we may proceed in either of two ways. The
subtraction of 4 from may mean either " What has to be added
to 4 in order to makeup a total of 0," or ".To what has 4 to be
added in order to make up a total of 9." For the former meaning
we count forwards, till we get to 4, and then make a new count,
parallel with the continuation of the old aeries, and see at what
number we arrive when we get to 9. This corresponds to the
concrete method, in which we have 9 objects, take away 4 of
them, and recount the remainder. The alternative method is to
retrace the steps of addition, i.e. to count backwards, treating
9 of one (the standard) series as corresponding with 4 of the other,
and finding which number of the former corresponds with o of
the latter. This is a more advanced method, which leads easily
to the idea of negative quantities, if the subtraction is such that
we have to go behind the o of the standard series.
32. Mixed Quantities. — The application of the above principles,
and of similar principles with regard to multiplication and
division, to numerical quantities expressed in any of the diverse
British denominations, presents no theoretical difficulty if the
successive denominations are regarded as constituting a varying
scale of notation (§17). Thus the expression 2 ft. 3 in. implies
that in counting inches we use o to eleven instead of o to 9
as our first repeating series, so that we put down x for the next
denomination when we get to twelve instead of when we get to
ten. Similarly 3 yds. 2 ft means
yds. o i a 3
ft. 01201201201a
The practical difficulty, of course, is that the addition of two
numbers produces different results according to the scale in
which we are for the moment proceeding; thus the sum of 9 and
8 is 17, 15, 13 or n according as we are dealing with shillings,
pence, pounds (avoirdupois) or ounces. The difficulty may be
minimized by using the notation explained in § 17.
(iii.) Multiples, Submultiples and Quotients.
33. Multiplication and Division are the names given to certain
numerical processes which have to be performed in order to
find the result of certain arithmetical operations. Each process
may arise out of either of two distinct operations; but the
terminology is based on the processes, not on the operations
to which they belong, and the latter are not always clearly
understood.
34. Repetition and Subdivision. — Multiplication occurs when a
certain number or numerical quantity is treated as a unit (§ 1 1),
and is taken a certain number of times. It therefore arises in one
or other of two ways, according as the unit or the number exists
first in consciousness. If pennies are arranged in groups of fivtf,
the total amounts arranged are successively once sd., twice 5A,
three times sd., . . .; which are written iXsd., 2Xsd., 3X50*.,
. . . ($28). This process is repetition, and the quantities 1 Xsd.,
sXjd., 3 Xsd., ... are the successive multiples of sd. If, e*
the other hand, we have a sum of 58., and treat a shilling as being
equivalent to twelve pence, the 5s. is equivalent to 5 X xad.;
here the multiplication arises out of a subdivision of the original
unit is. into isd.
Although multiplication may arise in either of these two ways,
the actual process in each case is performed by commencing with
the unit and taking it the necessary number of times. In the
above case of subdivision, for instance, each of the 5 shillings is
separately converted into pence, so that we do in fact find in
succession once i2d., twice I2d., . . . ; i.e. we find the multiples
of x?d. up to 5 times.
The result of the multiplication is called the product of the unit
by the number of times it is taken.
53°
$$, Diagram of Mmfh'pticatim.—Tue proem of mniupucauoc
b performed in order to obtain such results as the following: —
If l boy receives 7 apples,
then 3 boys receive at apples;
or
If ft, iseqanraleat to l*L,
then 5*. is equivalent to tod.
The essential portions of these statements, from the arith-
metical point of view, may be exhibited in the form of the
diagrams A and B:—
A B
ARITHMETIC
1 boy
7 apples
3 boys
21 apples
IS.
Md.
s*.
tod.
or more briefly, as in C or C and D or IV: —
C CD
1
7 apples
3
at apples
21 apples
I
■ad.
5
tod.
■ad.
tod.
the general arrangement of the diagram being as shown in E
or E':—
E E'
Unit
1
Unit
Number
Product
Number Product
Multiplication is therefore equivalent to completion of the
diagram by entry of the product
36. MulMpU-ToUes.—Tht diagram C or D of § 35 is part of a
complete table giving the successive multiples of the particular
unit. If we take several different units, and write down their
successive multiples in parallel columns, preceded by the number-
series, we obtain a multiple-table such as the following: —
1
I
2
9
it. 5d.
3 yds. 2 ft.
17359
2
2
4
18
is. lod.
7 yds. 1 ft.
347l»
3
3
6
*7
4*- 3d.
II yds. oft.
5«>77
4
4
t
36
5*- 8d.
14 yds. 2 ft.
69436
5
5
10
45
7s. id.
18 yds. 1 ft.
86795
•
•
•
It is to be considered that each column may extend downwards
indefinitely.
37. Successive Multiplication.— In multiplication by repetition
the unit is itself usually a multiple of some other unit, i.e. it is a
product which is taken as a new unit When this new unit has
been multiplied by a number, we can again take the product as
a unit for the purpose of another multiplication; and so on
indefinitely. Similarly where multiplication has arisen out of the
subdivision of a unit into smaller units, we can again subdivide
these smaller units. Thus we get successive multiplication; but
it represents quite different operations according as it is due to
repetition, in the sense of | 34. or to subdivision, and these
operations will be exhibited by different diagrams. Of the two
diagrams below, A exhibits the successive multiplication of £3 by
to, 1a and 4, and B the successive reduction of £3 to shillings,
pence and farthings. The principle on which the diagrams are
constructed is obvious from | 35. It should be noticed that in
multiplying £3 by 20 we find the value of 20.3, but that in
reducing £3 to
value of 3.20.
A
so*., we find the
I
£s
I
20
£*>
1
12
£7»
4
£2880
td.
4f.
IS.
I2d.
£1
20s.
£3
60s.
7aod.
*88of.
38. SubmuIlipUs.— The relation of a unit to its successive
multiples as shown in a multiple-table is expressed by saying
that it is a submultiple of the multiples, the successive sub-
multiples being one-half, one-third, one-fourth, . . . Thus, in the
diagram of J 36, is. sd. is one-half of is. iod., one-third of 4s. 3d.,
one-fourth of 5s. Sd., . . . ; these being written " | of as. xod.,"
" I of 4S. 3d.," " \ of 5s. 8d.," . .
The relation of submultiple is the converse of that of multiple;
thus if a is i of b, then b is 5 times a. The determination of a sub-
multiple is therefore equivalent to completion of the diagram E
or E of § 35 by entry of the unit, when the number of times it is
taken, and the product, are given. The operation is the converse
or repetition; it is usually called partition, as representing division
into a number of equal shares.
39. Quotients. — The converse of subdivision is the formation
of units into groups, each constituting a larger unit; the number
of the groups so formed out of a definite number of the original
units is called a quotient. The determination of a quotient is
equivalent to completion of the diagram by entry of the number
when the unit and the product are given. There is no satisfactory
name for the operation, as distinguished from partition; it is
sometimes called measuring, but this implies an equality in
the original units, which is not an essential feature of the
operation.
40. Dinsion.—YTOtn the commutative law for multiplication,
which shows that 3X4d.-4X3d.-12d., it follows that the
number of pence in one-fourth of 12A is equal to the quotient
when 1 2 pence are formed into units of 4d. ; each of these numbers
being said to be obtained by dividing 1 2 by 4. The term division
is therefore used in text-books to describe the two processes
described in §§ 38 and 30; the product mentioned in | 34 Is the
dividend, the number or the unit, whichever is given, is called the
divisor, and the unit or number which is to be found is called the
quotient. The symbol + is used to denote both kinds of division ;
thus A + n denotes the unit, n of which make up A, and A+B
denotes the number of times that B has to be taken to make up A.
In the present article this confusion is avoided by writing the
former as - of A.
Methods of division are considered later (§§ 106-108).
41. Diagrams of Division.— Sine* we write from left to right
or downwards, it may be convenient for division to interchange
the rows or the columns of the multiplication-diagram. Thus the
uncompleted diagram for partition is F or G, while for measuring
it is usually H; the vacant compartment being for the unit in
F C H K
I
Number
Product
Unit
1
I2d.
is.
Number
Product
1
Product
6od.
F or G, and for the number in H. In some cases it may be con-
venient in measuring to show both the units, as in R.
42. Successive Division may be performed as the converse of
successive multiplication. The diagrams A and B below are the
converse (with a slight alteration) of the corresponding diagrams
ARITHMETIC
5J>
fa I 37; A repres en ting the determination of ft of ft of J of
2880 farthings, and B the conversion of 2880 farthings into £.
A B
4
a88of.
12
«
720f.
a©
1
€of.
1
3f.
20S.
£1
I2d.
1*.
4f-
id.
2880L
72od.
6o».
£3
(iv.) Properties of Numbers.
(A) Properties not depending on the Scale of Notation.
43. Powers, Roots and Logarithms.— The standard series 1 , 2, 3,
... is obtained by successive additions of 1 to the number last
found. If instead of commencing with 1 and making successive
additions of 1 we commence with any number such as 5 and make
successive multiplications by 3, we get a scries 3, 9, 27, . . . as
1-* *• ,nown ^ ow tft€ *•** m *** niargin. The first mem-
m * ber of the series is 3; the second is the product of
1 3 »3' ** two numbers, each equal to 3; the third is the pro*
a 9-3' *j duct of three numbers, each equal to 3; and so on.
a 81 -?« n* Thwe * rc written 3 1 (o' 3). 3'. 3'» 3*. • • • where
T . . . u* denotes the product of p numbers, each equal to
! *. If wo write »*»N, then, if any two of the three
numbers n, p, m are known, the third is determinate.
If we know n and P, p is called the index, and «,«",... w»
are called the first power, second power, . . . pth power of n, the
series itself being called the power-series. The second power and
Jfe'rrf power are usually called the square and f«6e respectively.
If we know p and N, n is called the pf A root of N, so that n is the
serata* (or square) root of **, the third (or c*Ae) rmrf of **, the
fourth root pin*,. . . If we know n and N, then P is the log arilhm
of n to to** «.
The calculation of powers {i.e. of N when n and p are given) is
involution; the calculation of roots (s'.e. of n when £ and N are
given) is evolution; the calculation of logarithms (i.e. of p when *
and N are given) has no special name.
Involution is a direct process, consisting of successive multipli-
cations; the other two are inverse processes. The calculation of
a logarithm can be performed by successive divisions; evolution
requires special methods.
The above definitions of logarithms, &c, relate to cases in which
* and P are whole numbers, and are generalized later.
44. Law of Indices.— II we multiply n* by n«, we multiply the
product of p n's by the product of q n\ and the result is therefore
*»+•- Similarly, if we divide n* by *♦, where q is less than p,
the result is n?-«. Thus multiplication and division In the
power-series correspond to addition and subtraction in the
index-series, and vice versa.
If we divide n+ by *», the quotient is of course 1. This should
be written n*. Thus we may make the power-series commence
with 1 , if we make the index-series commence with o. The added
terms are shown above the line in the diagram in \ 43.
45. Factors, Primes and Prime Factors.— It we take the suc-
cessive multiples of 2, 3, . . . ,•
as in f 36, and place each 2 2 '.'.
multiple opposite the same 3 •■• 3
number in the original series, 4 4 • • 4 * s
we get an arrangement as | *j '[ .. 6 .'. ..
in the adjoining diagram. If 7 .. .. .. 7 ..
any number N occurs in the 8 8 . . 8 8
vertical series commencing 9 •• 9 •• • •
with a number n (other than , x " "
1) then n is said to btz factor w ' ii 12 12 '.'. 12 '.'.
of N. Thus 2, 3 and 6 are
factors of 6; and 2, 3, 4, 6
and 12 are factors of 12.
A number (other than x) which has no factor except itself Is
called a prime number, or, more briefly, a prime. Thus 2, 3, 5, 7
and it are primes, for each of these occurs twice only in the table.
A number (other than x) which is not a prime number is called a
composite number.
If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any
multiple of that number. Hence, if a number has factors, one at
least of these must be a prime. Thus 12 has 6 for a factor; but
6 is not a prime, one of its factors being 2; and therefore 2 must
also be a factor of xa. Dividing x 2 by 2, we get a submultiple 6,
which again has a prime 2 as a factor. Thus any number which
is not itself a prime is the product of several factors, each of which
is a prime, e.g. x 2 is the product of 2, 2 and 3. These are called
prime factors.
The following are the most important properties of numbers in
reference to factors: —
(i) If a number is a factor of another number, it is a factor of any
multiple of that number.
(ii) If a number is a factor of two numbers, it is a factor of their
sum or (if they are unequal) of their difference. (The words in
brackets are inserted to avoid the difficulty, at this stage, of
saying that every number is a factor of o, though it is of course
true that o. n-o, whatever n may be.)
(iii) A number can be resolved into prime factors in one way
only, no account being taken of their relative order. Thus
t2«2X»X3 ,s 3X3X2«»3X2Xa, but this is regarded as one
way only. If any prime occurs more than once, it is usual to
write the number of times of occurrence as an index; thus
X44-aXaX2X2X3X3-a 4 3*.
The number x is usually included amongst the primes; but, if
this is done, the last paragraph requires modification, since 144
could be expressed as x. 2*. 3*, or as x*. 2*. 3*, or as 1*. 2*. 3*,
where p might be anything.
If two numbers have no factor in common (except x) each is
said to be prime to the other.
The multiples of 2 (including 1.2) are called even numbers;
other numbers are odd numbers.
46. Greatest Common Divisor.— If we resolve two numbers into
their prime factors, we can find their Greatest Common Divisor or
Highest Common Factor (written G.C.D. or O.C.F. or H.C.F.),
i.e. the greatest number which is a factor of both. Thus
144*2* 3*i a nd 756*2*. 3! 7, and therefore the G.C.D. of 144
and 756 is 2* 3**36. If we require the G.C.D. of two numbers,
and cannot resolve them into their prime factors, we use a pro-
cess described in the text-books. The process depends on (ii)
of 1 45, in the extended form that, if x is a factor of a and b, it is
a factor of pa-qb, where p and q are any integers.
The G.C.D. of three or more numbers is found in the same way.
47. Least Common Multiple— Tht Least Common Multiple, or
L.C.M., of two numbers, is the least number of which they are
both factors. Thus, since X44-2? 3*, and 756* 2* 3* 7, the
L.C.M. of X44 and 756 is 2* 3'. 7. It is clear, from comparison
with the last paragraph, that the product of the G.C.D. and the
L.C.M. of two numbers is equal to the product of the numbers
themselves. This gives a rule for finding the L.C.M. of two
numbers. But we cannot apply it to finding the L.C.M. of three
or more numbers; if we cannot resolve the numbers into their
prime factors, we must find the L.C.M. of the first two, then the
L.C,M. of this and the next number, and so on.
(B) Properties depending on the Scale of Notation.
48. Tests of Divisibility.— The following are the principal rules
for testing whether particular numbers are factors of a given
number. The number is divisible—
(i) by xo if it ends in o;
(ii) by 5 if it ends in o or 5;
(iii) by 2 if the last digit is even-,
(iv) by 4 if the number made up of the last two digits is
divisible by 4;
(v) by 8 if the number made up of the last three digits is
divisible by 8;
(vi) by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9;
(vii) by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3;
53*
ARITHMETIC
(viU) by xi if the difference between the sum of the xst, 3rd,
5th, . . . digits and the sura of the and, 4th, 6th, . . . is zero or
divisible by 11.
(ix) To find whether a number is divisible by 7, xi or 13,
arrange the number in groups of three figures, beginning from the
end, treat each group as a separate number, and then find the
difference between the sum of the ist, 3rd, ... of these numbers
and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, . . . Then, if this difference is
icro or is divisible by 7, 11 or 13, the original number is also so
divisible; and conversely. For example, 315x1 gives 521—31
-490, and therefore is divisible by 7, but not by n or 13.
49. Casting out Nines is a process based on (vi) of the last
paragraph. The remainder when a number is divided by 9 is
equal to the remainder when the sum of its digits is divided by 9.
Also, if the remainders when two numbers are divided by 9 are
respectively a and b t the remainder when their product is divided
by 9 is the same as the remainder when a.b is divided by 91 This
gives a rule for testing multiplication, which is found in most
text-book*. It is doubtful, however, whether such a rule, giving
a test which is necessarily incomplete, is of much educational
value.
(v.) Relative Magnitude.
50. Fractions. — A fraction of a quantity is a submultiple, or a
multiple of a submultiple, of that quantity. Thus, since
3X1S. 5d.«4s. 3d., is. 5<L may be denoted by \ of 4s. 3d.; and
any multiple of is. $d. f denoted by »Xis. $d, may also be
denoted by j of 4s. 3d. We therefore use " - of A" to mean that
we find a quantity X such that aXX**A, and then multiply
Xbyn.
It must be noted (i) that this is a definition of " 5 of, " not a
definition of "£," and (H) that it is not necessary that n should be
less than a..
51. Subdivision of Submultiple.— By f of A we mean 5 times the
unit, 7 times which is A. If we regard this unit as being 4 times
a lesser unit, then A is 7.4 times this lesser unit, and f of A is 5.4
times the lesser unit Hence f of A is equal to ^ of A; and,
conversely, ^J of A is equal to f of A. Similarly each of
these is equal to £? of A. Hence the value of a fraction is not
altered by substituting for the numerator and denominator the
corresponding numbers in any other column of a multiple-table
(§ 36). If we write ^J in the form *jj we may say that the
value of a fraction is not altered by multiplying or dividing the
numerator and denominator by any number.
52. Fraction of a Fraction.— To find V of f of A we must
convert f of A into 4 times some unit. This is done by the pre-
ceding paragraph. For f of A -£4 of A—^J of A; U. it is
4 times a unit which is itself 5 times another unit, 7.4 times which
is A. Hence, taking the former unit ix times instead of 4 times,
74
of A.
sometimes called a compound
Voffof A
A fraction of a fraction is
fraction.
53. Comparison, Addition and Subtraction of Fractions.— The
quantities i of A and f of A are expressed in terms of different
units. To compare them, or to add or subtract them, we must
express them in terms of the same unit Thus, taking -ft of A
us the unit, we have (| 51)
iof A-Uof A; f of A -If of A.
Hence the former is greater than the latter; their sum is fj of A;
and their difference is Vr of A.
Thus the fractions must be reduced to a common denominator.
This denominator must, if the fractions are in their lowest terms
(| 54), be a multiple of each of the denominators; it is usually
most convenient that it should be their L.C.M. (§ 47).
54. Fraction in its Lowest Terms. — A fraction is said to be in its
lowest terms when its numerator and denominator have no common
factor; or to be reduced \o its lowest terms when it is replaced by
such a fraction. Thus VV of A is said to be reduced to its lowest
terms when it is replaced by ^\ of A. It is important always to
bear in mind that ft of A is not the same as ■& of A, though
it is equal to it
55. Diagram of Fractional Relation.— -To find $f of 14s. we have
to take 10 of the units, 24 of which make up 14s. Hence the
required amount will, in the multiple-table of
I 36, be opposite 10 in the column in which
the amount opposite *4 is 14a.; the quantity
at the head of this column, representing the
unit, will be found to be 7d The elements
of the multiple-table with which we are
concerned are shown in the diagram in the
margin. This diagram serves equally for
the two statements that (i) \£ of 14s. is
5s. xod., (u) U of 5s. xod. is 14s. The two statements are in fact
merely different aspects of a single relation, considered in the
next section.
56. Ratio. — If we omit the two upper compartments of the
diagram in the last section, we obtain the diagram A. This
diagram exhibits a relation between the two
amounts 5s. xod. and 14s. on the one hand,
and the numbers xo and 34 of the standard
series on the other, which is expressed by say-
ing that 5s. xod. is to 14s. in the ratio of 10
to 24, or that 14s. is to 5s. xod. in the ratio of
24 to to. If we had taken is. ad. instead of
7d. as the unit for the second column, we
should have obtained the diagram B. Thus
1
7d.
10
5«. tod.
24
14s.
10
A
5». xod.
n
14s.
5«. rod.
14s.
as. xod.
7 yds. 1 ft.
8s. 6d.
22 yds.
we must regard the ratio of a to ft as being
the same as the ratio of c tod, if the fractions
5 and 2 arc equal. For this reason the
ratio of a to b is sometimes written t, but
the more correct method is to write it a:b.
If two quantities or numbers P and Q are to each other in the
ratio of p to q, It is clear from the diagram that p times Q-
q times P, so that Q- J of P.
57. Proportion.— 11 from any two columns in the table of 1 36
we remove the numbers or quantities in any two rows, we get
a diagram such as that here shown.
The pair of compartments on either
side may, as here, contain numerical
quantities, or may contain numbers.
But the two pairs of compartments
wiO correspond to a single pair of
numbers, e.g. 2 and 6, in the standard series, so that, denoting
them by M, N and P, Q respectively, M will be to N in the same
ratio that P is to Q. This is expressed by sayinf
that M is to N as P to Q, the relation being written
M :N ::P :Q; the four quantities are then said
to be in proportion or to be proportionals.
This is the most general expression of die
relative magnitude of two quantities; i.e. the
relation expressed by proportion includes the relations cxpreurJ
by multiple, submultiple, fraction and ratio.
If M and N are respectively m and n times a unit, and P and Q
are respectively p and q times a unit, then the quantities arc is
proportion \imq—np; and conversely.
IV. Laws or Amthiietic
58. Laws of Arithmetic— -The arithmetical processes which wt
have considered in reference to positive integral numbers in
subject to the following laws:—
(i) Equalities and Inequalities— The following are sometimes
called Axioms (§ 29), but their truth should be proved, even if at
an early stage it is assumed. The symbols " > " and *' < *
mean respectively "is greater than " and "is less than." The
numbers represented by a, b t c, x and m are all supposed 10 1<
positive.
M
N
ARITHMETIC
(a) If a-*, and b-c, then a «<;
(6) If a«6, then a+*-6+x, and a-***-*;
(c) If «>*, then *+*>*+*, and a -*>&-*;
(</) If a<6, then a+*<6+*, and a-x<6-*;
(«) If a -A, then «a-»6, and a+m-b+m;
(J)li a>b, then m<2>m6, and a+m>b+m;
(g) If a<6, then ma<mb, and a-J-m<6-J-w.
(ii) Associative Lav for Additions and Subtractions.— This law
includes the rule of signs, that a— (A— c) ~a— *+«; and it states
that, subject to this, successive operations of addition or sub-
traction may be grouped in sets in any way; e.g.a-b+c+d+e-f
(Hi) Commutative Law for Additions and Subtractions, that
additions and subtractions may be performed in any order; e.g.
a-6+c+<*=a+c-M-<f«a+<f+c-*.
(iv) Associative Lam for Multiplications and Divisions.— This
law includes a rule, similar to the rule of signs, to the effect that
a+ (6+t)=fl+ixc; and it states that, subject to this, successive
operations of multiplication or division may be grouped in sets in
any way; e.g. a+bxcxdxe+f*>a+(b+c)x(dxe+f).
(v) Commutative Law for Multiplications and Divisions, that
multiplications and divisions may be performed in any order; e.g.
e+bxcxd~axc+bxd=oxdxc+b.
(vi) Distributive Law, that multiplications and divisions may
be distributed over additions and subtractions, e.g. that
m(a+b—c)*=m.o+m.b-mx, or that (a+6— c)+»»(o+») +
(6+ii)-( C +*).
In the case of (ii), (iii) and (vi), the letters a,b,c,... may
denote either numbers or numerical quantities, while m and n
denote numbers; in the case of (iv) and (v) the letters denote
numbers only.
50- Results of Inverse Operations.— Addition, multiplication
and involution are direct processes; and, if we start with
positive integers, we continue with positive integers throughout.
But, in attempting the inverse processes of subtraction, division,
and cither evolution or determination of index, the data may be
such that a process cannot be performed. We can, however,
denote the result of the process by a symbol, and deal with this
symbol according to the laws of arithmetic. In this way we
arrive at (i) negative numbers, (ii) fractional numbers, (iii) surds,
(iv) logarithms (in the ordinary sense of the word).
60. Simple Formulae.— The following are some simple
formulae which follow from the laws stated in | 58.
(i) (a+b+c+ . . . ) (*+y+r+ . . . )-(0H-«9+ar+ • • • )+
(bp+bq+br+ • • . )+(cp+cq+cr+ ...)+...; %.e. the pro-
duct of two or more numbers, each of which consists of two
or more parts, is the sum of the produe\s of each part of the one
with each part of the other.
(ii) (a+ b) (a-6)-a»-A»; i.e. the product of the sum and (he
difference of two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares.
(iii) (<>+&)«»a«+2<tf+P=c'+(2o+&)*.
V. Negative Numbers
61. Negative Numbers may be regarded as resulting from the
commutative law for addition and subtraction. According to this
law, 10+3+6-7= IO+3-7+6-3+6-7+IO-&C. But, if we
write the expression as 3—7+6+10, this means that we must
first subtract 7 from 3. This cannot be done; but the result of
the subtraction, if it could be done, is something which, when
6 is added to it, becomes 3— 7+6—3+6— 7*2. The result of
3—7 is the same as that of 0—4; and we may write it " —4/'
and call it a negative number, if by this we mean something
possessing the property that — 4+4*=o.
This, of course, is unintelligible on the grouping system of
treating number; on the counting system it merely means that
we count backwards from o, just as we might count inches back-
wards from a point marked o on a scale. It should be remembered
that the counting is performed with something as unit. If this
unit is A, then what we are really considering is — 4A; and this
means, not that A is multiplied by —4, but that A is multiplied
by 4, and the product is taken negatively. It would therefore
be better, in some ways, to retain the unit throughout, and to
describe — 4A as a negative quantity, in order to avoid confusion I
533
with the " negative numbers " with whkh operations are pet-
formed in formal algebra.
The positive quantity or number obtained from a negative
quantity or number by omitting the " — " is called its numerical
VI. Fractional and Decimal Numbers
62. Fractional Number *.— According to the definition in | 50
the quantity denoted by | of A is made up of a number, 3, and a
unit, which is one-sixth of A. Similarly £ of A,^of A, - of A,
. . . mean quantities which are respectively p times, q times
r times, ... the unit, n of which make up A. Thus any arith-
metical processes which can be applied to the numbers p, q, r,
... can be applied to £,£,£,.,., the denominator n
remaining unaltered.
If we denote the unit £ of A by X, then Abu times X, and
I of n times X is p times X; i.e. £ of n times is /times.
Hence, so long as the denominator remains unaltered, we can
deal with £, £, £, . . . exactly as if they were numbers, arty
operations being performed on the numerators. The expressions
»' n' £' * * * arc then f racii °nal numbers, their relation to
ordinary or integral numbers being that £ times n times is equal
to p times.
This relation h of exactly the same kind as the relation of the
successive digits in numbers expressed in a scale of notation whose
One*. Si th ** "' **encc we can treat the fractional
x ** numbers which have any one denominator as
° constituting a number-series, as shown in the
3 adjoining diagram. The result of taking 13 sixths
3 of A is then seen to be the same as the result of
4 taking twice A and one-sixth of A, so that we may
, £ regard V as being equal to sj. A fractional
1 number is called a proper fraction or an improper
2 fraction according as the numerator is or is not
3 less than the denominator; and an expression
4 such as 9} is called a mixed number. An im-
2 o proper fraction is therefore equal either to an
1 integer or to a mixed number. It will be seen
from J 17 that a mixed number corresponds
with what is there called a mixed quantity.
This £s, 17s. is a mixed quantity, being ex-
pressed in pounds and shillings; to express it in terms of pounds
only we must write it £.?! J-
63. Fractional Numbers with different Denominators.— It we
divided the unit into halves, and these new units into thirds, we
should get sixths of the original unit, as
A shown in A; while, if we divided the
Ones. Halves. Sixths, unit into thirds, and these new units
000 into halves, we should again get sixths,
1 but as shown in B. The series of halves
j J in the one case, and of thirds in the
1 other, are entirely different series of
2 fractional numbers, but we can com-
100 pare them by putting each in its proper
position in relation to the series of sixths.
Thus f is equal to } , and | is equal to V ,
and conversely; in other words, any
fractional number is equivalent to the
B fractional number obtained by multi-
Ones. Thirds. Sixths, plying or dividing the numerator and
000 denominator by any integer. We can
> thus find fractional numbers equivalent
1 ° to the sum or difference of any two
2 fractional numbers. The process is the
1 same as that of finding, the sum or differ-
100 cnce of 3 sixpences and 5 fourpences;
we cannot subtract 3 sixpenny-bits
* from 5 fourpenny-bits, but we can ex-
press each as an equivalent number oi
534
ARITHMETIC
pence, and then perform the subtraction. Generally, to find the
turn or difference of two or more fractional numbers, we must
replace them by other fractional numbers having the same
denominator; it is usually most convenient to take as this
denominator the L.C.M. of the original fractional numbers (cf.
I S3).
64. Complex Fractions.— A fraction (or fractional number),
the numerator or denominator of which is a fractional number,
is called a complex fraction (or fractional number), to distinguish
it from a simple fraction, which is a fraction having integers for
numerator and denominator. Thus ^ of A means that we take
a unit X such that xx| times X is equal to A, and then take 5I
times X. To simplify this, we take a new unit Y, which is i of X.
Then A is 34 times Y, and f^of Aisi7 times Y,tU. it is) of A.
65. Multiplication of Fractional Numbers.— -To multiply f by 4
is to take $ times f . It has already been explained (§ 6a) that f
times is an operation such that | times 7 times is equal to 5 times.
Hence we must express f , which itself means f times, as being
7 times something. This is done by multiplying both numerator
and denominator by 7; i.c. f is equal to Z~, which is the same
thing as 7 times y%. Hence 4 times f-f times 7 times ^T" 5
times ^J" 74* The rule for multiplying a fractional number
by a fractional number is therefore the same as the rule for finding
a fraction of a fraction.
66. Division of Fractional Numbers. — To divide f by | is to
find a number (i.c. a fractional number) x such that | times x is
equal to f . But f times $ times x is, by the last section, equal to
x. Hence x is equal to J times {. Thus to divide by a fractional
number we must multiply by the number obtained by inter-
changing the numerator and the denominator, %jc. by the recipro-
cal of the original number.
If we divide 1 by 4 we obtain, by this rule, \. Thus the
reciprocal of a number may be defined as the number obtained
by dividing 1 by it. This definition applies whether the original
number is integral or fractional
By means of the present and the preceding sections the rule
given in \ 63 can be extended to the statement that a fractional
number is equal to the number obtained by multiplying its
numerator and its denominator by any fractional number.
67. Negative Fractional Numbers.— We can obtain negative
fractional numbers in the same way that we obtain negative
integral numbers ; thus — \ or — {A means that 4 or f A is taken
negatively.
6S. Genesis of Fractional Numbers.— K fractional number may
be regarded as the result of a measuring division (J 39) which
cannot be performed exactly. Thus we cannot divide 3 in. by
xx in. exactly, i.e. we cannot express 3 in. as an integral multiple
of xx in. ; but, by extending the meaning of " times " as in § 62,
we can say that 3 in. is tV times xx in., and therefore call ^r the
quotient when 3 in. is divided by xx in. Hence, if p and n are
numbers, £ is sometimes regarded as denoting the result of
dividing p by n, whether p and n are integral or fractional
(mixed numbers being included in fractional).
The idea and properties of a fractional number having been
explained, we may now call it, for brevity, a fraction. Thus
M f of A " no longer means two of the units, three of which make
up A; it means that A is multiplied by the fraction |, t.e. it
means the same thing as " f times A."
60. Percentage. — In order to deal, by way of comparison or
addition or subtraction, with fractions which have different
denominators, it is necessary to reduce then to a common
denominator. To avoid this difficulty, in practical life, it is usual
to confine our operations to fractions which have a certain
standard denominator. Thus (| 79) the Romans reckoned in
twelfths, and the Babylonians in sixtieths; the former method
supplied a basis for division by 2, 3, 4, 6 or 12, and the latter for
division by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, xo, 12, 15, 20, 30, or 60. The modern
method is to deal with fractions which have 100 as denominator;
such fractions are called percentages. They only apply accurately
Xo divisions by 2, 4, 5, xo, 20, 25 or 50; but they have the con-
venience of fitting in with the denary scale of notation, and they
can be extended to other divisions by using a mixed number
as numerator. One-fortieth, for instance, can be expressed as
jjjj, which is called 2} per cent., and usually written a| %.
Similarly 3I % is equal to one-thirtieth.
If the numerator is a multiple of 5, the fraction represents
twentieths. This is convenient, e.g. for expressing rales its the
pound; thus is % denotes the process of taking 3a. for every £1,
i.e. a rate of js. in the £.
In applications to money " per cent" sometimes means " per
£100." Thus " £3, 17s. od. per cent" is really the complex
fraction * ao .
100
70. Decimal Natation of Percentage.— An integral percentage,
ix. a simple fraction with xoo for denominator, can be expressed
by writing the two figures of the numerator (or, if there is only one
figure, this figure preceded by o) with a dot or " point " before
them; thus -76 means 76 %, or fg\. If there is an integral
number to be taken as well as a percentage, this number is
written in front of the point; thus 23-76 X A means 23 times A,
with 76 % of A. We might therefore denote 76 % by 0-76.
If as our unit we take X* riv of A - x % of A, the above
quantity might equally be written 2376 X - *rW of A; ix,
tyj6XA is equal to 2376 % of A.
71. Approximate Expression by Percentage.— What a fraction
cannot be expressed by an integral percentage, it can be so
expressed approximately, by taking the nearest integer to the
numerator of an equal fraction having xoo for its denominator.
Thus 7 B itt' *° I)* 1 7 " approximately equal to 14%; and
2 404
7" ioo» wWcn ** approximately equal to 29 %. The difference
between this approximate percentage and the true value is less
than \ %, i. e. is less than ?\i.
If the numerator of the fraction consists of an integer and
\—e.g. in the case of | =- fj^ — it is uncertain whether we should
take the next lowest or the next highest integer. It is best in
such cases to retain the }; thus we can write | -37! %- -37}.
72. Addition and Subtraction of Percentages.— -The sum or
difference of two percentages is expressed by the sum or difference
of the numbers expressing the two percentages.
73. Percentdge of a Percentage.— Sinn 37 % of 1 is expressed by
o*37t 37 % of 1 % (U. dl o-oi) might similarly be expressed by
0-00-37. The second point, however, is omitted, so that we write
it 0-0037 or 0037, this expression meaning -Afr of rlv-rAVf-
On the same principle, since 3 7 %of 45 % is equal to iVff of <fft
-iVWV- rVV+(m of yb), we can express it by «x66s; and
3 % of 2 % can be expressed by -0006. Hence, to find a percent-
age of a percentage, we multiply the two numbers, put o's in front
if necessary to make up four figures (not counting fractions),
and prefix the point
74. Decimal Fractions.— -The percentage-notation can be
extended to any fraction which has any power of xo for its
denominator. Thus tWj can be written -153 and iWftS can
be written • 15300. These two fractions are equal to each other,
and also to -1530. A fraction written in this way is called a
decimal fraction; or we might define a decimal fraction n$ a
fraction having a power of xo for its denominator, there being a
special notation for writing such fractions.
A mixed number, the fractional part of which is a decimal
fraction, is expressed by writing the integral part in front of
the point, which is called the decimal point. Thus 271VWV can
be written 27*1530. This number, expressed in terms of the
fraction jthns or -ooox , would be 2 7 x 53a Hence the successive
figures after the decimal point have the same rektion to each
other and to the figures before the point as if the point did not
exist. The point merely indicates the denomination in which
the number is expressed: the above number, expressed m terms
ARITHMETIC
535
of tV» would be 271*530, but expressed in terms of 100 it would be
271530-
Fractions other than decimal fractions are usually called
vulgar fractions.
75. Decimal Numbers. — Instead of regarding the '153 in
27-153 as meaning iWb>* c mav regard the different figures in
the expression as denoting numbers in the successive orders
of submultiples of 1 on a denary scale. Thus, on the grouping
system, 27*153 will mean 2.10+7+ i/io+s/ioM^/io*, while on
the counting system it will mean the result of counting
through the tens to 2, then through the ones to 7, then through
tenths to i, and so on. A number made up in this way may be
called a decimal number, or, more briefly, a decimal. It will be
seen that the definition includes integral numbers.
76. Sums and Differences of Decimals.— -To add or subtract
decimals, we must reduce them to the same denomination, i.e.
if one has more figures after the decimal point than the other,
we must add sufficient o's to the latter to make the numbers
of figures equal. Thus, to add 5-413 to 38, we must write the
latter as 3*800. Or we may treat the former as the sum of
5-4 and 'OI3, and recombine the -013 with the sum of 3-8 and
54-
77. Product of Decimals.— To multiply two decimals exactly,
we multiply them as if the point were absent, and then insert it
so that the number of figures after the point in the product shall
be equal to the sum of the numbers of figures after the points in
the original decimals.
In actual practice, however, decimals only represent approxi-
mations, and the process has to be modified (§ in).
78. Division by Decimal. — To divide one decimal by another,
we must reduce them to the same denomination, as explained
in 5 76, and then omit the decimal points. Thus 5*4i3 + 3'8«
!M+H8H54i3+3&>o. trs . Jn . f ^
70. Historical Development of Fractions and Decimals.— The
fractions used in ancient times were mainly of two kinds: unit-
fractions, i.e. fractions representing aliquot parts (5 103), and
fractions with a definite denominator.
The Egyptians as a rule used only unit-fractions, other
fractions being expressed as the sum of unit-fractions. The only
known exception was the use of | as a single fraction. Except in
the case of $ and |, the fraction was expressed by the denomin-
ator, with a special symbol above it.
The Babylonians expressed numbers less than 1 by the numer-
ator of a fraction with denominator 60; the numerator only being
written. The choice of 60 appears to have been connected with
the reckoning of the year as 360 days; it is* perpetuated in the
present subdivision of angles.
The Greeks originally used unit-fractions, like the Egyptians;
later they introduced the sexagesimal fractions of the Baby-
lonians, extending the system to four or more successive
subdivisions of the unit representing a degree. They also, but
apparently still later and only occasionally, used fractions of the
modern kind. In the sexagesimal system the numerators of the
successive fractions (the denominators of which were the suc-
cessive powers of 60) were followed by ',*,", ", the denominator
not being written. This notation survives in reference to the
minute (0 and second (") of angular measurement, and has been
extended, by analogy, to the foot O and inch (")• Since £ repre-
sented 60, and o was the next letter, the latter appears to have
been used to denote absence of one of the fractions; but it is not
clear that our present sign for zero was actually derived from
this. In the case of fractions of the more general kind, the
numerator was written first with ', and then the denominator,
followed by ", was written twice. A different method was used
by Diophantus, accents being omitted, and the denominator
being written above and to the right of the numerator.
The Romans commonly used fractions with denominator 12;
these were described as unciae (ounces), being twelfths of the
as (pound).
The modern system of placing the numerator above the
denominator is due to the Hindus; but the dividing line is a
later invention. Various systems were tried before the present
notation came to be generally accepted. Under one system, for
instance, the continued sum |+r^-j+ g x ? xs would be denoted
by | 7 1 » this is somewhat similar in principle to a decimal
notation, but with digits taken in the reverse order.
Hindu treatises on arithmetic show the use of fractions,
containing a power of xo as denominator, as early as the begin-
ning of the 6th century a.d. There was, however, no develop-
ment in the direction of decimals in the modern sense, and the
Arabs, by whom the Hindu notation of integers was brought to
Europe, mainly used the sexagesimal division in the ' * "
notation. Even where the decimal notation would seem to arise
naturally, as in the case of approximate extraction of a square
root, the portion which might have been expressed as a decimal
was converted into sexagesimal fractions. It was not until
a.d. 1585 that a decimal notation was published by Simon
Stevinus of Bruges. It is worthy of notice that the invention of
this notation appears to have been due to practical needs, being
required for the purpose of computation of compound interest.
The present decimal notation, which is a development of that of
Stevinus, was first used in 16 17 by H. Briggs, the computer of
logarithms.
80. Fractions of Concrete Quantities. — The British systems
of coinage, weights, lengths, &c, afford many examples of the
use of fractions. These may be divided into three classes, as
follows: —
(i) The fraction of a concrete quantity may itself not exist as
a concrete quantity, but be represented by a token. Thus, if we
take a shilling as a unit, we may divide it into 12 or 48 smaller
units; but corresponding coins are not really portions of a
shilling, but objects which help us in counting. Similarly we
may take the farthing as a unit, and invent smaller units,
represented either by tokens or by no material objects at alL
Ten marks, for instance, might be taken as equivalent to a
farthing; but 13 marks are not equivalent to anything except
one farthing and three out of the ten acts of counting required
to arrive at another farthing.
(ii) In the second class of cases the fraction of the unit quantity
is a quantity of the same kind, but cannot be determined with
absolute exactness. Weights come in this class. The ounce,
for instance, is one-sixteenth of the pound, but it is impossible to
find 16 objects such that their weights shall be exactly equal and
that the sum of their weights shall be exactly equal to the weight
of the standard pound.
(iii) Finally, there are the cases of linear measurement, where
it is theoretically possible to find, by geometrical methods, an
exact submultiple of a given unit, but both the unit and the
submultiple are not really concrete objects, but are spatial
relations embodied in objects.
Of these three classes, the first is the least abstract and the
last the most abstract. The first only involves number and
counting. The second involves the idea of equality as a necessary
characteristic of the units or subunits that are used. The third
involves also the idea of continuity and therefore of unlimited
subdivision. In weighing an object with. ounce- weights the fact
that it weighs more than 1 lb 3 oz. but less than 1 lb 4 oz. does
not of itself suggest the necessity or possibility of subdivision
of the ounce for purposes of greater accuracy. But in measuring
a distance we may find that it is " between " two distances
differing by a unit of the lowest denomination used, and a
subdivision of this unit follows naturally.
VII. APPROXIMATION
81. Approximate Character of Numbers.— The numbers
(integral or decimal) by which we represent the results of arith-
metical operations are often 'only approximately correct. All
numbers, for instance, which represent physical mcasurements,are
limited'in their accuracy not only by our powers of measurement
but also by the accuracy Of the measure we use as our unit. Also
most fractions cannot be expressed exactly as decimals; and this
is also the case for surds and logarithms, as well as for the numbers
expressing certain ratios which arise out of geometrical relations.
53^
ARITHMETIC
Even where numbers are supposed to be exact, calculations
based on them can often only be approximate. We might, for
instance, calculate the exact cost of 3 lb 5 ox. of meat at 9}d.
a lb, but there are no coins in which we could pay this exact
amount.
When the result of any arithmetical operation or operations
is represented approximately but not exactly by a number,
the excess (positive or negative) of this number over the
number which would express the result exactly is called the
error.
82. Degree of Accuracy.— Then are three principal ways of
expressing the degree of accuracy of any number, i.e. the extent
to which it is equal to the number it is intended to represent.
(i) A number can be correct to so many places of decimals.
This means (cf. S 71) that the number differs from the true value
by less than one-half of the unit represented by 1 in the last place
of decimals. For instance, • 143 represents \ correct to 3 places of
decimals, since it differs from it by less than '0005. The final
figure, in a case like this, is said to be corrected.
This method is not good for comparative purposes. Thus • 1 43
and 14-286 represent respectively \ and -Mp to the same number
of places of decimals, but the latter is obviously more exact than
the former.
(ii) A number can be correct to so many significant figures.
The significant figures of a number are those which commence
with the first figure other than zero in the number; thus the
significant figures of 13*037 and of '000x3037 are the same.
This is the usual method; but the relative accuracy of two
numbers expressed to the same number of significant figures
depends to a certain extent on the magnitude of the first figure.
Thus • 14286 and -85714 represent \ and f correct to 5 significant
figures; but the latter is relatively more accurate than the former.
For the former shows only that \ lies between '142855 and
•143865, or, as it is better expressed, between • 14285) and
•14386}; but the latter shows that f He* between '85713}
and '85714}, and therefore that \ lies between • 14285 t<j and
•i4a85rV
In either of the above cases, and generally in any case where a
number is known to be within a certain limit on each side of
the stated value, the Ufnit of error is expressed by the sign *.
Thus the former of the above two statements would give |—
•14286* 000005. It should be observed that the numerical
value of the error is to be subtracted from or added to the
stated value according as the error is positive or negative.
(in) The limit of error can be expressed as a fraction of
the number as stated. Thus !-■• 143* -0005 can be written
*- '143(1*7*!).
83. Accuracy after Arithmetical Operations.— If the numbers
which are the subject of operations are not all exact, the accuracy
of the result requires special investigation in each case.
Additions and subtractions are simple. If, for instance, the
values of a and b, correct to two places of decimals, arc 3*58 and
i'34, then 2*24, as tjie value of a— 6, is not necessarily correct
to two places. The limit of error of each being * 005, the limit
of error of their sum or difference is *-oi.
For multiplication we make use of the formula (§ 60 (0) («'•*•«)
(&' * $) m a 'b'+afl+ (a'/J+yo). If a' and \f are the stated values,
and * a and •* the respective limits of error, we ought strictly
to take afb ta0 as the product, with a limit of error* (a'/J+^a).
In practice, however, both a£ and a certain portion of a'b' are
small in comparison with o'0 and fa, and we therefore re-
place a'tf+afi by an approximate value, and increase the limit of
error so as to cover the further error thus introduced. In the case
of the two numbers given in the last paragraph, the product lies
between 3-575Xx-335"4*77a625^nd 3585 Xi '345* =4*83 18*5.
We might take the product as (3-58X 1-34)+ (-cos)' -4- 707.2 2 5,
the limits of error being «*» -005(3 -58+1 *34) m * -0246; but it is
more convenient to write it in such a form as 4*797 * -025 or
480* 03.
If the number of decimal places to which a result is to be
accurate is determined beforehand, it is usually not necessary
In the actual working to go to more than two or three places
beyond this. At the dose of the work the extra figures are
dropped, the last figure which remains being corrected (f 82 (i))
if necessary.
VIII. Svwds AMD LooABirms
84. Roots and Surds. — The Jth root of a number (§43) may,
if the number is an integer, be found by expressing it in terms of
its prime factors; or, if it is not an integer, by expressing it as
a fraction in its lowest terms, and finding the pth roots of the
numerator and of the denominator separately. Thus to find the
cube root of 1738, we write it in the form 3*.3\ and find that
its cube root is 2*.3«i2; or, to find the cube root of 1-728, we
write it as Hit* HI"" H^ *nc* fad that the cube root b
^ - z*2. Similarly the cube root of 2x97 is 13. Bui we cannot
find any number whose cube is 2000.
It is, however, possible to find a number whose cube shall
approximate as closely as we please to 2000. Thus the cubes of
X2*5 and of X2*6 are respectively 1953-125 and 2000-376, so that
the number whose cube differs as little as possible from 2000 b
somewhere between 12- 5 and 12-6. Again the cube of 12*59 is
1095-616979, so that the number lies between 12-59 and 12-Oa
We may therefore consider that there b some number x whose
cube b 3000, and we can find thb number to any degree of
accuracy that we please.
A number of thb kind b called a surd; the surd which b the
p\h root of N b written *VN, but if the index b 2 it b usually
omitted, so that the square root of N b written VN.
85. Surd os a Power.— We have seen (f f 43,44) that, if we take
the successive powers of a number N, commencing with x, they
may be written N», N 1 , N*, N\ . . . , the series of indices being
the standard series; and we have also seen (f 44) that multi-
plication of any two of these numbers corresponds to addition of
their indices. Hence we may insert in the power-series numbers
with fractional indices, provided that the multiplication of these
numbers follows the same law. The number denoted by N* will
therefore be such that N»XN»XN»-N»*»*i-N; i.e. it wfll
be the cube root of N. By analogy with the notation of fractional
numbers, N» will be N'+t-N-XN*; and, generally, Nf wul
mean the product of p numbers, the product of q of which b equal
to N. Thus N' will not mean the same as N* f but will mean the
square of N*; but this will be equal to N*, i.e. (VN)«- <JN.
86. Multiplication and Division of Surds. — To add or subtract
fractional numbers, we must reduce them to a common denomin-
ator ; and similarly, to multiply or divide surds, we must express
them as power-numbers with the same index. Thus JaXVS 1 *
3»X5 , -2»Xs l -4'Xx25»-50o»»V5«>.
87. Antilogarithms.— \l we take a fixed number, e.g. 3, as base,
and take as indices the successive decimal numbers to any particu-
lar number of places of decimals, we get a scries of antilogarithms
of the indices to thb base. Thus, if we go to two places of
decimals, we have as the integral series the numbers i, 2, 4, 8,
. . , which are the values of 2*, 2 1 , 2 s , . . . and we insert within
thb series the successive powers of x, where x b such that x* M « 2.
We thus get the numbers 2 n , s- w , 2- n , . . . , which are the anti-
logarithms of -oi, 02, -03, ... to base 2; the first antilogarithm
being a-*- 1, which b thus the antilogarithm of o to thb (or any
other) base. The series b formed by successive multiplication,
and any antilogarithm to a larger number of decimal places is
formed from it in the same way by multiplication. If, for
instance, we have found 2-*, then the value of 2 m b
found from it by multiplying by the 6U) power of the 1000th
root of 2.
For practical purposes the number taken as base b 10; the
convenience of thb being that the increase of the Index by an
integer means multiplication by the corresponding power 0/ jo,
i.e. it means a shifting of the decimal point. In the same way,
by dividing by powers of 10 we may get negative indices.
88. Logarithms.— II N b the antilogarithm of p to the base a,
i.e. if N*o*\ then p b called the logarithm of N to the base 0,
and b written log. n. As the table of antilogarithms is formed
by successive multiplications, so the logarithm of any given
ARITHMETIC
537
Bomber 2s in theory found by successive divisions. Thus, to find
the logarithm of a number to base a, the number being greater
than i, we first divide repeatedly by a until we get a number
between 1 and a; then divide repeatedly by l0 Va until we get
a number between 1 and l0 Va; then divide repeatedly by l0p Va;
and so on. If, for instance, we find that the number is approxi-
mately equal to 2* X ( 10 V2) S X ( l0fl Va) 7 X ( lw Va)\ it may be
written 2*- MI , and its logarithm to base 2 is 3-574.
For a further explanation of logarithms, and for an explanation
of the treatment of cases in which an antilogarithm is less than
x, see Logarithm.
For practical purposes logarithms are usually calculated to
base 10, so that log* 10= 1, logu ioo« 2, &c.
IX. Units
89. Change of Denomination of a numerical quantity is usually
called reduction, so that this term covers, e.g., the expression of
£»53» 7 s - 4d. as shillings and pence and also the expression of
3067s. 4d. as £, s. and d.
The usual statement is that to express £153, 7s. as shillings we
multiply- 153 by 20 and add 7. This, as already explained (§37),
Is incorrect. £153 denotes 153 units, each of which is £1 or 20s.;
and therefore we must multiply 20s. by 153 and add 7s., i.e.
multiply so by 153 (the unit being now is.) and add 7. This is
the expression of the process on the grouping method. On the
counting method we have
A a scale with every 20th
shilling marked as a £;
there are 153 of these ao's,
and 7 over.
The simplest case, in
which the quantity can be
expressed as an integral
number of the largest units
involved, has already been
considered (|§ 37, 42). The
same method can be
applied in other cases
by regarding a quantity
expressed in several de-
is.
I2d.
£1
208.
£*53. 7». 4d.
3067s. 4d.
368o8d.
I2d.
368o8d.
3067s. 4d.
£153, 7s. 4d.
nominations as a fractional
number of units of the
largest denomination men-
tioned; thus 7s. 4d. is to be taken as meaning 7tV-» but
£o, 7s. 4<L as £0^* (§17). The reduction of £1 53, 7s. 4<L to pence,
and of 368o8d. to £, s. d., on this principle, is shown in diagrams
A and B above.
. For reduction of pounds to shillings, or shillings to pounds, we
must consider that we have a multiple-table (( 36) in which the
multiples of £1 and of 20s. are arranged in parallel columns;
and similarly for shillings and pence.
00. Change of Unit.— The statement M £153- 3060s." is not
a statement of equality of the same kind as the statement
" 153X20*3060," but only a statement of equivalence for
certain purposes; in other words, it does not convey an
absolute truth. It is therefore of interest to see whether we
cannot replace it by an absolute truth.
To do this, consider what the ordinary processes of multipli-
cation and division mean in reference to concrete objects. If
we want to give, to 5 boys, 4 apples each, we arc said to multiply
4 apples by 5. We cannot multiply 4 apples by 5 boys, for then
we should get 20 " boy-apples," an expression which has no
meaning. Or, again, to distribute 20 apples amongst 5 boys,
we are not regarded as dividing 20 apples by 5 boys, but as divid-
ing 20 apples by the number 5. The multiplication or division
here involves the omission of the unit " boy," and the operation
is incomplete. The complete operation, in each case, is as
follows.
(i) In the case of multiplication wc commence with the
conception of the number " 5 " and the unit " boy "; and we
then convert this unit into 4 apples, and thus obtain the result,
20 apples. The conversion of the unit may be represented as
multiplication by a factor VEoy^ *° tiiat toe operation is
if^rXs boys« SX^flSpX * hoy - 5X4 apples- 20 apples.
Similarly, to convert £153 into shillings we must multiply it by a
factor ^ so that wc get
7rX£iS3-is3X^rX£i-iS3X20s.«3o6os.
Hence we can only regard £153 as being equal to 3060s. if we
regard this converting factor as unity.
(ii) In the case of partition we can express the complete opera-
tion if we extend the meaning of division so as to enable us to
divide ao apples by s boys. Wc thus get ^ %%*" - + f|P' y e %
which means that the distribution can be effected by distributing
at the rate of 4 apples per boy. The converting factor mentioned
under (i) therefore represents a rale; and partition, applied to
concrete cases, leads to a rate.
In reference to the use of the sign X with the converting factor,
it should be observed that " J-jg X M symbolizes the replacing of
so many times 4 lb by the same number of times 7 lb, while,
" ix" symbolizes the replacing of 4 times something by 7 times
that something.
X. Arithmetical Reasoning
91. Correspondence of Series of Numbers. — In |§ 33-42 we have
dealt with the parallelism of the original number-series with a
series consisting of the corresponding multiples of some unit,
whether a number or a numerical quantity; and the relations
arising out of multiplication, division, &c, have been exhibited by
diagram* comprising pairsof corresponding terms of the two series.
This, however, is only a particular case of the correspondence
of two series. In considering addition,- for instance, we have
introduced two parallel series, each being the original number-
scries, but the two being placed in different positions. If we add
1,2,3, ... to 6, wc obtain a series 7,8,9, . . . , the terms of
which correspond with those of the original series 1,2,3, . . .
Again, in (§61-75 an <* 8 4-88 we have considered various kinds
of numbers other than those in the original number-scries.
In general, these have involved two of the original numbers, e.g.
5 s involves 5 and 3, and log* 8 involves 2 and 8. In some cases,
however, e.g. in the case of negative numbers and reciprocals,
only one is involved; and there might be three or more, as in the
case of a number expressed by (0+ 6) B . If all but one of these con-
stituent elements are settled beforehand, e.g. if we take the num-
bers 5,5 s , 5*, . .., or the numbers 'V 1,^2,^3, ...or log w i- 00 1,
log M 1-002, log w 1-003 ... we obtain a series In which each
term corresponds with a term of the original number-scries.
This correspondence is usually shown by tabulation, i.e. by the
formation of a table in which the original series is shown in one
column, and each term of
the second series is placed
in a second column op-
posite the corresponding
term of the first series,
each column being headed
by a description of its
contents. It it sometimes
convenient to begin the
first scries with o, and even
to give the series of nega-
tive numbers; in most
cases, however, these latter
are regarded as belonging to a different series, and they need not
be considered here. The diagrams, A, B, C are simple forms of
tables; A giving a sum-series, B a multiple-series, and C a
series of square roots, calculated approximately.
92. Correspondence of Numerical Quantities. — Again, in 8 89, we
have considered cases of multiple-tables of numerical quantities,
where each quantity in one series is equivalent to the corresponding
quantity in the other series. We might extend this principle
to cases in which the terms of two series, whether of number
A
B
C
ft
6+i»
ft
4»
»
V*
6
O
•000
I
7
I
4
1
i-ooo
a
8
2
8
2
1414
3
9
3
ia
3
t
1-73*
538
ARITHMETIC
Length of
edge in
inches.
Volume
of
cube.
I
2
3
Na.
I cub. in.
8 cub. in.
37 cub. in.
of numerical quantities, merely correspond whh each other, the
correspondence being the result of some relation. The volume
D of a cube, for initance, bears a certain
relation to the length of an edge of the
cube. This relation is not one of pro-
portion; but it may nevertheless be
expressed by tabulation, as shown at D.
9j. Interpolation. — In most cases the
quantity in the second column may
be regarded as increasing or decreasing
continuously as the number in the first
column increases, and it has inter-
mediate values corresponding to inter-
mediate (i.e. fractional or decimal)
numbers not shown in the table. The
table in such cases is not, and cannot
be, complete, even up to the number to which it goes. For
instance, a cube whose edge is i\ in. has a definite volume,
vis. si cub. in. The determination of any such intermediate
value is performed by Interpolation (q.v.).
In treating a fractional number, or the corresponding value of
the quantity in the second column, as intermediate, we are in effect
regarding the numbers i, 2, 3, . . . , and the corresponding
numbers in the second column, as denoting points between which
other numbers lie, i.e. we are regarding the numbers as ordinal,
not cardinal. The transition is similar to that which arises in the
case of geometrical measurement (( 26), and it is an essential
feature of all reasoning with regard to continuous quantity, such
as we have to deal with in real life.
94. Nature of Arithmetical Reasoning. — The simplest form of
arithmetical reasoning consists in the determination of the term
in one series corresponding to a given term in another series, when
the relation between the two scries is given; and it implies,
though it does not necessarily involve, the establishment of each
series as a whole by determination of its unit. A method
involving the determination of the unit is called a unitary
method. When the unit is not determined, the reasoning is
algebraical rather than arithmetical. If, for instance, three
terms of a proportion are given, the fourth can be obtained by
the relation given at the end of § 57, this relation being then
called the Rule of Three; but this is equivalent to the use of an
algebraical formula.
More complicated forms of arithmetical reasoning involve the
use of series, each term in which corresponds to particular terms
in two or more scries jointly; and cases of this kind are usually
dealt with by special methods, or by means of algebraical
formulae. The old-fashioned problems about the amount of work
done by particular numbers of men, women and boys, are of this
kind, and really involve the solution of simultaneous equations.
They are not suitable for elementary purposes, as the arithmetical
relations involved are complicated and difficult to grasp.
XI. Methods of Calculation
(i.) Exact Calculation.
05. Working from Left.— It is desirable, wherever possible, to
perform operations on numbers or numerical quantities from
the left, rather than from the right. There are several reasons
for this. In the first place, an operation then corresponds more
closely, at an elementary stage, with the concrete process which it
represents. If, for instance, we had one sum of £3, 15s. od. and
another of £2, 6s. $d., we should add them by putting the coins
of each denomination together and commencing the addition with
the £. In the second place, this method fixes the attention at
once on the larger, and therefore more important, parts of the
quantities concerned, and thus prevents arithmetical processes
from becoming too abstract in character. In the third place, it is
a better preparation for dealing with approximate calculations.
Finally, experience shows that certain operations in which the
result is written down at once — e.g. addition or subtraction of
two numbers or quantities, and multiplication by some small
numbers— are with a little practice performed more quickly and
more accurately from left to right.
06. Addition.— Then is no difference in principle between
addition (or subtraction) of numbers and addition (or subtraction)
of numerical quantities. In each case the grouping system
involves rearrangement, which implies the commutative law,
while the counting system requires the expression of a quantity in
different denominations to be regarded as a notation in a varying
scale (§§ 17.32). We need therefore consider numerical quantities
only, our results being applicable to numbers by regarding the
digits as representing multiples of units in different denominations.
When the result of addition in one denomination can be partly
expressed in another denomination, the process is technically
called carrying. The name is a bad one, since it does not corre-
spond with any ordinary meaning of the verb. It would be better
described as exchanging, by analogy with the " changing " of
subtraction. When, e.g., we find that the sum of 17s. and 18s. is
35s., we take out 20 of the 35 shillings, and exchange them for £1.
To add from the left, we have to look ahead to see whether
the next addition will require an exchange. Thus, in adding
£3, 17s. od. to £2, 1 8s. od., we write down the sum of £3 and £a
as £6, not as £5, and the sum of 17s. and iSs. as 15s., not as 35s.
When three or more numbers or quantities are added together,
the result should always be checked by adding both upwards
and downwards. 1 1 is also useful to look out for pairs of numbers
or quantities which make 1 of the next denomination, e.g. 7 and 3,
or 8d. and 4<L
97. Subtraction.— To subtract £3, 5s. ad. from £9, 7s. 8d, on
the grouping system, we split up each quantity into its denomina-
tions, perform the subtractions independently, and then regroup
the results as the " remainder " £6, is. ad. On the counting
system we can count either forwards or backwards, and we can
work cither from the left or from the right If we count forwards
we find that to convert £3, 5s. ad. into £9, 7s. 8d. we must
successively add £6, 2%. and ad* if we work from the left, or 44L,
as. and £6 if we work from the right. The intermediate values
obtained by the successive additions are different according
as we work from the left or from the right, being £9, 5*. ad. aad
£9, 7s. ad. in the one case, and £3, 5s. 8d. and £3, 7s. 8d. in the
other. If we count backwards, the intermediate values are
£3, 7s. 8d. and £3, 5s. 8d- in the one case, and £9, 7*. ad. and
£9, 5s. ad. in the other.
The determination of each element in the remainder involves
reference to an addition-table. Thus to subtract 5s. from 7s. we
refer to an addition-table giving the sum of any two quantities,
each of which is one of the series os., u., . . . xos.
Subtraction by counting forward is called complementary
addition.
To subtract £3, 5s. 8d. from £9, xos. ad., on the grouping
system, we must change is. out of the 10s. into izd., so that we
subtract £3, 5s. 8d. from £9, 9s. i6d. On the counting system
it will be found that, in determining the number of shillings in
the remainder, we subtract 5s. from 9s. if we count forwards,
working from the left; or backwards, working from the right;
while, if we count backwards, working from the left, or
forwards, working from the right, the subtraction is of 6s.
from 10s. In the first two cases the successive values (in
direct or reverse order) are £3, 5s. 8d., £9, 5*. 8d., £9, 9s. 8d. and
£9, 10s. ad.; while in the last two cases they are £9, 10s. ad.,
£3, xos. ad., £3, 6s. ad. and £3, 5s. 8d.
In subtracting from the left, we look ahead to see whether a 1
in any denomination must be reserved for changing; thus in
subtracting 274 from 637 we should put down 2 from 6 as 3, not as
4, and 7 from 3 as 6.
98. Multiplication-Table.— Yor multiplication and division we
use a multiplication-table, which is a multiple-table, arranged as
explained in J 36, and giving the successive multiples, up to
9 times or further, of the numbers from 1 (or better, from o) to 10,
1 2 or 20. The column (vertical) headed 3 will give the multiples
of 3, while the row (horizontal) commencing with 3 will give the
values of 3 X 1, 3 X 2, ... To multiply by 3 we use the row.
To divide by 3, in the sense of partition, we abo use the row;
but to divide by 3 as a unit we use the column.
99. Multiplication by a Small Number— The ides of a large
ARITHMETIC
539
multiple of a small number is simpler than that of a small multiple
of a large number, but the calculation of the latter is easier. It
is therefore convenient, in finding the product of two numbers,
to take the smaller as the multiplier.
To find 3 times 427* ve apply the distributive law (§ 58 (vi) )
that3.aa7«3(4OO+2o+7)-3.4O0+3.2o+3.7. This, if we regard
3.427 as 427+427+4271 is * direct consequence of the com-
mutative law for addition (f 58 (iii) ), which enables us to add
separately the hundreds, the tens and the ones. To find 3.400,
we treat 100 as the unit (as in addition), so that 3400-34.100-
1 3.100- x 300; and similarly for 3.20. These are examples of the
associative law for multiplication (J 58 (iv) ).
100. Special Cases. — The following are some special rules:—
(i) To multiply by 5, multiply by 10 and divide by a. (And
conversely, to divide by 5, we multiply by 2 and divide by 10.)
(ii) In multiplying by 2, from the left, add 1 if the next figure of
the multiplicand is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9.
(iii) In multiplying by 3, from the left, add 1 when the next
figures are not less than 33. . , 334and not greater than 66 . . .
666, and 2 when they are 66 . . . 667 and upwards.
(iv) To multiply by 7, 8, 9, 11 or 12, treat the multiplier as
10-3, 10-3, 10-1, 10+ 1 or 10+ a; and similarly for 13, 17, 18, 19, &c.
(v) To multiply by 4 or 6, we can either multiply from the left
by 2 and then by a or 3, or multiply from the right by 4 or 6;
or we can treat the multiplier as 5— x or 5+1.
iox. Multiplication by a Large Number.— When both the
numbers are large, we split up one of them, preferably the
multiplier, into separate portions. Thus 231 .4 373 - (300+30+
4273**»-4273+30.4373+i.4373. This gives the partial
products, the sum of which is the complete product. The process
is shown fully in A below,—
A B C
4*73
200
30
854^00
128190
4373
231
987063
231
4273
8546
12819
4273
08546
13819
987063 10-042730
and more concisely in B. To multiply 4273 by 300, We use
the commutative law, which gives 300.4373 — 2 X 100X4373 —
2X4373Xioo«8546Xioo-8$40oo; and similarly for 304373.
In B the terminal o's of the partial products are omitted. It is
usually convenient to make out a preliminary table of multiples
up to 10 times; the table being checked at 5 times (§ 100) and at
xo times.
The main difficulty is in the correct placing of the curtailed
partial products. The first step is to regard the product of two
numbers as containing as many digits as the two numbers put
together. The table of multiples will then be as in C. The next
step is to arrange the multiplier and the multiplicand above the
partial products. For elementary work the multiplicand may
come immediately after the multiplier, as in D; the last figure
of each partial product then comes immediately under the corre-
sponding figure of the multiplier. A better method, which leads
D E
4273
*3'
4273
231
*3»
0854*
138:19 231
04J273
08546
12819
04273
0987:063
0987063
up to the multiplication of decimals and of approximate values
of numbers, is to place the first figure of the multiplier under
the first figure of the multiplicand, as in E; the first figure of
each partial product will then come under the corresponding
figure of the multiplier.
102. Contracted Multiplication.— The partial products are
sometimes omitted; the process saves time in writing, but is not
easy. The principle is that, e.g., (a. io»+ft. io+c) {p. xo»+fl. 10+
I
4*7
6
427
2
427
69*74
r)-op. io«+<of+&*)io»+(<>r+*¥+«f) xo»+(ftr+«?) xo+a.
Hence the digits are multiplied in pairs, and grouped according
to the power of 10 which each product contains. A method of
performing the process is shown here for the case of 162427.
The principle is that 162.427 » 100427+60427+2.427-
142700+64270+2437; but, instead of
writing down the separate products, we
(in effect) write 42700, 4370 and 427 in
separate rows, with the multipliers 1, 6, 3
in the margin, and then multiply each
number in each column by the corre-
sponding multiplier in the margin, making allowance for any
figures to be "carried." Thus the second figure (from the
right) is given by 1+2.2+6.7=47, the 1 being carried.
103. Aliquot Parts. — For multiplication by a proper fraction
or a decimal, it is sometimes convenient, especially when we are
dealing with mixed quantities, to convert the multiplier into the
sum or difference of a number of fractions, each of which has 1 as
its numerator. Such fractions are called aliquot parts (from Lat.
aliquot, some, several). This can usually be done in a good many
ways. Thusf ~I--i,andal , so-H-i.and:I5%-•I5««^V+V*■■
f — irV-t+iV The fractions should generally be chosen so
that each part of the product may be obtained from an earlier
part by a comparatively simple division. Thus l+A ~*x\f » *
simpler expression for A than i+iV- (
The process may sometimes be applied two or three times in
succession; thus A^H = (*-*) U~i)» ""* H = iH m
0-J)(x+tV).
104. Practice.— The above is a particular case of the method
called practice, but the nomenclature of the method is confusing.
There are two kinds of practice, simple practice and compound
practice, but the latter is the simpler of the two. To find the cost
of 2 lb 8 oz, of butter at is. 2d. a lb, we multiply is. 3d. by
2^ = 2 J. This straightforward process is called "compound"
practice. M Simple " practice involves an application of the
commutative law. To find the cost of n articles at £a, bs. cd.
each, we express £0, bs. cd. in the form £(«+/), where / is a
fraction (or the sum of several fractions); we then say that the
cost, being nX£(a+f), is equal to (a+/)X£n, and apply the
method of compound practice, i.e. the method of aliquot parts.
105. Multiplication of a Mixed Number.— When a mixed
quantity or a mixed number has to be multiplied by a large
number, it is sometimes convenient to express the former in terms
of one only of its denominations. Thus, to multiply £7, 13s. 6d.
by 469 , we may express the former in any of the ways £7 67 5 » W °*
£i, i53$s., 1535s., 307 sixpences, or 1843 pence. Expression
in £ and decimals of £1 is usually recommended, but it depends
on circumstances whether some other method may not be simpler.
A sum of money cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal of
£1 unless it is a multiple of Jd. A rule for approximate conver-
sion is that is. « -05 of£i, and that 2jd. = -oi of£i. For accurate
conversion we write -i£ for each 2s., and ooi£ for each farthing
beyond 2S., their number being firstincrcased by one twenty-fourth.
106. Division.— Of the two kinds of division, although the idea
of partition is perhaps the more elementary, the process of
measuring is the easier to perform, since it is equivalent to a
p series of subtractions. Starting from
the dividend, we in theory keep on
subtracting the unit, and count the
number of subtractions that have to
be performed until nothing is left. In
actual practice, of course, we subtract
large multiples at a time. Thus, to
divide 987063 by 427. we reverse the
procedure of § xox, but with inter-
mediate stages. We first construct the
multiple-table C, and then subtract
successively 200 times, 30 times and
x times; these numbers being the par*
tial quotients. The theory of the pro-
cess is shown fully in F. Treating x
as the unknown quotient corresponding to the original dividend.
4273
X
0987063
200
0854600
X-3O0
132463
30
138190
X-23O
04273
X
04273
X-23X
0000
540
ARITHMETIC
we obtain successive dividends corresponding to quotients x - 300,
X — 230 and x — 231 . The original dividend is written as 0987063 ,
since its initial figures are greater than those of the divisor; if the
dividend had commenced with (e.g.) 3 ... it would not have
been necessary to insert the initial o. At each stage of the
division the number of digits in the reduced dividend is decreased
by one. The final dividend being 0000, we have x— 33 1 « o, and
therefore* =23 1.
107. Methods of Division. — What are described as different
methods of division (by a single divisor) are mainly different
methods of writing the successive figures occurring in the
process. In long division the divisor is put on the left of the
dividend, and the quotient on the right; and each partial
product, with the remainder after its subtraction, is shown in full.
In short division the divisor and the quotient are placed respec-
tively on the left of and below the dividend, and the partial
products and remainders are not shown at all. The Austrian
method (sometimes called in Great Britain the Italian method)
differs from these in two respects. The first, and most important,
is that the quotient is placed above the dividend. The second,
which is not essential to the method, is that the remainders are
shown, but not the partial products; the remainders being
obtained by working from the right, and using complementary
addition. It is doubtful whether the brevity of this latter
process really compensates for its greater difficulty.
The advantage of the Austrian arrangement of the quotient
G H
4373|*
0987063
08546
4273
a
0987063
08546
lies in the indication it gives of the true value of each partial
quotient. A modification of the method, corresponding with D
of S 101, is shown in G; the fact that the partial product 08546 is
followed by two blank spaces shows that the figure 2 represents a
partial quotient 200. An alternative arrangement, corresponding
to E of 8 xoi, and suited for more advanced work, is shown in H.
108. Division with Remainder. — It has so far been assumed
that the division can be performed exactly, i.e. without leaving
an ultimate remainder. Where this is not the case, difficulties
are apt to arise, which arc mainly due to failure to distinguish
between the two kinds of division. If we say that the division of
4 id. by 1 2 gives quotient 3d. with remainder sd., we are speaking
loosely; for in fact we only distribute 36d. out of the 4 id., the
other $d. remaining undistributed. It can only be distributed by
a subdivision of the unit; i.e. the true result of the division is
3i'*d. On the other hand, we can quite well express the result
of dividing 4id. by is ( = i2d.) as 3 with 5d. (not " 5 ") over, for
this is only stating that 4id. = 3s. $d.; though the result might
be more exactly expressed as 3^js.
Division with a remainder has thus a certain air of unreality,
which is accentuated when the division is performed by means of
factors (§ 42). If we have to divide 935 by 240, taking 1 2 and 20
as factors, the result will depend on the fact that, in the notation
(») (1.)
of f 17, 935 "3 M7» n. In incomplete partition the quotient
is 3, and the remainders ti and 17 are in effect disregarded; if,
after finding the quotient 3, we want to know what remainder
would be produced by a direct division, the simplest method is to
multiply 3 by 240 and subtract the result from 935. In complete
partition the successive quotients are 775 1 and 3^**""jH§.
Division in the sense of measuring leads to such a result as
93Sd.— £3, 17s. 1 id.; we may, if we please, express the 17s. nd.
as ai5d., but there is no particular reason why we should do so.
109. Division by Mixed Number. — To divide by a mixed
number, when the quotient is seen to be large, it usually saves
time to express the divisor as either ft simple fraction or a decimal
of a unit of one of the denominations. Exact division by a mixed
number is not often required in real life; where approximate
division is required (e.g. in determining the rate of a " dividend ").
approximate expression of the divisor in terms of the largest
unit is sufficient.
no. Calculation of Square Root. — The calculation of the square
root of a number depends on the formula (iii) of f 60. To find the
square root of N, we first find some number a whose square is less
than N, and subtract a? from N. If the complete square root is
a+b, the remainder after subtracting a* is (7a+b)b. We there-
fore guess b by dividing the remainder by to, and lorm the
product (20 +b) b. If this is equal to the remainder, we have
found the square root. If it exceeds the square root, we must
alter the value of b, so as to get a product which does not exceed
the remainder. If the product is less than the remainder, we get
a new remainder, which is N— (a+6)*; we then assume the
full square root to be c, so that the new remainder is equal to
(to+tb+c) c, and try to find c in the same way as we tried to
find b.
An analogous method of finding cube root, based on the
formula for (a+6) a , used to be given in text-books, but It is of no
practical use. To find a root other than a square root we can
use logarithms, as explained in § 1 13.
(ii.) Approximate Calculation.
in. Multiplication— When we have to multiply two numbers*
and the product is only required, or can only be approximately
correct, to a certain number of significant figures, we need only
work to two or three more figures (§83), and then correct the final
figure in the result by means of the superfluous figures.
A common method is to reverse the digits in one of the
numbers; but this is only appropriate to the old-fashioned
method of writing down products from the right. A better method
is to ignore the positions of the decimal points, and multiply
the numbers as if they were decimals
between -i and 10. The method E of
§ 1 01 being adopted, the multiplicand
and the multiplier are written with a
space after as many digits (of each) as
will be required in the product (on the
principle explained in §101); and the
multiplication is performed from the left,
two extra figures being kept in. Thus,
to multiply 27343 by 3 M«5937 to one
decimal place, we require 2+ 1+1*4
figures in the product. The result is 085-9-85 9, the position
of the decimal point being determined by counting the figures
before the decimal points in the original numbers.
112. Division. — In the same way, in
performing approximate division, we can
at a certain stage begin to abbreviate
the divisor, taking off one figure (but
with correction of the final figure of the
partial product) at each stage. Thus, to
divide 859 by 3-1415927 to two places
of decimals, wc in effect divide -0859 by
'3U15927 to four places of decimals. In
the work, as here shown, a o is inserted
in front of the 859, on the principle
explained in J 106. The result of the
division is 27-34.
113. Logarithms.— Multiplication, division, involution and
evolution, when the results cannot be exact, are usually most
simply performed, at any rate to a first approximation, by means
of a table of logarithms. Thus, to find the square root of 3. wc
have log v*2 = log (a 1 ) =» § log a. Wc take out log a from
the table, halve it, and then find from the table the number of
which this is the logarithm. (See Logarithm.) The slide-rule
(see Calculating Machines) is a simple apparatus for the
mechanical application of the methods of logarithms.
When a first approximation has been obtained in this way,
further approximations can be obtained in various ways. Thus,
having found V*^ »4»4 approximately, we write Va» 1414-hf,
whence a«(i-4i4) I +(a-8x8)0+9 a . Since & is less than \ of
2734 3
3*4' 59
0820 29
027 34
1094
27
"4
2
0859
3Mi 59*7
'734
0859 00
0628 32
ARITHMETIC
54*
(«oox)*, we can obtain three more figures approximately by
dividing a -(1-414)* by 2*818.
114. Binomial Theorem. — More generally, if we have
obtained a as an approximate value for the pth root of N, the
binomial theorem gives as an approximate formula 'VN*=a+0,
where N-^+^o'-^.
115. Series. — A number can often be expressed by a series of
terras, such that by taking successive terms we obtain successively
closer approximations. A decimal is of course a series of this
kind, e.g. 3*4159 • • . means 3+1/10+4/10"+ i/io*+s/xo 4 +
0/10*+ ... A series of aliquot parts' is another kind, e.g.
3-1416 is a little less than 3+4-^v
Recurring Decimals are a particular kind of series, which arise
from the expression of a fraction as a decimal. If the denomin-
ator of the fraction, when it is in its lowest terms, contains any
other prime factors than 2 and 5, it cannot be expressed exactly
as a decimal; but after a certain point a definite series of figures
will constantly recur. The interest of these series is, however,
mainly theoretical
116. Continued Products. — Instead of being expressed as the
sum of a series of terms, a number may be expressed as the
product of a series of factors, which become successively more and
more nearly equal to 1. For example,
3 .i4i6- 3 xfS«| -3XHM -3X|f X|f!l-3<i+»V) (1 -rrW-
Hence, to multiply by 3-1416, we can multiply by 3+, and sub-
tract tbVv (■■•0004) of the result; or, to divide by 3-14x6, we
can divide by 3, then subtract -fa of the result, and then add tAt
of the new result
xi 7. Continued Fractions.— -The theory of continued fractions
(q.v.) gives a method of expressing a number, in certain cases,
as a continued product A continued fraction, of the kind we
are considering, is an expression of the form <H r-
<+d &c.
where b,c,d, . . . are integers, and a is an integer or zero. The
expression is usually written, for compactness, a+x^p 73: jq: &c.
The numbers a, b,c t d,... are called the quotients.
Any exact fraction can be expressed as a continued fraction,
and there are methods for expressing as continued fractions
certain other numbers, e.g. square roots, whose values cannoi be
expressed exactly as fractions.
The successive values p fr » • • - (Obtained by taking
account of the successive quotients, are called convergents, i.e.
convergents to the true value. The following are the main
properties of the convergents.
(i) If we precede the series of convergents by $ and \, then
the numerator (or denominator) of each term of the series
f • i» f* ^jr^ * • • » af ter *** first tw0 » is f° un( l ty multiplying
the numerator (or denominator) of the last preceding term by the
corresponding quotient and adding the numerator (or denom-
inator) of the term before that If a is zero, we may regard J
as the first convergent, and precede the series by i and f.
(ii) Each convergent is a fraction in its lowest terms.
(iii) The convergents are alternately less and greater than the
true value.
(iv) Each convergent is nearer to the true value than any other
fraction whose denominator is less than that of. the convergent
(v) The difference of two successive convergents is the recipro-
cal of the product of their denominators; t.g. 2^X5 — fi^-L, and
abc+c±* ab+r -1 *^ « **
*+x T" «fe+i)'
It follows from these last three properties that if the successive
convergents are &r £> JV &~ . the number can be expressed
in the form p x (x+^j) <i-Rj;> ( I +^> ? - * , Md" that if
we go up to the factor 1
differs from the true value of the
— — the product of these factors
the number by less than + a a •
9»0»+i
In certain cases two or more factors can be combined so as to
produce an expression of the form x * j, where k is an integer.
For instance, 3HIS927 =3(1+3^) (1-^^(1+3^3) ' ' ,;
but the last two of these factors may be combined as (1 — a ^' ).
Hence 3i 4 x 5 927«fHfHf ...
XII. Applications
(i.) Systems of Measures. 1
xi 8. Metric System. — The metric system was adopted in
France at the end of the 18th century. The system is decimal
throughout The principal units of length, weight and volume
are the metre, gramme (or gram) and litre. Other units are
derived from these by multiplication or division by powers of 10,
the names being denoted by prefixes. The prefixes for multipli-
cation by 10, io*, 10 3 and io 4 are dcta-, hecfo; kilo? and myria-,
and those for division by xo, xo* and xo* are deci-, cenli- and
mUli-\ the former being derived from Greek, and the latter from
Latin. Thus kilogramme means 1000 grammes, and centimetre
means t\* of a metre. There are also certain special units, such
as the hectare, which is equal to a square hectometre, and the
micron, which is yuVo of a millimetre.
The metre and the gramme are defined by standard measures
preserved at Paris. The litre is equal to a cubic decimetre. The
gramme was intended to be equal to the weight of a cubic centi-
metre of pure water at a certain temperature, but the equality is
only approximate.
The metric system is now in use in the greater part of the
civilized world, but some of the measures retain the names of
old disused measures. In Germany, for instance, the Pfund is
$ kilogramme, and is approximately equal to iiVb English.
119. British Systems. — The British systems have various
origins, and are still subject to variations caused by local usage
or by the usage of particular businesses. The following tables are
given as illustrations of the arrangement adopted elsewhere in
this article; the entries in any column denote multiples or sub-
multiples of the unit stated at the head of the column, and the
entries in any row give the expression of one unit in term of
the other units.
Length
Inch.
Foot
Yard.
Chain.
Furlong.
Mile.
X
A
A
*h
Wn
TTtft
12
1
r
A
•1*
rA.
36
3
1
A
tif-
lA»
792
66
32
1
A
A
7920
660
220
10
1
t
63360
5380
I760
80
8
1
Weight (Avoirdupois)
Ounce.
Pound.
Stone.
Quarter.
Hundred-
weight .
Ton.
X
A
»i<
xii
tAi
isin
16
1
A
A
tit
1*1
a»4
u
1
•
i
T*.
448
38
9
1
i
A
179a
112
8
4
X
A
35840
2240
160
80
20
1
(Also 7000 grains - 1 lb avoirdupois.)
X20. Change of System. — It is sometimes necessary, when ft
quantity is expressed in one system, to express it in another
1 See also Weights and Measures.
542
ARIUS
The following are the ratios of some of the units; each unit is
expressed approximately as a decimal of the other, and their
ratio is shown as a continued product (§ 1 16), a few of the corre-
sponding convergent* to the continued fraction (J 117) being
added in brackets. It must be remembered that the number
expressing any quantity in terms of a unit is inversely proportional
to the magnitude of the unit, i.e. the number of new units is to be
found by multiplying the number of old units by the ratio of the
old unit to the new unit.
tt£ n -iVAWJIH-HHiHtt (H.H-H.tH)
cJtfftre -HW- Wy-frH-tfH • • • <i.H- W).
uSs -imi- w.v-i m hh ...(». h. w>.
s35££i&-*Mb- tmt-t-Ht-ftHt ■ (I. It. HI).
rcglre -iVAV- HHt-HHW • • • <t. H. *M>
$£r -HHI-WW-HH-HH.--<«.H.m>-
Kiffiff.- -Mtk- HHt-Ht-HHHH-(fcft.H.IH>-
(ii.) Special Applications.
121. Commercial Arithmetic— -This term covers practically all
dealings with money which Involve the application of the prin-
ciple of proportion. A simple class of cases is that which deals
with equivalence of sums of money in different currencies; these
cases really come under J 120. In other cases we are concerned
with a proportion stated as a numerical percentage, or as a money
percentage (i.e. a sum of money per £100), or as a rate in the £ or
the shilling. The following are some examples. Percentage:
Brokerage, commission, discount, dividend, interest, investment,
profit and loss. Rate in the £: Discount, dividend, rates, taxes.
Rate in the shilling: Discount.
Text-books on arithmetic usually contain explanations of the
chief commercial transactions in which arithmetical calculations
arise; it will be sufficient in the present article to deal with
interest and discount, and to give some notes on percentages and
rates in the £. Insurance and Annuities are matters of general
importance, which are dealt with elsewhere under their own
headings.
122. Percentages and Rales in Ike £. — In dealing with percent-
ages and rates it is important to notice whether the sum which is
expressed as a percentage of a rate on another sum is a part of or
an addition to that sum, or whether they are independent of one
another. Income tax, for instance, is calculated on income, and
is in the nature of a deduction from the income; but local rates
are calculated in proportion to certain other payments, actual
or potential, and could without absurdity exceed 20s. in the £.
It is also important to note that if the increase or decrease of an
amount A by a certain percentage produces B, it will require a
different percentage to decrease or increase B to A. Thus, if B is
20% less than A, A is 25% greater than B.
12$. Interest is usually calculated yearly or half-yearly, at a
certain rate per cent, on the principal. In legal documents the
rate is sometimes expressed as a certain sum of money " per
centum per annum "; here " centum " must be taken to mean
" £100."
Simple interest arises where unpaid interest accumulates as a
debt not itself bearing interest; but, if this debt bears interest,
the total, i.e. interest and interest on interest, is called compound
interest. If ioot is the rate per cent, per annum, the simple
interest on £A for n years is £nr\, and the compound interest
(supposing interest payable yearly) is £[(i+r)*-iJA. If n is
large, the compound interest is most easily calculated by means
of logarithms.
124. Discount is of various kinds. Tradesmen allow discount
for ready money, this being usually at so much in the shilling or £.
Discount may be allowed twice in succession off quoted prices; in
such cases the second discount is off the reduced price, and there-
fore it is not correct to add the two rates of discount together.
Thus a discount of 20%, followed by a further discount of 2$%,
gives a total discount of 40% not 45 %, off the original amount
When an amount will fall due at some future date, the present
value of the debt is found by deducting discount at some rate per
cent, for the intervening period, in the same way as interest to be
added is calculated. This discount, of course, is not equal to the
interest which the present value would produce at that rate of
interest, but is rather greater, so that the present value as
calculated in this way is less than the theoretical present value.
125. Applications to Physics are numerous, but are usually
only of special interest. A case of general interest is the meas-
urement of temperature. The graduation of a thermometer is
determined by the freezing-point and the boiling-point of water,
the interval between these being divided into a certain number
of degrees, representing equal increases of temperature. On the
Fahrenheit scale the points are respectively 32 and 212°; on the
Centigrade scale they arc o° and ioo°; and on the Reaumur they
arc o° and 8o°. From these data a temperature as measured on
one scale can be expressed on either of the other two scales.
126. Averages occur in statistics, economics, &c. An average
is found by adding together several measurements of the same
kind and dividing by the number of measurements. In calcu-
lating an average it should be observed that the addition of any
numerical quantity (positive or negative) to each of the measure-
ments produces the addition of the same quantity to the average,
so that the calculation may often be simplified by taking some
particular measurement as a new aero from which to measure.
Authorities.— For the history of the subject, see VV. W. R. Ball,
Short History of Mathematics (1901), and F. Cajori, History of Ele-
mentary Mathematics (1896): or more detailed information in
M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Ceschichte der Mathematik (1894-1901 ).
L. C. Conant, The Number-Concept (1896), gives a very full account of
systems of numeration. For the latter, and for systems of notation,
reference may also be made to Peacock's article " Arithmetic " in the
Encyclopaedia Metropolitan*, which contains a detailed account of
the Greek system. F. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty (1883).
contains the first account of number-forms; for further examples and
references see D. E. Phillips, " Genesis of Number-Forms," America*
Journal of Psychology, vol ; viti. (1897)- There are very few works
dealing adequately but simply with the principles of arithmetic
Homcrsham Cox, Principles of Arithmetic (1885), is brief and lucid.
but is out of print. The Psychology'.of Number, by J A. McLellan aod
I. Dewey (1895), contains valuable suggestions (some of which have
been utilised in the present article), but it deals only with number as
the measure of quantity, and requires to be read critically. This
work contains references to Grube's system, which has been much dis-
cussed in America : for a brief explanation, see L. Seeley, The Grtba
Method of Teaching Arithmetic (1890). On the teaching of arithmetic,
and of elementary mathematics generally, see J. W. A. Young, The
Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary and the Secondary School
(1907) ; D. E. Smith, The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics (loco).
air ' si sketch; W. P. Turnbull. The
Tt sore elaborate. E. M. Langlcy,
A , has notes on approximate and
ah >ks on arithmetic in general and
on irous, and any list would soon be
ou have been influenced by the brief
Ri Mary Mathematics, issued by the
M mt this is critical rather than con-
st 1 o issued a Report on the Teaching
of Os (1907). In the United States
of litter of Ten on secondary school
sti Committee of Fifteen on elementary
cd I by the United States Bureau of
E< Jeal of attention. Sir O. Lodge.
Ea \etic (1905), treats the subject
br The student who is interested
in suit the annual bibliographies in
th de by D. E. Phillips in vol. v.
(G to works dealing with the psycho-
lot account of German methods, see
VV rithmetic and Mathematics «s the
H_ (W. F. Sm.)
ARIUS ('AfXiot), a name celebrated in ecclesiastical history,
not so much on account of the personality of its bearer as of the
" Arian " controversy which he provoked. Our knowledge of
Arius is scanty, and nothing certain is known of his birth or of his
early training. Epiphanius of Salamis, in his well-known treatise
against eighty heresies (Hatr. box. 3), calls him a Libyan by
birth, and if the statement of Sozomen, a church historian of
the 5th century, is to be trusted, he was, as a member of the
Alexandrian church, connected with the Mektian scJrisoi (net
ARIUS
543
MELETHT9 of Lvcopous), and on this account excommunicated
by Peter of Alexandria, who had ordained him deacon. After
the death of Peter (November 25, 311), he was received into
communion by Peter's successor, Achillas, elevated to the
presbytery, and put in charge of one of the great city churches,
Baucalis, where he continued to discharge his duties with
apparent faithfulness and industry after the accession of
Alexander. This bishop also held him in high repute. Theodore t
(HiM. Ecd. i. a) indeed does not hesitate to say that Anus
was chagrined because Alexander, instead of himself, had been
appointed to the see of Alexandria, and that the beginning of
his heretical attitude is, in consequence, to be attributed to
discontent and envy. But this must be rejected, for it is a
common explanation of heretical movements with the early
church historians, and there is no evidence for it in the original
sources. However, Arius was ambitious. Epiphanius, using
older documents, describes him as a man inflamed with his own
opinionativeness, of a soft and smooth address, calculated to
persuade and attract, especially women: "in no time he had
drawn away seven hundred virgins from the church to his
party." When the controversy broke out, Arius was an old man.
The real causes of the controversy lay in differences as to
dogma. Arius had received his theological education in the
school of the presbyter Lucian of Antioch, a learned man, and
distinguished especially as a biblical scholar. The latter was a
follower of Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who had been
excommunicated in 269, but his theology differed from that of his
master in a fundamental point. Paul, starting with the con-
viction that the One God cannot appear substantially (ovciodwt)
on earth, and, consequently, that he cannot have become a
person in Jesus Christ, had taught that God had filled the man
Jesus with his Logos (oojLa) or Power (dftrajut). Lucian, on the
other hand, presisted in holding that the Logos became a person
in Christ. But since he shared the above-mentioned belief of his
master, nothing remained for him but to see in the Logos a second
essence, created by God before the world, which came down to
earth and took upon itself a human body. In this body the
Logos filled the place of the intellectual or spiritual principle.
Ludan's Christ, then, was not " perfect man,' 1 for that which
constituted in him the personal element was a divine essence;
nor was he "perfect God," for the divine essence having become
a person was other than the One God, and of a nature foreign to
him. It is this idea which Arius took up and interpreted unin-
telligently. His doctrinal position is explained in his letters to
his patron Eusebius, bishop of the imperial city of Nicomedia,
and to Alexander of Alexandria, and in the fragments of the
poem in which he set forth his dogmas, which bears the enig-
matic title of " Thalia " (6b\tia), used in Homer, in the sense of
" a goodly banquet," most unjustly ridiculed by Athanasius as
an imitation of the licentious style of the drinking-songs of the
Egyptian Sotades (270 B.C.). From these writings it can even
nowadays be seen clearly that the principal object which he had
in view was firmly to establish the unity and simplicity of the
eternal God. However far the Son may surpass other created
beings, he remains himself a created being, to whom the Father
before all time gave an existence formed out of not being (tg ofac
6vru>¥)\ hence the name of Exoukimtians sometimes given to
Anus's followers. On the other hand, Arius affirmed of the Son
that he was " perfect God, only-begotten " (tX^j 0cos jw»w-
ytrifi); that through him God made the worlds (aiwrct, ages);
that he was the product or offspring of the Father, and yet
not as one among things made (ykvrrjfia aXX' o&x <!>t lv rtaw
ytyiwttukvtoiv). In his eyes ft was blasphemy when he heard that
Alexander proclaimed in public that " as God is eternal, so is his
Son, — when the Father, then the Son, — the Son is present in
God without birth (hy&vhrwi), ever-begotten (A«*y«»^t), an
unbegotten-begotten (Ayanniroyariit)" He detected in his
bishop Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Sabellianism, and was
convinced that he himself was the champion of pure doctrine
against heresy. He was quite unconscious that his own mono-
theism was hardly to be distinguished from that of the pagan
philosophers, and that his Christ was a demi*god.
For years the controversy may have been fermenting in
the college of presbyters at Alexandria. Sozomen relates that
Alexander only interfered after being charged with remissness in
leaving Arius so long to disturb the faith of the church. Accord-
ing to the general supposition, the negotiations which led to the
excommunication of Arius and his followers among the presbyters
and deacons took place in 318 or 319, but there are good reasons
for assigning the outbreak of the controversy to the time follow-
ing the overthrow of Licinius by Constantine, i.e. to the year
323. In any case, from this time events followed one another
to a speedy conclusion. Arius was not without adherents, even
outside Alexandria. Those bishops who, like him, had passed
through the school of Lucian were not inclined to let him fall
without a struggle, as they recognized in the views of their
fellow-student their own doctrine, only set forth in a somewhat
radical fashion. In addressing to Eusebius of Nicomedia a
request for his help, Arius ended with the words: H Be mindful
of our adversity, thou faithful comrade of Ludan's school
(<rvAXov*ion<rnfrs)"; and Eusebius entered the lists energetically
on his behalf. But Alexander too was active; by means of a
circular letter he published abroad the excommunication of his
presbyter, and the controversy excited more and more general
interest.
It reached even the ears of Constantine. Now sole emperor,
he saw in the one Catholic church the best means of counter-
acting the movement in his vast empire towards disintegration;
and he at once realized how dangerous dogmatic squabbles might
prove to its unity. His letter, preserved by the imperial bio-
grapher, Eusebius of Caesarea, is a state document inspired by
a wisely conciliatory policy; it made out both parties to be
equally in the right and in the wrong, at the same time giving
them both to understand that such questions, the meaning of
which would be grasped only by the few, had better not be.
brought into public discussion; it was advisable to come to an
agreement where the difference of opinion was not fundamental.
This well-meaning attempt at reconciliation, betraying as it did
no very deep understanding of the question, came to nothing.
No course was left for the emperor except to obtain a general
decision. This took place at the fist oecumenical coundl, which
was convened in Nicaea (q.v.) in 325* After various turns in the
controversy, it was finally dicided, against Arius, that the Son
was "of the same substance" (ojjoofotos) with the Father,
and all thought of his being created or even subordinate had to
be excluded. Constantine accepted the decision of the council
and resolved to uphold it. Arius and the two bishops of
Marmarica Ptolemais, who refused to subscribe the creed,
were excommunicated and banished to Illyria, and even Eusebius
of Nicomedia, who accepted the creed, but not its anathemas,
was exiled to Gaul. Alexander returned to his see triumphant,
but died soon after, and was succeeded by Athanasius (q.v.), his
deacon, with whose indomitable fortitude and strange vicissitudes
the further course of the controversy is bound up.
It only remains for us here to sketch what is known of the future
career of Arius and the Arians. Al though defeated at the council
of Nicaea, the Arians were by no means subdued. Constantine,
while strongly disposed at first to enforce the Nicene decrees,
was gradually won to a more conciliatory policy by the influence
especially of Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia,
the latter of whom returned from txile in 328 and won the ear
of the emperor, whom he baptized on his death-bed. In 330
even Arius was recalled from banishment. Athanasius, on the
other hand, was banished to Treves in 335. During his absence
Arius returned to Alexandria, but even now the people are said
to have raised a fierce riot against the heretic. In 336 the emperor
was forced to summon him to Constantinople. Bishop Alexander
reluctantly assented to receive him once more into the bosom of
the church, but before the act of admission was completed, Arius
was suddenly taken ill while walking in the streets, and died in a
few moments. His death seems to have exerdsed no influence
worth speaking of on the course of events. His theological
radicalism had in any case neverfound many convinced adherents.
It was mainly the opposition to the Homoousios, as a formula
5+4
ARIZONA
open to heretical misinterpretation, and not borne out by Holy
Writ, which kept together the large party known as Semiarians,
who under the leadership of the two Eusebiuses carried on the
strife against the Nicenes and especially Atbanasius. Under the
sons of Constantino Christian bishops in numberless synods
cursed one another turn by turn. In the western half of the
empire Arianism found no foothold, and even the despotic will
of Cons tan tius, sole emperor after 351, succeeded only for the
moment in subduing the bishops exiled for the sake of their
belief. In the east, on the other hand, the Semiarians had for
long the upper hand. They soon split up into different groups,
according as they came to stand nearer to or farther from the
original position of Arius. The actual centre was formed by the
HomoU, who only spoke generally of a likeness (ojiotonp) of the
Son to the Father; to the left of them were the Anomoii, who,
with Arius, held the Son to be unlike (av6>»os) the Father;
to the right, the Homoiousians who, taking as their catchword
" likeness of nature " (o/iotonp tear' oWw), thought that they
could preserve the religious content of the Nicene formula with-
out having 'to adopt the formula itself. Since this party in
the course of years came more and more into sympathy with
the representatives of the Nicene party, the Homoousians,
and notably with Athanasius, the much-disputed formula
became more and more popular, till the council summoned in
381 at Constantinople, under the auspices of Theodosius the
Great, recognized the Nicene doctrine as the only orthodox one.
Arianism, which had lifted up its head again under the emperor
Valens, was thereby thrust out of the state church. It lived to
flourish anew among the Germanic tribes at the time of the great
migrations. Goths, Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Langc-
bardi embraced it; here too as a distinctive national type of
Christianity it perished before the growth of medieval Catholi-
cism, and the name of Arian ceased to represent a definite form
of Christian doctrine within the church, or a definite party
outside it.
The best account of the proceedings, both political and theological,
may be found in the following books: — H. M. Gwatkin, Studtes of
Arianism (2nd edit., Cambridge, 1900); A. Harnack, History of
Dogma (Eng. trans., 1894-1899); J. F. Bethune-Baker, An Intro-
duction to the Early History of Christian Doctrine (London, 1903);
W. Bright, The Age of the Fathers (London, 1903). Cardinal Newman's
celebrated Arians of the Fourth Century in interesting more from the
controversial than from the historical point of view. See also Paavo
Snellman, Der Anfang des arianischen Streites (Helsingfors, 1904);
Sigismund Rogala, Dte Anf&ngt des arianischen Streites (Paderborn,
1907). (G.K.)
ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian Aruvmac, of unknown
meaning,— possibly " few springs,"— the name of an 18th-century
mining camp in the Santa Cms valley, just S. of the present
border of Arizona), a state on the S.W. border of the United
States of America, lying between 31° 20' and 37 N. lat and
ioo° a' and 1 14° 45' W. long. It is bounded N, by Utah, E. by-
New Mexico, S. by Mexico and W. by California and Nevada,
the Colorado river separating it from California and in part from
Nevada. On the W. is the Great Basin. Arizona itself is mostly
included in the great arid mountainous uplift of the Rocky
Mountain region, and partly within the desert plain region of
the Gulf of California, or Open Basin region. The whole state
lies on the south-western exposure of a great roof whose crest,
along the continental divide in western New Mexico, pitches
southward. Its altitudes vary from 12 ,800 ft. to less than xoo ft
above the sea. Of its total area of 1 1 3 ,956 sq. m. (water surface,
xt6 sq. m.), approximately 30,000 lie below 3000 ft, 27,000 from
3000 to 5000 ft., and 4 7, coo above 5000 ft
Physical Features.— Three characteristic physiographic regions
are distinctly marked: first the great Colorado Plateau, some
45,000 sq. m. in area, embracing all the region N. and £. of a line
drawn from the Grand Wash Cliffs in the N.W. corner of the
state to its K. border near Clifton; next a broad zone of
compacted mountain ranges with a southern limit of similar
trend; and lastly a region of desert plains, occupying somewhat
more than the S.W. quarter of the state. The plateau region
has an average elevation of 6000-8000 ft. eastward, but it is
much broken down in the west The plateau is not a plain. It is
dominated by high mountains, gashed by superb canyons of
rivers, scarred with dry gullies and washes, the beds of inter-
mittent streams, varied with great shallow basins, sunken deserts,
dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, forests and rare
verdant bits of valley. In the N.W. there is a giddy drop into
the tremendous cut of the Grand Canyon (?.».) of the Colorado
river. The surface in general is rolling, with a gentle slope north-
ward, and drains through the Little Colorado (or Colorado
Chiquito), Rio Puercoand other streams into the Grand Canyon.
Along the Colorado is the Painted Desert, remarkable for the
bright colours—red, brown, blue, purple, yellow and white— of
its sandstones, shales and clays. Within the desert is a petri-
fied forest, the most remarkable in the United States. The trees
are of mesozoic time, though mostly washed down to the foot of
the mesas in which they were once embedded, and lying now
amid deposits of a later age. Blocks and logs of agate, chalce-
dony, jasper, opal and other silicate deposits lie in hundreds
over an area of 60 sq. m. The forest is now protected as a
national reserve against vandalism and commerdalism. Every-
where are evidences of water and wind erosion, of desiccation
and differential weathering. This is the history of the mesas,
which are the most characteristic scenic feature of the highlands
The marks of volcanic action, particularly lava-flows, are also
abundant and widely scattered.
Separating the plateau from the mountain region is an abrupt
transition slope, often deeply eroded, crossing the entire stale aa
has been indicated. In localities the slope is a true escarpment
falling 150 and even 950 ft per mile. In the Aubrey Cliffs and
along the Mogollon mesa, which for about 200 m. parts the waters
of the Gila and the Little Colorado, it often has an elevation
of 1060 to 2000 ft, and the ascent is impracticable through long
distances to the most daring climber. It is not of course every-
where so remarkable, or even distinct, and especially after its
trend turns southward W. of Clifton, it is much broken down and
obscured by erosion and lava deposits. The mountain region
has a width of 70 to 150 m., and is filled with short parallel
ranges trending parallel to the plateau escarpment Many of
the mountains are extinct volcanoes. In the San Francisco
mountains, in the north central part of the state, three peaks
rise to from 10,000 to 12,704 ft.; three others are above 0000 ft;
all are eruptive cones, and among the lesser summits are old
cinder cones. The S.E. corner of Arizona is a region of
greatly eroded ranges and gentle aggraded valleys. This moun-
tain zone has an average elevation of not less than 4000 ft,
while in places its crests are 5000 ft above the plains below. The
line dividing the two regions runs roughly from Negates on the
Mexican border, past Tucson, Florence and Phoenix to Needles
(California), on the W. boundary. These plains, the third or desert
region of the state, have their mountains also, but they are
lower, and they are not compacted; the plains near the mountain
region slope toward the Gulf of California across wide valleys
separated by isolated ranges, then across broad desert stretches
traversed by rocky ridges, and finally there is no obstruction to
the slope at all. Small parts of the desert along the Mexican
boundary are shifting sand.
Climate. — As may be inferred from the physical description,
Arizona has a wide variety of local climates. In general it is
characterized by wonderfully clear air and extraordinarily low
humidity. The scanty rainfall is distributed from July to April,
with marked excess from July to September and a lesser maxi-
mum in December. May and June are very dry. Often during
a month, sometimes for several months, no rain falls over the
greatest part of Arizona. Very little rain comes from the
Pacific or the Gulf of California, the mountains and desert, as
well as the adverse winds, making it impossible. Rain and snow
fall usually from clouds blown from the Gulf of Mexico and not
wholly dried in Texas. The mountainous areas are the only ones
of adequate precipitation; the northern slope of the Colorado
Plateau is almost destitute of water; the region of least pre-
cipitation is the " desert " region. The mean animal rainfall
varies from amounts of 3 to 5-5 in. at various points in the
lower gulf valley, and on the western border to amounts of 2510
ARIZONA
Engli»h Miles
jo ¥> S?
Indian Reserve* S3t Railways
County Seats o Canals'...
County Boundaries
6 u I f ,
C a 1 i f Jr r n iya
55*
ARKANSAS
fall vigour of growth nearer to the margin of forest growth in
this part of the Mississippi valley than in any other part of the
United States; and some species, such as the holly, the osagc
orange and the pecan, attain their fullest growth in Arkansas
(Shaler). There are two Federal forest reserves (4968 sq. m.).
Soil. — The soils of Arkansas are of peculiar variety. That of
the highlands is mostly but a thin covering, and their larger
portion is relatively poorly fitted for agriculture. The uplands
are generally fertile. Their poor soils are distinctively sandy,
those of the lowlands clayey; but these elements are usually
found combined in rich loams characterised by the predominance
of one or the other constituent. Finally the alluvial bottoms arc
of wonderful richness.
Agriculture.— This variety of soils, a considerable range of
moderate altitudes and favourable factors of heat and moisture
promote a rich diversity in agriculture, Arkansas is predomin-
antly an agricultural state. The farm area of i860 was only
28-2 % of the whole area of the state, that of 1900 (16,636,719
acres) was 49 %; and while only a fifth of this farm area was
actually improved in i860, two-fifths were improved in 1900;
thus, the part of the state's area actually cultivated approxi-
mately quadrupled in four decades. The value of products in
1900 ($79- 6 millions) was 44 % of the total farm values ($181-4
millions). The rise in average value of farm lands since 1870 has
not been a fifth of the increase of the aggregate value of all farm
property.
The Civil War wrought a havoc from which a full recovery was
hardly reached before x 890. The economic evolution of the state
since Reconstruction has been in the main that common to all
the old slave states developing from the plantation system of
ante-bellum days, somewhat diversified and complicated by the
"special features of a young and border community. The farms
of Arkansas increased in number 357-8 %, in area 73*7 % and in
total true (as distinguished from tax) valuation about 53-8 %
between i860 and 1900; the decade of most extraordinary
growth being that of 1 870-1880. Thus Arkansas has shared that
fall in the average size of farms common to all sections of the
Union (save the north central) since 1850, but especially marked
since the Civil War in the " Cotton States," owing to the sub-
division of large holdings with the introduction of the tenant
system. The rapidity of the movement has not been excep-
tional in Arkansas, but the size of its average farm, less in 1850
than that of the other cotton states, was in 1900, 93*1 acres
(1088 for white farmers alone, 490 for blacks alone), which was
even less than that of the North Atlantic states (96-5 acres, the
smallest sectional unit of the Union). The percentage of farms
worked by owners fell from 69 x % in 1880 to 54-6 % in 1900;
the difference of the balances or 14*5 % indicates the increase of
tenant holdings, two-thirds of these being for shares.
It is interesting to compare in this matter the whites and the
negroes. In actual numbers the white farmers heavily predomin-
ate, whether as owners, tenants for cash or tenants on shares;
but if we look at the numbers within each race holding by these
respective tenures (6$o, 8-7 and 26*3 % respectively for whites;
*S'6> 33*7 *&d 40*7 % for negroes, in 1900), we see the lesser
independence of the negro farmer. The cotton counties, which
are the counties of densest coloured habitancy, exemplify this
fact with great clearness. The few negroes in the white counties
of the uplands are much better off than those in the cotton low-
sands; more than three times as large a part of them owners;
the poorer clement is segregated in the cotton region. In
Arkansas, as elsewhere in the south, negro tenants, like white
tenants, are mote efficient than owners working their own lands.
The black farmer is in bondage to cotton; for him still " Cotton
is King."" He gives it four-fifths of his land; while his white
rival allows it only a quarter of his, less by half than the area he
gives to live-stock, dairying, hay and grains. At Sunnyside, on the
west bank of the Mississippi, negro tenant farmers have been
practically forced out of business by Italians, who produced in
1899-1904 more than twice as much tint cotton per working
hand, and 70 % more per acre. The general place of the negro
in agriculture is shown also by the fact that more than four-fifths
of the farm acreage and farm values of the state are in the hands
of the whites. The white farmer gives an outlay in labour and
fertilizers on his farm greater by 61*4% than the black, gathers
a produce greater by 22-5%, and possesses a farm of a value
53" 5% greater (Census, 1000).
Cotton is the leading product. It absorbs abouta third of thcarca
under crops, and its returns ($28,000,000 in 1899) arc about a half
of the value of all crops. A part of the cotton lands of Arkansas
are among the richest in the south. Other distinctively southern
products (tobacco, &c.) are of no importance in Arkansas.
Cereals are given more than twice as much acreage as cotton,
but yield only a third as great aggregate returns, Indian corn
being much the most remunerative; about three-fourths of the
cereal acreage are given to its cultivation, and it ranks after
cotton in value of harvest.* For all the other staple agricultural
products of the central states the showing of Arkansas is uni-
formly good, but not noteworthy. But its rank as a fruit-
growing country is exceptional. Plums, prunes, peaches, pears
and grapes are cultivated very generally over the western half of
the state (grapes in the cast also), but with greatest success in
the south-west; apples prosper best in the north-west. Small
berries arc a very important product. All fruits are of the finest
quality. For apples the state makes probably a finer showing
than that of any other state except Oregon. About ninety
varieties arc habitually entered in national competitions. The
fruit industry generally has developed with extreme rapidity.
Manufactures. — Although Arkansas is rich in minerals and in
forests, in 1900 only 2 % of its population were engaged in manu-
facturing. But the development has been rapid; the value of
products multiplied seven times, the wages paid nine, and the
capital Invested twelve, in the years 1880-1900; and the
increase in the same categories from 1 000-100$ was 35, 42-8 and
82 4 % respectively.' It must be noted as characteristic of the
state that of the total manufactures in 1905, 80-3 % were pro-
duced in rural districts (83*7 in 1900). About two-thirds of the
increase between 1890 and 1900 was in the lumber industry,
which was of slight importance before the former year; it repre-
sented more than half the total value of the manufactures of the
state in 190$ (output, 1905, $28,065,171 and of mill products
$3,786,772 additional); in the value of lumber and timber
products the slate ranked sixth among the states of the United
States in 1900, and seventh in 1905. After the lumber and
timber industry ranked in 1905 the manufacture of cottonseed
oil and cake ($4,939,919) and flour and grist milling. Cotton
ginning increased 739 % from 1890 to 1900.
Minerals. — The progress of coal-mining has been a striking
feature of the state's economy since 1880. The field extends
from Oklahoma eastward to central Arkansas, along both sides
of the Arkansas river. A production of 5000 tons (short) in
1882 became 542,000 tons in 1891 and 2,229,172 tons in 1003—
a maximum for the state up to 1905; in 1907 the yield was
2,670,438 tons, valued at $4,473i693i the value of the product in-
creased more than eight-fold in 1S86-1900. The United Slates
Geological Survey estimates that three-fourths of the coal area
(over i7oosq. m.) can made commercially productive. Apart
from coal the great and varied mineral wealth of the state has
been only slightly utilized. The great zinc and lead area along
the northern border in the plateau portion of the Ozark region
has proved a disappointment in development; the iron areas
have hardly been touched, and the product of the exceptionally
promising deposits of manganese lost ground after 1S00 before
1 For 1906 the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture
reported the following statistics for Arkansas: — Indian con.
52,802.659 bu., valued at $24,817,207; oats 3.783.706 bu.. valued
at $1,589,157: wheat, 1,915.250 bu., valued at $143643*; net.
131440 bu., valued at $111,724; rye. 23,652 bu., valued at $19,631:
potatoes, 1,666,960 bu., valued at $1,116,863; hay, 1 13491 too*,
valued at $1,123,561.
a The special census of the manufacturing industry lor 1905 *as
concerned only with the establishment conducted under the «o-
callcd " factory system "; for purposes of comparison the figure*
for 1900 have been reduced to the same standard, and this hvf
should be borne in mind with regard to the percentage* of increase
given above.
ARKANSAS
553
the output of Virginia and Georgia. Among the products of
the rich stone quarries of the state, only that of abrasive stones
is important in the markets of the Union; the novaculites of
Arkansas are among the finest whetstones. iu the world. Deposits
of true chalk are utilized in the manufacture of Portland cement
for local markets. The chalk region lies in the S. E. part of the
state, S. of the Ouachita Mountains. Bauxite was discovered
in the state in 1887, and the product increased from 5045
long tons in 1809 to 50,267 long tons in 1006, the production for
the whole country in 1899 being 35,280 long tons and in 1906
75>33* long ton& - Th e oru>v other states in which bauxite was
produced during the period were Alabama and Georgia, which
in this respect have greatly declined in importance relatively
to Arkansas. Extremely valuable and varied marls, kaolins and
clays, fuller's earth, aspbaltum and mineral waters show special
promise in the state's industry. In 1 906 diamonds were found in
a peridotite dike in Pike county i\ m. S. E. of Murfreesboro;
this is the first place in North America where diamonds have
been found in situ, and not in glacial deposit or in river gravel.
Communications. — The rivers afford for light craft (of not over
3 ft. draft) about 3000 m. of navigable waters, a river system
unequalled in extent by that of any other state. The labours of
the United States government have much extended and very
greatly improved this navigation, materially lessening also the
frequency and havoc of floods along the rich bottom-lands
through which the rivers plough a tortuous way in the eastern
and southern portions of the state. As a result of these improve-
ments land and timber values have markedly risen, and great
impetus has been given to traffic on the rivers, which carry a
large part of the cotton, lumber, coal, stone, hay and miscel-
laneous freights of the state. The greatest of these internal
improvements is the St Francis levee, from New Madrid,
Missouri, to the mouth of the St Francis, 212 m. along the
Mississippi; an area of 3500 sq. m., of exceptional fertility, is
here reclaimed at a cost of about $1500 per sq. m. (as compared
with $10,000 per sq. m. for the 2500 sq. m. reclaimed by the Nile
works at Assuan and Assiut). Whether with regard to area or
population, Arkansas is also relatively well supplied with railways
(4,472*8 m. at the end of 1907). A state railway commission
controls transportation rates, which are also somewhat checked
by the competition of river freights. There is also a considerable
passenger traffic on the Arkansas.
Population— The population in 1910 was 1,5 74 ,449- The
growth in 1880-1900 is shown by the following table:—
Census
Year.
x88o
1890
1900
Total
Pop.
%White%Ncgrc Average
802,525
1,128,211
I.3».564
Pop.
737
73-6
720
Pop.
a6 3
280
% Increase by decades.
persq.m.
Total Whites. Negroes.
*5*
215
2$'0
65-6
40*6
163
S3
15-4
9
18-7
In 1000 the rank of the state in total population was twenty-fifth,
and in negro population tenth. The proportion of the coloured
element steadily rose from x 1 % in 1820 to 28 % in 1000, at which
time there were more than a dozen counties along the border of the
Mississippi and lower Arkansas in which the negroes numbered
50 to 89 % of the total. They have never been a large element in
the highland counties; it was these counties which were most
strongly Unionist at the time of the Civil War, and which to-day
are the region of diversified industry. About a ninth of the
state's population is gathered into towns of more than 2000
inhabitants. Fort Smith (pop. 11,587 in 1900), Little Rock,
the state capital (38,307), and Pine Bluff (11,406) lie in the valley
of the Arkansas. In 1900 a dozen other towns had a population
exceeding 2500, the most important being Hot Springs (9973),
Helena (5550), Texarkana (4914)1 Jonesboro (4508), Fayettevflle
(4061), Eureka Springs (3572), Mena (3423) and Paragould
(3334)' Foreign blood has only very slightly permeated the
state; negroes and native whites of native parents make up
more than 95 % of its population. Immigration is almost
entirely from other southern states. The strongest religious
sects are the Methodists and Baptists.
Government. — The present constitution of the state dates from
1874 (with amendments). Few features mark it off from the
usual type of such documents. The governor holds office for two
years; he has the pardoning and veto power, but his. veto may
be overridden by a simple majority in each house of the whole
number elected to that house (a provision unusual among the
state constitutions of the Union). There is no lieutenant-
governor. The legislature is bicameral, senators holding office
for four years, representatives (about thrice as numerous) for
two. The length of the regular biennial legislative sessions is
limited to sixty days, but by a vote of two-thirds of the members
elected to each house the length of any session may be extended.
Special sessions may be called by the governor. A majority of
the members elected to each of the two houses suffices to propose
a constitutional amendment, which the people may then accept
by a mere majority of all votes cast at an election for the legis-
lature (an unusually democratic provision); no more than three
amendments, however, can be proposed or submitted at the same
time. The supreme court has five members, elected by the
people for eight years; they are re-eligible. The population of
the state entitles it to seven representatives in the national
House of Representatives, and to nine votes in the Electoral
College (census of 1900). Elections of members of the state
legislature and of Congress are not held at the same time — a very
unusual provision. Elections are by Australian ballot; the
constitution prescribes that no law shall " be enacted whereby
the right to vote at any election shall be made to depend upon any
previous registration of the elector's narqe " (extremely unusual).
The qualifications for suffrage include one year's residence in the
state, six months in the county, and one month in the voting
district, next before election; idiots, insane persons, convicts,
Indians not taxed, minors and women are disqualified; aliens
who have declared their intention to become citizens of the
United States vote on the same terms as actual citizens. An
amendment of 1893 requires the exhibition of a poll-tax receipt
by every voter (except those " who make satisfactory proof that
they have attained the age of twenty-one years since the time of
assessing taxes next preceding " the election). There is nothing
in the constitution or laws of Arkansas with any apparent
tendency to disfranchise the negroes; there are statutory
provisions (1 866-1 867) against intermarriage of the races and
constitutional and statutory (1886-1887) provisions for separate
schools, a " Jim Crow " law (1891) requires railways to provide
separate cars for negroes, and a law (1893) proyides for separate
railway waiting-rooms for negroes. Giving or accepting a
challenge to a duel bars from office, but this survival of the
ante-bellum social life is to-day only reminiscent. Declared
atheists arc similarly disqualified. There is no constitutional
provision for a census. Marriage is pronounced a civil contract
A law for compulsory education was passed in 1009.
Finance. — The constitution makes 1 % on the assessed valua-
tion of property a maximum limit of state taxation for ordinary
expenses, but by an amendment of 1906 the legislature may levy
three mills on the dollar per annum for common schools; and
may "authorize school districts to levy by a vote of the qualified
electors of such district a tax not to exceed seven mills on the
dollar in any year for school purposes." The state debt in 1874
was $1 2,108,247, of which about $9,370,000 was incurred after the
Civil War for internal improvement schemes. This new debt was
practically repudiated in 1875 by a decision of the supreme court,
and completely set aside in 1884 by constitutional amendment.
Until 2900, when an adjustment of the matter was reached, there
was also another disputed debt to the national government,
owing to the collapse in 1830 of a so-called Real Estate Bank of
Arkansas, in which the state had invested more than $500,000
paid to it by the United States in exchange for Arkansas bonds
to be held as an investment for the Smithsonian Institution,
on which bonds the state defaulted after 1839. If the unac-
knowledged debt be included (as it often is; and hence the
necessity of reference to it), very few states— and those all
western or southern — have a heavier burden per capita. But
the acknowledged debt was in 1007 only $1,250,500, and this is
554
ARKANSAS
oot a true debt, being a permanent school fund that is not to be
paid off; of this total in 3% bonds, $1,134,500 is held by the
common schools and $116,000 by the state university. In net
combined state and local debt, Arkansas ranks very low among
the states of the Union. The hired labourer suffers from the
41 truck " system, taking his pay in board and living, in goods, in
trade on his employer's credit at the village store; the inde-
pendent farmer suffers in his turn from unlimited credit at the
same store, where he secures everything on the credit of his future
crops; and if he is reduced to borrow money, he secures it by
vesting the title to his property temporarily in his creditor.
His legal protections under such " title bonds " are much
slighter than under mortgages. Homesteads belonging to the
head of a family and containing 80 to 160 acres (according to
value) if in the country, or a lot of J to one acre (according to
value), if in town, village or city, are exempt from liability for
debts, excepting liens for purchase money, improvements or
taxes. A married man may not sell or mortgage a homestead
without his wife's consent.
Education—The legal beginnings of a public school system date
from 1843; m 1867 the firat tax was imposed for its support.
Only white children were regarded by the laws before Reconstruc-
tion days. There are now separate race schools, with terms of
equal length, and offering like facilities; the number of white
and coloured teachers employed is approximately in the same
proportion to the number of attending children of the respective
races; in negro districts two out of three school directors are
usually negroes. "The coloured race as a whole go to the
schools as regularly and as numerously in proportion as do the
whites " (Shinn) . Of the current expenses of the common schools
about three-fourths is borne by the localities; the state distri-
butes its contribution annually among the counties. There is also
a permanent school fund derived wholly from land grants from
the national government. The total expenditure for the schools
is creditable to the state; but before 1009 hardly half the school
population attended; and in general the rural conditions
of the state, the shortness of the school terms and the dependence
of the schools primarily upon local funds and local supervision,
make the schools of inadequate and quite varying excellence.
The average expenditure in 1006 for tuition per child enrolled
was $4-93, and the average length of the school term was only
eighty-one days. In June 1 906 there were x 102 school houses in
the state valued at $100 or less. In 1005-1906 the Pcabody Board
gave $2000 to aid rural schools, and in general it has done much
for the improvement of country public schools throughout the
state. In 1906 an amendment to the state constitution, greatly
increasing the tax resources available for educational work, was
passed by a large popular vote. The University of Arkansas was
opened at Fayetteville in 1 87 2. The law and medical faculties are
at Little Rock. A branch normal school, established 1873-187 5
at Pine Bluff, provides for coloured students, who enjoy the same
opportunities for work, and are accorded the same degrees, as the
students at Fayetteville; they are about a fourth as numerous.
In 1905-1906 there were 497 students in the college of liberal
arts, sciences and engineering, 548 in the preparatory school
and 26 in the conservatory of music and arts, all in Fayetteville;
171 in the medical school and 46 in the law school in Little
Rock; and 240 in the branch normal college at Fine Bluff. The
university and the normal school are supported by the Morrill
Fund and by state appropriations. The state still suffered in
1906 from the lack of a separate and special training school for
teachers; but in 1907 the legislature voted to establish a state
normal school Of the Morrill Fund (see Morrill, Justin
Smith), three-elevenths goes to the normal school. The
agricultural experiment station of the university dates from
1887. The financial support of the university has been light,
about three-fifths coming from the United States government.
Besides the university there are about a score of denominational
colleges or academies, of which half-a-dozen are for coloured
students. Among the large denominational colleges are
Philander Smith College, Little Rock (Methodist Episcopal,
1877); Ouachita College, Arkadclphia (Baptist, 1886); Hendrix
College, Conway (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1884); and
Arkansas College, Batesville (Presbyterian, 1872). There are few
libraries in Arkansas. In this matter her showing has long been
among the very poorest in the Union relatively to her population.
Daily papers are few in number. The state charitable institu-
tions—insane asylum, deaf-mute and blind institutes — and
the penitentiary, are at Little Rock.
Local government is of the ordinary southern county type,
without noteworthy variations. Municipal corporations rest-
upon a general state law, not upon individual charters. The
liquor question is left by the state to county {i.e. including
" local," or town) option, and prohibition is the most common
county law, the alternative being high-Licence.
History. — The first settlement by Europeans in Arkansas was
made in 1686 by the French at Arkansas Post (later the residence
of the French and Spanish governors, important as a trading post
in the earlier days of the American occupation, and the first
territorial capital, 18x0-1820). In 1720 a grant on the Arkansas
was made to John Law. In 1762 the territory passed to Spain,
in 1780 back to France, and in 1803 to the United States as a
part of the " Louisiana Purchase." Save in the beginnings of
western frontier trade, and in a great mass of litigation left to the
courts of later years by the curious and uncertain methods of land
delimitation that prevailed among the French and Spanish colon*
ists, the pre- American period of occupation has slight connexions
with the later period, and scant historical importance.
From 1804 to 1812 what is now Arkansas was part of the
district (and then the territory) of Louisiana, and from 1812 to
1 8-1 9 of the territory of Missouri. Its earliest county organiza-
tions date from this time. It was erected successively into a
territory of the first and second class by acts of Congress of the
2nd of March 1819 and the 11st of April 1820. By act of the
15th of June 1836 it was admitted into the Union as a slave
state.
There is little of general interest in the history of ante-bellum
days. Economic life centred in the slave plantation, and there
was remarkable development up to the Civil War. The decade
18x9-1829 saw the first newspaper (1819), the beginning of steam-
boating on Arkansas rivers, and the first weekly mail from the
east. Trade was largely confined to the rivers and freighting for
Sante F6 and Salt Lake before the war, but the first railway
entered the state in 1853. Social life was sluggish in some ways
and wild in others. An unhappy propensity to duelling, the
origin in Arkansas of the bowie-knife, — from an alleged use of
which Arkansas received the nickname, which it has always
retained, of the "toothpick state,"— and other backwoods
associations gave the state a reputation which to some extent has
survived in spite of many years of sober history. The questions
of the conduct of territorial affairs do not seem to have been
contested systematically on national party lines until about 1825.
The government of Arkansas before the Civil War was always in
the hands of a few families closely intermarried. From the
beginning the state has been unswervingly Democratic, save is
the Reconstruction years, though often with heavy Whig or
Republican minorities.
In February 1861 the people of Arkansas voted to hold a
convention to consider the state of public affairs. The conven-
tion assembled on the 4th of March. Secession resolutions were
defeated, and it was voted to submit to the people the question
whether there should be " co-operation " through the Lincoln
government, or " secession." The plan was endorsed of holding
a convention of all the states to settle the slavery question, and
delegates were chosen to the proposed Border State Convention
that was to meet at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 27th of May.
Then came the fall of Fort Sumter and the proclamation of
President Lincoln calling for troops to put down rebellion. The
governor of Arkansas curdy refused its quota. A quick surge of
ill-feeling, all the bitterer on account of the divided ■*ntfrmf»s
of the people, chilled loyalty to the Union. The convention re-
assembled on call of the governor, and on the 6th of May, with a
single dissentient voice, passed an ordinance of secession. It
then repealed its former vote submitting the question of s
ARKANSAS
555
to the people. Onthei6thof May Aifenssj became one of the
Confederate States of America.
In the yean of wax that followed, a very large proportion
of the able-bodied men of the state served in the armies of the
Confederacy; several regiments, some of coloured troops, served
the Union. Union sentiment was strongest in the north. In
1861-1863 various victories threw more than half the state,
mainly the north and east, under the Federal arms. Accordingly,
under a proclamation of the president, citizens within the
conquered districts were authorized to renew allegiance to the
Union, and a special election was ordered for March 1864, to
reorganize the state government. But meanwhile, a convention
of delegates chosen mainly at polls. opened at the army posts,
assembled in January 1864, abolished slavery, repudiated
secession and the secession war debt, and revised in minor details
the constitution of 1836, restricting the suffrage to whites. This
new fundamental law was promptly adopted by the people, ix.
by its friends, who alone voted. But the representatives of
Arkansas -under this constitution were never admitted to Congress.
The Federal and Confederate forces controlled at this time
different parts of the state; there was some ebb and flow of
military fortune in 1864, and for a short time two rival govern-
ments. Chaotic conditions followed the war. The fifteenth
legislature (April 2864 to April 1865) ratified the Thirteenth
Amendment, and passed laws against " bush-whacking," a term
used in the Civil War for guerilla warfare, especially as carried
on by pretended neutrals. Local militia, protecting none who
refused to join in the common defence, and all serving " not as
soldiers but as farmers mutually pledged to protect each other
from the depredations of outlaws who infest the state," strove
to secure such public order as was necessary to the gathering of
crops, so as " to prevent the starvation of the citizens " (governor's
circular, 1865) . Struggling in these difficulties, the government of
the state was upset by the first Reconstruction Act. The governor
in these years (1865-1868) was a Republican, the caster of the
single Union vote in the convention of 1861 j but the sixteenth
legislature (1866-1867) was largely Democratic. It undertook
to determine the rights of persons of African descent, and regret-
table conflict* followed. The first Reconstruction Act having
declared that " no legal state government or adequate protection
for life or property " existed in the " rebel states," Arkansas was
included in one of the military districts established by Congress.
A registration of voters, predominantly whites, was at once
carried through, and delegates were chosen for another constitu-
tional convention, which met at Little Rock in January 1868.
The secessionist element was voluntarily or perforce excluded.
This convention ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and framed
the third constitution of the state, which was adopted by a small
majority at a popular election, marred by various irregularities,
in March 1868. By its provisions negroes secured full political
rights, and all whites who had been excluded from registration for
the election of delegates to the convention were now practically
stripped of political privileges. The organization of Arkansas
being now acceptable to Congress, a bill admitting it to the Union
was passed over President Johnson's veto, and on the sand .of
June 1868 the admission was consummated.
Arkansas now became for several years Republican, and
suffered considerably from the rule of the " carpet-baggers."
The debt of the sUte was increased about $9,3 7 5,000 from 1868 to
1874, largely for railroad and levee schemes; much of the money
was misappropriated, and in a case involving the payment of
railway aid bonds the action of the legislature in pledging the
credit of the state was held nugatory by the state supreme court
in 1875 on the ground that, contrary to the constitution, the bond
issue had never been referred to popular vote. An amendment
to the constitution approved by a popular vote in 1884 provided
that the General Assembly should " have no power to levy any
tax, or make any appropriation, to pay " any of the bonds issued
by legislative action in x868 t 1869 and 1871. The current expenses
of the state in the years of Reconstruction were also enormously
increased. The climax of the Reconstruction period was the so-
called Baxter-Brooks war.
Elisha Baxter (1827-1800) vat the regular Republican candi-
date for governor in 1872. He was opposed by a disaffected
Republican faction known as " brindletails," or, as they called
themselves, " reformers," led by Joseph Brooks (1821-1877), and
supported by the Democrats. Baxter was irregularly elected.
The election was contested, and his choice was confirmed by
the legislature, the court of last resort in such cases. He soon
showed a willingness to rule as a non-partisan, and favoured
the re-enfranchisement of white citizens. This would have
put the Democrats again in power, and they rallied to Baxter,
while the Brooks party now assumed the name of " regulars," and
received the support of the " carpet-bag " and negro elements.
After Baxter had been a year in office Brooks received a
judgment of ouster against him from a state circuit judge, and
got possession of the public buildings (April 1874). The state
flew to arms. The legislature called for Federal intervention
(Ma/ 1874), and Federal troops maintained neutrality while
investigations were conducted by a committee sent out by
Congress. As a result, President Grant pronounced for Baxter,
and the Brooks forces disbanded.
The chief result was another convention. In 1873 the article
of the constitution which had disfranchised the whites was
repealed, and the Democrats thus regained power. By an over-
whelming majority the people now voted for another convention,
which (July to October 1874) framed the present constitution.
It removed all disfranchisement, and embraced equitable amnesty
and exemption features. It also took away all patronage from
the governor, reduced his term to two years, forbade him to
proclaim martial law or suspend the writ of habeas corpus, and
abolished all registration laws: all these provisions being reflec-
tions of Reconstruction struggles. The people ratified the new
constitution on the 13th of October 1874. After Reconstruc-
tion the sute again became Democratic, and the main interest
of its history has been the progress of economic development.
The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of
Territorial.
James Miller 1 1810-18*5
George Izard 1825-1828
John Pope* 1820-183$
William S. Fulton 1835-1836
State.
James S. Conway 1836-1840 Democrat
Archibald Yett* 1840-1844
Thomas S. Drew 4 1844-1840 „
JohnS. Roane 1840-1852 „
Klias N* Conway .... 1852-1860 „
Henry M. Rector* 1860-1862 „
Harris Flannigan' .... 1863-^1865 „
Isaac Murphy 7 1864-1868 Republican
C. H. Smith* 1867-1868 „
Powell Clayton 1868-1871 „
OsraA. Hadley* 1871-1873 »
Elisha Baxter ..... 1873-1874 »
August H- Garland .... 1874-1877 Democrat
William R. Miller 1877-1*81 „
Thomas J. Churchill .... 1881-1883 „
James H. Berry 1883-1885 „
Simon P. Hughes ..... 1885-1889 ,.
James P. Eagle 1889-1893 „
* During this period Robert Crittenden, the secretary of the
territory, was frequently the acting governor.
1 Robert Crittenden was acting governor in 1 828-1 829.
* Samuel Adams was acting«governor from the 29th of April to
the oth of November 1844- . „ .
* R. C. Byrd was acting governor from the nth of. January to
the 19th of April 1849. . . . .
* Thomas Fletcher was acting governor from the 4th to the 15th
of November 1862.
•Confederate governor.
* Union governor.
* United States military (sub) governor.
* Acting governor.
SS6
ARKANSAS CITY— ARKWRIGHT
Stat*— continued.
William M. Fishback .... 1893-1895 Democrat
James P. Clarke ..... 1895-1897
Daniel W. Jones 1897-1901
Jefferson Davis 1901-1907
John S. Little 1907-1908
X. 0. Pfndall, Acting Gov. . . . 1908
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ARKANSAS CITY, a dty of Cowley county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
situated near the S. boundary of the state, in the fork of the
Arkansas and Walnut rivers. Pop. (1800) 8347; (1000) 6140,
of whom 30a were negroes; (1905) 7634; (1910) 7508. The dty
is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe\ the Missouri
Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley and
the Kansas South- Western railways. To the south is the Chilocco
Indian school (in Key county, Oklahoma) , established by the U.S.
government in 1884. A canal joining the Arkansas and Walnut
riversfurnishes good water power. The manufactories include flour
mills, packing establishments, a creamery and a paint factory.
The dty is situated in the midst of a rich agricultural region and
is a supply centre for southern Kansas and Oklahoma, with large
jobbing interests. The munidpality owns and operates the water-
works. Arkansas City, first known as Creswell, was settled in
1870, was chartered as a dty under its present name in 187 a
and was rechartered in 1880.
ARKLOW, a seaport and market town of Co. Wicklow, Ireland,
in the cast parliamentary division, 49 m. S. of Dublin, by the
Dublin & South-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4944. Sea-
fisheries are prosecuted, and there are oyster-beds on the coast,
but the produce requires to be freed from a peculiar flavour by the
purer waters of the Welsh and English coast before it is fit for
food. The produce of the copper and lead mines of the Vale of
A voca is shipped from the port. There are cordi te and explosives
works, established by Messrs Kynoch of Birmingham, England.
In 1 88a an act was passed providing for the improvement of
the harbour and for the appointment of harbour commissioners.
The town hall and the Protestant church (1899) were gifts of the
earl of Carysfort, in whose property the town is situated. There
are slight ruins of an andent castle of the Ormondes, demolished in
1649 by Cromwell. On the 9th of June 1 798 the Irish insurgents,
attacking the town, were defeated by the royal troops near Arklow
Bridge, and their leader, Father Michael Murphy, was killed.
ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD (1732-1793), English inventor,
was born at Preston in Lancashire, on the 23rd of December 173a,
of parents in hunfble drcumstanccs. He was the youngest of
thirteen children, and received but a very indifferent education.
After serving his apprenticeship in his native town, he established
himself as a barber at Bolton about 1750, and later amassed a
little property from dealing in human hair and dyeing it by a
process of his own. This business he gave up about 1 767 in order
to devote himself to the construction of the spinning frame. The
spinning jenny, which was patented by James Hargreaves
(d. 2778), a carpenter of Blackburn, L ancas h ire, in 1770, though
he had invented it some years earlier, gave the means of spinning
twenty or thirty threads at once with no more labour than had
previously been required to spin a single thread. The thread
spun by the jenny could not, however, be used except as weft,
being destitute of the firmness or hardness required in the
longitudinal threads or warp. Arkwright supplied this deficiency
by the invention of the spinning-frame, which spins a vast number
of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness.
The precise date of the invention is not known; but in 1767 he
employed John Kay, a watchmaker at Warrington, to assist htm
in the preparation of the parts of his machine, and he took out a
patent for it in 1769. The first model was set up in the parlour
of the house belonging to the free grammar school at Preston.
This invention having been brought to a fairly advanced stage,
he removed to Nottingham in 1768, accompanied by Kay and
John Smalley of Preston, and there erected his first spinning
mill, which was worked by horses. But his operations were at
first greatly fettered by want of capital, until Jedediah Strati
(?.».), having satisfied himself of the value of the machines, entered
with his partner, Samuel Need, into partnership with him, and
enabled him in 1771 to build a second factory, on a much larger
scale, St Cromford in Derbyshire, the machinery oi which was
turned by a water-wheel. A fresh patent, taken oat in 1775,
covered several additional improvements in the processes of
carding, roving and spinning. As the value of his processes
became known, he began to be troubled with infringements of his
patents, and in 178 1 he took action in the courts to vindicate his
rights. In the first case, against Colonel Mordaant, who was
supported by a combination of manufacturers, the decision was
unfavourable to him, on the sole ground that the description of
the machinery in the specification was obscure and indistinct. In
consequence he prepared a " case," which be at one time intended
to lay before parliament, as the foundation of an application for
an act for relief. But this intention was subsequently abandoned;
and in a new trial (Arkwright v. Nightingale) in February 178s,
the presiding judge having expressed himself favourably with
respect to the sufficiency of the specification, a verdict was given
for Arkwright. On this, as on the former trial, nothing was
stated against the originality of the invention.
In consequence of these conflicting verdicts, the whole matter
was brought, by a writ of scire facias, before the court of King's
Bench, to have the validity of the patent finally settled, and it
was not till this third trial, which took place in June 1785, that
Ark wright's claim to the inventions which formed the subject
of the patent was disputed. To support this new allegation,
Arkwright's opponents brought forward, for the first time,
Thomas Highs, or Hayes, a reed-maker at Bolton, who stated
that he had invented a machine for spinning by rollers previously
to 1 768, and that he had employed the watchmaker Kay to make
a model of that machine. Kay himself was produced to prove
that he had communicated that model to Arkwright, and that
this was the real source of all his pretended inventions. Having
no idea that any attempt was to be made to overturn the patent
on this new ground, Arkwright's counsel were not prepared with
evidence to repel this statement, and the verdict went against
him. On a motion for a new trial on the 10th of November of
the same year it was stated that he was furnished with irfidavits
contradicting the evidence that had been given by Kay and
others with respect to the originality of the invention; bat the
court refused to grant a new trial, on the ground that, what-
ever might be the fact as to the question of originality, the
defidency in the specification was enough to sustain the verdict,
and the cancellation of the patents was ordered a few days
afterwards. His fortunes, however, were not thereby seriously
affected, for by this time his business capadty and organising
skill had enabled him to consolidate his position, in spite of the
difficulties he had encountered not only from rival manufacturers
but also from the working classes, who in 1779 displayed their
antipathy to labour-saving appliances by destroying a large buH
he had erected near Chorley.
Though a man of great personal strength, Arkwright never
enjoyed good health, and throughout his career of invention and
ARLES
557
discovery lie laboured under a severe asthmatic affection. A.
complication of disorders at length terminated his life on the 3rd
of August 1792, at his works at Cromford. He was knighted in
1786 when he presented a congratulatory address from the
wapentake of Wirksworth to George IIL, on his escape from the
attempt on his life by Margaret Nicholson.
ARLES, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 54 m. N.W.
of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1006) 16,191. A canal unites Aries
with the harbour of Bouc on the Mediterranean. Aries stands on
the left bank of the Rhone, just below the point at which the river
divides to form its delta. A tubular bridge unites it with the
suburb of Trinquetaille on the opposite bank. The town is
hemmed in on the east by the railway line from Lyons to
Marseilles, on the south by the Canal de Ccaponne. Its streets
are narrow and irregular, and, away from the promenades which
border it on the south, there is little animation. In the centre
of the town stand the Place de la Republique, a spacious square
overlooked by the hotel de ville, the museum, and the old
cathedral of St Trophime, the finest Romanesque church in
Provence. Founded in the 7th century, St Trophime has been
several times rebuilt, and was restored in 1870. Its chief portal,
which dates from the iath century, is a masterpiece of graceful
arrangement and rich carving. The interior, plain in itself,
contains interesting sculpture. The choir opens into a beautiful
cloister, the massive vaulting of which. is supported on heavy
piers adorned with statuary, between which intervene slender
columns arranged in pairs and surmounted by delicately carved
capitals. Two of the galleries are Romanesque, while two
are Gothic Aries has two other churches of the Romanesque
period, and others of later date. The hotel de ville, a building
of the 17th century, contains the library. Its clock tower, sur-
mounted by a statue of Mars, dates from the previous century.
The museum, occupying an old Gothic church, is particularly
rich in Roman remains and in early Christian sarcophagi; there
is also a museum of Provencal curiosities. The tribunal of
commerce and the communal college are the chief public institu-
tions. Aries is not a busy town and its port is of little importance.
There are, however, flour mills, oil and soap works, and the
Faris-Lyon-Mediterranee Railway Company have large work-
shops. Sheep-breeding is a considerable industry in the vicinity.
The women of Aries have long enjoyed a reputation for marked
beauty, but the distinctive type is fast disappearing owing to their
intermarriage with strangers who have immigrated to the town.
Aries still possesses many monuments of Roman architecture
and art, the most remarkable being the ruins of an amphitheatre
(the Arines), capable of containing 25,000 spectators, which, in
the xrth and 12th centuries, was flanked with massive towers,
of which three are still standing. There are also a theatre, in
which, besides the famous Venus of Aries, discovered in 1651,
many other remains have been found; an ancient obelisk of
a single block, 47 ft. high, standing since 1676 in the Place de
la Republique; the ruins of the palace of Constantine, the
forum, the thermae and the remains of the Roman ramparts
and of aqueducts. There is, besides, a Roman cemetery known
as the Aliscamps (Elysii Cam pi), consisting of a short avenue
once bordered by tombs, of which a few still remain.
The ancient- town, Article, was an important place at the
time of the invasion of Julius Caesar, who made it a settlement
for his veterans. It was pillaged in a.d. 270, but restored and
embellished by Constantine, who made it his principal residence,
and founded what is now the suburb of Trinquetaille. Under
Honorius, it became the seat of the prefecture of the Gauls and
one of the foremost cities in the western empire. Its bishopric
founded by St Trophimus in the 1st century, was in the
5th century the primatial see of Gaul; it was suppressed in
1700. After the fall of the Roman empire the city passed into
the power of the Visigoths, and rapidly declined. It was
plundered in 730 by the Saracens, but in the 10th century became
the capital of the kingdom of Aries (see below). In the 12th
century it was a free city, governed by a podesta and consuls
after the model of the Italian republics, which it also emulated in
commerce and navigation. In 1251 it submitted to Charles L
of Anjou, and from that time onwards, followed the fortunes of
Provence. A number of ecclesiastical synods have been held at
Aries, as in 314 (see below), 354, 45a and 475-
See V. Clair, Monuments oV A ties (1837) : J. J. Estrangin, Description
de la title d Aries (1845) J F. Bcissier. Le Pays d'Artet (1889) ; Roger
Peyre, Mmes t Aries, Orange (1903). (K. Ta.)
Synod of Aries (314). — As negotiations held at Rome in October
313 had failed to settle the dispute between the Catholics and the
Donatists, the emperor Constantine summoned the first general
council of his western half of the empire to meet at Aries by the
1st of August following. The attempt of Seeck to date the synod
316 presupposes that the emperor was present in person, which is
highly improbable. Thirty-three bishops are included in the most
authentic list of signatures, among them three from Britain,—
York, London and " Colonia Londmensium " (probably a corrup-
tion of Lindensium, or Lincoln, rather than of Legionensium or
Caerleon-on-Usk), The twenty-two canons deal chiefly with the
discipline of clergy and people. Husbands of adulterous wives are
advised not to remarry during the lifetime of the guilty party.
Reiteration of baptism in the name of the Trinity is forbidden.
For the consecration of a bishop at least three bishops are
required. It is noteworthy that British representatives assented
to Canon I., providing that Easter be everywhere celebrated
on the same day: the later divergence between Rome and the
Celtic church is due to improvements in the supputalio Romana
adopted at Rome in 343 and subsequently.
For the canons see Masai ii. 471 S. ; Brum ii. 107 ft*. ; Lauchert
26 ff. See also W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian
Antiquities (Boston, 1875). t. 141 ff. (contains also notices of later
synods at Aries); W. Bright, Chapters of Early English Church
History (and edition, Oxford, 1888), 9 f.j Herzog-Hauck, Realency*
htopddie (3rd edition), ii. 59, x. 238 ff. ; W. Mfiller. Kirchengeschichte
(2nd edition by H. von Schubert, Tubingen, 1902), i. 417. For full
titles see Council. (W. W. R.*)
ARLES, kingdom of, the name given to the kingdom formed
about 933 by the union of the old kingdoms of Provence (?.t)
or Cisjurane Burgundy, and Burgundy (q.v.) Transjurane, and
bequeathed in 1032 by its last sovereign, Rudolph III., to the
emperor Conrad II. It comprised the countship of Burgundy
{Prancke-ConUk), part of which is now Switzerland (the dioceses
of Geneva, Lausanne, Sion and part of that of Basel), the
Lyonnais, and the whole of the territory bounded by the Alps.
the Mediterranean and the Rhone; on the right bank of the
Rhone it further included the Vivarais. It is only after the end
of the 1 2th century that the name " kingdom of Aries" is applied
to this district; formerly it was known generally as the kingdom
of Burgundy, but under the Empire the name of Burgundy came
to be limited more and more to the countship of Burgundy, and
the districts lying beyond the Jura. The authority of Rudolph
III. over the chief lords of the land, the count of Burgundy and
the count of Maurienne, founder of the house of Savoy, was
already merely nominal, and the Franconian emperors (1039-
1 1 as), whose visits to the country were rare and of short duration,
did not establish their power any more firmly. During the first
fifty years of their domination they could rely on the support of
the ecclesiastical feudatories, who generally favoured their cause,
but the investiture struggle, in which the prelates of the kingdom
of Aries mostly sided with the pope, deprived the Germanic
sovereigns even of this support. The emperors, on the other
hand, realised early that their absence from the country was a
grave source of weakness; in 1043 Henry III. conferred on
Rudolph, count of Rheinfelden (afterwards duke of Swabia), the
title of dux el rector Burgundioe, giving him authority over the
barons of the northern part of the kingdom of Aries. Towards
the middle of the 12th century Lothair II. revived this system,
conferring the rectorate on Conrad of Z&hringen, in whose family
it remained hereditary up to the death of the last representative
of the house, Bcrthold V., in 1218; and it was the lords of
ZHhringen who were foremost in defending the cause of the
Empire against its chief adversaries, the counts of Burgundy,
tn the time of the Swabian emperors, the Germanic sovereignty
in the kingdom of Aries was again, during almost the whole period,
558
ARLINGTON
merely nominal, and it was only in consequence of fortuitous
circumstances that certain of the heads of the Empire were able
to exercise a real authority in these parts. Frederick I., by his
marriage with Beatrix (1x56), had become uncontested master
of the countship of Burgundy; Frederick II., who was more
powerful in Italy than his predecessors had been, and was extend-
ing his activities into the countries of the Levant, found Provence
more accessible to his influence, thanks to the commercial
relations existing between the great cities of this country and
Italy and the East. Moreover, the heretics and enemies of the
church, who were numerous in the south, upheld the emperor in
his struggle against the pope. Henry VII. also, thanks to his
good relations with the princes of Savoy, succeeded in exercising
a certain influence over a part of the kingdom of Aries. The
emperors further tried to make their power more effective by
delegating it, first to a viceroy, William of Baux, prince of
Orange (1215), then to an .imperial vicar, William of Montferrat
(1220), who was succeeded by Henry of Revello and William of
Manupello. In spite of this, the history of the kingdom of Aries
in the 13th century, and still more in the 14th, is distinguished
particularly by the decline of the imperial authority and the
progress of French influence in the country. In 1246 the
marriage of Charles, the brother of Saint Louis, with Beatrice;
the heiress to the countship of Provence, caused Provence to pass
into the hands of the house of Anjou, and many plans were made
to win the whole of the kingdom for a prince of this house. At
the beginning of the 14th century the bishops of Lyons and
Viviers recognized the suzerainty of the king of France, and in
1343 Humbert II., dauphin of Viennois, made a compact with
the French king Philip VL that on his death his inheritance
should pass to a son or a grandson of the French king. Humbert,
who was perhaps the most powerful noble in Aries, was induced
to take this step as he had just lost his only son, and Philip had
already cast covetous eyes on his lands. Then in 1349, being in
want of money, he agreed to sell his possessions outright, and thus
viennois, or Dauphin*, passed into the hands of Philip's grand-
son, afterwards King Charles V. The emperor Charles IV. took
an active part in the affairs of the kingdom, but without any con-
sistent policy, and in 1378 he, in turn, ceded the imperial vicariate
of the kingdom to the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VI.
This date may be taken as marking the end of the history of the
kingdom of Aries, considered as an independent territorial area.
See the monumental work of P. Fournicr, he Royaume d*ArUs et de
Vienne (Paris, 1 890); Leroux, Recherehes critiques sur Us relations
faiitiauts de la France avet I'AUemagne dt 1202 a ijj8 (Paris, 1882).
or tnc early history of the kingdom, L. Jacob, Le Royaume de Bour-
gogne sous Us empereurs franconiens {1038-1 129), (Paris, 1906). The
question of the nature and extent of the rights of the Empire over the
kingdom of Aries has given rise, ever since the 16th century, to
numerous juridical polemics; the chief dissertations published on
this subject are indicated in A. Leroux, BiMiographte des conflits
entre la France et V Empire (Paris, 1902). (R. Po.)
ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET, Earl or (1618-1685),
English statesman, son of Sir John Bennet of Dawley, Middlesex,
and of Dorothy Crofts, was baptized at Little Saxham, Suffolk,
in 161 8, and was educated at Westminster school and Christ
Church, Oxford. He gained some distinction as a scholar and a
poet, and was originally destined for holy orders. In 1643 he
was secretary to Lord Dlgby at Oxford, and was employed as
a messenger between the queen and Ormonde in Ireland. Subse-
quently be took up arms for the king, and received a wound in the
skirmish at Andover in 1644, the scar of which remained on his
face through life. 1 And after the defeat of the royal cause he
travelled in France and Italy, joined the exiled royal family in
1650, and in 1654 became official secretary to James on Charles's
recommendation, who had already been attracted by his
"pleasant and agreeable humour."* In March 1657 he was
knighted, and the same year was sent as Charles's agent to Madrid,
where he remained, endeavouring to obtain assistance for the
royal cause, till after the Restoration. On his return to England
in 166 x he was made keeper of the privy purse, and became the
1 See his portrait in the earl of Arlington's Letters to Sir W.
Temble, by Tho. Babington (1701).
* Clarendon's Life and Continuation, 397.
prime favourite. One of his duties was the proruriag and
management of the royal mistresses, in which his success gained
him great credit Allying himself with Lady CasUemaine, he
encouraged Charles's increasing dislike to Clarendon; and he
was made secretary of state in October 1662 in spite of the opposi-
tion of Clarendon, who had to find him a seat in parliament He
represented Callington from 1661 till 1665, but appears never
to have taken part in debate. He served subsequently xm the
committees for explaining the Irish Act of Settlement and for
Tangier*. In 1663 he obtained a peerage as Baron Arlington of
Arlington, or Harlington, in Middlesex, and in 1607 was appointed
one of the postmasters-general. The control of foreign affairs was
entrusted to him, and he was chiefly responsible for the attack
on the Smyrna fleet and for the first Dutch War. In 1665 be
advised Charles to gran t liberty of conscience, but this was merely
a concession to gain money during the war; and he showed great
activity later in oppressing the nonconformists. On the death of
Southampton, whose administration he had attacked, his great
ambition, the treasurership, was not satisfied; and on the fall of
Clarendon, against whom he had intrigued, he did not, though
becoming a member of the Cabal ministry, obtain the supreme
influence which he had expected; for Buckingham first shared,
and soon surpassed him, in the royal favour. With Buckingham
a sharp rivalry sprang up, and they only combined forces when
endeavouring to bring about some evil measure, such as the rata
of the great Ormonde, who was an opponent of their policy and
their schemes. Another object of jealousy to Arlington was Sir
William Temple, who achieved a great popular success in 1668
by the conclusion of the Triple Alliance; Arlington endeavoured
to procure his removal to Madrid, and entered with alacrity into
Charles's plans for destroying the whole policy embodied in the
treaty, and for making terms with France. He refused a bribe
from Louis XIV., but allowed his wife to accept a gift of 10/500
crowns'; in 1670 he was the only minister besides the Roman
Catholic Clifford to whom the first secret treaty of Dover (May
1670), one clause of which provided for Charles's declaration of
his conversion to Romanism, was confided (see Chaules II.);
and he was the chief actor in the deception practised upon the rest
of the council. 4 He supported several other pernicious measures
—the scheme for rendering the king's power absolute by force of
arms; the " stop of the exchequer," involving a repudiation of
the state debt in 167a; and the declaration of indulgence the
same year, " that we might keep ail quiet at home whilst we are
busy abroad."* On the 22nd of April 1672 he was created an
earl, and on the 15 th of June obtained the Garter; the same
month he proceeded with Buckingham on a missioo, first to
William at the Hague, and afterwards to Louis at Utrecht
endeavouring to force upon the Dutch terms of peace which were
indignantly refused. But Arlington's support of the court policy
was entirely subordinate to personal interests; and after the
appointment of Clifford in November 1672 to the treasurership,
his jealousy and mortification, together with his alarm at the
violent opposition aroused in parliament, caused him to veer
over to the other side. He advised Charles in Maich 1673 to
submit the legality of the declaration of indulgence to the House
of Lords, and supported the Test Act of the same year, which
compelled Clifford to resign: He joined the Dutch party, and in
order to make bis peace with his new allies, disclosed the secret
treaty of Dover to the staunch Protestants Ormonde and
Shaftesbury.' Arlington had, however, lost the confidence of afl
parties, and these efforts to procure support met with little
success. On the 1 5th of January 1674 he was impeached by the
Commons, the specific charges being "popery," corruption and
the betrayal of his trust— Buckingham in his own defence having
accused him the day before of being the chief instigator of the
French and anti-Protestant policy, of the scheme of governing by
• Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, by Sir John Dalrympte
(1790). i. 125.
*lbid. xuetscq.
• Arlington to Sir B. Cascoyn, in J. T. Brown's Miscellanea Amtka
(1702). 66.
• On the authority of Colbert, 20th November 1673; Dalrympfc's
Memoirs, u 131.
ARLINGTON— ARM
559
the array, of responsibility for the Dutch War, and of embezzle-
ment. But the motion for his removal, owing chiefly to the
influence of his brother-in-law, the popular Lord Ossory, was
rejected by 166 votes to 1*7. His escape could not, however,
pi ev cnt his fall, and he resigned the secretaryship on the nth of
September 1674, being appointed lord chamberlain instead.
In 1675 he made another attempt to gain favour with the parlia-
ment by supporting measures against France and against the
Roman Catholics, and by joining in the pressure put upon Charles
to remove James from the court. In November he went on a
mission to the Hague, with the popular objects of effecting a
peace and of concluding an alliance with William and James's
daughter Mary. In this he entirely failed, and he returned home
completely discredited. He had again been disappointed of the
treasurership when Danby succeeded Clifford; Charles having
declared " that he bad too much kindness for him to let him have
it, for he was not fit for the office." 1 His intrigues with dis-
contented persons in parliament to stir up an opposition to his
successful rival came to nothing. From this time, though
lingering on at court, he possessed no influence, and was treated
with scanty respect. It was safe to ridicule his person and
behaviour, and it became a common jest for " some courtier to put
a black patch upon his nose and strut about with a white staff in
his hand in order to make the king merry at his expense." * He
was appointed a commissioner of the treasury in March 1679,
was included in Sir William Temple's new modelled council the
same year, and was a member of the inner cabinet which was
almost immediately formed. In 1681 he was made lord lieutenant
of Suffolk. He died on the 28th of July 1685, and was buried at
Euston, where he had bought a large estate and had carried out
extensive building operations. His residence in London wasGoring
House, on the site of which was built the present Arlington Street.
Arlington was a typical statesman of the Restoration, possess-
ing outwardly an attractive personality, and according to Sir
W. Temple " the greatest skill of court and the best turns of art
in particular conversation," • but thoroughly unscrupulous and
self-seeking, without a spark of patriotism, faithless even to a
bad cause, and regarding public office solely as a means of
procuring pleasure and profit. His knowledge of foreign affairs
and of foreign languages, gained during his residence abroad,
was considerable, but long absence from England had also taught
him a cosmopolitan indifference to constitutions and religions,
and a careless disregard for English public opinion and the
essential interests of the country. According to Clarendon, he
" knew no more of the constitution and laws of England than he
did of China, nor had he in truth a care or tenderness for church
or state, but believed France was the best pattern in the world." *
He was one of the chief promoters of the attempt to reintroduce
into England arbitrary government after the French model, not
because he imagined an absolute monarchy essential to the well-
being and security of the state, but because undersuch an adminis-
tration the favourites of a king enjoyed far greater privileges and
pro6ts than under a constitutional government. Of the same
egotistical character was his religion, towards which his atti-
tude was similar to that of Charles II. himself. He was credited
with having inclined the king towards Romanism. Before the
Restoration he had attended mass with the king abroad, and in
opposition to Lord Bristol had urged Charles to declare publicly
his conversion in order to obtain the long-expected succour from
the foreign powers. But hfa religion sat lightly upon him as it
did upon his master, and it was often convenient to disguise it.
Like the king he continued to profess and practise Protestantism,
and spent large sums in restoring the church at Euston; and,
unlike Clifford, he took the Test in 1673 an d remained in office,
successfully concealing his faith till on his deathbed, when he
declared himself an adherent of Roman Catholicism.*
1 James's statement In Maepherson's Off. Pap. I 67.
* Eachard'a History of England (1720), 91 1.
* Memoirs of W. TtmpU, ed. byT. P. Courtenay, H. 27-
4 Life and Con. 404.
'Cf. North's Exomen, 26; Dairy m pie's Mem. (1790) i. 40;
Pepys's Diary (Feb. 17. 1663): Cai. of Clarendon St. Pap. tii. 295;
T. Carte's Life of Ik* Duke of Ormonde (1851). iv. 109.
He married Isabella of Beerwaert, daughter of Louis of Nassau,
by whom he had one daughter, Isabella, who married Henry,
duke of Grafton, the natural son of Charles IX. and Lady
Castlemainc.
Authorities.— In addition to those mentioned above, see Bio*
graphic Britannica (Kippis), accurate and careful, but too partial,
and written without complete knowledge of Arlington's career;
Wood's Fasti Oxonienses (Bliss), ii. 274- "■-' -"• — ' ■-•«-•- t—
I. Macpheraon (17"'
N.S., vols. 34, ~
Sir R. PanskoA __
Parry (1817); Add. MSS. Bnt. Mus. indexes; CaL of State Pap.
Dam., and Hist. MSS. Comm t —MSS. of Marquis of Ormonde, and
Duke of Bucdeugh at Montagu House, Ii. 49. (P. C. Y.)
ARLINGTON, a township of Middlesex county in E. Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A. Pop> (1800) 5629; (1900) 8603, of whom
2387 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,187 Area, 5 J sq. m.
It is served by the Boston & Maine railway. It has pleasant
residential villages (Arlington, Arlington Heights, &c.) with
attractive environs, and there is an excellent public library (the
Robbins library). At Arlington Heights there arc several well-
known sanatorium*. Spy Pond (about 100 acres) is one of the
prettiest bodies of water in the vicinity of Boston. Arlington is
an important centre for market-gardening (in hot-houses), and
along Mill Brook, in the township, are several factories, including
chrome works, a large mill and a manufactory of pianoforte
cases. In 1762 Arlington was made a " precinct " of Cambridge
(of which it was a part from 1635 to 2807) under the name of
Menotomy. In 1807 it became a separate township under the
name (retained until 1867) of West Cambridge.
See B. and W. R. Cuttertfisloryoflhc Town.of Arlington . . . 1637-
1870 (Boston, 1880); and C. S. Parker, The Town of Arlington, Past
and Present (Arlington, 1907).
ARLON, the chief town of the Belgian province of Luxemburg,
situated on a hill about 1240 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1904)
10,894. It is a very ancient town, and in the time of the Romans
was called Orolaunum, being a station on the Antoninian way
connecting Reims and Treves. Authorities dispute as to the
origin of the name, some tracing it to Ara Lunae, a temple of
Diana having been erected here, while others more plausibly
derive it from the Celtic words or (mount) and lun (wooded).
Nowadays the woods have disappeared, and Arlon is chiefly
notable for the extensive views obtainable from the church of St
Donat which crowns the peak. Arlon is no longer fortified.
When Vauban by order of Louis XIV. turned it into a fortress
in 167 1 great damage was done to the old Roman wall, the foun-
dations of which were practically intact. In the local museum
are many Roman antiquities collected on the spot, including
several large sculptural stones similar to the celebrated monument
at Igel near Treves. In the middle ages Arlon was the scat of
a powerful countship (later marquisate), held after 1235 by the
dukes of Luxemburg. As an important strategic position it was
several times seized by the French, e.g. in 1647 and 1651.
ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is
or, to join or fit ; cf. the Lat. or mus, shoulder, and the plural word
arma, weapons, Gr. dp/ios , joint, and the reduplicated LpapLoKtiv,
to join), the human upper limb from the shoulder to the wrist,
and the fore limb of an animal. (See Anatomy : Superficial a nd
A rtistic, and Skeleton : A ppendicular.) The word is also used of
any projecting limb, as of a crane, or balance, of a branch of a
tree, and so, in a transferred sense, of the branch of a river or
a nerve. Through the Fr. armes, from the Lat. arma, and so in
English usually in the plural " arms," comes the use of the word
for weapons of offence and defence, and in many expressions such
as " men-at-arms," " assault-at-arms," and the like, and for the
various branches, artillery, cavalry, infantry, of which an army
is composed, the " arms of the service." " Arms " or " armorial
bearings " are the heraldic devices displayed by knights in battle
on the defensive armour or embroidered on the sure oat worn over
the armour and hence called " coats of arms." These became
hereditary and thus are borne by families, and similar insignia are
used by nations, cities, episcopal sees and corporations generally.
(See Heraldry.)
560
ARMADA— ARMADILLO
ARMADA, THR. The Spanish or Invincible Armada was the
great fleet (in Spanish, armada) sent against England by Philip II.
in 1 $88. The marquis of Santa Cruz, to whom the command had
first been given, died on the 9th of February 1588 (according to
the Gregorian calendar then used by Spain; on the 31st of
January by the Julian calendar used in England; the other dates
given in this article will be in Old Style, or Julian calendar).
Santa Cruz was succeeded by Don Alonso Perez de Guzman, duke
of Medina Sidonia, a noble of large estate, but of no experience or
capacity, who took the command unwillingly, and only on the
reiterated order of the king. The fleet was collected at Lisbon,
after many delays, and sailed on the 20th of May 1588. Its
nominal strength was 13a vessels, of 50,100 tons, carrying 21,621
soldiers and 8066 sailors. But from a third to a half of the
vessels were transports, galleys or very small boats, and some
of them never reached the Channel The effective force was
far below the paper strength. On the toth of June, when the
Armada had rounded Cape Finisterre, it was scattered by squalls.
Some of the vessels went on to the appointed rendezvous at the
Scilly Isles, but the majority anchored on the north coast of
Spain Medina Sidonia, who found many defects in his fleet, did
not finally sail till the 1 2th of July. On the English side all the
royal navy, and such armed merchant ships as could be obtained
from the ports, had been collected under the command of the
lord high admiral Howard of Effingham, who had with him,
Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher as subordinate admirals. The
number of vessels is put at 197, but the majority were very small.
It is impossible to state with confidence what were the relative
numbers of guns carried by the two fleets. The Spaniards had
more pieces, but their gunnery was inferior. The English fleet
carried 1 6,000 or 17,000 men, of whom the large majority were
sailors. About 100 of their ships were at Plymouth with the
lord high admiral. The others were in the Downs with Lord
Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter, to co-operate with a
Dutch squadron under Justinus of Nassau in blockading the
Flemish ports, then occupied by the Spanish army of the duke of
Parma. The object was to prevent the proposed junction of the
forces of Medina Sidonia and Parma. On the 20th of July the
Armada was seen off the Lizard. It sailed past Plymouth, and
was followed by the English fleet. The Spaniards, who were
heavy sailers, and were hampered by the transports, were much
harassed by the more active English, and were defeated in all their
attempts to board, which it was their wish to do in order to make
use of their superior numbers of men. The flagship of the
squadron of Andalucia, " Nuestra Seflora del Rosario " com-
manded by Don Pedro de Valdcs, was crippled, fell behind and
had to surrender. On the 25th of July, when the fleets were near
the Isle of Wight, a shift of the wind ottered the Spaniards a
chance of bringing on a close action, but it soon changed again.
The English fleet, of which part had been in some danger, escaped
uninjured, and the Spaniards stood on. They anchored on the
26th of July at Calais. The duke of M edina Sidonia now sent an
officer to Parma, calling on him to come to sea and join in a
landing on the shore of England. But Parma could not leave
port in face of Justinus of Nassau's squadron. While these
messages were going and coming, Lord Howard had been joined
by Lord Henry Seymour and Sir William Winter from the
Downs. A council of war was held, to decide on the measures to
be taken to assail the Spaniards at Calais. The course taken was
to send fireships among them. On the night of the 28th of July
the fireships were sent in, and produced an utter panic in the
Armada. Most of the Spanish vessels slipped their cables and
ran to sea. Others weighed anchor, and escaped in a more
orderly style. One great vessel ran ashore and was taken
possession of by the English, who were however compelled to
give her up by the French governor of Calais. On the 29th of
July the scattered Spaniards, who were quite unable to restore
order, were attacked by the English off Gravclines. The engage-
ment was hot, and, though the English did not succeed in taking
any of the Spaniards, they destroyed some of them, and their
superiority in sailing force and gunnery was now so obvious that
the duke of Medina Sidonia lost heart His large vessels were
indeed so helpless that only a timely shift of the wind saved many
of them from drifting on to the banks of Flanders. Officers and
men alike were completely discouraged. It was now recognized
that an invasion of England could not be carried out in lace of the
more active English fleet and the proved impossibility of bringing
about the proposed Union with Parma's army. • Suggestions were
made that the Armada should sail to Hamburg, refit there, and
renew the attack. But by this time the Spanish force was
incapable of energetic action. Medina Sidonia and his council
could think of nothing but of a return to Spain. As the wind
was westerly, and the English fleet barred the way, it was im-
possible to sail down the Channel. The only alternative was to
take the* route between the north of Scotland and Norway. So
the Armada sailed to the north. Lord Howard followed, alter
detaching Lord Henry Seymour to remain in the Downs. He
watched the Spaniards to the Firth of Forth. The English had
at that time little knowledge of the seas beyond the Firth, and
they were beginning to run short of food and ammunition. On
the and of August, therefore, they gave up the pursuit. Medina
Sidonia continued to the north, till his pilots told htm that it was
safe to turn to the west. Up to this time the loss of the Spaniards
i n ships had not been considerable. If the weather had been that
of a normal summer, they would probably have reached home
with no greater loss of men than was usually inflicted on all fleets
of the age by scurvy and fever. But the summer of 15$$ was
marked by a succession of gales of unprecedented violence. The
damaged and weakened Spanish ships, which were from the first
greatly undermanned in sailors, were unable to contend with the
storms. It is not possible to give the details of the disasters
which overtook them. Nineteen of them are known to have
been wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. The
crews who fell into the hands of the English officers in Ireland
were put to the sword. Many more of them disappeared at sea.
Of the total number of the vessels originally collected for the
invasion of England one-half, if not more, perished, and the
crews of those which escaped were terribly diminished by scurvy
and starvation.
The failure of the Armada was mainly dye to its own interior
weakness, and as a military operation the English victory was
less glorious than some other less renowned achievements of the
British fleet. But the repulse of the great Spanish armament was
an event of the first historical importance. It marked the final
failure of King Philip II. of Spain to establish the supremacy
of the Habsburg dynasty and of the Church of Rome, which he
considered as being in a peculiar sense his charge, in Europe.
From that time forward no serious attempt to invade England
was, or could be, made. It became therefore the unconquerable
supporter of that part of Europe which had thrown off the
authority of the pope. The Armada had much of the character
of a crusade. Though Philip II. had political reasons for
hostility to Queen Elisabeth, they were so intimately bound
up with the struggle between the Reformation and the Counter
Reformation that the secular and the religious elements of the
conflict cannot be separated from one another. The struggle
was therefore not one between armed forces in national rivalry
alone. It was a trial of strength between two widely different
conceptions of life and of the state — between the medieval and
the modern worlds. The volunteers of all ranks who came
forward in large numbers on both sides were fighting for a
religious cause as well ss for the interests of their respective
peoples.
AUTHOtiTiES.— The English side of the story of the Armada can
best be studied in the Slate Papers relating io the Defeat of the Spanish
Armada, edited by Sir J. K. Laughton. and primed for the Navy
Records Society (London, 1894). The Spanish side will be found in
La Armada ImmtcibU, by Captain Cesaneo Fernandez Duro (Madrid,
1 884). Froude summarized the work of Captain Fernandez Duro in
his brilliant Spanish Story of the A rmada (London. 1 892). ( D. H . )
ARMADILLO, the Spanish designation for the small mail-clad
Central and South American mammals of the order Edentata,
constituting the family Dosypodidae. The armature consists of a
bony case, partly composed of solid buckler-like plates, and partly
of movsble transverse bands, the latter differing in number with
ARMAGEDDON— ARMAGH
5 6»
Ike species, and giving to the body a considerable degree of
flexibility. .The bony plates are overlain by horny scales.
Armadillo* are omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms,
reptiles and carrion, and are mostly, though not universally.
.Peba Armadillo (Tatusta novemcincta),
nocturnal. They are harmless and inoffensive creatures, offering
no resistance when caught; their principal means of escape being
the extraordinary rapidity with which they burrow in the
ground, and the tenacity with which they retain their hold in
their subterranean retreats. • Notwithstanding the shortness of
their limbs they run with rapidity. . Most of the species are
esteemed good eating by the natives of the countries in which
they live. They are all inhabitants of the open plains or the
forests of the tropical and temperate parts of South America,
with the exception of a few species which range as far north as
Texas. The largest species is the giant armadillo (PrUdon
gitas), measuring nearly a yard long, from the forests of Surinam
and Brazil; while one of the smallest is Dasypiu mdntUus, a near
ally of the larger D. sexcinctus. The peba ( Taiusia nnemcittcto)
represents a group with a large number of movable bands in the
armour; while the apar (TolypeuUs iricinctus) and the other
members of the same genus are remarkable for their power of
rolling themselves up into balls. • For the distinctive characters
of these and the other genera see Edentata.
ARMAGEDDON, a name occurring in the Authorized Version
of the English Bible in Rev. xvi. 16. The Revised Version has
Harmagedon. The form is commonly regarded as the Greek
equivalent of the Hebrew Mar megtdddn, the mountain district of
Megiddo. The writer is describing the place where the last
decisive battle was to be fought at the Day of Judgment, and
Harmagedon may have been chosen as the name because the
district about Megiddo had been on several occasions the scene
of great battles (cf. Judg. iv. 6 ff., v. 19). It has, however,
been suggested in the Zeitsckrift jiir die AUlesiamenUicke Wissen-
sckaft, vii. 170 (1887), that the name is for har tnigdo, " his fruit-
ful mountain " — the mountain land of Israel. Prof. Cheyne
(Encyc. BiU. s.v.) again, following suggestions of H. Gunkel,
H. Zimmcrn and P. Jensen, compares the dragon of the Apoca-
lypse with the Babylonian Tiamat, thinks that some myth is
referred to, and finds the /urytSw of 'Afnaytiu* in the divine
name 'Ywtmujabwv, a Babylonian god of the underworld. The
name of the place where Tiamat was defeated by Marduk perhaps
included that of a god of the underworld. (See Antichrist.)
From the application of the word Armageddon to the great
battle of the End of Time comes the use of the phrase " an
Armageddon " to express any great slaughter or final conflict.
ARMAGH, an inland county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster, bounded N. by Lough Neagh, E. by Co. Down, S. by
Louth and W. by Monaghan and Tyrone. The area is 327,704
acres, or about 51a sq. m. The general surface of the county is
gently undulating and pleasantly diversified; but in the northern
extremity, on the borders of Lough Neagh, there is a considerable
tract of low, marshy land, and the southern border of the county
it xo
is occupied by a barren range of hills, the highest of which, Slieve
Gullion, attains an elevation of 1 803 ft. In the western portion of
the county are the Few Mountains, a chain of abrupt hills mostly
incapable of cultivation. The county is well watered by numerous
streams. . The principal are the Callan, the Tynan and the
Tallwater, flowing into the Blackwater, which, after forming the
boundary between this county and Tyrone, empties itself into
the south-western angle of Lough Neagh. The Tara and New-
town-Hamilton, the Creggan and the Fleury, flow into the bay
of Dundalk. The Cam or Camlin joins the Bann, which, crossing
the north-western corner of the county, falls into Lough Neagh
to the eastof the Blackwater. . The Newry Canal, communicating
with Carlingford Lough at Warrenpomt, 6 m. below Newry,
proceeds northward through Co. Armagh for about 21 m.,
joining the Bann at Whitecoat. The Ulster Canal begins at
Charlemont on the river Blackwater, near its junction with
Lough Neagh, proceeding through the western border of the
county, and passing thence to the south-west by Monaghan and
Clones into Upper Lough Erne, after a course of 48 m. Part of
Lough Neagh is in the county, and there are many small loughs,
such as Gullion, Cam and Ross.
Geology.— The flat shore of Lough Neagh in the north is due
to the thick deposit of pale-coloured clays with lignites, which are
probably of Pliocene age, and indicate a reduction of the area of
the lake in still later times. Between this lowland and Armagh
city, the early Cainozoic basalts form slightly higher ground,
- while on the west a strip of Trias appears, overlying Carboniferous
Limestone. A rough conglomerate containing blocks of this
latter rock forms the hills on which Armagh itself is built; this
outlier is probably Permian. The Carboniferous Limestone
beneath it and around it is red-brown instead of grey, and is
famous for iu richness in fish remains. A hummocky irregular
country spreads southward, where the Silurian axis is encountered,'
in continuation of the southern uplands of Scotland. ■ Slates and
fine-grained sandstones appear here freely through the glacial
drift. . In the south the granite core of this upland is revealed,
and is quarried extensively about Bessbrook. It is penetrated
by far younger intrusive masses at Slieve Gullion and Forkill.
These rocks, which include some highly siliceous lavas, form part
of the Eocene series that is so conspicuously displayed above
Carlingford in Co. Louth. Lead-veins have been worked in
various parts of the county from time to time.
Industries. — The soil of the northern portion of the county is
a rich brown loam, on a substratum of clay or gravel. Towards
Charlemont there is much redaimable bog resting on a limestone
substratum. The eastern portion of the county is generally of a
light friable soil; the southern portion rtfeky and barren, with
but little bog except in the neighbourhood.of Newtown-Hamilton.
The climate of Armagh is considered to be one of the most genial
in Ireland, and less rain is supposed to fall in this than in any
other county. Only about one-twentieth of the land is naturally
barren, and Armagh offers a relatively large area of cultivable
soil. Agriculture, however, is not far advanced, yet owing to the
linen industry the inhabitants are generally in circumstances of
comparative comfort. The principal crops are oats and potatoes,
but all grain crops are decreasing, and flax, formerly grown to a
considerable extent, is now practically neglected. The acreage
under pasture slightly exceeds that of tillage. Cattle, sheep, pigs
and poultry show a general increase in numbers. The principal
manufacture, and that which has given a peculiar tone to the
character of the population, is that of linen, though it has some-
what declined in modern times. It is not necessary to the
promotion of this manufacture that the spinners and weavers
should be congregated in large towns, or united in crowded and
unwholesome factories. On the contrary, most of its branches
can be carried on in the cottages of the peasantry. The men
devote to the loom those hours which are not required for the
cultivation of their little farms; the women spin and reel the yarn
during the intervals of their other domestic occupations. Smooth
lawns, pure springs and the open sky are necessary for perfecting
the bleaching process. Hence the numerous bleachers dwell in the
country with their assistants and machinery. Such is the effect
10
562
ARMAGH— ARMAGNAC
of this combination of agricultural occupations with domestic
manufactures that the farmers are more than competent to
supply the resident population of the county with vegetable,
though not with animal food; and some of the less crowded
and less productive parts of Ulster receive from Armagh a con-
siderable supply of oats, barley and flour. Apples arc grown
in such quantities as to entitle the county to the title applied
to it, the orchard of Ireland.
Communications arc monopolized by the Great Northern rail-
way company, whose main line from Belfast divides at Portadown,
sending off lines to Omagh, to Clones and to Dublin. A branch
from Omagh joins the Dublin line to Goraghwood, and from this
line there is a branch to Newry in Co. Down. An electric tram
way connects Bessbrook, a town with important linen manu-
factures and granite quarries, with Newry.
Population and Administration.— -The population (72,286 in
t8oi ; 65,619 in 1901) shows a heavy decrease, though emigration
affects it less seriously than the majority of Irish counties. Of
the total about 45% are Roman Catholics, 32% Protestant
Episcopalians, and 16 % Presbyterians, the Roman Catholic faith
prevailing in the mountainous districts and the Protestant in the
towns and lowlands. About 74 % of the whole constitutes the
rural population. The chief towns arc Armagh (a city and the
county town, pop. 7588), Lurgan (11,782), Portadown (10,093),
Tanderagee (1427), Bessbrook (2977) and Keady (1466). Armagh
is divided into eight baronies, and contains twenty-five parishes
and parts of parishes, the greater number of which are in the
Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Armagh, and a few
in the Roman Catholic diocese of Dromorc. • The constabulary
has its headquarters at Armagh, the county being divided into
five districts. Assizes are held at Armagh, and quarter sessions
at Armagh.Ballybot, Lurgan ,Markethill and Newtown-Hamilton.
The parliamentary divisions are three: mid, north and south,
each returning one member.
History and Antiquities. — Armagh, together with Louth,
Monaghan and some smaller districts, formed part of a territory
called Orgial or Una!, which was long subject to the occasional
incursions of the Danes. The county was made shire ground in
1586, and called Armagh after the city by Sir John Perrott.
When James I. proceeded to plant with English and Scottish
colonists the vast tracts escheated to the crown in Ulster, the
whole of the arable and pasture land in Armagh, estimated at
77,800 acres, was to have been allotted in sixty-one portions.
Nineteen of these, comprising 22,180 acres, were to have been
allotted to the church, and forty-two, amounting to 55,620
acres, to English and, Scottish colonists, servitors, native Irish
and four corporate towns — the swordsmen to be dispersed
throughout Connaught and Munster. This project was not
strictly adhered to in Co. Armagh, nor were the Irish swordsmen
or soldiers transplanted into Connaught and Munster from this
and some other counties. The antiquities consist of cairns and
tumuli ; the remains of the fortress of Emain near the city of
Armagh (q.v.), once the residence of the kings of Ulster ; and
Danes Cast, an extensive fortification in the south-east of the
county, near Poyntzpass, extending into Co. Down. • Spears,
battle-axes, collars, rings, amulets, medals of gold, ornaments of
silver, jet and amber, &c, have also been found in various places.
The religious houses were at Armagh, Killevy, Kilmore, Strad-
bailloyseandTahenny. Of military antiquities the most remark-
able are Tyrone's ditches, near Poyntzpass; and the pass of
Moyry, the entry into the county from the south, which was
fiercely contested by the Irish in 1 595 and 1600, is defended by a
castle. The summit of Slieve Gullion is crowned by a large cairn,
which forms the roof of a singular cavern of artificial construction,
probably an early burial-place.
ARMAGH, a city and market town, and the county town of
Co. Armagh, Ireland, in the mid parliamentary division, 89) m.
N.N.W. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway, at the junction
of the Belfast-Clones line. Pop. (1901) 7588. It is said to derive
its name of Ard-macha, the Hill of Macha, from Queen Macha of
the Golden Hair, who flourished in the middle of the 4th century
B.c. t but earlier it was named from its situation on the sides of a
steep hill called Drumsailech, or the Hill of Sallows v which rises
in the midst of a fertile plain near the Callan stream. Of high
antiquity, and, like many other Irish towns, claiming (with
considerable probability) to have been founded by St Patrick
in the 5th century, it long possessed the more important distinc-
tion of being the metropolis of Ireland; and, as the seat of a
flourishing college, was greatly frequented by students from other
lands, among whom the English and Scots were said to have
been so numerous as to give the name of Trian-Sassanagh, or
Saxon Street, to one of the quarters of the city. ' St Patrick's bell,
long preserved at Armagh, the oldest Irish relic of its kind, is
now, with its shrine of the year 1091, preserved in the museum
of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. ' Of a synod that was held
at Armagh as early as 448, there is an interesting memorial in the
Book of Armagh, an Irish MS. dating about a.d. 800. Exposed
to the successive calamities of the Danish incursions, the English
conquest and the English wars, and at last deserted by its
bishops, who retired to Droghcda, the venerable city sank into an
insignificant collection of cabins, with a dilapidated catht lral.
From this state of decay, however, it was raised, in the second
half of the 18th century, by the unwearied exertions of Arch-
bishop Richard Robinson, xst Lord Rokcb> - (1709-1704),
which,' seconded by similar devotion on the part of succeeding
archbishops of the Beresford family, notably Archbishop Lord
John George Beresford (1773-1862), made of Armagh one of toe
best built and most respectable towns in the country* - As the
ecclesiastical metropolis and seat of an archbishop (Primate of all
Ireland) in both the Protestant and Roman organisations, it
possesses two cathedrals and two archiepiscopal palaces. As the
county town Armagh has a court-house, a prison, a lunatic asylum
and a county infirmary. Besides these there is a fever hospital,
erected by Lord John George Beresford; a college, which Primate
Robinson was anxious to raise to the rank of a university; a
public library founded by him, an observatory, which has become
famous from the efficiency of its astronomers; a number of
churches and schools, and barracks. Almost all the buildings are
built of the limestone of the district, but the Anglican cathedral
is of red sandstone. It stands boldly on the top of the hill, a
cruciform structure dating from the 13th, bat practically rebuilt
in the 18th century, in accordance with its original plan. The
Roman Catholic cathedral is in the Decorated style, and was
consecrated in 1873. Armagh was a parliamentary borough until
1885; and, having been incorporated in 1613, so remained until
1835. The administration is in the hands of an urban district
council ' Two miles W. of Armagh is Emain, Emania, or Navan
Fort, with large entrenchments and mounds, the site of a royal
palace of Ulster, founded by that Queen Macha who gave her
name to the city. In a.d. 335 it was destroyed daring the inroad
on the defeat of the king of Ulster by the three brothers Colla,
cousins of Muredach, king of Ireland. ' Armagh itself fell before
the king Brian Boroime, who was buried here; and before
Edward Bruce in 1 3 1 5, while previous to the English war after the
Reformation, it had witnessed the struggles of Shane O'Neill
(1564).
ARMAGNAC, formerly a province of France and ike most
important fief of Gascon y, now wholly comprised in the deport-
ment of Gers (q.v.). In the 15th century, when it attained its
greatest extent, it included, besides Armagnac, the neighbouring
territories of Fesensac, Feacnsaguet, Pardiac, Pays de Genre,
Riviere Basse, Eauxan and Lomagne, and stretched from the
Garonne to the Adour. Armagnac is a region of hills ranging to a
height of 1000 ft., watered by the river Gers and other rivers which
descend fanwise from the plateau of Lannemcaan. On the slope
of its hills grow the grapes from which the famous Armagnac
brandy is made. In Roman Gaul this territory formed part of
the diocese of Auch (civitas Attsciorum), which corresponded
roughly with the later duchy of Gascony (q.v.). About the end
of the 9th century Fezensac (comitates Fedentiacus), In circum-
stances of which no trustworthy record remains, was erected
into an hereditary count ship. This latter was in its turn
divided, the south-western portion becoming, about 960, the
countship of Armagnac {pa%us Anmaniatms). The domain of
ARMATOLES— ARMAVIR
563
this countship, at first very limited in extent, continued steadily
to increase in size, and about 1x40 Count Gerald III; added the
whole of Fezensac to his possessions. Under the English rule
the counts of Armagnac were turbulent and untrustworthy
vassals; and the administration ol the Black Prince, tending to
favour the towns of Aquitaine at the expense of the nobles, drove
them to the side of France. • The complaint against the English
prince which Count John I., in defiance of the treaty of Brttigoy,
himself carried to Paris, was the principal cause of the resumption
of hostilities of 1369, and of the incessant defeats sustained by
the English until the accession of their king Henry V
At that moment Count Bernard VII. was all-powerful at the
French court; and Charles of Orleans, in order to be able to
avenge his father, Louis of Orleans, who had been assassinated in
1407 by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, married Bonne,
Bernard's daughter. • This was the origin of the political party
known as " the Armagnacs." With the object of combating the
duke of Burgundy's preponderant influence, a league was
formed at Gien, including the duke of Orleans and his father-in-
law, the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, the count of
Alencon and all the other discontented nobles. . Bernard VII.
ravaged the environs of Paris; and the treaty of Bicelre
(November a, 14 10) only suspended hostilities for a few months,
war breaking oat afresh in the spring of 2411. Paris sided
with the duke of Burgundy, and at his instigation Charles VII.
collected an army to besiege the allies in Bourges. The peace of
Bourges, confirmed at Auxerre on the a and of August, put an end
to the war. Paris was dominated at that time by the party of the
" butchers," or Cabockiens, which had been organised and armed
by the count of Saint-Pol, brother-in-law of John the Fearless.
But their excesses, and in particular the Cabocbien ordinance
of the 25th of May 14x3, aroused public indignation; a reaction
took place, and in the month of August the Armagnics in their
turn became masters of the government and of the king. The
duke of Burgundy, besieged in Arras, only obtained peace
(treaty of Arras, September 4, 14x4)1 on condition of not
returning to Paris.
Several months later Henry V. declared war against France;
and when, in August 1415* the English landed in Normandy, the
Annagnacs and Burgundians united against them, but were
defeated in the battle of Agincourt (October 25, 1415). John
the Fearless then began negotiations with the English, while
Bernard VII., appointed constable in place of the count of Saint-
Pol, who bad been killed at Agincourt, returned to defend Paris.
However, the excesses committed by the Armagnacs incensed the
populace, and John the Fearless, who was ravaging the surround-
ing districts, re-entered the capital on the aoth of May 1418, in
consequence of the treason of Pfcrrinet Lederc ■ On the iath of
June Bernard VII. and the members of his party were massacred.
From this time onward the Annagnac party, with the dauphin,
afterwards King Charles VII., at its head, was the national party,
while the Burgundians united with the English. This division in
France continued until the treaty of Arras, on the 21st of
September 143 5. The rivalry of the Burgundians and Annagnacs
brought terrible disasters upon France, and for many years after-
wards the name of " Armagnacs " was bestowed upon the bands
of adventurers who were as much to be feared as' the Crandes
CompagnUs of the preceding age.
In 1444*45 the emperor Frederick HI. of Germany obtained
from Charles VII. a large army of Armagnacs to enforce his
claims in Switzerland, and the war which ensued took the name
of the Annagnac war (Armagnukcnkrieg). In Germany the
name of the foreigners, who were completely defeated in the
battle of St Jakob on the Bin, not far from Basel, was mockingly
corrupted into Arme Jacken. Poor Jackets, or Arme Ceckcn,
Poor Fools..
On the death of Charles of Armagnac, in 1497, the countship
was united to the crown by King Charles VII., but was again
bestowed on Charles, the nephew of that count, by Francis I.,
who at the same time gave him his sister Margaret in marriage.
After the death of her husband, by whom she had no children, she
married Henry of Albrct, king of Navarre; and thus the count-
ship of Armagnac came back to the French crown along wit* the
other dominions of Henry IV. In 1645 Louis XIV. erected a
countship of Armagnac in favour of Henry of Lorraine, count of
Harcourt, in whose family it continued till the Revolution.
James of Armagnac, grandson of Bernard VII., was made duke
of Nemours in 146a, and was succeeded in the dukedom by his
second son, John, who died without issue, and his third son, Louis,
in whom the house of Armagnac became extinct in 1503.
In 1789 Annagnac was a province forming part of the
Couverftemenl-giniral of Guicnne and Gascony; it was divided
into two parts, High or White Armagnac, with Auch for capital,
and Low or Black Armagnac. At the Revolution the whole of
the original Armagnac was included in the department of Gers.
For authorities see U. Chevalier, Ripertoire des sources hist, dm
moyen tge t s. Armagnac (Montbeliard, 1 894). For the Armagnacs »ee
Paul Dognon, " Les Arxnagnacs et les Bourguignons, le comte de Foix
et Ic dauphin en Languedoc " (1416-1470) in Annates du Midi (1889);
Rameau, "Guerre des Armagnacs dans Ic Maconnais " (14 18-1435) in
the Rev. sot. lit. de FAin (1884); Berthold Zcller, Les Armagnacs et
les Bourguignons, la Commune de 141 j ; E. Wulcker, Urkunden uni
Schreiben betngend den Zug der Armagnaken (Frankfort, 1873);
Witte, Die Armagnaken im Lisas*, 1439-144$ (Strassburg, 1889).
ARMATOLES (Gr. ap/iar<oX6f, a man-at-arms), the name given
to some Greeks who discharged certain military and police
functions under the Turkish government. When the Turks under
Sultan Mahommedll. conquered Greecein the r 5th century, many
of the Greeks fled into the mountainous districts of Macedonia
and northern Greece, and maintained a harassing warfare with the
conquerors of their country. These men were called KUpkts
(modern Gr. xXtyr^r, ancient cXernp, a thief, a brigand), and
during the x6th century the Turkish pashas came to terms with
some of them, and these men were allowed to retain their local
customs, and were confirmed in the possession of certain districts,
while in return they undertook some duties, such as the custody
of the highroads. Those who accepted these terms were called
armatoleSy and the districts in which they lived armatoliks.
Strengthened by a considerable number of Christian Albanians,
they rendered good service in defending Greece, and to some
extent repressed the ravages of the KUpkts; but their power and
independence were disliked. by the Turks. After the peace of
Belgrade in 1739 (between Austria and Turkey), the Turkish
government sought to weaken the position of the armaloUs.
Their privileges were restricted, Mahommedan Albanians were
introduced into the armatoliks, and towards the end of the 18th
century their numbers were seriously reduced. Irritated by this
policy the armatoles rendered considerable service to Ali Pasha of
Iaimina in his struggle with the Turks in 1820-2 a, and afforded
valuable assistance to their countrymen during the Greek war of
independence in 1830.
ARHATURB (from Lat armalura, armour), a covering for
defence. - In aoology. the word is used of the bony shell of the
armadillo. In architecture it is applied to the iron stays by
which the lead lights are secured in windows. (See Stancmoj*
and Saddle: Saddle-Bars.) In magnetism Dr William Gilbert
applied the term to the piece of soft iron with which he " armed "
or capped the lodestone in order to increase its power. It is also
used for the " keeper " or piece of iron which is placed across the
poles of a horse-shoe magnet, and held in place by magnetic
attraction, in order to complete the magnetic circuit and preserve
the magnetism of the steel; and hence, in dynamo-electric
machinery, for the portion which is attracted by the electro-
magnet, as the moving part of an electric motor, or, by extension,
the moving part of a dynamo (?.*.).
ARMAVIR. (1) The ruins of the old capital of Armenia, on the
S.E. slope of the extinct volcano Ala-geuz, according to legend,
built by Armais, a grandson of Haik, in 1080 B.C., and the capital
of the Armenian kings till the and century a.d. Now a small
village, Tapadibi, occupies its seat, (a) A district town of Russia,
northern Caucasia, province of Kuban, on Kuban river, and
on the main line of the Caucasian railway, 40 m. by rail west
of Stavropol, built in 1848 for the settlement of Armenian
mountaineers, and now a well-built, growing" town with 8000
inhabitants, the merchants of which catty on a lively trade.'
5^4-
ARMENIA
ARMBMIA (old Persian Amino, Armenian Hayasdon, or
Hayq) t the popular modem name of a district south of the
Caucasus and Black Sea, which formed part of the ancient
Armenian kingdom. The name, which first occurs in the cunei-
form inscriptions of Darius Hystaspis, supplanted the earlier
Urardhu, or Ararat, but its origin is unknown. In its widest
extent Armenia stretched from 37* to 49* E. long., and from
37i° to 41}* N. lat.; but this area was never, or only for a brief
period, united under one king. Armenia is now divided between
Persia, Russia and Turkey, and the three boundaries hive a
common point on Little Ararat.
Geographically, Armenia is a continuation westward of the
great Iranian plateau. On the north it descends abruptly to the
Black Sea; on the south it breaks down in rugged terraces to the
lowlands of Mesopotamia; and on the east and west it sinks
more gradually to the lower plateaus of Persia and Asia Minor.
Above the general level of the plateau, 6000 ft, rise bare ranges
of mountains, which run from north-east to south-west at an
altitude of 8000-12,000 ft., and culminate in Ararat, 17.000 ft.
Between the ranges are broad elevated valleys, through which the
rivers of the plateau flow before entering the rugged gorges that
convey their waters to lower levels. Geologically, Armenia
consists of archaic rocks upon which, towards the north, are
superimposed Palaeozoic, and towards the south later sedi-
mentary rocks. The last have been pierced by volcanic out-
bursts that extend southward to Lake Van. Amongst the higher
mountains are the two Ararats; AJa-gcux Dagh, north of the
Aras; Bingeul Dagh, south of Ereerum; and the peaks near
Lake Van. The rivers are the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, Churuk
Su (Chorokh) and Kelkit Irmak, all rising on the plateau. - The
more important lakes are Van, 5100 it, about twice the size of the
Lake of Geneva, and Urmia, 4000 ft., both salt; Qokcha or
Sevan, 5870 ft, discharging into the Aras; and Chaldir, into the
Kara Chai. The aspect of the plateau is dreary and monotonous.
The valleys are wide expanses of arable land, and the hills are for
the most part grass-covered and treeless. But the gorges of the
Euphrates and Tigris, and their tributaries, cannot be surpassed
in wildness and grandeur. The climate is varied. In the higher
districts the winter is long and the cold severe; whilst the summer
» short, dry and hot In Erzerum the temperature ranges from
-a*° to 84 F., and snow sometimes falls in June. • In the valley
of the Aras, and in the western and southern districts, the
dimate is more moderate. Most of the towns lie high, from 4000
to 6000 ft The villages are usually built on gentle slopes, in
which the houses are partially excavated as a protection against
the severity of the weather. * Many of the early towns were on or
near the Araxes, and amongst their ruins are the remains of
churches which throw light on the history of Christian archi-
tecture in the East ' Armenia is rich in mineral wealth, and there
are many hot and cold mineral springs. The vegetation varies
according to the locality. Cereals and hardy fruits grow on the
higher ground, whilst rice is cultivated in the hot, well-watered
valley of the Araxes. The summer is so hot that the vine grows
at much higher altitudes than it does in western Europe, and the
cotton tree and all southern fruit trees are cultivated in the
deeper valleys. On the fine pasture lands which now support the
flocks of the Kurds, the horses and mules, so celebrated in ancient
times, were reared. Trout are found in the rivers, and a small
herring in Lake Van. The country abounds in romantic scenery ;
that of the district of Ararat especially has been celebrated by
patriotic historians like Moses of Chorene and Lazarus of Pharb.
Population, — Accurate statistics cannot' be obtained; but it
is estimated that in the nine vilayets, which include Turkish
Armenia, there are 9*5,000 Gregorian, Roman Catholic and
Protestant Armenians, 645*000 other Christians, 100,000 Jews,
Gypsies, &c, and 4,460,000 Moslems. The Armenians, taking
the most favourable estimate, are in a majority in nine kazas or
sub-districts only (seven near Van, and two near Mush) out of 1 so.
In Russian Armenia there are 060,000 Armenians, and in Persian
Armenia 130,000. According to an estimate made by General
Zelenyi for the Caucasus Geographical Society (Zapiski, vol.
xviii,, Tiflis, 1806, with map), the population of the nine Turkish
vilayets, Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Rharput (Mamuret-el-Aztz).
Diarbekr, Sivas, Aleppo, Adana and Trebisond, was 6,000,000
(Armenians, 9*3.875. or 1 5 %; other Christians, 639,875, or 1 1 % ;
and Moslems, 4.453,250, or 74 %). In the first five vilayets which
contain most of the Armenians, the population was a ,647,000
(Armenians, 633,750, or 24%; other Christians, 179,875, or 7 %;
and Moslems, 1,828,875, or 69%); and in the seven Armenian
kazas the population was 282,375 (Armenians, 184,875, or 65 %;
other Christians, 1000, or 0.3 %; and Moslems, 06,500, or 34*7%).
In 1897 there were 970,656 Armenians in Russia, of whom
827.634 were in the provinces of Erivan, Elisavetpol and Tiflis.
The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,000,000 (in
Turkey, 1,500,000; Russia, 1,000,000; Persia, 150,000; Europe,
America and East Indies, 250,000).
History. — The history of Armenia has been largely influence-el
by its physical features. The isolation of the valleys, especially
in winter, encouraged a tendency to separation, which invariably
showed itself when the central power was weak. • The rugged
mountains nave always been the home of hardy mountaineers
impatient of control, and the sanctuary to which the lowlanders
fled for safety in times of invasion. The country stands as an
open doorway between the East and the West. * Through its long
valleys run the roads that connect the Iranian plateau with the
fertile lands and protected harbours of Asia Minor, and for its
possession nations have contended from the remotest past
The original inhabitants of Armenia are unknown, but about
the middle of the 9th century B.C., the mass of the people belonged
to that great family of tribes which seems to have been |fi«>ftm
spread over western Asia and to have had a common
non-Aryan language. Mixed with these proto-Armenians, there
was an important Semitic element of Assyrian and Hebrew
origin. In the 7th century B.C., between 640 and 600, the country
was conquered by an Aryan people, who imposed their language,
and possibly their name, upon the vanquished, and formed a
military aristocracy that was constantly recruited from Persia
and Parthia* Politically the two races soon amalgamated, but
except in the towns, there was apparently little intermarriage*
for the peasants in certain districts closely resemble the proto-
Armenians, as depicted on their monuments. After the Arab
and Seljuk invasions, there was a large emigration of Aryan and
Semitic Armenians to Constantinople and Cilicia; and all that
remained of the aristocracy was swept away by the Mongols and
Tatars. ' This perhaps explains the diversity of type and char-
acteristics amongst the modern Armenians. In the recesses of
Mount Taurus the peasants are tall, handsome, though somewhat
sharp-featured, agile and brave. In Armenia and Asia Minor
they are robust, thick-set and coarse-featured, with straight black
hair and large hooked noses. They are good cultivators of the
soil, but are poor, superstitious, ignorant and unambitious, and
they live in semi-subterranean houses as their ancestors did 800
years B.C. The townsmen, especially in the large towns, have
more regular features—often of the Persian type. They are
skilled artisans, bankers and merchants, and are remarkable for
their industry, their quick intelligence, ' their aptitude for
business, and for that enterprising spirit which led their ancestors,
in Roman times, to trade with Scythia, China and India. The
upper classes are polished and well educated, and many have
occupied high positions in the public service in Turkey, Russia,
Persia and Egypt. The Armenians are essentially an Oriental
people, possessing, like the Jews, whom they resemble in their
exclusiveness and widespread dispersion, a remarkable tenacity
of race and faculty of adaptation to circumstances. ' They are
frugal, sober, industrious and intelligent, and their sturdiness of
character has enabled them to preserve their nationality and
religion under the sorest trials. ' They are strongly attached to
old manners and customs, but have also a real desire for ptogieaa
which is full of promise. On the other hand they are greedy of
gain, quarrelsome in small matters, self-seeking and wanting in
stability; and they are gifted with a tendency to exaggeration
and a love of intrigue which has had an unfortunate influence
on their history. They are deeply separated by religious
differences, and their mutual jealousies, their inordinate vanity
ARMENIA
5*5
their versatility and their cosmopolitan character must always
be an obstacle to the realization of the dreams of the nationalists.
Hie want of courage and self-reliance, the deficiency in truth and
honesty sometimes noticed in connexion with them, are doubtless
due to long servitude under an unsympathetic government.
The early history of Armenia, more or less mythical, is partly
based on traditions of the Biainian kings (see Ararat), and is
interwoven with the Bible narrative, of which a know-
ledge was possibly obtained from captive Jews settled
in the country by Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs.
The legendary kings are but faint echoes of the kings of Biainas;
the story of Semiramis and Ara is but another form of' the myth
of Venus and Adonis; and tradition has clothed Tigranes, the
reputed friend of Cyrus, with the transient glory of the opponent
of Lucullus. The fall of the Biainian kingdom, perhaps over-,
thrown by Cyaxares, was apparently soon followed by an immi-
gration of Aryan (Mcdo- Persian) races, including the progenitors
of the Armenians. But they spread slowly, for the "Ten
Thousand," when crossing the plateau to Trebizqnd, 401-400 B.C.,
met no Armenians after leaving the villages four days' march
beyond the Teleboas, now Kara Su. Under the Medes and
Persians Armenia was a satrapy governed by a member of the
feigning family; and after the battle of Arbela, 331 B.C., it -was
rukd by Persian governors appointed by Alexander and his
successors. Ardvates, 317-284 B.C., freed himself from Seleudd
control; and after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the
Romans, roo B.C., Artaxias (Ardashes), and Zadriades, the
governors Of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, became inde-
pendent kings, with the concurrence of Rome. (See Txckanes.)
Artaxias established his capital at Artaxata on the Araxes, and
has most celebrated successor was Tigranes (Dikran), 04-56 B.C.,
the son-in-law of Mithradates VI., the Great. Tigranes founded
a new capital, Tigranocerta, in northern Mesopotamia, which he
modelled on Nineveh and Babylon, and peopled with Greek and
other captives. Here, and at Antioch, he played the part of
" great king " in Asia until his refusal to surrender his father-in-
law involved him in war with Rome. Defeated, 69 B.C., by
Lucullus beneath the walls of his capital, he surrendered his
conquests to Pompey , 66 B.C., who had driven Mithradates across
the Phasis, and was permitted to hold Armenia as a vassal state
of Rome.
The campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey brought Rome into
delicate relations with Parthia. Armenia, although politically
dependent upon Rome, was connected with Parthia by
geographical position, a common language and faith,
intermarriage and similarity of arms and dress. It had
never been Hellenized, as the provinces of Asia Minor
had been; the Roman provincial system was never applied to it;
and the policy of Rome towards it was never consistent. The
country became the field upon which the East and West contended
for mastery, and the struggle ended for a time in the partition
of Armenia, a.d. 387, between Rome and Persia. The Roman
portion was soon added to the Diocesis Pontics. The Persian
portion, Pers- Armenia, remained a vassal state under an Arsadd
prince until 428. It was afterwards governed by Persian and
Armenian noblemen selected by the "great king," and entitled
maribans. Before the partition, Tiridates, converted by St
Gregory, " the Illuminator," had established Christianity as the
religion of the state, and set an example followed later by Con-
stantine. After the partition, the invention of the Armenian
alphabet, and the translation of the Bible into the vernacular,
4 to, drew the Armenians together, and the discontinuance of
5 66
ARMENIA
Greek in the Holy Offices relaxed the ecclesiastical dependence on
Constantinople, which ceased entirely when the Patriarch, 401,
refused to accept the decrees of the council of Chalcedon. The
rule of the manbans was marked by relentless persecution of the
Christians, forced conversions to Magism, frequent insurrections
and the rise to importance of the great families founded by men
of Assyrian, Parthian, Persian, Syrian and Jewish origin, and in
some cases of royal blood, who had been governors of districts, or
holders of fiefs under the Arsacids. Amongst the manbans were
Jewish Bagratids and Persian Mamegonians; and one of the
latter family, Vartan, made himself independent (571-578), with
Byzantine aid. In 6$ a the victories of Heradius restored Armenia
to the Byzantines; but the war that followed the Arab invasion,
636, left the country in the hands of the caliphs, who set over it
Arab and Armenian governors (ostitans). One of the governors,
the Bagratid Ashod I., was crowned king of Armenia by the
caliph Motamid, 885, and founded a dynasty which ended with
Kagig II. In 1079. A little later the Ardzrunian Kagig, gover-
nor of Vaspuragan or Van, was crowned king of that province
by the caliph Moktadir, 008, and his descendants ruled at Van
and Sivas until 1080. The Bagratids founded dynasties at Kars,
962-1080, and in Georgia, which they held until its absorption,
1 801, by Russia. From 984 to 1085 the country from Diarbekr
to Melasgerd was ruled under the suzerainty first of Arabs then
of Byzantines and Scljuks, by the Mervanid dynasty of Kurds,
called princes of Abahuni (' kraxownjt ). The Arab invasion drove
many Armenian noblemen to. Constantinople, where they inter-
married with the old Roman families or became soldiers of for-
tune. Artavasdes, an Arsacid, usurped the Byzantine throne for
two years; Leo V., an Ardzrunian, and John Zimisces, became
emperors; whilst Manuel, the Mamegonian, and others were
amongst the best generals of the empire In 091, and again in
xos 1, Basil II. invaded Armenia, and in the latter year Senek-
herim, king of Vaspuragan, exchanged his kingdom for Sivas
and its territory, where he settled down with many Armenian
emigrants. Basil's policy was to make the great Armenian
fortresses, garrisoned by imperial troops, the first line of defence
on his eastern frontier; but it failed in the hands of his feeble
successors, who thought more of converting heretical Armenia
than of defending its frontier. The king of Ani, Kagig II., was
compelled to exchange his kingdom for estates in Cappadotia.
The country Was raided by Seljuks and harried by Byzantine
soldiers, and the miseries of the people were regarded as
gain to the Orthodox church. After the defeat and capture of
Romanus IV. by Alp Arslan, 107 1, Armenia formed part of the
Seljuk empire until it split up, 11 57, into petty states, ruled by
Arabs, Kurds and Seljuks, who were in turn swept away by the
Mongol invasion, 1235. For more than three centuries after the
Appearance of the Seljuks, Armenia was traversed by a long
succession of nomad tribes whose one aim was to secure
good pasturage for their flocks on their way to the
richer lands of Asia Minor. The cultivators were driven
from the plains, agriculture was destroyed, and the country was
seriously impoverished when its ruin was completed by the
ravages and wholesale butcheries of Timur. Many Armenians
fled to the mountains, where they embraced Islam, and inter-
married with the Kurds, or purchased security by paying black-
mail to Kurdish chiefs. Others migrated to Cappadoda or to
Cilicia, where the Bagratid Rhupcn had founded, 1080, a small
principality which, gradually extending its limits, became the
kingdom of Lesser Armenia. This Christian kingdom in the
midst of Moslem states, hostile to the Byzantines, giving valuable
support to the leaders of the crusades, and trading with the great
commercial cities of Italy, had a stormy existence of about 300
years. Internal disorders, due to attempts by the later Lusignan
kings to make their subjects conform to the Roman Church,
facilitated its conquest by Egypt. i375- The memory of Kiligia
(Cilicia) is enshrined in a popular song, and at Zeitun, in the
recesses of Mount Taurus, a small Armenian community has
hitherto maintained almost complete independence. After the
death of Timur, Armenia formed part of the territories of the
Turkoman dynasties of Ak- and Kara-Kuyunli, and under their
milder rule the seat of the Catholicus, which, during the Sdjufc
invasion, had been moved first to Sivas, and then to Lesser
Armenia, was re-established, 1441, at Echmiadzin.
In 1 5 14, the Persian campaign of Selim I. gave Armenia to the
Osmanli Turks, and its reorganization was entrusted to Idris, the
historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris found the
rich arable lands almost deserted, and the mountains
bristling with the castles of independent chief tains, of
Kurd, Arab and Armenian descent, between whom there were
long-standing feuds. He compelled the Kurds to settle on the
vacant lands, and divided the country into small sanjaks which
in the plains were governed by Turkish officials, and in the
mountains by local chiefs. This policy gave rest to the country,
but favoured the growth of Kurd influence and power, which by
1534 had spread westwards to Angora. Armenia was invaded
by the Persians in 1575, and again in 1604, when Shah Abbas
transplanted many thousand Armenians from Julfa to his new
capital Isfahan. In 1639, the province of Erivan, which included
Echmiadzin, was assigned by treaty to Persia, and it remained
in her hands until it passed to Russia, 1828, under the treaty
of Turkman-chal The Turko-Russian War of 1828-29. which
advanced the Russian frontier to the Arpa Chai, was followed by
a large emigration of Armenians from Turkish to Russian terri-
tory, and a smaller exodus took place after the war of 1877-78,
which gave Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Russia. In 1834
the independent power of the Kurds in Armenia was greatly
curtailed; and risings under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843, and Sheik
Obeidullah in 1880, were firmly suppressed.
After the capture of Constantinople, 1453, Mahommed II
organized his non-Moslem subjects in communities, or mullets.
under ecclesiastical chiefs to whom he gave absolute
authority in civil and religious matters, and in criminal ^Hf^f
offences that did not come under the Moslem religious w
law. Under this system the Armenian bishop of Brusa,
who was appointed patriarch of Constantinople by the sultan,
became the civil, and practically the ecclesiastical head of his
community (Ermati milkt), and a recognized officer of the
imperial government with the rank of vizier He was assisted
by a council of bishops and clergy, and was represented in each
province by a bishop. This imperium in xmptrio secured to the
Armenians a recognized position before the law, the free enjoy*
ment of their religion, the possession of their churches and
monasteries, and the right to educate their children and manage
their municipal affairs. It also encouraged the growth of a
community life, which eventually gave birth to an intense
longing for national life. On the other hand it degraded the
priesthood. The priests became political leaders rather than
spiritual guides, and sought promotion by bribery and intrigue.
Education was neglected and discouraged, servility and treachery
were developed, and in less than a century the people had become
depraved and degraded to an almost incredible extent After the
issue, 1839, of the kaU-i-shcriJ of Gul-khaneh, the tradesmen
and artisans of the capital freed themselves from clerical control.
Under regulations, approved by the sultan in 1862, the patriarch
remained the official representative of the community, but all
real power passed into the hands of clerical and lay councils
elected by a representative assembly of 140 members. The
" community," which excluded Roman Catholics and Protestants,
was soon called the " nation," " domestic " became " national "
affairs, and the " representative " the " national " assembly
The connexion of " Lesser Armenia " with the Western powers
led to the formation, 1335, of an Armenian fraternity, " the
Unionists," which adopted the dogmas of the Roman
church, and at the council of Florence, 1439, was fljf^,
entitled the " United Armenian Church." Under the
millet system the unionists were frequently persecuted by the
patriarchs, but this ended in 1830, when, at the intervention oi
France, they were made a community (Katoluk millet), with their
own ecclesiastical head. The Roman Catholics, through the works
issued by the Mechitharists at Venice, have greatly promoted the
progress of education and the development of Armenian literature.
They are most numerous at Constantinople. Angora and Smyrna.
ARMENIA
567
The Protestant movement, initiated at Constantinople by
American missionaries in 1831, was opposed by the patriarchs
and Russia. In 1846 the patriarch anathematised all
Armenians with Protestant sympathies, and this led
to the fonaatiott of the " Evangelical Church of the
Armenians,'' which was made^ after much opposition from France
and Russia, a community {Proiestont awtttf), at the instanced the
British ambassador. The missionaries afterwards founded colkges
an the Bosporus, at Kharput, Marsivan and Aintab, to supply
the needs of higher University education, and they opened good
schools for both sexes at all their stations. Everywhere* they
supplied the people with pure, wholesome literature, and repre-
sented progress and religious liberty.
When Abd-ul-Hamid came to the throne of Turkey in 187*, the
condition of the Armenians was better than it had ever been under
the Osmanlia; but with the dose of the war of 1877-78
came the "Armenian Question." By the treaty of San
assess**. Stefano, Turkey engaged to Russia to carry out reforms
" in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and
to guarantee their security against the Kurds and Circassians*"
By the treaty of Berlin, i3thof July x878,alike engagement to the
six signatory powers was substituted for that to Russia. By the
Cyprus convention, 4th of June 1878, the sultan promised Great
Britain to introduce necessary reforms " for the protection of the
Christiana and other subjects of the Porte " in the Turkish
territories in Asia. The Berlin treaty encouraged the Armenians
to look to the powers, and not to Russia for protection, and the
convention, which did not mention* the Armenians, was regarded
an placing them under the special protection of Great Britain.
This impression was strengthened -by the action of England at
Berlin in insisting that Russia should evacuate the occupied
territory before reforms were introduced, and so removing the
only security for their introduction. The presentation of identic
and collective notes to the Porte by the powers, in 1880, produced
no result, and in 1882 it was- apparent that Turkey would only
yield to compulsion^ In 1881 a circular note from the British
ministry to the five powers was evasively answered, and in 1883
Prince Bismarck intimated to the British government that
Germany cared nothing about Armenian reforms and that the
matter had better be allowed to drop. Russia had changed her
policy towards thtf Armenians, and the other powers were
indifferent. The so-called " Concert of Europe " was at an end,
but British ministries continued to call the attention of the
nil tan to his obligations under the treaty of Berlin.
Russia began to interest herself in the Armenians when she
acquired Georgia in 1801; but it was not until 1828-1819 that
_ . any appreciable number of them became her subjects.
J7P7" She found them necessary to the development of her
new territories, and allowed them much freedom.
They were permitted, within certain limits* to develop their
national life; many became wealthy, and many rose to high
positions in the military and civil service of the state. After the
war of 1877-78 the Russian consuls in Turkey encouraged l^e
formation of patriotic committees in Armenia, and a project was
formed to create a separate state, under the supremacy of Russia,
which was to include Russian, Persian and Turkish Armenia.
The project was favoured by Loris-Mclikov, then all-powerful in
Russia, but in 1881 Alexander II. was assassinated, and shortly
afterwards a strongly anU- Armenian policy was adopted. The
schools were closed, the use of the Armenian language was dis-
couraged, and attempts were made to Russify the Armenians and
bring them within the pale of the Russian Church. All hope of
practical self-government under Russian protection now ceased,
and the Armenians of Tiflis turned their attention to Turkish
Armenia. They had seen the success of the Slav committees
in treating disturbances in the Balkans, and became the moving
spirit in the attempts to produce similar troubles in Armenia.
Russia made no real effort to check the action of her Armenian
subjects, and after 1884 she steadily opposed any active inter-
ference by Great Britain in favour of the Turkish Armenians.
When Echmiadzin passed to Russia, in 1828, the Catholicus began
to claim spiritual jurisdiction over the whole Armenian Church,
and the submission of the patriarch of Constantinople was
obtained by Russia when she helped the sultan against
Mehemet AIL Subsequently Russia secured the submission of
the independent catholicus of Sis, and thus acquired a power of
interference in Armenian affairs in all parts of the world. During
1000 Russia showed renewed interest in Turkish Armenia by
securing the right to construct all railways in it, and in the
Armenians by pressing the Porte to restore order and introduce
reforms.
The Berlin treaty was a disappointment to the Gregorian
Armenians, who had hoped that Armenia and Cilida would have
been formed into an autonomous province administered by
Christians. Bat the fc^matic^c^snch a provmoewM impossible.
The Gregorians were scattered over the empire, and, except inn
few small districts, were nowhere in a majority. Nor were they
bound together by any community of thought or sentiments
The Turkish-speaking Armenians of the south could scarcely
converse with the Armenian-speaking people of the north; and
the Ignorant mountaineers of the east had nothing in common,
except religion, with the highly educated townsmen
of Constantinople and Smyrna. After the change in a
Russian policy and the failure of the powers to secure »
reforms, the advanced party amongst the Armenians,
some of whom had been educated in Europe and been deeply
affected by the free thought and Nihilistic tendencies of the day,
determined to secure their object by the production of disturb*
ances such as those that had given birth to Bulgaria. Societies
were formed at Tiflis and in several European capitals for the
circulation of pamphlets and newspapers, and secret societies,
such as the Huntchagist, were instituted for more revolutionary
methods. An active propaganda was carried on in Turkish
Armenia by emissaries, who tried to introduce- arms and explo-
sives, and represented the ordinary incidents of Turkish misrule
to Europe as serious atrocities. The revolutionary movement
was joined by some of the younger men, who formed local
committees on the Nihilist plan, but it was strongly opposed
by the Armenian clergy and the American missionaries, who saw
the impossibility of success; and its irreligious tendency and the
self-seeking ambition of its leaders made it unacceptable to the
mass of the people. Exasperated at their failure, the emissaries
organized attacks on individuals, wrote threatening letters, and
at last posted revolutionary placards, 5th of January 1893, at
Yusgat, and on the walls of the American College at Marsivan. In
the last case the object of the Huntcfaagists was to compromise
the missionaries, and in this they succeeded. The Americans were
accused of issuing the placards; two Armenian professors were
imprisoned; and the girls' school was burned down. Outbreaks,
easily suppressed, followed at Kaisarfeh and other places.
One of the revolutionary dreams was to make the ancient
Daron the centre of a new Armenia. But the movement met with
no enco urag ement, either amongst the prosperous peasants on the
rich plain of Mush or in the mountain villages, of Sasun. In the
summer of 1803, an emissary was captured near Mush, and the
governor, hoping to secure others, ordered the Kurdish Irregular
Horse to raid the mountain district. The Armenians drove off
the Kurds, 1 and, when attacked in the spring of 1894, again held
their own. The vali now called up regular troops from ErrJngan;
and the sultan issued a firman calling upon all loyal sabjecte
to aid in suppressing the revolt. A massacre of a most brutal
character, in which Turkish soldiers took part, followed; and
aroused deep indignation in Europe. In November 1894 a
Turkish "^p'^^ of inquiry was sent to Armenia, and was
accompanied by the consular delegates of Great Britain, France
and Russia, who elicited the fact that there had been no attempt
1 The Armenians and Kurds have lived together from the earliest
times. The adoption of Islam by the latter, and by many Armenians,
divided the people sharply into Christian and Moslem, and placed the
Christian in a position of inferiority. But the relations between the
two sects were not unfriendly previously to the Russian campaigns
in Persia and Turkey. After 1 829 the relations became less friendly ;
and later, when the Armenians attracted the sympathies of the
European powers after the war of 1877.78, they became bitterly
European
heatueT
56»
ARMENIAN CHURCH
a* swvsfc to Justify the action of the authorities. Throughout
cft*4 *** fUU of the country bordered upon anarchy, and
4*na« the winter of 1894-1895 the British government, with
Uavrwans) support from France and Russia, pressed for adminis-
trative reforms In the vilayets of Erzerum, Van, Bitlis, Sivas,
M*wiuret-el Axis (Khsrput) and Diarbekr. The Porte made
counter -proposals, and officials concerned in the Sasun massacres
were decorated and rewarded. On the nth of May 189s the
three powers presented to the sultan a complicated scheme of
reforms which was more calculated to increase than to lessen
the difficulties connected with the government of Armenia; but
it was the only one to which Russia would agree. The sultan
delayed his answer. Great Britain was in favour of coercion, but
Russia, when sounded, replied that she " would certainly not
join in any coercive measures " and she was supported by France.
At this moment, aist of June 1895, Lord Rosebery's cabinet
resigned, and when Lord Salisbury's government resumed the
negotiations In August, the sultan appealed to France and Russia
against England. During the negotiations the secret societies had
not been inactive. Disturbances occurred at Tarsus; Armenians
who did not espouse the " national " cause were murdered; the
life of the patriarch was threatened; and a report was circu-
lated that the British ambassador wished some Armenians killed
to give him an excuse for bringing the fleet to Constantinople.
On the 1st of October 1895 a number of Armenians, some armed,
went in procession with a petition to the Porte and were ordered
by the police to disperse. Shots were fired, and a riot occurred
in which many Armenian and some Moslem lives were lost The
British ambassador now pressed the scheme of reforms upon the
sultan, who accepted it on the 1 7th of October. Meanwhile there-
had been a massacre at Trebizond (October 8), in which armed
men from Constantinople took part, and it had become evident
that no united action on the part of the powers was to be feared.
The sultan refused to publish the scheme of reforms, and massacre
followed massacre in Armenia in quick succession until the 1st
of January 1896. Nothing was done. Russia refused to agree
to any measure of coercion, and declared (December 19).
that she would take no action except such as was needed for
the protection of foreigners. Great Britain was not prepared
to act alone. In the* summer of 1896 (June 14-33) there
were massacres at Van, Egin, and Niksar; and on the 36th of
August the Imperial Ottoman Bank at Constantinople was
seized by revolutionists as a demonstration against the Christian
powers who had left the Armenians to their fate. The project
was known to the Porte, and the rabble, previously armed
and instructed, were at once turned loose in the streets. Two
days' massacre followed, during which from 6000 to 7000
Gregorian Armenians perished.
The massacres were apparently organised and carried out in
accordance with a well-considered plan. They occurred, except
in six places, in the vilayets to which the scheme of
reforms was to apply. At Trebisond they took place
just before the sultan accepted that scheme, and after
his acceptance of it they spread rapidly. They were confined
to Gregorian and Protestant Armenians. The Roman Catholics
were protected by France, the Greek Christians by Russia. The
massacre of Syrians, Jacobites and Chaldees at Urfa and else-
where formed no part of the original plan. Orders were given
to protect foreigners, and in some cases guards were placed over
their houses. The damage to the American buildings at Kharput
was due to direct disobedience of orders. The attacks on the
bazars were made without warning, during business hours, when
the men were in their shops and the women in their houses.
Explicit promises were given, in some instances, that there would
be no danger to those who opened their shops, but they were
deliberately broken. Nearly all those who, from their wealth,
education and influence, would have had a share in the govern-
ment under the scheme of reforms, were killed and their families
ruined by the destruction of their property. Where any attempt
at defence was made the slaughter was greatest. The only
successful resistance was at Zeitun, where the people received
honourable terms after three months' fighting. In some towns
?»•«
the troops and police took an active part in the nn moots. At
Kharput artillery was used. In some the slaughter commenced
and ended by bugle-call, and in a few instances the Armenians
were disarmed beforehand. Wherever a superior official or army
officer intervened the massacre at once ceased, and wherever
a governor stood firm there was no disturbance. The actual
perpetrators of the massacres were the local Moslems, sided by
Lazis, Kurds and Circassians. A large majority of the Moslems
disapproved of the massacres, and many Armenians were saved
by Moslem friends. But the lower orders were excited by reports
that the Armenians, supported by the European powers, were
plotting the overthrow of the sultan; and their cupidity was
aroused by the .prospect of wiping out their heavy debts to
Armenian pedlars and merchants. No one was punished for the
massacres, and many of those implicated in them were rewarded.
In some districts, especially in the Kharput vilayet, the cry of
44 Islam or death " was raised. Gregorian priests and Protestant
pastors were tortured, but preferred death to apostasy. Men and
women were killed in prison and in churches in cold blood.
Churches, monasteries, schools and houses were plundered and
destroyed. In some places there was evidence of the previo u s
activity of secret societies, in others none. The number of those
who perished, excluding Constantinople, was 30,000 to 35,00a. 1
Many were forced to embrace Islam, and numbers were reduced
to poverty. The destruction of property was enormous, the
hardest-working and best tax-paying element in the country was
destroyed, or impoverished, and where the breadwinners were
killed the women and children were left destitute. Efforts by
Great Britain and the United States to alleviate the distress were
opposed by the authorities, but met with some success. After
the massacres the number of students in the American schools
and colleges increased, and many Gregorian Armenians became
Roman Catholics in order to obtain the protection of France.
The Armenian revolutionary societies continued their pro-
paganda down to the granting of the Turkish constitution in
1908; and meanwhile further massacres occurred here and there,
notably at Mush (1004) and Van (1908).
See Abkh. Ceologie d. Mrmeniuhen Hoeklandes (Wien, rflftj);
Bishop, Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan (Lond., 1891). Bhst,
Turkey and Ike Armenian Atrocities (Load., 1896); Bryce, Trans-
caucasia and Ararat Uth ed.. Lond.. 1896); De Coureous. La
Ribcllion armenienne (Pans, 1895); Lepsius, Armenia and Europe
(Lond., 1897); Murray, Handbook (or Asia Minor (Loud.. 1895):
Party. Papers. Turkey. I. (1895): Turkey, I.. II. (1896); Supan,
Die Verbreitung d. Arraenier in der asiatischen Turkei, u. in
Transkaukasien," in Pet. Mitt. vol. xlii. (1896); Toser. Turkish
Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor (Lond., 1881); Chatet, A rminie.
Kurdistan, it Misopolamie (1802); Lynch, Armenia (a vols.. 1901).
(C W. WT)
ARMENIA* CHURCH. No trustworthy account exists of
the evangelisation of Armenia, for the legend of King Abgar's
correspondence with Christ, even if it contained any historical
truth, only relates to Edessa and Syriac Christianity. That the
Armenians appropriated from the Syrians this, as well as the
stories of Bartholomew and Thaddeus (the Syriac Addai), was
merely an avowal on their part that Edessa was the centre from
which the faith radiated over their land. In the 4 th century and
later the liturgy was still read in Syriac in parts of Armenia,
and the New Testament, the history of Eusebius, the homines of
Aphraates, the works of St Ephraem and many other early
books were translated from Syriac, from which tongue most
of their ecdesiological terms were derived. The earliest notice
of an organised church in Armenia is in Eusebius, H. E. vi. 46,
to the effect that Dionysius of Alexandria c. 750 sent a letter to
Meruzanes, bishop of the brethren in Armenia. There were many
Christians in Melitene at the time of the Decian persecution in
a.d. 250, and two bishops from Great Armenia were present at the
council of Nice in 3*5. King Tiridates (c. a.d. 238-314) had
already been baptised some time after 161 by Gregory the
Illuminator. The latter was ordained priest and appointed
catkoticus or exarch of the church of Great Armenia by Leontios,
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. This one fact b certain amidst
the fables which soon obscured the history of this great missionary.
* According to some estimates the number killed was 50,oooor more*
ARMENIAN CHURCH
569
Thus the church of Great Armenia began m a province of the
Cappadodan see. • But there was a tradition of a line of bishops
earlier than Gregory in Siuniq, a region east of Ararat along the
Araxes (Aras), which in early times claimed to be independ-
ent of the catholicus. • The Adoptianjst bishop Archelaus, who
opposed the entry of Mani into Armenia under Probus c 277, was
also perhaps a Syriac-speaking bishop of Pers- Armenia. Almost
the earliest document revealing anything of the inner organiza-
tion and condition of the Armenian church in the Nicene age is
the epistle of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to the Armenian
bishop Verthanes, written between 325 and 335 and preserved
in Armenian. Its genuineness has been unreasonably suspected.
It insists on the erection of fonts; on distinction of grades
among the ordained clergy; on not postponing baptism too
long; on bishops and priests alone, and not deacons, being
allowed to baptize and lay hands on or confirm the baptized;
on avoiding communion with Arians; on the use of unleavened
bread in the Sacrament, &c. 'We learn from it that the bishop
of Basen and Bagrevand was an Arian at that time. • By the year
450 these two districts already had separate bishops of their own.
The letter of Macarius, therefore, if a forgery, must be a very
early one. 1 The Armenians must, like the Georgians a little
later, have set store by the opinion of the bishop of Jerusalem,
or they would not have sent to consult him. It was equally from
Jerusalem that they subsequently adopted their lectionary and
arrangement of the Christian year; and a gib-century copy
of this lectionary in the Paris library preserves to us precious
details of the liturgical usages of Jerusalem in the 4th century.
We can trace the presence of Armenian convents on the Mount
of Olives as early as the 5th century.
Tradition represents the conversion of Great Armenia under
Gregory and Tiridates as a sort of triumphant march, in which
the temples of the demons and their records were destroyed
wholesale, and their undefended sites instantly converted into
Christian churches, The questions arise: how was the tran-
sition from old to new effected? and what was the type of
teaching dominant in the new church? Armenian tradition,
confirmed by nearly contemporary Greek sources, answers the
first question. The old order went on, but under new names.
The priestly families, we learn, hearing that the God preached by
Gregory needed not sacrifice, sent to the king a deputation and
asked how they were to live, if they became Christians; for until
then the priests and their families had lived off the portions
of the animal victims and other offerings reserved to them by
pagan custom. Gregory replied that, if they would join the new
religion, not only should the sacrifices continue, but they should
have larger perquisites then ever. . The priestly families then
went over en masse. How far the older sacrificial rules resembled
the levities! law we do not know, but in the canons of Sahak,
c. 430, the priests already receive the levitical portions of the
victims; and we find that animals are being sacrificed every
Sunday, on the feast days which at first were few, in fulfilment
of private vows, in expiation of the sins of the living, and still
more of those of the dead. - No one might kill his own meat and
deprive the priest of his due; but this rule did not apply to the
chase. The earliest Armenian rituals contain ample services for
the conduct of an agapi (q.t.) or love feast held in the church off
sacrificial meat The victim was slaughtered by the priest in
the church porch before the crucifix, after it had been ritually
wreathed and given the holy salt, by licking which it appropri-
ated a sacramental purity or efficacy previously conveyed into the
salt by exorcisms and consecration. • In the canons of Sahak the
priest is represented as eating the sins of the people in these repasts.
1 If a forgery, why should this letter have been assigned to Macarius,
a comparatively obscure person whose name is not even found in the
menaea of the Eastern church ? But convincing proof of its authen-
ticity lies in Macarius' reference to himself as merely archbishop of
Jerusalem, and his avowal that he was unwilling to advise the
Armenians. " being oppressed by the weakness of the authority con-
ceded him by the weighty usages of the church." Jerusalem was only
allowed to rank as a patriarchate in 451, and the seventh canon of
Nice subordinated the see to that of Caesarea in Palestine. To thai
decree Macarius somewhat bitterly alludes.
It is easy to underrate the importance in religion of a change
of names. The old sacrificial hymns were probably obscene
and certainly nonsensical, and the substitution for them of the
psalms, and of lections of the prophets and New Testament, was
an enormous gain. Wc do not know precisely how the euchar-
istic rite was adjusted to these sacrificial meals; but, in the
canons of Sahak, x Cor. xi. 17-34 is interpreted of these meals,
which were known as the Dominical (suppers). • The Eucharist
was, therefore, long associated with the matal or animal victim,
and only in the 8th century do we hear of an interval of time being
left between the fleshly and the spiritual sacrifices, as the two
rites were then called. . The Basilian service of the Eucharist
was used in the 5 th century, but superseded later on by a
Byzantine rite which will be found translated in F. E. Bright-
man's Eastern Liturgies. The Eucharist was no doubt the one
important sacrifice in the minds of the clergy who had attended
the schools of Constantinople and Alexandria; yet the heart of
the people remained in their ancient blood-offerings, and as late
as the nth century they were prone to deny that the mass could
expiate the sins of the dead unless accompanied by the sacrifice
of an animal. Perhaps even to-day the worst fate that can befall
a villager after death is to be deprived, not of commemoration
in the mass, but of the victim slain for his sins. . The keenest
spiritual weapon of the Armenian priest was ever a threat not to
offer the natal for a man when he died.
Another survival in the Armenian church was the hereditary
priesthood. None but a scion of a priestly family could become
a deacon, elder or bishop. Accordingly the primacy remained
in the family of Gregory until about 374, when the king Pap
or Bab murdered Nerses, who had been ordained by Eusebius
of Caesarea (362-370) and was over-zealous in implanting in
Armenia the canons about celibacy, marriage, fasting, hospices
and monastic life which Basil had established in Cappadocia.
It may be remarked that Gregory's own family was a cadet
branch of the Arsacid kin which had occupied the thrones of
Persia, Bactria, Armenia and Georgia. His primacy therefore
was in itself a survival of an earlier age when king and priest
were one. - He was in fact a rex sacrijUulus, and later on, when
the Arsacid dynasty fell in Armenia c. a.d. 428, the Armenian
catholicus became the symbol of national unity and the rallying-
point of patriotism. • The line of Gregory was restored in 300 in
the person of Isaac or Sahak, son of Nerses, and his patriarchate
was the golden age of Armenian literature. . But by this time the
autonomy of the Armenian church was thoroughly established.
On the death of Nerses the right of saying grace at the royal
-meals, which was the essence of the catholicate, was transferred by
the king, in despite of the Greeks, to the priestly family of Albianus,
and thenceforth no Armenian catholicus went to Caesarea for
ordination. The ties with Greek official Christendom were
snapped for ever, and in subsequent ages the doctrinal preferences
of the Armenians were usually determined, more by antagonism
to the Greeks than by reflection. If they accepted the council
of Ephesus in 430 and joined in the condemnation of Nestorius,
it was rather because the Sassanid kings of Persia, who thirsted
for the reconquest of Armenia, favoured Nestorianism, a form of
doctrine current in Persia and rejected in Byzantium. But later
on, about 480, and throughout the following centuries, the
Armenians rejected the decrees of Chalcedon and held that the
assertion of two natures in Christ was a relapse into the heresy of
Nestor. From the close of the 5th century the Armenians have
remained. monophy site, like the Copts and Abyssinians, and have
only broken the record with occasional short interludes of ortho-
doxy, as when in 633 the emperor Heraclius forced reunion on
them, under a catholicus named Esdras, at a council held in
Erzerum. Even then all parties were careful not to mention
Chalcedon. The march of Arab conquest kept the Armenians
friendly to Byzantium for a few years; but in 7x8 the catholicus
John of Odsun ascended the throne and at the council of Manaz-
kert in 728 repeated and confirmed the anathemas against
Chalcedon and the tome of Leo, that had been first pronounced by
the catholicus Babken in 491 at a synod held in Valarshapat by
the united Armenian, Georgian or lbcrian,and Albanian church**
570
ARMENIAN CHURCH
The Armenians marked their complete disruption with the Greeks
by starting an era of their own at the synod of Dvin. The era
began on the I ith of July 552, and their year is vague, that is to
say, it does not intercalate a day in February every fourth year,
like the Julian calendar.
The two churches of Iberia and Albania at first depended on
the Armenian for ordination of their primates or catholici, and in
large part owed their first constitution to Armenian missionaries
sent by Gregory the Illuminator. The Iberians still reverence
as saints the Armenian doctors of the 5th century, but as early
as 552 they began to resent the dictatorial methods of the
Armenians, as well might a proud race of mountaineers who
never wholly lost their political independence; and they broke
off their allegiance to the Armenian see very soon afterwards,
accepted Chalcedon and joined the Byzantine church. The
Albanians of the Caucasus were also converted in the age of
Gregory) early in the 4th century, and were loyal to the
Armenians in the great struggle against Mazdaism in the 5th;
but broke away for a time towards 600, and chose a patriarch
without sending him to Armenia for ordination. Eventually
this interesting church was engulfed by the rising tide of
Mahommedan conquest, but not before one of their bishops,
named Israel, had converted (677-703) the Huns who lay to the
north of the Caspian and had translated the Bible and liturgies
into their language. If the Albanian and Hunnish versions could
be found, they would be of the greatest linguistic importance.
The mother church of Armenia was established by Gregory at
Ashtishat in the province of Taron, on the site of the great temple
of Wahagn, whose festival on the seventh of the month Sahmi
was reconsecrated to John the Baptist and Athenogenes, an
Armenian martyr and Greek hymn writer. The first of Navasard,
the Armenian new year's day, was the feast of a god Vanatur
or Wanadur (who answered to Zefo £tnor) in the holy pilgrim
city of Bagawan. His day was reconsecrated to the Baptist,
whose relics were brought to Bagawan. ' The feast of Anahite,
the Armenian Venus and spouse of the chief god Aramazd, was
in the same way rededicated to the Virgin Mary, who for long was
not very dearly distinguished by the Armenians from the virgin
mother church. The old cult of sacred stones and trees by an
easy transition became cross-worship, but a cross was not sacred
until the Christ had been, by priestly prayer and invocation,
transferred into it.
What was the earliest doctrine of the churches of Armenia?
If we could believe the fathers of the 5th and succeeding cen-
turies Nicene orthodoxy prevailed in their country from the first;
and in the 5th century they certainly chose for translation the
works of orthodox fathers alone, such as Chrysostom, Basil,
Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril of Jerusalem and
Cyril of Alexandria, Athanasius, Julius of Rome, Hippolytus,
Irenaeus, avoiding Origen and other fathers who were becoming
suspect. However, we do hear of versions of Nestorian writers
like Diodore of Tarsus being in circulation, and the Disputation of
Archelaus proves that the current orthodoxy of eastern Armenia
was Adoptianist, if not Ebionite in tone. The Persian Armenians
as late as the 6th century had not heard of the faith of Nicaea,
and only then received it from the catholicus Babken. ■ They sent
a copy of their old creed to Babken, and it closely resembles the
Adoptianist creed of Archelaus, the gist of which was that Jesus,
until his thirtieth year, was a man mortal like other men; then,
because he was righteous above all others, he was promoted to the
honour and name of Son of God. He received the title by grace,
but was not equal to God the Father. Because the Spirit worked
with him, he was able to vanquish Satan and all desires, and
because of his righteousness and good works he was made worthy
of grace and became a Temple of God the Word, which came
down from heaven in Jordan, dwelt in ham and through him
wrought miracles. From such a standpoint the baptism of Jesus
was the moment of the divine incarnation. The man righteous
above all others was then reborn of the Spirit, was illuminated,
was spiritually anointed, became the Christ and Son of God. In
effect the fathers of the Armenian church often fell back into such
language, far removed as it is from orthodoxy; and they em-
phasized the importanceof thenaptismal feast of the Epiphany on
the 6th of January by refusing to accept the feast of the physical
birth of the 25th of December. As late as 1165 their patriarch
Nerses defends the Armenian custom of keeping Christmas 00
the 6th of January on the express ground that as he was born
after the flesh from the Virgin, so he was born by way of baptism
from the Jordan. The custom from the first, he says, had been
to feast on one and the same day the two births, much as they
differed in sacramental import and in point of time. We see
how deep the early Adoptianism had struck its roots, when a
primate of the 12th century could still appeal to the baptismal
regeneration of Jesus. The same Nerses held that the second
Adam, Jesus Christ, received a new body and nature and the
sevenfold grace of the Spirit in the Jordan. The Armenian
doctors also taught that John by laying hands on Jesus and
ordaining him at his baptism sacramentally transferred to him
the three graces or charismata of kingship, prophecy and priest-
hood which had belonged to ancient Israel. After baptism, if
not before, the flesh of Christ was incorruptible. It consisted of
ethereal fire, and he was not subject to the ordinary phenomena
of digestion, secretions and evacuations.
Monastic institutions were hardly introduced in Armenia
before the 5th century, though Christian rest-houses had been
erected along the high-roads long before and are mentioned m
the Disputation of Archelaus. ' The Armenians called them 1*0*9,
and out of them grew the monasteries. - The monks were, strictly
speaking, penitents wearing the cowl, and not allowed to take
a part in church government. This belonged to the elders. At
first there was no separate episcopal ordination, and the one rite
of elder or priest (Armen. Qahanay, Heb. coken) sufficed. There
were also deacons, half-deacons and readers. * Besides these there
was a class of wardopds or teachers, answering to the Mdascaios of
the earliest church, whose province it was to guard the doctrine
and for whom no rite of ordination is found in the older rituals.
A few other peculiarities of Armenian church usage or belief
deserve notice. In baptism the rubric ordains that the baptised
be plunged three times in the font in commemoration of the
entombment during three days of the Lord. In the West trine
immersion was generally held to be symbolic of the triune name
of " Father, Son and Holy Ghost." This name the Armenians
have used, at least since the year 700; before which date their
fathers often speak of baptism into the death of Christ as the
one essential. As late as about 1300 a traveller hostile to the
Armenians reported to the pope that he had witnessed baptisms
without' any trinitarian invocation in as many as three hundred
pariah churches.
The paschal lamb is now eaten on Sunday, but until the nth
century, and even later, it was eaten with the Eucharist at a
Lord's Supper celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday
after the rite of pedilatium or washing of feet. On the morning
of the same day the penitents were released from their fast.
The rite of extreme unction was introduced in the crusading
epoch, although it was already usual to anoint the bodies of dead
priests. The worship of images never seems to have taken root
among Armenians; indeed they supplied the Greek world with
iconoclast soldiers and emperors. The worship of c rosses into
which the Spirit or Christ had been inserted by the priest must
have satisfied the religious needs of a people who, save in archi-
tecture, showed little artistic faculty. - In their older rituals we
find a rite for blessing a painted church, but no word of statues
Frescoes in their churches are rare, and mostly too high up for
veneration to be paid to them.
On certain days the cross was washed, and the water in which
it had been washed was a sovereign charm for curing sickness
in men and animals and for bringing fertility to the land.
In the older rituals we find a rite of exkomotogesis, for restoring
those who had sinned after baptism. Jt was a medicine of sin
that could only be used once and not a second time. In form
it is a rehearsal of the first baptismal rite, but with omission
of the water. It involved like the first rite open confession and
repentance, and absolution by the church. In a later and less
rigorous age this rite was abridged and adjusted to constant
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
571
repetition, in such wise that a sinner could be restored to grace
not once only, but as often as the clergy chose to accept his
repentance and confession. . Thus the whole development of the
penitentiary system is traceable in the MSS.
The confession of a dying man might be taken by any layman
present, and written down in order to be shown to the priest when
he arrived. It then was the duty of the latter to supplicate for
his forgiveness, and administer to him the Eucharist.
The clergy of all grades were originally married. The parish
priests, or white clergy, are so still, except some of the Latinising
ones. But since the 12th century, or even earlier, the higher
clergy, i.e. patriarchs and bishops, have taken monkish vows and
worn the cowl.
There were abortive attempts to unite the Armenian church
with the Byzantine in the 9th century under the patriarch
Photius, and again late in the lath under the emperor Manuel
Comnenus, when a joint council met at Romkla, near Tarsus, but
ended in nothing (a.d. 1179). Neither could the Armenians keep
on good terms even with the Syriac monophysites. From the
age of the crusades on, the Armenians of Cilicia, whose patriarch
sat at Sis, improved their acquaintance with Rome; and more
than one of their patriarchs adopted the Roman faith, at least in
words. ' Dominican missions went to Armenia, and in 1328 under
their auspices was formed a regular order called the United
Brethren, the forerunners of the Uniats of the present day, who
have convents at Venice and Vienna, a college in Rome and a
numerous following in Turkey. • They retain their Armenian
liturgies and rites, pruned to suit the Vatican standards of ortho-
doxy, and they recognize the pope as head of the church.
The patriarchs of Great Armenia first resided at Ashtishat,
on the Araxes. From 478 to 931 they occupied Dvin in the same
neighbourhood, then Aghthamar, aa island in the Lake of Van,
031-967, the. city of Ani, 992-1054, where are still visible the
magnificent ruins of their churches and palaces. Since 1441 the
chief catholicus has sat at Echmiadzin, the convent of Valar-
shapat, now part of Russian Armenia. A rival catholicus, with a
small following, still has his cathedral and see at Sis. The catho-
licus of Valarshapat is nominally chosen by all Armenians. A
synod of bishops, monks and doctors meets regularly to transact
under his eye the business of the convent and the oecumenical
affairs of the church; but its decisions are subject to the veto of
a Russian procurator. There are Armenian patriarchs, subject
to the spiritual jurisdiction of Echmiadzin, in Constantinople and
Jerusalem. In the latter place the Armenians occupy a convent
on Mount Sion, and keep up in the churches of the Sepulchre and
of Bethlehem their own distinct rites and feasts, the only one*
there which at all resemble those of the 4th century.
The following list of councils was compiled by John, catholicus
about the year 728, and read at the council of Manazkert, when
the dogmatic and disciplinary attitude of the Armenian church
was denned once and for all: —
1. In twentieth year of catholicate of Gregory and thirty-
seventh of Trdat, the king, on return of Aristaces from council of
Nice, bringing the Nicene creed and canons.
a. Council held by St Nerses on his return from the council of
the 150 fathers at Constantinople against Macedonius.
3. Held by St Sahak and Mesrop on receipt of letters from
Proclus and Cyril after the council of Ephesus, when the " Glory
in the Highest " was adopted. Held against Nestorianism.
4. Held by Joseph, disciple of MashdoU (Mesrop) and St Sahak,
in Shahapiwan in the sixth year of King Yazkert {i.e. Yazdcgerd)
of Persia, for the regulation of the church. Forty bishops pre-
sent. (The Massalians were anathematized.)
5. Held by Babken, catholicus, in the City-plain (i.e. Dvin),
in the 18th year of King Kavat (i.e. Kavadh), against the
heresy of Acacius and Barsuma (Bar-sauma), the friends of
Nestorius. The true (Nicene) faith was sent to the Armenians of
the farther East (shortly afterwards a slightly different creed was
adopted, identical with a pseudo-Athanasian symbol used by
Evagrfus of Pontus and given in Greek in Patr. Gr. xxvi. Col.
1*3*)-
6. At the beginning of the Armenian era, held by Nerses in
. Dvin, in the fourth year of his catholicate, in the fourteenth, of
Chosroes' reign and in the fourteenth of Justinian Caesar.
Held against Chalcedon, uniting the Baptism and Christmas
feasts on the 6th of January (Epiphany), declaring for mono-
physitism, and adopting in the Trisagion the words " who wast
crucified for us." This settlement lasted for about seventy-four
years.
7. After the retaking of Jerusalem and recovery of the Cross
from the Persians in the eighteenth year of his reign,. Heradi us
called a mixed council at Karin (Theodosiopolis) of Greeks and
Armenians under Ezr (Esdras), catholicus, at which the preceding
council of Dvin was cursed, its reforms repudiated and the
confession of Chalcedon adopted. This remained the official
attitude of the Armenian church until the catholicate of Elias
(703-7 x 7). John, catholicus, denies to Ezr's meeting the name of
council, and so makes his own the seventh.
8. Under John, catholicus, in Manazkert, in the one hundred
and seventieth year of the Armenian era («=»a.d. 728) under
the presidency of Gregory Asharuni Chorepiscopos (Gregory
Asheruni). All the Armenian bishops attended, as also the
metropolitan of Urhha (Edcssa), Jacobite bishops of Gartman,
of Nfrkert, Amasia, by command of the archbishop of Antioch.
Chalcedon was repudiated afresh, union with the Jacobites
instituted, use of water and leaven in the Eucharist condemned,
the five days' preliminary fast before Lent restored, Saturday as
well as Sunday made a day of feasting and synaxis, any but the
orthodox excluded from the Maundy Thursday Communion,
the first communion of the new catechumens; union of the
Baptismal and Christmas feasts was restored, and the faithful
forbidden to fast on Fridays from Easter until Pentecost. In
general these rules have been observed in the Armenian church
ever since.
For list of authorities on the Armenian church see the works
enumerated at the end of Armenian Langua.gr and Literature.
For the relations of the Armenian church to the Persian kings see
Persia: Ancient History, section viii. |§ 2 and 3. (F. C. C.)
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Arme-
nian language belongs to the group called Indo-European,
of which the Iranic and Indie tongues formed one .
branch, and Greek, Albanian, Italian, Celtic, Germanic *•**■**
and Baltic-Slavonic dialects the other great branch. Unlike
most of these, Armenian lost its genders long before the year
a.d. 400, when the existing literature begins. Modern Persian
similarly has lost gender; and in both cases the liberation must
have been due to attrition of other tongues which had a different
system of gender or none at all. So the Armenians were ever in
contact on the north with the Iberians of the Caucasus who had
none, and with the Semitic races on the south and east which had
other ways of forming genders than the Indo-European tongues.
From the original Armenian stock can be readily distinguished
a mass of Old and Middle Persian loan-words. These are so
'numerous that for a time Armenian was classed as an Iranian
tongue. For more than a thousand years, say until a.d. 640,
Armenia was an appanage of the realm of the Persians and
Parthians. Until ajd. 418 the Armenian throne was occupied by
a younger branch of the Arsacid dynasty that ruled in Persia
until the advent of the Sassanids (c. a.d. 226), and the internal
polity and court administration of Armenia were modelled on the
Persian or Parthian. Accordingly over 200 proper and personal
names in Armenia were Old Persian, as well as 700 names, of
things. If we count in the derivative forms of these words we
get at least 2000 Old Persian words. - Often the same Persian
word was borrowed twice over in an earlier and later form at an
interval of centuries, just as in English we inherit a word direct
or have taken it from Latin, and have also assimilated from
French a later form of the same. The Persian influence in
Armenian was already strong as early as 400 B.C., when Xenophon
used a Persian interpreter to converse. In some of the Armenian
villages they answered him in Persian. The Persian loan-words
already present in Armenian as early as a.d. 400 mirror the
earlier political and social life of Armenia. Thus many of their
kings and nobles had Persian names; Persian also were most
572
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
words used in connexion with horses and the chase, with war
and army, with dress, trade and coinage, calendar, weights and
measures, with court and political institutions, with music,
medicine, school, education, literature and the arts. Many
everyday words were of the same origin, e.g. the words for village,
desert, building and build, need, rich or liberal, arm (of body),
rod or goad, face, opposite, wicked, unfriendly, discontented,
difficult, daughter, eulogy, a youth, wary, enjoy, unhappy,
volition, voluntary, unwilling, blind, cautious, blood-kin, coquet
with, slumber, humble, mad, grace or favour, memory or atten-
tion, grandfather, old woman, prepared, duty, necessary, end,
endless, superior, confident, mistake, warmth, heat, glory. • The
language of their old religion was mainly Persian, but in the
4th century they derived numerous ecclesiological words from the
Syrians, from whom by way of Edessa and Nisibis Christianity
penetrated eastern Armenia. The language of the garden and
the names of plants were also Persian. They had their own
numerals, but the words for one thousand and for ten thousand
are Persian.
Yet more indicative of the extent of the Persian influence is the
adoption of the adjectival ending -akan and -tan, added to purely
Armenian words; also of the preposition ham, answering to con
in " conjoin," " conspire," added to purely Armenian words, as
in hambarnam, I take away, and kamboir, a kiss, a word which,
strange to say, the Iberians in turn borrowed from the Armenians.
From Persia also the Armenians took their names for surround-
ing races, e.g. Totskik or Tajik, first for Arab and then for Turk,
Ariq for Persians, Kapkoh for Caucasus, Hrazdan, Vaspuragan,
&c. The Armenians call themselves Hay, plural Hayq; their
country Hayasdan. The Iberians they called Virq or Wirq
(where q marks the plural), the Medcs Marq, the Cappadocians
Gamirq (Cimmerians), the Greeks Y tines or Ionians; Ararat they
call Masts, the Euphrates the Aradsan, the Tigris Teglath,
Erzerum Is Karin, Edessa Urhha, Nisibis Mdsbin, Ctesiphon
Tizbon, &c.
When the Persian and other loan-words are removed, a stock
remains of native words and forms governed by other phonetic
laws than those which govern the Aryan, i.e. Indian and Iranic,
branch of the Indo-European tongues. Armenian appears to be
a half-way dialect between the Aryan branch and Slavo-lettk.
Much, however, in Armenian philology remains unexplained.
For example the plural of nouns, pronouns and the first and
second persons plural of verbs are all formed by adding a q or k,
which has no parallel in any Indo-Germanic tongue. The
genitive- plural again is formed by adding a ft or c, and the same
consonant characterizes the composite aorist and the conjunctive.
In all three cases it is unexplained. ' In the verbs the termination
m for the first singular at once explains itself, and the n of the
third plural is the Indo-Germanic nti. But not so the second
person singular ending in s, e.g. berem, I bear, beres, thou bearest.
This has a superficial likeness to the I.-G. esi in bheresi, " thou
bearest." Yet we should expect the s between vowels to vanish,
and give us in Armenian bert. ■ Perhaps, therefore, an old variant
of esi, similar to the Greek hal, lies behind the Armenian es,
thou art, and the es in beres, thou bearest. In any case it is clear
that many of the oldest forms which Armenian shared with other
Indo-Germanic dialects were lost and replaced by forms of which
the origin is obscure. Perhaps a closer study of Mingrelian and
Georgian will explain some of these peculiarities, for these and
their cognate tongues must have had a wider range in the 7 th and
8th centuries B.C. than they had later when clear history begins.
The attempts made by S. Bugge to assimilate Old Armenian to
Etruscan, and by P. Jensen to explain from it the Hittite inscrip-
tions, appear to be fanciful. There is a Urge Semitic influence
traceable in Armenian due to their early contact with the Syriac-
speaking peoples to the south and cast of them, and later to the
Arab conquest. Much remains to be done in the way of collec ting
Armenian dialects, for which task there are written materials
as far back as the 1 »th century over and above the work to be
done by an intelligent traveller armed with a phonograph. Two
main dialects of Armenian arc distinguishable to-day, that of
Ararat and Tiflis, and that of Stambul and the coast cities of
Asia Minor. The latter is much overlaid with Tatar or Turkish
words, and the Tatar order of words distinguishes the modern
Armenian sentence from the ancient.
It remains to say that classical Armenian resembles rather the
modern idiom of Van than of western Armenia. It was a plastic
and noble language, capable of rendering faithfully, yet not
servilely, the Greek Bible and Greek fathers. Often theAnnenian
translators, and especially after the 5th century, rendered word
for word, preserving the order of the Greek. This literalness,
though unpleasing from a literary standpoint, gives to many of
their ancient versions the value almost of a Greek codex of the
age in which the version was made. * The same literalness also
characterizes their translations from Syriac.
The Armenians had a temple literature of their own, which
was destroyed in the 4th and 5th centuries by the Christian
clergy, so thoroughly that barely twenty lines of it fihifi
survive in the history of Moses of Khoren (Chorene).
Their Christian literature begins about 400 with the invention of
the Armenian alphabet by Mesrop. This was probably an older
alphabet to which Mesrop merely added vowels; but, in order
to pacify the Greek ecclesiastics and the emperor Theodosius the
Less, the Armenians concocted a story that it had been divinely
revealed. Once their alphabet perfected, the catholicus Sahak
formed a school of translators who were sent to Edessa, Athens,
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea in Cappadocia,
and elsewhere, to procure codices both in Syriac and Greek and
translate them. From Syriac were made the first version of the
New Testament, the version of Eusebius' History and his Life of
Constantine (unless this be from the original Greek), the homilies
of Aphraatcs, the Acts of Curias and Samuna, the works of
Ephrem Syrus(partly published in four volumes by the Mcchithar-
ists of Venice). They include the commentaries on the DiaUs-
saron and the Paulines, Laboubna and History of Addai, the
Syriac canons of the Apostles.
From the original Greek were rendered in the 5th century the
following authors and works. An asterisk is prefixed to those
which have been printed: — •Eusebius* Chronicon; •PhfiVs lost
commentaries on Genesis and Exodus, and his lost treatises on
Providence and Animals, as well as a great number of his works
still preserved in Greek; *the entire Bible (the New Testament
is a recension after Antiochene Greek texts of an older version
made from the oldest Syriac text); *the Alexander romance
of the pscudo-Callisthenes; 'Epistles and Acts of Ignatius of
Antioch; *many homilies of Gregory Thaumaturgus; *Athan-
asius (a large number of works, many of them wrongly
attributed); Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses and Ad Morcicnum
(recently found); *Hippolytus' commentaries on the Song of
Songs and Daniel, and many fragments; *Ttmotheus* life of
Athanasius; Theophilus of Alexandria, various homilies;
'Eusebius of Gabala or Severianus, fifteen Homilies; *Cyril of
Jerusalem, Catechcscs and Letter to Constantine; 'Wisdom of
Ahikar; *the Apology of Axis tides; Gregory of Nazianzus,
thirty-four Homilies; *Nonnus* work on Gregory (perhaps a
version of 6th century); Basil of Caesarea, *Hexaimeron t
fifteen Homilies on faith, epistle to Terentius, ascetic writings
and canons, on the Holy Spirit, to Cledonius, &c Heltadius of
Caesarea 's life of Basil; Gregory of Nyssa's treatise on the
Beatitudes, and many other homilies, Commentaries on Song of
Songs, *On Human Nature (Nemesius), panegyrics on sundry
Martyrs, and other works (but some of these versions belong to
the beginning of the 8th century) ; Epiphanius of Satamis, Com-
mentary on the Gospels, *0» weights and measures, 'Physiologus,
canons and many homilies; Evagrius of Pbntus, Homilies and
Ascetic works, Letters to Melania, &c; John Chrysostom,
•Homilies and Prayers, in very beautiful language; *Produs,
patriarch of Constantinople, many homilies; *N0us the Aacete, On.
the Eight Spirits of Evil; *Josephus, On the Jewish War; Dioaysius
of Alexandria, * A gainst Paul of Samosata and other fragments
Acadus, bishop of Melitene, 'Letters to Sahak; Julius of Rome
(fragments); Zenobiut, Homilies (? from Syriac); the History
of Julius Africanus was perhaps also translated in this century*
but it is lost. To the 5th century belong the versions of tb»
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
573
Nicene canons, of which the Armenian text a* preserved is barely
intelligible, of the cuchariatic rites called of 'Basil, *Chrysoston v
'Ignatius and others; also the 'Hours or Breviary, the 'Rites
of Ordination, Baptism, of the making and release of Penitents,
of Epiphany, and perhaps the many rites of animal sacrifice, for
these are partly originals, partly versions, of lost Greek texts.
A mass of martyrs' acts were also rendered in this century,
including parts of the lost collection made by Eosebius. Among
these the * Acts and Apology of Apollonhis restore a lost and-
ccntury text. The 'Canons of Sahak also purport to be trans-
lated from a Greek original about the year 330.
The Armenians were so busy in this century translating Greek
and Syriac fathers that they have left little that is original. Still
a number of historical works survive: *Faustus of Byzantium
relates the events of the period A.D. 344-392 in a work instinct
with life and racy of the soil. It was perhaps first composed in
Greek, but it gives a faithful picture of the court of the petty
sovereigns of Armenia, of the political organization, of the blood
feuds of the clans, of the planting of Christianity. Procopius
preserves some fragments of the Greek.
The 'History of Taron, by Zenobius of Glak, is a somewhat
legendary account of Gregory the Illuminator, and may have been
written in Syriac in the 5th, though it was only Armenized in a
later century.
'Elisaeus Wardapet wrote a history of Wardan (Vardan), and
of the war waged for their faith by the Armenians against the
Sassanids. He was an eye-witness of this struggle, and gives a
good account of the contemporary Mazdaism which the Persians
tried to force on the Armenians. *Lazar of Pharp wrote a history
embracing the events of the 5th century up to the year 485, as a
continuation of the work of Faustus.
•A history of St Gregory and of the conversion of Armenia
by Agathangelus is preserved in Greek, Armenian and Arabic.
The Arabic edited by Professor Marr of St Petersburg seems to
be the oldest form of text. The Greek is a rendering of the
Armenian. It is a compilation, and the second part which
contains the Acts of Gregory and of St Rhipsima seems wholly
legendary. The Greek and Armenian texts were edited together
by Lagarde.
•The History of Armenia by Moses of Khoren (Chorene)
relates events up to about the year 450. It is a compilation,
devoid of historical method, value or veracity, from all sorts of
previous authors, mostly from those which already existed in an
Armenian dress. Some critics put down the date of composition
as low as about 700, and it was certainly retouched in the late
6th century.
*A long volume of rhetorical exercises, based on Aphthonius,
is also ascribed to Moses of Khoren, and appears to be of the 5th
century. The 'geography which passes under his name may
belong to the 7U1 century. Various homilies of Moses survive,
as also of Elisaeus.
Gorium wrote in this century a 'Life of Mesrop, and Exnik a
* Refutation of the Sects, based largely on antecedent Greek works.
The sects in question are Paganism, Mazdaism, Greek Philosophy
and Mankheism. A volume of "homilies under the name of
Gregory the Illuminator, but not his, also belongs to this century,
and a series of ascetic discourses attributed to John Mandahuni,
who was patriarch 478-500.
Of the 6th and 7 th centuries few works survive except anony-
mous versions of the 'Acts of Thomas (perhaps from the Syriac),
of the *Acts of Peter and Paul, 'of John (psetido-Prochorus),
•of Bartholomew, and of other apostles; also of *the Acts of
Paul and Thekla, 'of Titus, *of the Protevangel, 'of the Testa-
ments of the patriarchs, of the 'Gospel of Nicodemus, or Acts of
Pilate, of the 'Book of Adam, of the 'Deaths of the Prophets, of
the 'History of Baruch, of the * Apocalypses of Paul and of the
Virgin Mary, of the 'Act* of Sylvester, and of an enormous
number of other similar apocryphs. Some of these may be of the
5th century. Two volumes of these apocryphs of the Old and
New Testaments have recently been published at Venice. To
these centuries belong also the versions of the Acts of the council
of Ephesus, of Gangra, Laodicea and of other councils. To the
late 7th century belong the 'calendarial works of Ananiah of
Shhak, who also has left a 'ckronkon compiled from Eusebras,
Andreas of Crete, Hippolytus and other sources. In the 'Letter-
booh of the Patriarchs, lately printed at Tiflis, are to be found
a number of controversial monophysite tracts of these and the
succeeding three centuries, important for church history, It
includes a mass of documents relative to the churches of Iberia
and Albania. The chief literary monument of the 7 th century is
the history of the wars of Heraclius and of the early Mahommedan
conquests in Asia Minor, by the bishop Sebeos, who was an eye-
witness. The *history of the Albanians of the Caucasus, by
Moses Kalankatuatzi, also belongs to the end of this century.
To the middle of the 7U1 century also belong the translations of
Aristotle's treatises 'On the Categories, and 'On Interpretation,
and of 'Porphyry's Isagogt, as well as of voluminous Greek
commentaries on these books; the version of the 'Grammar of
Dionysius Thrax and an incomplete Euclid. The translator
was one David called the Invincible, who also wrote mono*
physite tracts. At the end of this 7 th century one Philo of
Tirak is supposed to have made the version of the 'History
of Socrates, unless indeed it was made earlier. To this century
also seems to belong the Armenian version of a 'history of the
Iberians, by Djuansher, a work full of valuable information.
The early 8th century was a time of great literary activity.
Gregory Asheruni wrote an important 'commentary on the
Jerusalem Lectionary, and his friend 'John the catholicus (717-
728) commentaries on the other liturgical works of his church;
he also collected all existing canon law, Greek or Armenian,
respected in his church, wrote *against the Paulkians and
Docetae, and composed many beautiful hymns. 'Leoncius the
priest has left a history of the first caliphs, and Stephanus, bishop
of Siunik, translated the 'controversial works of Cyril of
Alexandria (whose Claphyra and commentaries, however, seem
to have been translated at an earlier period). He also translated
the works of Dionysius the Areopagite, .commented on the
Armenian breviary and wrote hymns.
In the 9th century Zachariah, catholicus, the correspondent of
Photius, wrote many eloquent homines for the various church
feasts. Shapuh Bagratuni wrote a history of his age, now lost.
Mashtotz, catholicus, collected in one volume the Armenian
rituals.
In the xoth century (e. 925) the catholicus John VL issued his
♦history of Armenia, and Thomas Artsruni a 'history of his clan
carried up to the year 936. Ananias of Mok (943-065) wrote a
great work against the Faulidans, unfortunately lost. Chosroes
wrote a 'commentary on the eucharistic rites and breviary,
'Mesrop a history of Nerses the Great; 'Stephen of Asolik wrote
a history of the world, and a commentary on Jeremiah; 'Gregory
of Narek his famous meditations and hymns; Samuel Kamrdjt-
soretzi a commentary on the Lectionary based on Gregory
Asheruni.
In the xi th century the catholicus Gregory translated many
Acts of Martyrs, and John Kozerhn wrote a history, now lost, as
well as a work on the Armenian calendar; Stephen Asolik a
'history of Armenia up to the year 1004; *Aristaces of Lastiverd
a valuable history of the conquest of Armenia by the Seljuk
caliphs. We may also mention a 'monophysite work against
the Greek doctor Theopistus by Paul of Taron; 'letters and
poems of Gregory Magistros, who also was the translator of the
'Laws, Timatus and other dialogues of Plata
The 1 2th century saw many remarkable writers, mostly in
Cilician Armenia, viz. Nerses the Graceful (d. 1165), author of an
* Elegy on the taking of Edessa, of Voluminous hymns, of long
'Pastoral Letters and Synodal orations of value for the historian
of eastern churches. 'Samuel of Ani composed a chronicle up to
x x 79. Nerses of Lambron, archbishop of Tarsus, left a 'Synodal
oration, a 'Commentary on the liturgy, &c, and his contempo-
rary Gregory of Tlay an 'Elegy on the capture of Jerusalem,
and various 'dogmatic works. In this century the 'history of
Michael the Syrian was translated; Ignatius and Sargis com-
posed 'commentaries on Luke and 'the catholic epistles, and
'Matthew of Edessa a valuable history of the years 952-1136,
57+
ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
tip to 1176 by Gregory the priest. Mechithar
(Mekhitar) Kosh (d. 1207) wrote an elegant 'Book of Fables,
and compiled a 'corpus of civil and canon law (partly from
Byzantine codes).
In the 1 jth century the following works or authors are to be
noticed:— 'history of Kiriakos of Ganzak, which contains much
about the Mongols, Georgians and Albanians; *Aialakia the
monk's history of the Tatars up to 1272; 'Chronicle of Mechithar
of Ani (fragmentary); *Vahram's rhymed chronicle of the
kings of Lesser Armenia; 'history of the world, by Vartan, up to
1260. In this century mostly falls the redaction of a large fable
literature, recently edited in three volumes by Professor Marr of
St Petersburg.
14th century: *history of Siunik, by Stephen Orbelian,
archbishop of that province 1 287-1304; *Scrnpat's chronicle
of Lesser Armenia (952-1274), carried on by a continuator to
1331; 'Mechithar of Airivanq, a chronography; 'Hethoum's
account of the Tatars, and chronography of the years 1076"
1307- John of Orotn (d. 1388) compiled commentaries on John's
gospel and the Paulines, and wrote homilies and monophysitc
works; his disciple Gregory of Dathev (b. 1340) compiled a
'Summa thcologiae called the Book of Questions, in the style of the
Summa of Aquinas, which had been translated into Armenian
c. 1330, as were a little later the 'Summa of Albertus and works
of other schoolmen.
1 5U1 century: 'History of Tamerlane, by Thomas of Medsoph,
carried up to 1447.
17th century, Araqel of Tabriz wrote a 'history of the Persian
invasions of Armenia in the years 1 602-1 661.
In the above list are not included a number of medical,
astrological, calendarial and philological or lexicographic works,
mostly written during or since the Cilician or crusading epoch.
The hymns used in Armenian worship rarely go back to the 5U1
century; and they were still few in number and brief in length
when Nerses the Graceful and his contemporaries more than
doubled their number and bulk in the 12th century. Most
Armenian poems embody acrostics, and their poets began to
rhyme in the 8th century or thereabouts. Since the 1 5th century
a certain number of profane poets have arisen, whose work is
less jejune on the whole than that of the hymn and canticle
writers of an earlier age. Gregory Magistros (d. 1058) abridged
the whole of the Old and New Testaments in a 'rhyming poem,
and set a fashion to later writers. Such works as 'Barlaam and,
Josaphat, the 'History of the Seven Sages, the 'Wisdom of Ahikor,
the * Tale of the City of Bronze, were freely turned into verse in the
13th and following centuries.
It will be realized from the above enumeration of works
written in each century that Armenian literature was purely
monkish. There was no epic or romance literature; although
this was not lacking in the contiguous country of Georgia,
where there seem to have always been knights and ladies willing
to read and keep alive a literature of poetry and narrative, not
altogether suitable for monks, and more akin to Persian literature.
Other forms of faith than the orthodox had a hold in Armenia,
particularly the Nestorian and the Manichean. Sundry works of
Mani were translated in the year 588, but are lost. Perhaps
certain works of Diodore of Tarsus survive, but the orthodox
monks were so vigilant that there is little chance of finding any
other monuments than those of the stereotyped orthodoxy.
The 1 6th century saw the first books printed in Armenian.
A press was set up at Venice in 1 565, and the psalms and breviary
were printed. In 1 584 the Roman propaganda began its issue of
Armenian books with a Gregorian calendar. In the x 7th century
presses were working at Lembourg, Milan, Paris, Isfahan (where
in 1640 a large folio of the Lives of the Fathers of Ike Desert
appeared), in Leghorn, Amsterdam (where in 1664 the first
edition of the Hymn-book, in 1666 the first Bible, and in 1667 the
first Ritual were printed), Marseilles, Constantinople, Leipzig
and Padua.
The press which has done most in printing Armenian authors
is that of the Mechitharists of Venice. Here in 1836 was issued a
n thesaurus of the Armenian language, with the Latin
and Greek equivalents of each word. At that time there was no
dictionary of any language and literature to be compared with
this for exhaustiveness and accuracy. There are now Armenian
presses all over the world, reprinting old books or issuing new
works, often translations of modern writers, English, French,
Russian and German.
The chief collections of old Armenian MSS. are: at the
convent of 'Echmiadzin at Valarshapat; at Stambul in the
library of the fathers of St Anthony; at Venice in the Mcchitharist
convent of San Lazaro; at the 'Mcchitharist convent in Vienna;
in the 'Royal library at Vienna; in the 'Paris Bibliotheque
Nationale, in the Vatican library; in the British Museum; in
the 'Bodleian; in the Ry lands library; in the 'Berlin and
'Munich libraries; *in Tubingen, in St Petersburg, and ia the
•Lazarcv institute at Moscow; at New Joulfa, the Armenian
suburb of Isfahan. Private collections have been made by Mr
Rendel Harris in Birmingham (presented to the university of
Leiden); at Parham and elsewhere. A printed catalogue exists
of those marked with an asterisk.
Authorities.— F. Combefi*. Historic Monothtlitarum(P*ri*,i64&) ;
Arshak Tcr Mikelian, Die armen. Kirch*, w, bis turn xiii. Jakr-
hurdcrl (Leipzig, 1892); H. Gclzer, " Die Anfange der armemscben
Kirche" in the Benchte der Kdniglich. Sdchsiscken GeseUschaft der
Wissenschaften: Historisch-philologiscke Classe (1895), p. 171 ; Gut-
schmid, Kleine Sckriften (Leipzig. 1802), t. iii.; Langlou, Collection
d'historiens armtniens (Paris. 1 867) (the translations of ten careless) ;
E. \V. Brooks. The Syriac Chronicle known as Zachariak of HtiyUne
(London. 1899). p. 24; Dulaurier, Recherches sue la chronologic
armenienne (Paris. 1859): Agop Manandian, Beitrdgc zur alhauisemm
Geschichte (Leipzig, 1897); G. Owscpian. Die Eutstehungsgeuhithto
des Monotheletismus (Leipzig. 1897) ; Cardinal Angelo Mai, Nova SS.
patrum bibliotheca, 6 vols. (Rome. 1844-1871), vof. ii. contains Latin
version of Armenian canons; Hergenrother, Photius (Regensborg.
1867): Tchamchian. History of Armenia (in Armenian at Venice
and English abridged translation entitled M. Chamieh by John
Audall, Calcutta, 1827); Domini Joannis Onziensia, Opera Latino
(Venice, 1834); Nersetis Clajensis, Opera omnia Latine (Venice,
1833): A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus in the Recueil de la sociM
orlhodoxe de Palestine (St Petersburg, 1892) (Armenian corre s pond-
ence with Photius translated); Enthymius Zigabenus, PanoUia,
Patrol. Cr. vol. 130, col. H7jr; E. Dulaurier, Histoire de Ftgliso
armen. (Paris, 1857) ; le Quicn. Oriens christians; Mansi, Concilia,
vol. 2«; Steph. Azarian. Ecclesiae Armenae Traditio (Rome, 1870):
A. Balgy, Historia doctrine* eaiholieae inter Armenos (Vienna, 1878);
Clemens Galanus, Conciliatio Ecclesiae Armenae cum Roman*
(Rome. 1690); L. Alishan. Sissouan, contree de I'Arminu (Venice,
1893), in Armenian, but also in French translation; Recueil d'actes
854); De Damas. Coup d'a-il sur FArmtnie (Lyon. 1887); M. F. B.
Lynch, Armenia (2 vols.. London, 1902); I. Issavcrdens, Armenia.
Ecclesiastical History (Venice. 1875); E. Dulaurier, Historian
arminiens des Croisades (Paris): Giovanni de Serpos, Compendia
Siorico (Venice, 1786); Garabed Chahnazarian, EsuuisstdeFhistoirt
de FArmenie (Paris, 1856); Gclzer, " Armcnien " in Hecog-Hauck,
Realeucyklnpddie fur protestantiscke Thtologie (ed. 3. Leipzig, 1897);
Hcfele. Hist, of Councils, vols. 3 and 9: F. Neve, L'A rmtnte ehrHienne
(Paris); P. Hunanian, Histoire des coneiles d 'Orient (Vienna,
1847); Gr. Chalathianz, Apocrypkes (Moscow, 1897). and other
works; Brossct, Collection d'kistoriens arminiens (St Petersburg,
1874), and numerous other works by the same author; J. Catergian,
De fidei symbolo qu6 Armenii utuntur (Vienna, 1893); Ricaut,
The present state of the Creek and Armenian Churches (London. 1679);
H. Denzinger, Rttus orientalium (Wurzburg. 1861); Fred. C Cony*
beare. Rituale Armenorum (Oxford. 1905); r. E. Brightman. Eastern
Liturgies (Oxford. 1896) ; P. Vetter, Chosroae magni expficatio missae
(Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1880); L. Petit, articles on Armenian re-
ligious history, councils, literature, creed and disciplire in Diction,
de theologie cat hoi tone, cols. 1888-1968; F. C Coaybeare. "The
Armenian canons 01 St Sahak " in the American Journal of Theology
(Chicago, 1898), p. 828; C. F. Neumann, Geschichte der armeniscken
Literatur (Leipzig, 1836): Simon Weber. Die hatholische Kirche in
Armenia* (Freiburg-im-Bretsgau, 1903); Sukias Soma!. Quad*
della Storia Letterana di Armenia (Venice. 1829)} M. V. Ermoni.
" L'Armenie " in Revue de F orient ckritien (for year 1896); F. Tour-
fbize, " Histoire de 1'Armenie " (ib. i903-3 - 4-5) I R. P. D. Girard,
Les Madag " (ib. for year 1902); H. Hilbscnmann, Armeniscko
Studien and Grammatih (Leipzig. 1883 and 1895). Grammar* by
Petermann (in Porta Orientaltnm Lmguorum series), by Prof. Mcillet
of Paris, by Prof. X. Marr of St Petersburg (in Russian), by Joseph
KarsKof the Cilician dialect). Texts of most of the Armenian fathers
and historians have been printed by the Mechhharistsof San Lazaro*
Venice, and are readily procurable at their convent. (F. C. CO
ARMENTIERES^-ARMILLA
575
ARMlVTltaB, a. town of northern Fiance, in the depart-
ment of Nord, on theLys, 13 m. W.N.W. of Lille on the Northern
railway from that city to Dunkirk. Pop. (1006) 25408. The
chief building is the hotel de ville with a 17th-century belfry.
There are communal colleges for girls and boys, a board of trade-
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a national technical
school. The town h an important centre for the spinning and
weaving of flax and cotton; bleaching, dyeing and the manu-
facture of machinery are among the other industries. Its
industrial prosperity dates from the middle ages, when, however,
woollen, not cotton, goods were the staple product.
AHMET (diminutive of Fr. or me), a form of helmet, which was
developed out of existing forms in the latter part of the 25th
century. It was round in shape, and often had a narrow ridge or
comb along the top. It had a pivoted or hinged visor and nose-
piece, and complete chin, neck and cheek protection, closely con-
nected with the gorget. It is distinguished from the basinet by its
roundness, and by the fact that it protects the neck and chin by
strong plates, instead of a " camaJl " or loose collar of mail;
from the salade and heaume by its close fit and skull-cap shape;
and from the various forms of viaored burgoneta by the absence
of the projecting brim. It remained in use until the final abandon-
ment of the complete closed head-piece.
ARMFBLT, GUSTAF HAURITZ, Count (1757-1814), son of
Charles II. 's general, Carl Oustai Armfelt, was born in Finland
on the 31st of March 1757. In 1774 he became an ensign in the
guards, but his frivolity provoked the displeasure of Gustavus III.
and he thought it prudent to go abroad. Subsequently, however,
(1780) he met the king again at Spa and completely won the
monarch's favour by his natural amiability, intelligence and
brilliant social gifts. Henceforth his fortune was made. At first
he was the maUrt des plaisirs of the Swedish court, but it was not
long before more serious affairs were entrusted to him. He took
part in the negotiations with Catherine II. (1783) and with the
Danish government (r 787), and during the Russian war of 1788-00
he was one of the king's most trusted and active counsellors.
He also displayed great valour in the field. In 1788 when the
Danes unexpectedly invaded Sweden and threatened Gothenburg,
it was Armfelt who under the king's directions organised the
Dalecarhan levies and led them to victory. He remained
absolutely faithful to Gustavus when nearly the whole of the
nobility fell away from him; brilliantly distinguished himself in
the later phases of the Russian war; and was the Swedish pleni-
potentiary at the conclusion of the peace of Verdi. During the
last years of Gustavus HI. his influence was paramount, though
he protested against his master's headstrong championship of the
Bourbons. On his deathbed Gustavus III. (1792) committed
the care of his infant son to Armfelt and appointed him a member
of the council of regency; but the anti-Gustavian duke-regent
Charles sent Armfelt as Swedish ambassador to Naples to get rid
of him. From Naples Armfelt communicated with Catherinell.,
urging her to bring about by means of a military demonstration
a change fa the Swedish government in favour of the Gustavians.
The plot was discovered by the regent's spies, and Armfelt only
escaped from the man-of-war sent to Naples to seise him, with the
assistance of Queen Caroline. He now fled to Russia, where he
was interned at Kaluga, while at home be was condemned to
confiscation and death as a traitor, and his unjustly accused
mistress Magdalena RudenschOld was publicly whipped to gratify
an old grudge of the regent's. When Gustavus IV, attained his
majority, Armfelt was completely rehabilitated and sent as
Swedish ambassador to Vienna (1802), but was obliged to quit
that post two years later for sharply attacking the Austrian
government's attitude towards Bonaparte. From 1805 to 1807
he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in Fomerania,
where he displayed great ability and retarded the conquest of the
duchy as long as it was humanly possible. On his return home,
he was appointed commander-in-chief on the Norwegian frontier,
but could do nothing owing to the ordres, cmtrt-ordrts et disardres
of his lunatic master. He would have nothing to say to the
revolutionaries who in 1809 deposed Gustavus IV. and his whole
family. Armfelt was the most courageous of the supporters of
the crown prince Gustavus, and when Bernadotte was elected
resolved to retire to Finland. His departure was accelerated
by a decree of expulsion as a conspirator (181 1). Over the im-
pressionable Alexander I. of Russia, Armfelt exercised almost as
great an influence as Czartoryski, especially as regards Finnish
affairs. He contributed more than any one else to the erection
of the grand-duchy into an autonomous state, and was its first
and best governor-general. The plan of the Russian defensive
campaigns is, with great probability, also attributed to him, and
he gained Alexander over to the plan of uniting Norway with
Sweden. He died at Tsarskoe Selo on the 19th of August 1814.
See Robert NUbet Bain, Gustavus HI. vol. ii. (London, 1895) : E,of
TtgpecGustaJMauritzArmJeU (Stockholm, 1683-1887). (R. N. B.)
ARMIDALE, a town in Sandon county, New South Wales,
Australia, 313 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1001) 4249. It
lies at an elevation of 3313 ft., in a picturesque mountainous
district, for the most part pastoral and agricultural, though it
contains some alluvial gold diggings. Antimony is found in large
quantities near the town. Armidale is a cathedral town, being
the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and belonging to the joint
Anglican diocese of Grafton; Armidale St Peter's, the Anglican
cathedral, and St Mary's, the Roman Catholic, are both fine
buildings. The town is the centre of great educational activity,
its schools including the New England girls' school, St Patrick's
college, the high school, the Ursutine convent and state schools.
Armidale became a municipality in 1863.
ARMILLA, Armil or Armillary Sphere (from the Lat.
armilla, a bracelet), an Instrument used in astronomy. In its
simplest form, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the
equator, the armilla is one of the most ancient of astronomical
instruments. Slightly developed, it was crossed by another ring
fixed in the plane of the meridian. The first was an equinoctial,
the second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were used as indices of
the sun's position, in combination with angular divisions. When
several rings or circles were combined representing the great
circles of the heavens, the instrument became an arntillary
sphere. Armillae are said to have been in early use in China.
Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) used most probably a solstitial
armilla for measuring the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus
(160-125 B.C.) probably used an armillary sphere of four rings.
Ptolemy (c. a.d. 107-161) describes his instrument in the
Syntax fs (book v. chap, i.), and it is of great interest as an
example of the armillary sphere passing into the spherical
astrolabe. It consisted of a graduated circle inside which
another could slide, carrying two small tubes diametrically
opposite, the instrument being kept vertical by a plumb-line.
Fran M. Blundf ville's Treatitt o] the fir* principles #|
Cosmography and sptt tally o\ Ike Spktvt.
Armillary Sphere, a.o. 1636.
No material advance was made on Ptolemy's instrument until
Tycho Brahe, whose elaborate armillary spheres passing into
astrolabes are figured in his Asttonmniae InstauratatMtchaniea.
576
ARMINIUS
The armillary sphere survives as useful for teaching, and may
be described as a skeleton celestial globe, the series of rings
representing the great circles of the heavens, and revolving on an
axis within a horizon. With the earth as centre such a sphere
is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as centre, as Copernican.
The designer of the instrument shown no doubt thought that
the north pole might suitably have the same ornament as was
used to mark N. on the compass card, and so surmounted it
with the ficur-de-lys, traditionaUy chosen for that purpose on
the compass by Flavio Gioja in honour of Charles of Anjou, king
of Sicily and Naples.
Armillary spheres occur in many old sculptures, paintings
and engravings; and from these sources we know that they were
made for suspension, for resting on the ground or on a table, for
holding by a short handle, or cither for holding or for resting on a
stand.
Authorities.— Tycho Brahe. Aslronomiae Tnsiauratae Mechanica ;
M. Blundeville. his Exercises; N. Bion, TraiU des instrument <U
mathemaltque; also V Usage des globes celestes; Sedillot, Memoire sur
let instrument; J. B. DcUmbre, Histoire de l' astronomic ancienne;
R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy. (M. L. H.)
ARMINIUS. the Latinized form of the name of Hermann, or
more probably AkmIn (17 b.c.-a.d. 21), the German national
hero. He was a son of a certain Segimer, a prince of the tribe of
the Cherusci, and in early life served with distinction as an officer
in the Roman armies. Returning to his own people he found
them chafing under the yoke of the Roman governor, Quintilius
Varus; he entertained for them hopes of freedom, and cautiously
inducing neighbouring tribes to join his standard he led the
rebellion which broke out in the autumn of a.d. 9. Heavily
laden with baggage the troops of Varus were decoyed into the
fastnesses of the Teutoburger Wald, and there attacked, the
completeness of the barbarian victory being attested by the
virtual annihilation of three legions, by the voluntary death of
Varus, and by the terror which reigned in Rome when the news
of the defeat became known, a terror which found utterance
in the emperor's despairing cry: " Varus, give me back my
legions! " Then in a.d. 15 Gcrmanicus Caesar led the Romans
against Arminius, and captured his wife, Thusnelda. An
indecisive battle was fought in the Teutoburger Wald, where
German icus narrowly escaped the fate of Varus, and in the
following year Arminius was defeated. The hero's later years
were spent in fighting against Marbod, prince of the Marcomanni,
and in disputes with his own people occasioned probably by his
desire to found a powerful kingdom. He was murdered in a j>. 2 1 .
In 1875 a gTeat monument to Arminius was completed. This
stands on the Grotenburg mountain near Detmold. Klopstock
* "lis exploits as material for dramas.
place with regard to the exact spot in
the great battle between Arminius and
an immense literature on this subject,
isulted : — T. Mommscn, Die Ortlickkeit
E. Meyer, Untersuchunten iiber die
de (1893): A. Wilms. Die Schlackt im
Knoke. Das Scklacktfeld im Teutoburger
inn. Der Schauplatz der Varusschlacht
irusschlacht (1888). For more general
acitus. Annals, edited by H. Furneaux
(1 884-1 891); O. Kemmer, Arminius (1893); F. W. Fischer. Armin
und die Rimer ( 1 89.1); W. Uhl. Das Portrait des Arminius (1898);
and F. Knokc, Die Kriegsziigc des Gcrmanicus in Deutschland (1887).
ARMINIUS, JACOBUS (1560-1609), Dutch theologian, author
of the modified reformed theology that receives its name of
Arminian from him, was bom at Oudewater, South Holland, on
the 10th of October 1560. Arminius is a Latinized form of his
patronymic Hermanns or Hcrmansen. His father, Hermann
Jakobs, a cutler, died while he was an infant, leaving a widow and
three children. Theodorus AemQius, a priest, who had turned
Protestant, adopting Jakob, sent him to school at Utrecht, but
died when his charge was in his fifteenth year. Rudolf SncUius
(Snel van Roijen, 1546-1613), the mathematician, a native of
Oudewater, then a professor at Marburg, happening at the time
to visit his early home, met the boy, saw promise in him and
undertook his maintenance and education. But hardly was he
settled at Marburg when the news came that the Spaniards bad
besieged and taken Oudewater, and murdered fti inhabitants
almost without exception. Arminius hurried home, but only to
find all his relatives slain. In February the same year (i57S)>
the- university of Leiden had been founded, and thither, by the
kindness of friends, Arminius was sent to study theology. The
six years he remained at Leiden (x 576-1582) were years of active
and innovating thought in Holland. The War of Independence
had started conflicting tendencies in men's minds. To some it
seemed to illustrate the necessity of the state tolerating only one
religion, but to others the necessity of the state tolerating all
Dirck Coornhert argued, in private conferences and public
disputations, that it was wrong to punish heretics, and his great
opponents were, as a rule, the ministers, who maintained that
there was no room for more than one religion in a state. Caspar
Koolhaes, the heroic minister of Leiden— its first lecturer, too,
in divinity — pleaded against a too rigid uniformity, for such
an agreement on " fundamentals " as had allowed Reformed,
Lutherans and Anabaptists to unite. Leiden had been happy,
too, in its first professors. There taught in theology GuiUaiime
Feuguieres or Feuguereius (d. 1613), a mild divine, who had
written a treatise on persuasion in religion, urging that as to
it " men could be led, not driven "; Lambert Danaeus, who
deserves remembrance as the first to discuss Christian ethics
scientifically, apart from dogmatics; Johannes Drusius, the
Orientalist, one of the most enlightened and advanced scholars of
his day, settled later at Franeker; Johann Kolmann the younger,
best known by his saying that high Calvinism made' God " both
a tyrant and an executioner." Snellius, Arminius's old patron,
now removed to Leiden, expounded the Ramist philosophy, and
did his best to start his students on the search after truth,
unimpeded by the authority of Aristotle. Under these men
and influences, Arminius studied with signal success; and the
promise he gave induced the merchants' gild of Amsterdam to
bear the further expenses of his education. In 1582 he went to
Geneva, studied there awhile under Theodore Beam, but had
soon, owing to his active advocacy of the Ramist philosophy, to
remove to BaseL After a short but brilliant career there he
turned to Geneva, studied for three years, travelled, in 1586, in
Italy, heard Giacomo Zarabella ( 1 533-1 589) lecture on philosophy
in Padua, visited Rome, and, open-minded enough to see its good
as well as its evil, was suspected by the stern Dutch CaJ vinists of
" popish " leanings. Next year he was called to Amsterdam,
and there, in 1 588, was ordained. He soon acquired the reputa-
tion of being a good preacher and faithful pastor. He was com*
missioned to organize the educational system of the city, and is
said to have done it well. He greatly distinguished himself by
fidelity to duty during a plague that devastated Amsterdam m
1602. In 1603 he was called, in succession to Franz Junius, to a
theological professorship at Leiden, which he held till his death
on the 19th of October 1600.
Arminius is best known as the founder of the anti-Calvinistk
school in Reformed theology, which created the Remonstrant
Church in Holland (see Remonstrants), and contributed to form
the Arminian tendency or party in England. He was a man of
mild and liberal spirit, broadened by varied culture, constitu-
tionally averse from narrow views and enforced uniformity.
He lived in a period of severe systematizing. The Reformed
strengthened itself against the Roman Catholic theology by
working itself, on the one hand, into vigorous logical consistency,
and supporting itself, on the other, on the supreme authority of
the Scriptures. Calvin's first principle, the absolute sovereignty of
God, had been so applied as to make the divine decree determine
alike the acts and the destinies of men; and his formal principle
had been so construed as to invest his system with the authority
of the source whence it professed to have been drawn. Calvinism
had become, towards the close of the 16th century, supreme in
Holland, but the very rigour of the uniformity it exacted pro-
voked a reaction. Coornhert could not plead for the toleration of
heretics without assailing the dominant Calvinism, and so he
opposed a conditional to its unconditional predestination. The
two ministers of Delft, who had debated the point with him.
had, the better to turn his arguments, descended from the
ARMISTICE— ARMOIRE
577
supralapsarian to the infrakpsarian position, i.e. made the divine
decree, instead of precede and determine, succeed the Fall.
This seemed to the high Calvinists of Holland a grave heresy.
Arminius, fresh from Geneva, familiar with the dialectics of Beza,
appeared to many the man able to speak the needed word, and so,
in 1589, he was simultaneously invited by the ecclesiastical court
of Amsterdam to refute Coomhert, and by Martin Lydius, pro-
fessor at Franeker, to combat the two infralapsarian ministers
of Delft. Thus led to confront the questions of necessity and
free will, his own views became unsettled, and the further he
pursued his inquiries the more he was inclined to assert the
freedom of man and limit the range of the unconditional decrees
of God. This change became gradually more apparent in his
preaching and in his conferences with his clerical associates, and
occasioned much controversy in the ecclesiastical courts where,
however, he successfully defended his position. The controversy
was embittered and the differences sharpened by his appointment
to the professorship at Leiden. He had as colleague Franz
Gomarus, a strong supralapsarian, perfervid, irrepressible; and
their collisions, personal, official, political, tended to develop and
. define their respective positions.
Arminius died, worn out by uncongenial controversy and
ecclesiastical persecution, before his system had been elaborated
into the logical consistency it attained in the hands of his
celebrated successor, Simon Episcopius; but though inchoate in
detail, it was in its principles clear and coherent enough. These
may be thus stated:
1. The decree of God is, when it concerns His own actions,
absolute, but when it concerns man's, conditional, i.e. the decree
relative to the Saviour to be appointed and the salvation to be
provided is absolute, but the decree relative to the persons saved
or condemned is made to depend on the acts— belief and repent-
ance in the one. case, unbelief and impenitence in the other— of
the persons themselves.
a. The providence or government of God, while sovereign, is
exercised in harmony with the nature of the creatures governed,
i.t. the sovereignty of God is so exercised as to be compatible
with the freedom of man.
3. Man is by original nature, through the assistance of divine
grace, free, able to will and perform the right; but is in his fallen
state, of and by himself, unable to do so; he needs to be regener-
ated in ail his powers before he can do what is good and pleasing
to God.
4. Divine grace originates, maintains and perfects all the good
in man, so much so that he cannot, though regenerate, conceive,
will or do any good thing without it.
5. The saints possess, by the grace of the Holy Spirit, sufficient
strength to persevere to the end in spite of sin and the flesh, but
may so decline from sound doctrine as to cause divine grace to be
ineffectual.
6. Every believer may be assured of his own salvation.
7. It is possible for a regenerate man to live without sin.
Arminius's works are mostly occasional treatises drawn from
him by controversial emergencies, but they everywhere exhibit
a calm, well-furnished, undogmatic and progressive mind. He
was essentially an amiable man, who hated the zeal for an
impossible orthodoxy that constrained " the church to institute
a search after crimes which have not betrayed an existence, yea,
and to drag into open contentions those who are meditating no
evil." His friend Peter Bertius, who pronounced his funeral
oration, closed it with these words: " There lived a man whom
it was not possible for those who knew him sufficiently to esteem;
those who entertained no esteem for him are such as never knew
him well enough to appreciate his merits."
The works of Arminius (in Latin) were published In a single quarto
volume at Leiden in 1629, at Frankfort m 1631 and 1635. Two
volumes of an English translation, with copious notes, by James
Nkbols, were published at London, 1825-1828; three volumes
(complete) at Buffalo. 1853. A life was written by Caspar Brandt,
son of Gerard Brandt, the historian of the Dutch reformation, and
published in 1724; republished and annotated by J. L. Mosheim in
1725; and translated into English by the Rev. John Guthrie, 1854.
lames Nichols also wrote a life (London, 1843).
ARMISTICE (from Lat. arma, arms, and sister e, to stop), a
suspension of hostilities by mutual agreement between two
nations at war, or their respective forces. An armistice may be
either general or particular; in the first case there is a complete
cessation of hostile operations in every part of the dominions of
the belligerent powers; in the second there is merely a temporary
truce between two contending armies, or between a besieged
fortress and the force besieging it Such a temporary truce, when
for a very limited period and for a special purpose, e.g. the
collection of the wounded and the burial of the dead, is termed
a suspension of arms. A general armistice cannot be concluded
by the commanders-in-chief unless special authority has been
previously delegated to them by their respective governments;
otherwise any arrangement entered into by them requires subse-
quent ratification by the supreme powers of the states. A partial
truce may be concluded by the officers of the respective powers,
without any special authority from their governments, wherever,
from the nature and extent of the commands they exercise,
their duties could not be efficiently discharged without their
possession of such a power. The conduct of belligerent parties
during an armistice is usually regulated in modern warfare by
express agreement between the parties, but where this is not the
case the following general conditions may be laid down. (1) Each
party may do, within the limits prescribed by the truce, whatever
he could have done in time of peace For example, he can raise
troops, collect stores, receive reinforcements and fortify places
that are not actually in a state of siege. (2) Neither party can
take advantage of the armistice to do what he could not have
done had military operations continued. Thus he cannot throw
provisions or reinforcements into a besieged town, and neither
besiegers nor besieged are at liberty to repair their fortifications
or erect new works. (3) All things contained in places the
possession of which was contested, must remain in the state
in which they were before the armistice began. Any infringe-
ment by either party of the conditions of the truce entitles
the other to recommence hostile operations without previous
intimation.
ARMOIRE, the French name fcf. Alme&y) given to a tall
movable cupboard, or " wardrobe," with one or more doors. It
has varied considerably in shape and size, and the decoration of
its doors and sides has faithfully represented mutations of fashion
and modifications of use. It was originally exceedingly massive
and found its chief decoration in elaborate hinges and locks of
beaten iron. The finer ecclesiastical armoires or aumbries which
have come down to us— used in churches for the safe custody of
vestments, eucharistic vessels, reliquaries and other precious
objects — are usually painted, sometimes even upon the interior,
with sacred subjects qr with incidents from the lives of the saints.
The cathedrals of Bayeux and Noyon contain famous examples;
the most typical English one is in York minster. By the end of
the 14 th century, when the carpenter and the wood-carver had
acquired a better mastery of their material, the taste for painted
surfaces appears to have given place to the vogue of carving, and
the simple rectangular, panels gradually became sculptured with
a simple motive, such as the linen-fold or parchment patterns.
In the treasury of St Germain l'Auxerrois the ends of the 15th-
century armoires are treated in this way. In that and the two
following centuries the keys and the escutcheons of the locks
became highly ornamental; usually in forged iron, they were
occasionally made of more precious metals. By slow degrees the
shape of this receptacle changed— from breadth was evolved
height, and the tall form of armoire became characteristic. The
Renaissance exercised a notable effect upon this, as upon so
many other varieties of furniture. It became less obviously and
aggressively a thing of utility; its proportions shrank from the
massive to the . elegant; its artistic effectiveness was vastly
enhanced by its division into an upper and a lower part. En-
riched with columns and pilasters, its panels carved with
mythology, its canopied niches' filled with sculptured statuettes,
and terminating with a rich cornice and perhaps a broken
pediment, it was widely removed in appearance, if not in purpose,
from the uncompromising iron-mounted receptacle of earlier
576
ARMORICA— ARMOUR PLATES
generations. During the 16th century, when the surging im-
pulses of the Renaissance had died away, the ar moire relapsed
into plainness, its proportions increased, and it was again con-
structed in one piece. Ere long, however, it grew more sump-
tuous than ever. Boufle encrusted it with marqueterie from
designs by B£rain; it glowed with amorini, with the torches and
arrows of Cupid, with the garlands which he weaves for his
captives, and when alius! veness left a corner vacant, it was filled
with arabesques in ebony or ivory, in brass or white metal.
While the royal palaces and the hdtels of the great nobility were
filled with those costly splendours, the ordinary cabinetmaker
continued to construct his modest pieces, and by the middle of
the 1 8th century the armoire was found in every French house,
ample in width and high in proportion to the lofty rooms of the
period. It is not to be supposed that so useful a piece of furniture
was confined to France. It was used, more or less, throughout
a considerable part of Europe, but it was distinctively Gallic
nevertheless, and never became thoroughly acclimatized else-
where until about the beginning of the 19th century, when it
developed into the glass-fronted wardrobe which .is now an
essential detail in the plenishing of the bed-chamber, not merely
in France and England, but in many other countries. The
armoire d glace was known and occasionally made in France as
far back as the middle of the 18th century, and almost the earliest
mention of it connects it with the scandalous relations of the
Marechal de Richelieu and the beautiful fcrmiere generate, Mme
dc la PopelinUre, who had one made to mask a secret door. In
the conventional and not very attractive wardrobe of commerce
it is difficult to descry the gracious characteristics of the armoire
of the Renaissance or the 17th century, and it is not altogether
surprising that Theodore de Banville should have condemned one
of the most solidly useful of household necessaries as a " hideous
monster."
ARMORICA (Akemoxica), the Roman name, derived from
two Celtic words meaning the " seaside " (ar, on, and mor, sea),
for the land of the Armorici, roughly the peninsula of Brittany.
At the time of the Roman advance on Gaul there were five
principal tribes in Armorica, the Namncti, the Veneti, the Osismii,
the Curiosolitae and the Redones. It was subdued by Caesar,
who entirely destroyed the seafaring tribe of its south coast, the
Veneti. Under the Empire it formed part of the province of
Gallia Luguduncnsis (Lugdunensis). It contained hardly any
towns, though many large country houses, and was perhaps less
Romanized than the rest of Gaul. In and after the later part of
the 5th century it received many Celtic immigrants from the
British Isles, fleeing (it is said) from the Saxons; and the Celtic
dialect which the Bretons still speak is thought to owe its origin
to these immigrants. (See further Brittany.)
ARMOUR, PHILIP DAMPORTH (183^1001), American
merchant and philanthropist, was born in Stockbridge, New
York, on the 16th of May 1832. He was educated at Cazenovia
Academy, Cazenovia, N.Y., worked for several years on his
father's farm, and in 1852 with a small party went overland to
California, a large part of the journey being made on foot. Here
during the next four years he laid the foundations of his fortune.
In 1856 he became associated with his friend, Frederick S. Miles,
in a wholesale grocery and commission business at Milwaukee,
In 1863 he became the head of the firm of Armour, Plankmgton
& Co. , pork packers, whose headquarters were at Milwaukee. He
also obtained a large interest in the firm H. O. Armour ft Co.,
which was founded by his brother, Herman Ossian Armour
(1837-1901), and which, starting as a grain commission business,
In 1868 established also a large pork-packing plant Of this firm,
the name of which was changed to Armour & Co. in 1870, he
became the head in 1875, and thereafter the business made
such rapid progress that in 1901 as many as 11,000 hands were
employed. Besides contributing to many charitable enterprises,
Armour founded the Armour Institute of Technology at Chicago
tn 1892 and the Armour Flats in Chicago, built for the purpose of
supplying at a low rental good homes for working men and their
families. He also contributed liberally to the Armour Mission in
Chicago, which was founded in x 881 by his brother, Joseph
feraAtN.
Armour. At the time of his death, on the 6th of January toot,
Philip D. Armour's private fortune was supposed to exceed
$50,000,000.
ARMOUR PLATES. The earliest recorded proposal to employ
armour for ships of war (for body armour, &c, see Aims ak»
Armour) appears to have been made in England by Sir
William Congreve in 1805. In The Times of the 20th
of February of that year reference ismade to Congreve's
designs for an armoured floating mortar battery which the in-
ventor considered would be proof against artillery fire. Among
Congreve's unpublished papers there is also a suggestion for
armour-plating the embrasures of casemates. Nothing, however,
seems to have come of these proposals, and a similar lack of
appreciation befell the next advocate of armour, John Steve ns of
New Jersey, U.S.A., who submitted the plans of an armoured
vessel to Congress in 181 2. The Stevens family, however,
continued to work at the subject, and by 1841 had determined
by actual experiment the thickness of wrought-iron armour
which was proof against the projectiles then in use. The necessity
for armouring ships as a protection against shell fire was again
pointed out by General Paixhans in 1841, and in 1845 m ^ il|J
Dupuy de Lome had prepared the designs of an
armoured frigate for the French government. During the period
between 1827 and 1854, experiments in connexion with the
proposed application of armour to both ships and forts were
carried out in England, the United States and France, but the
question did not get beyond the experimental stage until the
latter year, when armoured floating batteries were laid down in
all three countries, probably as the immediate outcome of the
destruction of the Turkish fleet by shell fire at Sinope on the 50th
of November 1853.
Three of the French floating batteries were in action at the
bofnbardment of Rtnburn in 1855, where they achieved a con-
spicuous success, silencing the Russian forts after a four hours*
engagement, during which they themselves, although frequently
struck, were practically uninjured, their loss in personnel being
but trifling. To quote Very: " This comparatively insignificant
action, which had little if any effect upon the course of the
Crimean War, changed the whole condition of armour for
naval use from one of speculation to one of actual and constant,
necessity." The military application of armour for the protec-
tion of guns mounted in permanent fortifications followed. Its
development, however, took rather a different course, and the
question of armour generally is of less importance for the military
engineer than for the naval constructor. For the employment
of armour in ship construction and in permanent works on land,
see the articles Shipbuilding; FoRTmcATTON and Sixcecratt;
the present article is concerned solely with the actual armour
itself.
The earliest armour, both for ships and forts, was made of
wrought iron, and was disposed either in a single thickness or in
successive layers sandwiched with wood or concrete.
Such armour is now wholly obsolete, though examples tHm ta€
of it may still be found in a few forts of early date. *m«*u*
The chief application of armour in modern land
defences is in the form of shields for the protection of guns
mounted en barbette. Examples of such shields are shown in
figs, x and 2. Fig. 1 shows a 4* 5-in. steel shield for the U.S.A.
government, face-hardened by the Harvey process, to winch
reference is made below. It was attacked by 5-in. and 6-in.
armour-piercing shot, and proved capable of keeping out the
5-in. up to a striking velocity of nearly 1800 ft. per second, but
was defeated by a 6-in. capped A.P. shot with a striking velocity
of 1842 ft. per second. The mounting was not seriously damaged
by the firing, but could be operated after the impact of one 3- a-in.,
five 5-in. and three 6-in. projectiles. Fig. a shows a gun-shield,
manufactured by Messrs Hadfield of Sheffield, after attack by
4-i-in., 4*7-in. and 6-in. armour-piercing and other projectiles.
The limit of the shield's resistance was just reached by an
uncapped 4?-in. A.P. shell with a striking velocity of 11 38 ft. per
second. The shield (the average maximum thickness of which
was s*8 in.) showed great toughness, and although subjected ton
ARMOUR PLATES
579
severe battering, and occasionally outmatched by the attacking
projectiles, developed no visible crack. It is chiefly remarkable
for the fact that it was cast and not forged. As is evident from
the fringing around the hole made by the 6-in. A.P. shell, the
shield was not face-hardened. A more highly developed form
of the gun-shield is to be found in the armoured cupola, which has
been employed to a very considerable extent in permanent
fortifications, and whose use is still strongly advocated by
continental European military engineers. The majority of the
cupolas to be found in continental forts are not, however, of very
recent date, those erected in 1804 &t Molsheim near Strassburg
being comparatively modern instances. Any cupolas constructed
nowadays- would be of steel, either forged or cast, and would
probably be face-hardened, but a large number of those extant
are of compound or even of iron armour. Many of those on sea-
fronts are made of chilled cast iron. Such armour, which was
introduced by Gruson of Magdeburg in 1868; is extremely hard,
and cannot be perforated, but must be destroyed by fracture.
It is thus the antithesis of wrought iron, which, when of good
quality, does not break up under the impact of the shot but
yields by perforation. Armour of the Gruson type is well
adapted for curved surfaces such as cupolas, which on account
of their shape are scarcely liable to receive a direct hit, except
at distant ranges, and its extreme hardness would greatly assist
it to throw off shot striking obliquely, which have naturally a
tendency to glance. Chilled iron, on account of its liability to
break up when subjected to a continuous bombardment by the
armour-piercing steel projectiles of guns of even medium calibre,
was usually considered unsuitable for employment in inland
forts, where wrought iron, mild steel or compound armour was
preferred. On the other hand, as pointed out by the late Captain
C. Orde Browne, R.A., it was admirably adapted to resist the
few rounds that the heavy guns of battleships might be expected
to deliver during an attack of comparatively limited duration.
Chilled iron was never employed for naval purposes, and
warship armour continued to be made exclusively of wrought
iron until 1876 when steel was introduced by Schneider. In an
important trial at Spexaia in that year the superiority in resisting
power of steel to wrought iron was conclusively proved, but, on
the other hand, steel showed a great tendency to through-
cracking, a defect which led Messrs Cammell of Sheffield in 1877
to introduce compound armour consisting of a steel surface in
intimate union with a wrought-iron foundation plate. In Cammell
plates, which were made by the Wilson process, the steel face was
formed by running molten steel on to a white-hot foundation
plate of iron, while in the compound plates, made by Messrs
John Brown & Co. according to the patent of J. D. Ellis, a thin
steel surface plate was cemented on to the wrought-iron founda-
tion by running in molten steel between. Compound armour
possessed the advantages of a harder face than was then possible
in a homogeneous steel plate, while, on the other hand, the back
was softer and less liable to crack. Its weak point was the
liability of the surface plate to crack through under fire and
become detached from its iron backing. The manufacture of
steel, however, continued to improve, so that in 1890 we find
steel plates being made which were comparatively free from
liability to through-cracking, while their power to resist perfora-
tion was somewhat greater than that of the best compound.
The difference, however, was at no time very marked, and
between 1880 and 1890 the resistance to perforation of either
steel or compound as compared with wrought iron may be taken
as about 13 to x.
Compound armour required to be well backed to bring out its
best qualities, and there is a case on record in 1883 when a ia-in.
Cammell plate weighing 10} tons, backed by granite, stopped a
xo-in. Palliser shot with a striking energy of nearly 30,000 foot
tons and a calculated perforation of 25 inches of wrought iron.
As steel improved, efforts were made to impart an even greater
hardness to the actual surface or skin of compound armour, and,
with this object in view, Captain T. J. Tresidder, C.M.G.,
patented in 1887 a method of chilling the heated surface of a
plate by means of jets of water under pressure. By this method
it was found possible to obtain a degree of hardness which was
prevented in ordinary plunging by the formation of a layer of
steam between the water and the heated surface of the plate.
Compound plates face-hardened on this system gave excellent
results, and forged-steel armour-piercing projectiles were in some
cases broken up on their surfaces as if they had been merely
chilled iron. Attempts were also made to increase the toughness
of the back by the substitution of mild nickel steel for wrought
iron. The inherent defect of compound armour, however— its
want of homogeneity, — remained, and in the year 1801 H. A.
Harvey of Newark, N.J., Introduced a process whereby an all
steel plate could be face-hardened in such a way that the advan-
tages of the compound principle were obtained in a homogeneous
plate. The process in question consisted in carburizing or
cementing the surface of a steel plate by keeping it for a fortnight
or so at a high temperature in contact with finely divided
charcoal, so that the heated surface absorbed a certain amount
of carbon, which penetrated to a considerable depth, thus causing
a difference in chemical composition between the front and back
of the plate. After it had been left a sufficient time in the
cementation furnace, the plate was. withdrawn and allowed to
cool slowly until it reached a dull red heat, when it was suddenly
chilled by the application of water, but by a less perfect method
than that employed by Tresidder. Steel plates treated by the
Harvey and Tresidder processes, which shortly became combined,
possessed about twice the resisting power of wrought iron. The
figure of merit, or resistance to penetration as compared with
wrought iron, varied with the thickness of the plate, being rather
more than 2 with plates from 6 to 8 in. thick and rather less for
the thicker plates. In 1889 Schneider introduced the use of
nickel in steel for armour plates, and in 1801 or 1892 the St
Chamond works employed a nickel steel to which was added a
small percentage of chromium.
All modern armour contains nickel in percentages varying from
3 to 5, and from 10 to 20% of chromium is also employed as a
general rule. Nickel in the above quantities adds greatly to the
toughness as well as to the hardness of steel, while chromium
enables it to absorb carbon to a greater depth during cementa-
tion, and increases its susceptibility to tempering, besides con-
ducing to a tough fibrous condition in the body of a plate. Alloy
steels of this nature appear to be very susceptible to thermal
treatment, by suitable variation of which, with or without oil
quenching, the physical condition of the same steel may be made
to vary to an extraordinary extent, a peculiarity which is turned
to good account in the manufacture of the modern armour plate.
The principal modern process is that introduced by Krupp
in 1893. Although it is stated that a few firms both in Great
Britain and in other countries use special processes of their own,
it is probable that they differ only in detail from the Krupp
process, which has been adopted by the great majority of makers.
Krupp plates are made of nickel-chrome steel and undergo a
special heat treatment during manufacture which is briefly
described below. They can either be cemented or, as was usual
in England until about 1902 in the case of the thinner plates
(4 in. and under) and those used for curved structures such as
casemates, non-cemented. They are in either case face-hardened
by chilling. Messrs Krupp have, however, cemented plates of
3 in. and upward since 1895. Although the full process is now
applied to plates of as little as 2 in. in thickness, there is some
difference of opinion between manufacturers as to the value of
cementing these very thin plates.. The simple Harvey process is
still employed to some extent in the case of plates between
5 and 3 in. in thickness, and excellent results are also stated
to have been obtained with plates from 2 to 4 in. in thickness,
manufactured from a special steel by the process patented by
M. Charpy of the St Jacques steel works at Montlucon. A
Krupp cemented (K.C) plate is not perhaps harder as regards
surface than a good Harveyed plate, but the depth of hard face it
greater, and the plate is very much tougher in the back, a quality
which is of particular importance in the. thicker plates. The
figure of merit varies, as in Harveyed plates, with the thickness
of the armour, being about 9-7 in the case of good 6-in. platr
58o
ARMOUR PLATES
while for the thicker plates the value gradually falls off to about
9*3 in the case of x 2-tn. armour. This figure of merit is as against
uncapped armour-piercing shot of approximately the same
calibre as the thickness of the plate. The resisting power of the
non-cemented Krupp plates is usually regarded as being consider*
ably less than that of the cemented plates, and may be taken on
an average to be 9*25 times that of wrought iron.
Figs. 3, 4 and $ are illustrations of good cemented plates of
the Krupp type. Fig. 3 shows an xi *8-in. plate, tried by Messrs
Krupp in 1895, after attack by three 12-in. steel armour-piercing
projectiles of from 712-7 to 716*1 lb in weight. In the third
round the striking velocity of the projectile was 1093 ft per
second, the calculated perforation of wrought iron by Tresidder's
formula being 25*9 in. The attack was successfully resisted, all
, the projectiles being broken up without effecting perforation,
while there were no serious cracks. The figure of merit of the
plate was thus well in excess of 2*2. The great toughness of the
plate is perhaps even more remarkable than its hardness; its
width was only 6-28 ft., so that each shot head formed a wedge
of approximately one-sixth of its width. The excellence of the
metal which is capable of withstanding such a strain is apparent.
Fig. 4 is of a o-tn. K.C. plate, made by Messrs Armstrong,
Whitworth & Co. for the Japanese government, after undergoing
an unusually severe official test The fourth round was capable
of perforating 22 in. of wrought iron, so that the figure of merit of
the plate must have been considerably in excess of 2*45, as there
were no through-cracks, and the limit of resistance was far from
being reached.
Fig. $ shows the front of an excellent 6-in. cemented plate of
Messrs Beardmore's manufacture, tried at Eskmeals on the nth
of October 1001. It withstood the attack of four armour-piercing
6-in. shot of too lb weight, with striking velocities varying from
1996 to 2177 ft. per second. Its limit of resistance was just
passed by the fifth round in which the striking velocity was no
less than 2261 ft per second. The projectile, which broke up in
passing through the plate, did not get through the skin plate
behind the wood backing, and evidently had no surplus energy
left. The figure of merit of this plate was between 2*6 and 2*8,
but was evidently much closer to the latter than to the former
figure. A sixth round fired with a Johnson capped shot weighing
105-9 lb easily perforated both plate and backing with a striking
velocity of 1945 ft. per second, thus reducing the figure of merit
of the plate to below 9*8 and illustrating very clearly the advan-
tage given by capping the point of an armour-piercing projectile.
There were no through-cracks in the plate after this severe trial,
the back being evidently as tough as the face was hard.
Fig. 6 shows a 3-in. K.N.C. plate of Messrs Vickers, Sons &
Maxim's manufacture, tested privately by the firm in November
1905. It proved to be of unusual excellence, its limit of resistance
being just reached by a i2§-Ib armour-piercing shell of 3 in.
calibre with a striking velocity of 2558 ft. per second, a result
which, even if the projectiles used were not relatively of the same
perforating power as those used in the proof of 6-in. and thicker
plates, shows that its resisting power was very great. At a low
estimate its figure of merit against 3-in. A.P. shot may be taken
as about 2-6, which is exceptionally high for a non-cemented, or
indeed for any but the best K.C. plates.
The plate also withstood the attack of a 4-7-in. service pattern
steel armour-piercing shell of 451b weight striking the unbacked
portion with a velocity of 1 509 ft per second, and was only just
beaten by a similar shell with a velocity of 1630 ft per second.
The effect of all the above-mentioned rounds is shown in the
photograph. The same plate subsequently kept out two 6-in.
common shell filled up to weight with salt and plugged, with
striking velocities of 141 2 and 1739 ft per second respectively,
the former being against the unbacked and the latter against the
backed half of the plate,— the only effect on the plate being that
round 6 caused a fragment of the right-hand top corner of the
plate to break off, and round 7 started a few surface cracks
between the points of impact of rounds 1, 2 and 3.
Within the limitations referred to below, the resisting power of
all hard-faced plates is very much reduced when the armour-
piercing projectiles used in the attack are capped, the average
figure of merit of Krupp cemented plates not being more than 9
againstcapped shot as compared with about 2-5 against uncapped.
So long ago as 1878 it was suggested by Lt-CoL (then Captain)
T. English, R.E., that armour-piercing projectiles would be
assisted in attacking compound plates if caps of wrought iron
could be fitted to their points. Experiments at Shoebuxyneav
however, did not show that any advantage was gained by
this device, and nothing further was heard of the cap until
1894, when experiments carried out in Russia with so-called
" magnetic " shot against plates of Harveyed steel showed that
the perforating power of an armour-piercing projectile was
considerably augmented where hard-faced plates were concerned,
if its point were protected by a cap of wrought iron or mild steel
The conditions of the Russian results (and of subsequent trials in
various parts of the world which have confirmed them) differed
considerably from the earlier English ones. The material of
both projectiles and plates differed, as did also the velocities
employed— the low velocities, in the earlier trials probably
contributing in large measure to the non-success of the cap.
The cap, as now used, consists of a thimble of comparatively soft
steel of from 3 to 5 % of the weight of the projectile, attached
to the point of the latter either by solder or by being pressed
hydraulically or otherwise into grooves or indentations in the
head. Its function appears to be to support the point on impact,
and so to enable it to get unbroken through the hard face layers
of the plate. Once through the cemented portion with its point
intact, a projectile which is strong enough to remain undefotxaed,
will usually perforate the plate by a true boring action if its
striking velocity be high enough. In the case of the uncapped
projectile, on the other hand, the point is almost invariably
crushed against the hard face and driven back as a wedge into
the body of the projectile, which is thus set up so that, instead
of boring, it acts as a punch and dislodges or tends to dislodge a
coned plug or disk of metal, the greatest diameter of which may
be as much as four times the calibre of the projectile. The dis-
proportion between the maximum diameter of the disk and that
of the projectile is particularly marked when the calibre of the
latter is much in excess of the thickness of the plate. When plate
and projectile are equally matched, e.g. 6* versus 6*, the plug of
metal dislodged may be roughly cylindrical in shape, and its
diameter not greatly in excess of that of the projectile. la all
cases the greatest width of the plug or disk is at the back of the
plate.
A stout and rigid backing evidently assists a plate very much
more against this class of attack than against the perforating
attack of a capped shot. Fig. 7 shows the back of a 6-in. plate
attacked in 1898, and affords an excellent illustration of the
difference in action of capped and uncapped projectiles. la
round 7 the star-shaped opening made by the point of a capped
shot boring its way through is seen, while rounds 2, 3, 4 and 5
show disks of plate partially dislodged by uncapped projectiles,
The perforating action of capped armour-piercing projectiles is
even better shown in fig. 8, which shows a 250-mm. (q-8 in.)
Krupp plate after attack by 150-mm. (59 in.) capped A.P. shot.
In rounds 5 and 6 the projectiles, with striking velocities of 2309
and 2281 ft. per second, perforated. Round 7, with a striking
velocity of 2244 ft per second, just got its point through and
rebounded, while round 8, with a striking velocity of 2232, lodged
in the plate. In many cases a capped projectile punches out a
plug, usually more or less cylindrical in shape and of about the
same diameter as the projectile, from a plate, and does not defeat
it by a true boring action. In such cases it will probably be
found that the projectile has been broken up, and that only the
head, set up and in a more or less crashed condition, has got
through the plate. This peculiarity of action can best be
accounted for by attributing either abnormal excellence to the
plate or to that portion of it concerned— for plates sometimes
vary considerably and are not of uniform hardness throughout,
— or comparative inferiority to the projectile. Whichever way
it may be, what has happened appears to be that after the cap Has
given the point sufficient support to get it through the very hard
ARMOUR PLATES
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ARMOUR PLATES
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turf ace layers, the point has been flattened in the region of extreme
hardness and- toughness* combined, which exists immediately
behind the deeply carburized surface. The action from this
point becomes a punching one, and the extra strain tends to
break up the projectile, so that the latter gets through wholly
or partially, in a broken condition, driving a plug of plate in front
of it. At low striking velocities, probably in- the neighbourhood
of 1700 ft. per second, the cap fails to act, and no advantage is
given by it to the shot. This is probably because the velocity is
sufficiently low to give the cap time to expand and so fail to grip
the point as the latter is forced into it The cap also fails as a
rule to benefit the projectile when the angle of incidence is more
than 30° to the normal.
The laws governing the resistance of armour to perforation
have been the subject of investigation for many years, and a
considerable number of formulae have been put
Jj££Ldc» forward by means of which the thickness of armour
perforable by any given projectile at any given striking
velocity may be calculated: Although in some cases based on
very different theoretical considerations, there is a general
agreement among them as far as perforation proper is concerned,
and Tresidder's formula for the perforation of wrought iron,
j*«wv7rfA, may be taken as typical Here / represents the
thickness perforable in inches, w the weight of the projectile in
pounds, v its velocity in foot seconds, d its diameter in inches
and a the constant given by log A*8-84io.
For the perforation of Harveyed or Krupp cemented armour
by capped armour-piercing shot, this formula may be employed
in conjunction with a suitable constant according to the nature
of armour attacked. In the case of K. C. armour the
formula becomes fl—tny+dh. A useful rough rule is t\d «*/xooo.
Hard armour, such as chilled cast iron, cannot be perforated
but must be destroyed by fracture, and its destruction is appar-
ently dependent solely upon the striking energy of the projectile
and independent of its diameter. The punching of hard-faced
armour by uncapped projectiles is intermediate in character
between perforation and cracking, but approaches the former.
more nearly than the latter. The formula most used in.
England in this case is Krupp's formula for K.C., via. P—wffdh l ,
where t,v,v and d are the same as before, and log a** 6*3 53 2.
This; if we assume the sectional density (.u>l<P) of projectiles to be
constant and equal to 0*46, reduces to the very handy rule of
thumb //</■« u/2200, which, within the limits of striking velocity
obtainable under service conditions, is sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes. For oblique attack up to an angle of 30° to
the normal, the same formula may be employed, I seeff being
substituted for /, where $ is the angle of incidence and I the
normal thickness of the plate attacked. More exact results
would be obtained, however, by the use of Tresidder's W.I.
formula, given above, in conjunction with a suitable figure of
merit, according to the nature and thickness of the plate. It
should be remembered in this connexion that the figure of merit
of a plate against a punching attack falls off very much when the
thickness of the plate is considerably less than the calibre of the
attacking projectile. For example, the F.M. of a 6-in. plate may
be »*6 against 6-in. uncapped A.P. projectiles, but only 2*2
against 9* 2-in. projectiles of the same character. In the case of the
perforating action of capped projectiles, on the other hand, the
ratio of d and t does not appear to affect the F.M. to any great
extent, though according to Tresidder, the latter is inclined to fall
when d is considerably less than I, which is the exact opposite of
what happens with punching.
Another method of measuring the quality of armour, which is
largely employed upon the continent of Europe, is by the ratio, r,
between the velocity requisite to perforate any given plate and
that needed to pierce a- plate of mild steel of the same thickness,
according to the formula of Commandant Jacob de Marre, vis.
v-A^Itff'Vl*'' where «*■ th c thickness of the plate in centi-
metres, «■■ the calibre of the projectile in centimetres, p — the
weight of the projectile in kilogrammes, v — the striking velocity
of the projectile in metres per second, and log a « 1*7347- Con-
verted into the usual Engnsb unite and notation, this formula
becomes t-AVTd *"/*^, in which log a- « 30004; in this
form it constitutes the basis of the ballistic tests for the accept-
ance of armour plates for the U.S. navy.
Common shell, which are not strong enough to remain unde-
formed on impact, derive little benefit from the cap and usually
defeat a plate by punching rather than by perforation. Their
punching power may be taken roughly as about | that of an
uncapped armour-piercing shot Shells filled with high explosives,
unless special arrangements are made to deaden the bursting
charge and so obviate detonation upon impact, are only effective
against the thinnest armour.
With regard to manufacture, a brief account of the Krupp
process as applied in one of the great English armour plate
works (omitting confidential details of temperature,
&c.) will illustrate the great complexity of treatment tm£n.
which the modern armour plate has to undergo before
its remarkable qualities of combined hardness and toughness can
be developed. The composition of the steel probably differs
slightly with the manufacturer, and also with the thickness of the
armour, but it will usually contain from 3 to 4 % of nickel, from
X'O to 2-0 % of chromium and about 0*25 to 0-35 %of carbon,
together with from 0*3 to o- 7 % of manganese. After being cast,
the ingot is first 'heated to a uniform degree of temperature
throughout its mass and then generally forged under the hydraulic
forging press. It is then reheated and passed through the reus.
After rolling, the plate is allowed to cool, and is then subjected to
a thermal treatment preparatory to surfacing and cutting. Its
surface is then freed from scale and planed. After planing, the
plate is passed into the cementation furnace, where its face
remains for some weeks in contact with specially prepared
carbon, the temperature being gradually raised to that required
for cementation and as gradually lowered after that is effected.
After cementation the plate is heated to a certain temperature
and is then plunged into an oil bath in order to toughen it
After withdrawal from the oil bath, the plate' is cooled, reheated
to a lower temperature, quenched again in water, reheated and
passed to the bending press, where it is bent to shape while hot,
proper allowance being made for the slight change of curve which
takes place on the final chilling. After bending it is again heated
and then allowed to get cold, when the final machining, drilling
and cutting are carried out The plate is now placed in a furnace
and differentially heated so that the face is raised to a higher
temperature than the back. After being thus heated for a
certain period the plate is withdrawn, and both back and face
are douched simultaneously with jets of cold water under
pressure, the result being that the face is left glass-hard while the
back is in the toughest condition possible for such bard steel
The cast-steel armour made by Hadfield has already been
alluded to. That made by Krupp (the only other maker at
present of this class of armour) is of face-hardened nickel steel.
A 5-o-in. plate of this material tried in 100a had a figure of merit
of more than 2-2 against uncapped $-o-in. armour-piercing
projectiles of 1x2 lb in weight The main advantage of cast
armour is that it is well adapted to armoured structures of
complicated design and of varying thickness, which It would
be difficult or impossible to forge in one piece. It should also be
cheaper than forged armour, and, should time be a consideration,
could probably be turned out more quickly; on the other hand,
it is improbable that heavy castings such as would be required
could be as regular in quality and as free from flaws as is possible
when forged material is used, and it is unlikely that the average
resistance to attack of cast-steel armour will ever be equal to that
of the best forged steel.
Of recent years there has been a considerable demand for thin
steel plating proof against small-arm bullets at close ranges.
This class of steel is used for field-gun shields and for
sap shields, to afford cover for men in field-works,
for armoured trains, motor-cars and ambulances, and
also very largely for armouring shallow-draught river-
gunboats. Holtser made chrome steel breastplates in 1800,
o* 158 in. of which was proof against the 043-in. hard lead bullet
of the Gras rifle at 10 metres range, while 0-236 in. was proof
*9a
ARMS AND ARMOUR
against the o-ja-in. 231 -grain Lebel bullet at the same distance,
the striking velocities being approximately 1400 and 2070 ft.
per second respectively. The bullet-proof steel made by Messrs
Caramdl, Laird & Co. in Great Britain may be taken as typical of
that produced by the best modern manufacturers. It is proof
against the 215-grain Lee-Enfield bullet of 0-303 in. calibre
striking directly, as under:
Range. Thickness orplate. Striking Velocity.
10 yards 0*187 inch 2050 f.s.
100 „ 0-167 „ 1865 „
560 „ 0080 ,,. 1080 „
The weight of the 008-in. plating; is only J- 2 lb per sq. ft
The material is stated to be readily adaptable to the ordinary
operation of bending, machining, drilling, &c, and is thus very
suitable for the purposes indicated above. (W. E. E.)
ARMS AND ARMOUR (Lat. ormo t from the Aryan root ar,
to join or fit; cf. Gr. Apjifr, joint; the form armour, from Lat
armaiura, should strictly be amove). Under this heading are
included weapons of offence (arms) and defensive equipment
(armour). The history of the development of arms and armour
begins with that of the human race; indeed, combined with
domestic implements, the most primitive weapons which have
been found constitute the most important, if not the only,
tangible evidence on which the history of primitive man is based.
It is largely from the materials and characteristics of the
weapons and utensils found in caves, tombs and various strata of
the earth's crust, coupled with geological considerations, that the
ethnological and chronological classifications of prehistoric man
have been deduced. For a detailed account of this classifica-
tion and the evidence see Archaeology; Bronze Age; Flint
Implements, &c, and articles on special weapons.
Offensive weapons may be classified roughly, according to their
shape (i.e. the kind of blow or wound which they are intended
to inflict), and the way in which they are used, as
follows:— (1) Arms which are wielded by hand at
close quarters. These are subdivided into (a) cleaving
weapons, e.g. axes; (6) crushing, e.g. dubs, maces and all hammer-
like arms; (c) thrusting, t.g. pointed swords and daggers;
(d) cutting, e.g. sabres (such weapons frequently combine both
the cut and the thrust, e.g. swords with both edge and point);
(e) those weapons represented by the spear, lance, pike, .&c,
which deal a thrusting blow but are distinguished from (c) by
their greater length. (2) Purely missile weapons, e.g. darts,
javelins and spears. Frequently these weapons are used also
at close quarters as thrusting weapons; the typical example of
these is the medium-length spear of not more than about 6 ft in
length. (3) Arms which discharge missiles, e.g. bows, catapults
and fire-arms generally. (See Archery and section Fire-arms
below.) The weapons in (2) and (3) are designed to avoid hand-
to-hand fighting.
Weapons are also classified in a variety of other ways. Thus
we have smell-arms, Le. all weapons in classes (1) and (2) with
those in (3) which do not require carriages. Side-arms are those
which, when not in use, are worn at the side, e.g. daggers, swords,
bayonets. Armes blanches is a term used for offensive weapons
of iron and steel which are' used at close quarters.
Defensive armour consists of body armour, protections for the
head and the limbs, and various types of shield.
1. Stone Age. — One of the chief problems which have per-
plexed archaeologists is that of finding a criterion which will
MifMr. enable them to distinguish the most primitive products
of human skill from similar objects whose form is due
to the forces of nature. It is often impossible to say precisely
whether a rough piece of flint is to be regarded as a weapon
(except so far as it could be used as a missile) or merely as a
fragment of rock. Passing over these doubtful cases, we come
first to indubitable examples of weapons deliberately fashioned
in stone for offensive purposes. The use of stone weapons
appears to have been universally characteristic of the earliest
races of mankind, as it is still distinctive of those savage races
which are most nearly allied to primitive man. These weapons
were naturally simple in form and structure. The earliest
Fio: I.— Leaf-shaped Flint
Dagger.
examples (Palaeolithic) found in river-drift gravel in various parts
of Europe arc merely chipped flints, celts, &c. Later on we find
polished implements (Neolithic) progressively more elaborate in
design and workmanship, such as socketed stones with wooden
handles and knives or daggers -of flaked flint with bandies.
Besides flint the commonest materials are dioritc, greenstone,
serpentine and indurated day-slate; there are also weapons of
horn and bone (daggers and spear-heads). Spear-heads and
arrow-points (leaf -shaped, lozenge-shaped, tanged and tri-
angular) were chipped in flint with such skill as to be little
inferior to their metal successors. They have accurately flaked
barbs and tangs, and in some cases their edges are minutely
chipped. The heads appear to have been fastened to the shafts
by vegetable fibre and bitumen. Knife-daggers of flint, though
practically of one single type, exhibit much variety of form.
They vary in size also, but seldom exceed 1 2 in. in length. They
are sometimes obtuse-edged like a scraping-tool, sometimes
delicately chipped to a straight edge, while the flakes arc so
regularly removed from the convex part of the. blade as to give
a wavy surface, and the corners of the handle are delicately
crimped. The daggers attain their highest perfection in the short,
leaf -shaped form, — the precursor of the leaf-shaped sword which
is peculiarly characteristic of the
Bronze Age, — and the curved
knives found especially in Great
Britain and Russia, and also in
Egypt. The precise object of the
sharpening of both convex and con-
cave edges in the curved variety is not clear. There have also
been found sling-stones, and, in Scotland and Ireland, balls of
stone with their " surfaces divided into a number of more or less
projecting circles with channels between them." These latter.
Sir John Evans suggests, were attached to a thong which passed
through the surface channels, and used like the Mar of South
America. The weapon could thus deal a blow at close quarters,
or could be thrown so as to entangle the limbs of an enemy*
Of defensive armour of stone there is none. The only approxi*
mation is to be found in the small rectangular plates of slate, &c,
perforated with holes at the corners, which are supposed to have
been bound on to the arm to protect it from the recoil of the
bow-string. Similar wristlets or bracers are in use among the
Eskimos (of bone) and in India (of ivory). These plates measure
generally about 4 in. by 1 J in.
2. Bronze Age.— It is impossible to assign any date as the
beginning of the Bronze Age; indeed, archaeology has shown
that the adoption of metal for weapons was very gradual. The
stone weapon perseveres alongside the bronze, and there exist
stone axes which, by their shape, suggest that they have been
copied from metal axes. In the earliest interments in which the
weapons deposited with the dead are of other materials than
stone, a peculiar form of bronze dagger occurs. It consists of a
Fig. 2.— Leaf-shaped Bronze Sword.
well-finished, thin, knife-like blade, usually about 6 in. in length,
broad at the hilt and tapering to the point, and attached to the
handle by massive rivets of bronze. It has been found associated
with stone celts, both of the roughly chipped and the highly
polished kind, showing that these had not been entirely disused
when bronze became available. A later type of bronze dagger is
a broad, heavy, curved weapon, usually from 9 to 1 5 in. in length,
with massive rivets for attachment to an equally massive handle.
The leaf-shaped sword, however, is the characteristic weapon of
the Bronze Age. It is found all over Europe, from Lapland to the
Mediterranean. No warlike weapon of any period is more graceful
in form or more beautifully finished. The finish seems to have
been given in the mould without the aid of hammer or file, the
edge being formed by suddenly reducing the thickness of the
metal, so as to produce a narrow border of extreme thinness 1
ARMS AND ARMOUR
583
both tides of the blade from hilt to point. ' The handle-plate and
blade were cast in one piece, and the handle itself was formed by
side plates of bone, horn or wood, riveted through the handle-
plates. There was no guard, and the weapon, though short, was
well balanced, but more fitted for stabbing and thrusting than
lor cutting with the edge. The Scandinavian variety is not so
decidedly leaf -shaped, and is longer and heavier than the common.
British form; and instead of a handle-plate* it was furnished
with a tang on which a round, flat-topped handle was fastened,
like that of the modem Highland dirk, sometimes surmounted
by a crescent-like ornament of bronze. A narrow, rapier-shaped
variety, tapering from hilt to point, was made without a handle-
plate, and attached to the hilt by rivets like the bronze daggers
already mentioned. This form is more common in the British
Isles than in Scandinavia, and is most abundant hi Ireland. The
spear-heads of the Bronze Age present a considerable variety of
form, though the leaf-shaped predominates, and barbed examples
are extremely rare. Some B ritish weapons of tikis form occasion-
ally reach a length of 27 in. The larger varieties are often
beautifully designed, having segmental openings on both sides of
the central ridge of the blade, and elaborately ornamented with
Fig. 3.— Bronze Spear-Head, length 19 inches.
chevron patterns of chased or inlaid work both on the socket and
blade. Arrow-points are much rarer in bronze than in flint. In
all probability the flint arrow-point (which was equally effective
and much more easily replaced when lost) continued to be used
throughout the Bronze Age, Shields of bronze, circular, with
hammered-up bosses, concentric ridges and rows of studs, were
held in the hand by a central handle underneath the boss. The
transition period between the Bronze and Iron Ages in central
Europe is well defined by the occurrence of iron swords, which are
simple copies of the leaf-shaped weapon, sometimes with flat
handle-plate of bronze. These have been found associated with
articles assigned to the 3rd or 4th century B.C.
An important distinction between the characteristic bronze
swords peculiar to southern peoples and the swords both oT iron
and of bronze found together in the Hallstatt cemeteries
(m the Salzkarnmergut, Austria, ancient Noricum) is
that whereas the former invariably have short handles
(a} to 2 \ in.) 1 the latter are provided with handles from 3 to 3} in.
long, terminating in a round or oval pommel; the grip of one
of the bronze swords even reaches a length of 4 in. The hilts
are decorated with ivory, amber, wood, bronze, horn, and the
decoration of blade and scabbard is often elaborate. The length
of these swords is sometimes as much as 30 to 33 in. Again at
La Tenc on Lake Neuchatel iron swords have been found to the
number of one hundred, with handles of 4 to 7) in. long and a
total length varying from 30 to 38 in. Similar remains have been
found in France at Bibracte and Alcsia, and even in Ireland
(cf. Munro, The Lake-dwellings of Europe, pp. 282, 383).
The occurrence at Hallstatt of bronze swords together with
iron, having the characteristic long handle, has led to the hypo-
thesis that the graves are those of an immigrant (probably Celtic)
people of northern extraction which had conquered and overlaid
a smaller-framed Bronze Age people, and had introduced the use
of iron while continuing to use the bronze of their predecessors
with the necessary modifications. This theory derived from
tangible remains is corroborated by literary evidence. Thus
Polybius (ii. 33, iii. 114) describes the Celtic peoples as fighting
with a long pointless iron sword, which easily bent and was in
any case too large to be used easily in a melee.
The graves at Hallstatt yielded in addition to these important
swords a much larger number of spears. Of these two only were
of bronze, the head of the larger being y\ in. long. The much
more numerous iron heads range up to as much as 2 ft. in length,
and arc all fastened to the shaft by rivets. All the arrow-beads
found are of bronze, while of the axes the great majority are of
iron; a few have iron edges fitted in a bed of bronze.
These examples are sufficient to show that the transition front
bronze to iron was very slow. The fact that they were found in a
district which is known to have been directly in the line of march
pursued by invaders from the north tends to confirm the theory
that the introduction of iron was the work of such invaders.
See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements (2nd. ed., 1897),
Bronte Implements', W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece; and world
quoted under Archaeology.
3. Early Greek Weapons.— : Tbe character of the weapons used
by the early peoples of the Aegean in the periods known as
Mihoan, Mycenaean and Homeric is a problem which
has given rise of recent years to much discussion. The *•"""»
controversy is an important part of the Homeric ff^wa,
question as a whole, and the various theories of the
weapons used in the Trojan War hinge on wider theories as to the
date and authorship of the Homeric poems. One widely accepted
hypothesis, based oh the important monograph by Dr Wolfgang
Reichel, Vber komcrische Waffen. ArckUologiscke Untersuchungen
(Vienna, 1894), is that the Homeric heroes, like those who created
the civilization known as Mycenaean, had no defensive armour
except the Mycenaean shield, and used weapons of bronze. This
view is derived to a great extent from the Homeric poems them-
selves, in which the metal most frequently mentioned is xaXxfe
(bronze), and involves the assumption that all passages which
describe the use of corslets, breastplates, small shields and
greaves are later interpolations. It is maintained on the other
hand (e.g. by Prof. W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, i. chap. 3),
that the Homeric Achaeans (whom he regards as the descendants
of the central European peoples, the makers of the Hallstatt iron
swords) were far advanced into the Iron Age, and that the use
of bronze weapons is merely another instance of the fact that
the introduction of a new element does not necessarily banish
the older. This theory would separate the Homeric from the
Mycenaean altogether, and is part of a much more comprehensive
ethnological hypothesis. According to another hypothesis, the
Homeric poems are true descriptions of a single age, or, in other
words, the weapons of the Homeric age were far more diverse
and elaborate than is supposed by Reichel.
Very few traces of iron have been found in the Mycenaean
settlements, nor have any examples of body armour been found
except the ceremonial gold breastplates at Mycenae. The
Mycenaean soldiers carried apparently a bronze spear, a bronze
sword and a bow and arrows. The arrow-heads are first of
obsidian and later of bronze. It would appear that only the chief
warriors used spear and shield, while the majority fought with
bows. The swords found at Mycenae are two-edged, of rigid
bronze, and as long as 3 ft. or even more; from representations
of battles it would seem that they were perhaps used for thrusting
mainly. They are highly ornamented and some have hilts
of wood, bone or ivory, or even gold mounting. Later swords
became shorter and of a type like that of early iron swords found
in Greece. Moreover in a few cases there have been found in pre-
Mycenaean (late Minoan HI.) tombs a few examples of short
iron swords together with bronze remains. All Mycenaean spears
arc of bronze and, apparently, their shafts, unlike the Homeric,
had no butt-piece. In the absence of any metal helmets in the
tombs we may perhaps assume that the Mycenaean helmet was
a leather cap, possibly strengthened with tusks, such as appears
in Homer (Iliad, x.) also. The Mycenaean shield (generally 1 ,
perhaps, made of leather) has given rise to much controversy,
which hinges largely on the interpretation of the evidence
provided by the representation on the Warrior Vase and the
Painted Stele from Mycenae and pottery found at Tiryns.
Professor Ridgeway regards these as describing post-Mycenaean
conditions, and maintains that the true Mycenaean shield was
always long (from neck to feet), and that it was either in the form
of a figure-of-eight targe, or rectangular and sometimes incurved
like the section of a cylinder; whereas the Homeric shield was
round (e.g. KwAore/xtf, cGkwcXw, &c). Dr Reichcl's followers
believe that the Homeric shield was long ("fike a tower ") and
sH
ARMS AND ARMOUR
incurved in the centre like the Mycenaean, that Homer knew
nothing of the small round shield, and that the epithets implying
roundness used in the poems are to be explained as meaning
" well-balanced " or as- late interpolations. On the whole we
must conclude that the Mycenaean age is by no means a single
homogeneous whole (see Aegean Ovujzation), and that the
weapons are not exclusively of bronze, nor of any single type.
The Homeric warrior in full armour, according to the Homeric
poems, wore: (i) shield (turrit, chan), (2) greaves (crn/ufa),
(?) band (ffyia), (4) belt (fowT4p)and miirl, (5) tunic (xtrfoh
(6) helmet (copfe), (7) breastplate (0wpi?£), (8) sword ($*«*).
The \auHiiov was a protection worn by the archers in place of a
shield. According to the usual view, the Homeric shield was, as
we have seen, bent in about half way up each side (in the form of
a figure-of-eight) to give freedom to the arms, and large chough
to protect the whole body. The two curves were held rigid by
two wooden (probably) staves inside. It was composed of layers
of ox-hide overlaid with bronze, forming a boss in the centre, and
sometimes had studs upon it. Reichel's view is that it was the
weight of these huge shields which led to the use of the chariot as
a means of going rapidly from one part of the field to another
(though Professor Ridgeway and others contest this, and Helbig
mentions more than one case of long journeys on foot under
shield), and further that the round shield is entirely unknown
to Homer. This large shield was clearly the natural protection
against showers of missiles, rather than against enemies fighting
with the sword.
The greaves were, no doubt, generally of hide, protected the
leg all round, and were fastened at the knee with cords On
the other hand Mycenaean bronze greaves have been found at
Enjtomi (Cyprus) and at Glassinatz (Glasinac), and therefore
\t is not necessary, following Reichel, to cut out Homer's
references to the " bronze-grcaved " Achaeans (Iliad, vil 41), a
phrase which has been taken as evidence for regarding the
passage as spurious, The tin greaves of Achilles are obviously
exceptional.
The tkorex again is the subject of controversy. Reichel,
arguing that the great shield rendered any breastplate unneces-
sary, regarded the word as a general term for body clothing,
but Ridgeway strongly maintains the older theory that it was
a bronze breastplate, and Andrew Lang points out that, on
Reichel's theory, a word which originally meant the " breast "
was transferred to mean " loin-cloth " (which, to judge from the
artistic representations, was all that the Mycenaean warrior
wore), and subsequently in historic times returned to its natural
use for the breastplate — a most unlikely evolution. The passages
in Homer which describe it as a breastplate are regarded by
Reichel's school as later interpolations.. Gilbert Murray thinks
that the Homeric poems must be regarded as belonging to differ-
ent periods of development, and therefore attributes the more
elaborate armour to the " surface " (late Ionian) stratum. The
toma was probably a loin-cloth, and the miirl a metal band about
a foot wide in front and narrow behind to protect the lower part
of the body. As a matter of fact, however, the big shield does
not exclude the use of body armour, and it is quite likely that the
Homeric warrior wore a bronze corslet, i.e. a somewhat improved
form of the \t,voOu)pr}$, or stiffened shirt* On the other hand,
it is probable, as we gather from the poems, that this corslet was
not strong enough to do more than stop a spent spear. The
chiton was worn over the mitri. and reached the knees; it was held
to the body by the zoster, a metal-plated belt. Helmets were both
of metal on leather, and of leather throughout; the crests were
of horsehair (not of metal like the later Greek helmets) and there
were no cheek-pieces.
The sword has already been mentioned. Ridgeway, in spite of
the almost invariable mention of bronze as the material of the
Homeric weapons, believes that it was generally of iron, but,
while the presence of iron in the Homeric age is admitted in the
case of implements, it is generally held that weapons were all of
bronze. Except for one arrow-head (Iliad, iv. 123), and the mace
of Areithoiis, mentioned as a unique example by Nestor {Iliad,
vii. 141), no reference to an iron weapon proper occurs in the
Homeric poems. But the sword was used only when the fnvoairifje
spear or javelin had failed to decide the contest.
It must be admitted that the problem of pre-Homeric armour
and Homeric armour must always be largely a matter of inference,
based on a comparative study of the evidence literary and archaeo-
logical. Unless we are prepared to adopt the theory that the
Homeric poems consist of a mosaic of interpolation informed by
an archaizing editor, 'we must assume that they describe a single
period of transition intermediate between the Mycenaean prime
and the dawn of history proper. In this case we shall believe that
the Homeric warrior has so far adapted to changing conditions
the simple appliances of the Mycenaean' that he has evolved a
feeble corslet with minor pieces of body armour, while retaining
the big double-bellied shield as a protection against the arrows
which are still the chief weapon of the rank and file and are even
used on occasion by the chiefs. If we further believe that the
iron at his disposal was similar to that used by the Celts of
Polybius, it is natural to believe also that he preferred the
harder bronze for his weapons, though iron was common lor
domestic and other implements.
On early Greek arms in general see, besides Reichel and Ridfewnay
op. cil.: A. Lang, Homer and his Ate (London, 15)06; and criticnxns
in Classical Review, February 1907); G. G. A. Murray, The Rise of
the Greek Epic (Oxford, 1907), chap, vi ; R. M. Burrows, Dis.
coteries in Crete (2nd ed., London, 1907); Leaf and Bayfield, It$ad.
i-xii. Appendix A (follows Reichel) ; W. Helbig, Homeruche Epms
(1884 and 1899), and La Question myetnienne (1896); C. Robert,
Studten zur Iltas (Berlin, 1901); Chr. Tsountas and J. I. Manartt.
The Mycenaean A& (1897); V. Berard. Us Pkenkieus et roiyesi*
(Paris, 190a): Cauer, Grund/raeer d. Homerhrilik (Leiprig, 1895);
much valuable discussion wall be found in articles in Jam. JfaU*
Stud., Classical Rep. and Jovm. afAnthropol. Instil. ; see also editions
of Iliad and Odyssey (espec. D. B. Monro), and works quoted
Aegean Civilization; Homer; Mycbnab.
4. Greek, Historical— The equipment does not differ 1
ally from that described in the Homeric poems, except when
we come to the reforms of the Macedonians. The hoplites, m bo
formed the main army, wore helmet, body armour, greaves and
shield, and fought with pike and sword. The helmets were ( 1)
the Corinthian, which covered the face to the chin, with slits for
the eyes, and often had no plume or crest; (2) the Athenian,
which did not cover the face (though sometimes it had cheek-
plates which could be turned up if necessary), had crests, some-
times triple, with plumes of feathers, horsehair or leather;
(3) a steel cap (*t Xos) without crest, plumes or cheek-plates. The
last seems to have been most common in the Spartan army.
The body armour consisted of breast and back plates fastened
together by thongs or straps and buckles; sometimes poverty
compelled a man to be content with a leather jerkin (raoX&s)
partly strengthened by metal plates, or even a quilted linen or
stuffed shirt Greaves were of pliant bronze fastened at the back
above the ankle and below the knee. Shields were of the small
round or oval type, adapted to the new conditions in which the
bow and arrow had given place to hand-to-hand fighting. They
were held by means of two handles (5xom), the left hand being
thrust through the first and grasping the second. In the 5th and
4th centuries the shield bore a device or initial representing the
state and also the individual's own crest. The hoplite's pike,
about 8 ft. long, unlike the Homeric weapon, was hardly ever
thrown. In the Macedonian phalanx a pike (<rdpuron), certainly
18 ft., and perhaps later in the 3rd and 2nd centuries even 24 It-
long, was introduced. The sword was straight, sharp-pointed,
short, sometimes less than 20 in., and rarely more than 2 ft.
long. It was double-edged and used for both cut and thrust
A less common type was the jiaxcupa or curved sabre used by
the Spartans, with one sharp edge. The hoplite had no other
offensive weapons.
The cavalry were heavy-armed like the hoplites except that
they carried a smaller shield, or, more usually, none at all. They
were armed with a lance which they wielded freely (i.e. not " in
rest ") and occasionally threw. The Macedonian cavalry had a
aopunra. The light-armed (yvfanJTes, ifaXoi) were (1) d jtorn*r«J,
armed with a javelin (3 to 5 ft. long) and a small shield; (2)
ro£6rat, archers; and (3) afwfoinfim, slingers, whose missiles
ARMS AND ARMOUR
585
were balls of lead, stones and hardened clay pellets. Between
the heavy and the light aimed were the peltasts. The petta,
from which they took the name, was a light shield or target,
made of skin or leather on a wooden or wickerwork frame. The
Athenian Iphfcrates armed them with linen corslet and a larger
spear and sword than those of the hoplites; he also invented a
new footgear (called after him iphtaatiies) to replace the older
greaves.
5. Roman.— The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the
organisation of the army (see Roman Akmy), passed through a
great number of changes, and it is quite impossible to summarize
it as a single subject. In the period of the kings the legion was
the old Greek phalanx with Greek armour; the front ranks wore
the Greek panoply and fought with long spears and the circular
Argolic shield. The early Roman sword, like that of the Greeks,
Egyptians and Etruscans, was of bronse. We have no direct
statement as to its form, but in all probability it was of the
ordinary leaf-shape. We gather from the monuments that, in the
1st century b.c, the Roman sword was short, worn on the right
side (except by officers, who carried no shield), suspended from
a shoulder-belt (balteus) or a waist-belt (emgulum), and reach-
ing from the hollow of the back to the middle of the thigh,
thus representing a length of from 22 in. to 2 ft. The blade
was straight, double-edged, obtusely-pointed. On the Trajan
column (jud. 114) it is considerably longer, and under the
Flavian emperors the long, single-edged spatha appears fre-
quently along with the short sword.
The second period ending with the Punk wars witnessed a
change. The hastati and the principes are both heavily armed,
but the round shield has given way to the oblong (scutum),
except for one-third of the hastati who bore only the spear and
the light javelin (gotta). The third period— that described by
Polybius — is characterized by greater complexity of armour, due
no doubt in part to the experience gained in conflict* with a
wider range of peoples, and in part to the assimilation of the
methods peculiar to the new Italian allies. Thus we find the.
skirmishers (velites) armed with a light javelin 3 ft. long and \ in.
thick, with an iron point 9 in. long; this point, was so fragile that
it was rendered useless by the first cast. For defence they wore
a hide-covered headpiece and a round buckler 3 ft. in diameter.
The heavy-armed carried a scutum formed of two boards glued
together, covered with canvas and skin, and incurved into tbe
shape of a half -cylinder; its upper and lower edges were
strengthened with iron runs and its centre with a boss (umbo).
A greave was worn on the right leg, and the helmet was of bronze
with a crest of three feathers. The wealthier soldiers wore the
full cuirass of chain armour (lorica), the poorer a brass plate
a in. square. For offence they carried a sword and two javelins.
The former was the Spanish weapon, straight, double-edged
and pointed, for both thrust and cut, in place of the old Greek
sword.
The characteristic weapon, however, was the piium (Gr. fooos).
The form of this weapon and the mode of using it have been
minutely described by Polybius (vi. 23), but his description has
been much misunderstood in consequence of the rarity of repre-
sentations or remains of the pilum. It is shown on a monument
of St Rimy, in Provence, assigned to the age of the first emperors,
and in a bas-relief at Mainz, on the grave-stone of Quintus
Petilius Secundus, a soldier of the 15th legion. A specimen of the
actual weapon is in the museum at Wiesbaden. It is a javelin
with a stout iron head (7 in.), carried on an iron rod, about so in.
in length, which terminates in a tang for insertion in the wooden
shaft. As represented on the monuments, the iron part of the
weapon is about one-third of its entire length (6f ft.). It was
used primarily as a missile. When the point pierced the shield
the weight of the stave pulled the shield downwards and rendered
it useless. At close quarters it answered all the purposes,
offensive and defensive, of the modern bayonet when " fixed/'
Vegetius, in his Rri milUoris institute, describes it in a modified
form as used in the armies of the lower empire, and in a still more
modified form it reappears as the " argon " of the Franks. This
equipment was characteristic of hastati, principes and triarii
(save that the latter used the hasta Instead of the pilum). Wt
thus see how great is the change from the time when the hastati
were the light-armed (from hasta) of the Greek phalanx.
The cavalry, which had originally been protected only by a
light ox-hide shield and the most fragile spears, adopted, about
Polybius 's time, the full Greek equipment of buckler, strong spear
and breastplate.
In the last period of the republic the pilum became the universal
weapon of the heavy-armed, while the auxiliaries (all foreigners,
the vdita having disappeared) used the hasta and the long single*
edged sword (spatha). Under tbe empire the heavy-armed,
according to Josephus, had helmet, cuirass, a long sword worn
on the left side, and a dagger on the right, pilum and senium.
The special detachment detailed to attend the commander had a
round shield (clipeus) and a long spear. The cavalry wore armour
like that of the infantry, with a broadsword, a buckler slung from
the horse's side, a long pole for thrusting, and several javelins,
almost as large as spears, in a sheath or quiver. Arrian, writing
of a period some fifty years later, gives further particulars from
which we gather that of the cavalry some were bowmen, some
pokmen, while others wielded lances and axes.
For the arms and armour of other peoples of antiquity see e.g.
Persia: History, Ancient, section v. "The Persian Empire of the
Achaemeiuds"; Britain, Anglo-Saxon, section v. " Warfare "1
Etkuria; Egypt, ftc 0* M. M.>
6, English from the Norman Conquest.— It is unnecessary here
to trace in detail the history of European armour in the middle
ages and after, but its use and fashion in England may illustrate
the broad lines of the gradual perfection and the hurried abandon-
ment of the ancient war-harness. Each country gave its armour
something of the national character, the Spanish harness being
touched with the Moorish taste, the Italian with the classical
note borrowed from the monuments of old time, and the German
with the Teutonic feeling for the grotesque.
To understand the development of English arms and armour
it is well for us to consider carefully the fashion of these things
at the time of that landmark of history, the Norman Utkm
Conquest. Poets, chroniclers and law-makers give «$mtmr
us material for their description, and in the great B mymx
embroidery of Bayeux, with its more than six hundred *******
lively figures, we have pictured all the circumstances of war.
We find that weapons and war gear have advanced little or
nothing beyond the age which saw the Dacian warrior armed
from crown to foot. A knight is reckoned fully armed if he have
helmet, hawberk and shield; his weapons are sword and lance,
although he sometimes carries axe or mace and, more rarely,
a bow. The coat of fence, which the Norman called hawberk and
the English byrnie, hangs from neck to knee, the sleeves loose and
covering the elbow only, the skirt slit before and behind for ease
in the saddle. The Bayeux artists (see fig. 4) commonly show
these skirts as though they were, short breeches, the hawberk
taking the fashion at first sight of
a man's swimming dress, but other
authorities set us right, and to-
wards the end of the tapestry we
see men stripping hawberk* from
the slain by pulling them over
the head. Back and front are so
much alike that he who armed
Duke William for the fight slipped
on the armour hind side before, an
omen that he should change his
state of a duke for that of a king.
The hawberk might be mail of
woven rings, of rings sewn upon
leather or cotton, of overlapping
scales of leather, horn or iron,
of that jazerant work which was
formed of little plates sewn to
canvas or linen, or of thick cotton Fxc. 4.— From the Bayeux
and old linen padded and quilted Tapestry.
I in lozenges, squares or lines. There are i nd ic a ti o ns that Uw
586
ARMS AND ARMOUR
hawberk wis sometimes reinforced at the breast probably by
a small oblong plate fastened underneath. Its weight is shown
in the scene where William's men carry arms to the ships,
each hawberk being borne between two men upon a pole thrust
through the sleeves.
The helmet is a brimless and pointed cap, either all of metal or
of leather or even wood framed and strengthened with metal
Its characteristic piece is the guard which protects the nose and
brow from swinging cuts, so disguising the knight that William
must needs take off his helmet to show his men that he had not
fallen. Such a nasal appears in a 10th-century illumination; at
the time of the Conquest it was all but universal. It grows rare
and all but disappears in the 13th century, although examples are
found to the end of the middle ages. The helmet is laced under the
chin, and under it the knight often wore a hood of mail or quilting
which covered the top of the head, the ears and neck, but left
the chin free— in two or three cases he has this hood without
the helmet. A close coif was probably worn beneath it when
it was of ringed mail, to spare the fretting of the metal on the
head.
The knights' legs are shown in most cases as unprotected save
by stout hose or leg-bands: only in two or three instances does
the tapestry picture a warrior with armed legs, and it is perhaps
significant of the rarity of this defence that the duke is so armed.
The feet are covered only by the leather boot, the heels having
prick spurs.
Broad-bladed swords with cross-hilts of straight or drooping
quills arc fastened with a strap and buckle girdle to the left side.
They have a short grip, and the blade would seem to be from
*$ to 3 ft. in length. . The chieftain unarmed in his house is often
seen with unbuckled, and sheathed sword sceptre-wise in his
hands, carrying it as an Indian raja will nurse his sheathed
tulwar. The ash spears brandished or couched by the knights as
they charge seem from 7 to ft or 9 ft. in length. In a few cases
a three-forked pennon flutters at the end. The axe, a weapon
which the Normans, in spite of their Norse ancestry, do not
carry in the battle, is of the type called the Danish axe, long-
shafted, the large blade boldly curved out. Maces, such as. that
with which the bishop of Bayeux rallies his young men, seem
knotted clubs of simple form. Short and strong bows are drawn
to the breast by the Norman archers.
Of the shields in the fight, four or five borne by the English are
of the old English form — large, round bucklers of linden-wood,
bossed and ribbed with iron. For the rest the horsemen bear
the Norman shield, kite-shaped, with tapering foot, and long
enough to carry a dead warrior from the field. On the inner side
are straps for the hand to grip and a long strap allowed the knight
to hang the shield from his neck. Let us note that although
wyvern-nke monsters, crosses, roundels and other devices appear
on these shields, none of them has any indication of true armory,
whose origins must be placed in the next century.
The 1 2th century, although an age of riding and warring,
affects but little the fashion of armour. The picture of a king on
his seal may well stand for the full-armed knight of his
ZJatmr. *£*> hut Henry Beauderc, Stephen and Henry U. are
. shown in harness not much unlike that of the Bayeux
needlework. But the sleeve of the hawberk goes to the wrist,
and the kite shield grows less, Stephen's shield being 30 in. long
at the most. On Stephen's second seal the mail hood is drawn
over the point of the chin, and Henry Il.'s seals show the chin
covered to the lips. At least one seal of this king has the legs
and feet armed with hose of ringed mail, probably secured by
lacing at the back of the leg as a modern boot is laced. The first
seal of Richard Lionheart marks an important movement. His
hawberk, hood and hose clothe him, like his father, from crown
to toe, and to this equipment he adds gloves of mail. Under
the hawberk flows out to the heels the skirt of a long gown slit
in front. But helm and shield are the most remarkable points.
The shield has become flatter at the top, and at last the shield
of an English king bears those armorial devices whose beginnings
are seen elsewhere a generation before. The earlier seal has the
shield with a rampant lion ramping to the sinister side and closely
resembling that on the shield of Philip of Alsace, long believed
to be the earliest example of true armory. But the shield in the
second seal bears the three leopards which have been ever since
the arms of the kings of England, and from this time to the end
of the middle ages armorial devices become the common decora-
tions of the knight's shield, coat, saddle and horse-trapper.
The helmet of the first seal is a high thimble-topped cap, without
a nasal guard, but the second has the king's head covered with
the great helm, barrel-shaped and reinforced in front with a flat
ventatle pierced in slits for the sight. This helm is crested with
a semicircular ridge from which spring two wings, or rows of
feathers fan-wise. On its side the ridge bears a single leopard,
the forerunner of the coming crests.
For 13th-century arms, although but poor scraps remain of
original material, we have authority in plenty — pictures, scab
and carving, and, above all, the effigies in stone or uth
brass which give us each visible link, strap and orna- cmmtmry-
meat. All these have for a commentary chronicles,
poems and account books, so that the history of armour may be
followed in detail.
The long, sleeveless surcoat seen over King John's mail on his
broad seal goes through the century and is often embroidered
with arms. The shield becomes flat-topped the better to receive
armorial charges. The great helm is common, although many
knights on the day of battle like better the freedom of the mail
hood with a steel cap worn over or under its crown, keeping for
the tourney-yard the great helm which towards the century-end
begins to carry its towering crest. Great variety is seen in the
forms of the flat or round- topped helm, some being in one piece,
pierced for sight and air, others having hinged or movable
ventailes. At the end of the century a sugar-loaf type is the
established form. The knight's hawberk is worn over a gambeson
of linen, quilted linen or cotton, which lesser men wear with a
steel cap for all defence. Breast and back plates also are some-
times borne under the hawberk, and the first plates in sight at
last appear in those knee-cops which protect the joining of the
upper and lower hose, and in a few examples of balnbergs or
greaves of metal or leather. At the end of Henry III.'s reign we
have the admirable illustrations of a manuscript of Matthew
Paris'* Lives of Ike Offas, with many pictures of knights. (See
fig 5.) Here we see knights with knee-cop and greave and a
From Tkt Am***, by permnaioo of A. ComuMeft Co. Ltd.
Fic. 5. — Knights* Armour, c. 1250.
plenty of curious headpieces, the plain mail hood and mail hoods
with a plate venraile to cover the face, barrel-helma and round-
topped helms and even round-topped helmets with the Norman
nose-guard.
In the last half of the 13th century appears the curious defence
known as alettes. This name is given to a pair of leather plates
generally oblong in form and tagged to the back of the shoulder.
As a rule they are borne to display the wearer's arms, but being
sometimes plain they may have had some slight defensive value,
covering a weak spot at the armpit and turning a sweeping
sword-cut at the neck. They disappear in the earlier years of
Edward UI.
Surcoat, shield and trapper have the arms of their owner. The
rowel-spur makes a rare appearance. Weapons change little.
ARMS AND ARMOUR
587
although the sword is often longer and heavier. Richard I. had
favoured the cross-bow, in spite of papal denunciations of that
weapon hateful to God, and its use is common through all the
13th century, after which it makes way for tlie national weapon
of the long-bow.
In the 14th century, the high-day of chivalry, the age of Crecy
and Poitiers, of the Black Prince and Chandos, the age which saw
enrolled the noble company of the Garter, the art of the
c*mtatj, armourer and weapon-smith strides forward. At its
beginning we sec many knights still clad in chain mail
with no visible plate. At its end the knight is often locked
in plates from head to foot, no chainwork showing save the
camail edge under the helm and the fringe of the mail skirt or
hawberk.
Before the first quarter of the 14th century is past many of
these plates are in common use. Sir John de Crcke's brass, about
1325-1330, is a fair example (fig. 6). His helmet is a basinet,
pointed at the top, probably worn over a com*
plete hood of mail flowing to the mid-breast.
This hood was soon to lose its crown, the later
basinets having the camail, a defence of mail
covering neck, cheeks and chin and secured to
the basinet with eyelet holes and loops through
which a lace was passed. A rerebrace of plate
I defends the outer side of the upper arm, plain
elbow-cops the elbow, and round bosses in the
form of leopard heads guard the shoulder and
the crook of the elbow. The fore-arm is
covered with the plates of a vainbrace which
appears from under the hawberk sleeve. Large
and decorated knee-cops cover the knees, ridged
greaves the shins, and the upper part of the foot
from pointed toe to ankle is fenced with those
articulated and overlapping plates the per-
fection of which in the next century enabled
the full-harnessed knight to move his body
as freely as might an unarmed man. Under
the plates the mail hose show themselves and
the heels have rowelled spurs. He has a haw-
berk of mail whose front skirt ends in a point
between the knees, the loose sleeves between
wrist and elbow. Under this is a haketon of
some soft material whose folds fall to a line
above the height of the knee. Over the
hawberk is a garment, perhaps of leather with a dagged skirt-
edge, and over this again is a sleeveless gambeson or pour-
point of leather or quilted work, studded and enriched. Over
all is the sleeveless surcoat, the skirt before cut squarely off
at the height of the fork of the leg, the skirt behind falling
to below the knee. The loose folds of this surcoat are
gathered at the waist by a narrow belt, the sword hanging
from a broader belt carried across the hip. Before 1350 the
long surcoat of the 13th century was still further shortened, the
tails being cut off squarely with the front. The fate of Sir John
Chandos, who in 1360 stumbled on a slippery road, his long
coat " armed with his arms " becoming tangled with his legs,
points to the fact that an old soldier might cling to an old
fashion.
The desire for a better defence than a steel cap and camail
and a less cumbrous one than the great helm, in which the knight
rode half stifled and half blind, brought in as a fighting headpiece
the basinet with a movable viser. This is found throughout this
century, disappearing in the next when the salet and its varieties
displaced it. But there were many knights who still fought with
the great helm covering basinet and camail, a fact which speaks
eloquently of the mighty blows given in this warlike age. The
many monumental brasses of the last half of the 14th century
show us for the most part knights in basinet and camail with the
face exposed, but their heads are commonly pillowed on the great
helm and in any case the viser would hinder the artist's desire
to show the knight's features.
The fully-armed man of the latter half of the 14th century
Fie* 6.— Brass of
SirJohndeCreke.
From Waller's J/mm-
mcmtol Bnsut.
Fic. 7.— Brass of Sir
John dc Foxley.
From Wafer** Mmmmmtd
Brtstt.
seems to have worn a rounded breastplate and a back-plate over
his chain hawberk. Chaucer's Sir Thopas must always be cited
for the defences of this age, the hero
wearing the quilted haketon next his
shirt, and over that the habergeon, a
lesser hawberk of chain mail. His last
defence is a fine hawberk " full strong of
plate " showing that " hawberk " some-
times served as a word for the body plates.
Over all this is the " cotc-armure " or
surcoat. Many passages from the chroni-
clers show that the three coats of fence
one over the other were in common use
in the field, and Froissart tells a tale of
a knight struck by a dart in such wise that
the head pierced through his plates, his
coat of mail and his haketon stuffed with
twisted silk. The surcoat in the age of
Edward III. became a scanty garment
sitting tightly to the body, laced up the
back or sides, the close skirts ending
at the fork of the leg with a dagged or
slittered edge. The waistbelt is rarely in
sight, but the broad belt across the hips,
on which the dagger comes to hang as
a balance to the sword, grows richer and
heavier, the best work of the goldsmith or
silversmith being spent upon it. Arms
and legs and feet become cased in plate of
steel or studded leather, and before the mid-century the
shoulder-plates, like the steel shoes, are of overlapping pieces
and the elbow also moves easily under the same defence.
(Sec fig. 7.)
Such harness, ever growing more beautiful in its rich details,
serves our champions until the beginning of the 15th century,
when the fashion begins to turn. The scanty surcoat ^^
tends to disappear. It may be that during the bitter mm tmy.
feuds and fierce slaughters of the Wars of the Roses men
were unwilling to display on their breasts the bearings by which
their mortal foe might know them afar. The horseman's shield
Went with the surcoat, its disuse hastened by the perfection of
armour, and the banners of leaders remained as the only armorial
signs commonly seen in war. But at jousts and tourneys, where
personal distinction was eagerly sought, the loose tabard, which,
after the middle of the century, bore the arms of the wearer on
back, front and both sleeves, was still to be
seen, with the crest of parchment or leather
towering above a helm whose mantle, from
the ribbon-like strip of the early 13th century,
had grown into a fluttering cloak with wildly
slittered edge streamingout behind the charging
knight.
When a score of years of this 15th century
had run we find the knight closed in with plates,
no edge of chain mail remaining in sight. The
surcoat being gone we see him armed in breast °
and back plate, his loins covered by a skirt of
11 tonlets," as the defence of overlapping hori-
zontal bands comes to be named (fig. 8). The
chain camail has gone out of fashion, the
basinet continuing itself with a chin and cheek
plate which joins a gorget of plate covering the
collar-bone, a movable viser shutting in the
whole head with steel. The gussets of chain
mail sewn into the leathern or fustian doublet 4
worn below the body armour are unseen even ^z " — ~ —
at the gap at the hollow of the arm where the J£fcf!&
plates must be allowed to move freely, for a at Tnfuxton.
little plate, round, oval or oblong, is tagged to
each side to fence the weak point. These plates often differ in
size and shape one from the other, the sword-arm side carrying
the smaller one.
I
588
ARMS AND ARMOUR
Soon after this the six or eight " tonlets " grow fewer, being
continued on the lower edge by the so-called tuilles, small plates
strapped to the tonlets and swinging with the movement of the
legs. A fine suit of armour is shown in the monument of Count
Otto IV. of Henneberg (fig. 9). Knightly armour takes perhaps
Fig. Q.— -Gothic Style of Armour. Monument of Count
Otto IV. of Henneberg.
its last expression of perfection in such a noble harness as that
worn by Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose armed
effigy was wrought between 1451 and 1454 (fig. zo). In this we
see the characteristic feature of the great elbow-cops, whose
channelled and fluted edges overlapping vambrace and rerebrace
become monstrous fan-like shapes in the brass of Richard
Quartremayns, graven about 1460. At this time the harness of
the left shoulder is often notably reinforced, as compared with
that of the sword-arm shoulder. Towards the latter part of the
century chain mail reappears as a skirt or breech of mail, showing
itself under the diminished tonlets, and, when helm and gorget
are removed, as a high-standing collar. The articulation by
overlapping plates extends even to the breastplate, whose front
is thus in two or more pieces. Very long-necked rowel-spurs are
often found, and the toes of the sabbatons or steel shoes are
sharply pointed. The characteristic helmet of the latter half of
the century is the salet or salade, a large steel cap, whose edge is
carried out from the brows and still more boldly at the back
of the neck.
Knights abandon the great helm in war, but it is perfected
for use in the tilt-yard, taking for that purpose an enormous
size, to enable two good inches of stuffing to come between head
or face and the steel plate. Such a helm aits well down on the
shoulders, to which it is locked before and behind by strong
buckles or rivets. The note of the 15 th
century m armour is that of fantastically 1
elaborate forms boldly outlined and &L
splendour of colour which gained much!
from the custom of wearing over the full
harness short cloaks or rich coats turned
up with furs, or from another fashion of
covering the body plates or brigandines
with rich velvets studded with gold. The
details of the harness take a thousand
curious shapes, and even amongst the
simpler jacks and steel caps of the archers
the same glorious variety is seen.
If the note of the 15th century be
variety of form, that of the x6th century,
the last important chapter in the history
of armour, is surface decoration,
the harness of great folk atoning
in some measure for loss of the
beautiful medieval sense of line by elabor-
ate enrichment. Plain engraving, niello,
russet work, golden inlay and beaten
ornament are common methods of en-
richment The great plume of ostrich Fie. 10. — Brass of
feathers flows from the helmet crown Richard Beauchamp,
of leaders in war. As in the reign of **ri of Warwick.
Edward HI., costume's fashion affects fnm SMh St£L M '" 1 " t
the forms of armour, the broad toe of the
Henry VIII. shoe being imitated in steel, as the wide fluted skirts
of the so-called Maximilian armour imitate the German fashion
in civil dress which the Imperial host popularised through
northern Europe (fig. xi). These skirts have been called
" lamboys " by modern writers on military antiquities, but the
From Hewitt's Arms mtd Armmw.
Fig. 11.— Meeting of Henry VIII. and Maximilian.
word seems an antiquarian ism of no value, apparently a mis-
reading of the word " jambcis " in some early document So
many notable examples of the armour of this 16th century are
accessible in European collections, other illustrations occurring
in great plenty, that its details call for little discussion; a fine
and characteristic suit is that by the famous English armourer,
Jacob Topf (fig. 12), which belonged to Sir Christopher Hatton.
Into this century the arquebusicr marches, demanding a chief
place in the line of battle, although it is a common error that
the improvement in fire-arms drove out the fully armed warrior,
whose plates gave him no protection. Until the rifle came to the
soldier's hands, plate armour could easily be made shot-proof.
ARMS AND ARMOUR
589
It ins driven from the field by the new strategy which asked
lor long marches and rapid movements of armies. This century's
armour for the tilt-yard gives such protection to the champion,
with its many reinforcing pieces, that unless the caged helm were
used— the same which cost Henry II. of France his life—the
risks of the tilt-yard must have fallen much below those of the
polo-field. The horse with crinet, chafron and bards of steel was
as well covered from
harm.
Before the end of the
:6th century the full
suit of war harness is
an antique survival.
Long boots take the
place of greaves and
steel shoes, and early
in the x6th century the
military pedants are
heard to- bewail the
common laying aside
1 of other pieces. The
mounted cavalier —
cmrassierorpistolier —
might take the field,
even as late as the
Great Rebellion ^rmed
at all points save the
backs of the thighs
and the legs below the
knee; but a combed
and brimmed cap,
breast and back plate
and tassets equipped
the pikeman, and the
musketeer would
march without any
metal on him save his
headpiece, for it was
soon found that
heavily armed mus-
keteers, after a long
trudge through
summer dust or winter
mud, were readier to
rest than to shoot.
Everywhere there was
revolt against the
burden of plates, and
as early as 1503 Sir
Richard Hawkins
found that his adven-
turers would not use
Flc. ix— Suit by Jacob Topf, nearly even the light corslets
complete; the gorget does not belong to -^..u-i k«w;.«. «« —
it. %elow is the placcate. provided by faux* es-
teeming a pot of wine
a better defence."
Gervase Mark ham, in has Souldur's Aecidimce of 1645, asks that
at least the captain of cuirassiers should be armed " at all peeces,
cap a pee, " but he would have found few such captains, and
Mark him is a great praiser of noble old custom. The famous
figure of a pikeman of 1668 (fig. 13) in Elton's Art Military has
steel cap, corslet and tassets, but he stands for a fashion dead
or dying. The last noteworthy helmet was what is now termed
the lobster-tail helmet, a headpiece with round top, flat brim
before, a broad articulated brim behind, cheek-pieces hanging
by straps and a grate of upright bars to cover the face, some
having in place of the grate a movable nose-guard to be raised
or lowered at will. The dose resemblance of this helmet to
that worn by the Japanese, with whom the Dutch were then
trading, is worth remark, although each of the two pieces seems
to have had its separate origin. Thus, save for a sted cap here
and a corslet there, especially to be found amongst the guards
Fio. 13.— Pikeman
of sovereigns who musteline; to something of antique tradition,
armour departs out of the civilised world.
When in the isign of Queen Victoria her mounted guardsmen-
were given back their breast and back plates, the last piece of
body armour had been the tiny gilt crescent worn at „ . . ^
the throat by officers of foot, which crescent was the 2E2J
sh r unken symbol of that great gorget of plate that
came in with the 1 5th century. The shining plates of the Guards
are parade pieces only, but a curious
revival of an old defence was carried
by English cavalry in the field at the
end of the zoth century, when small
gussets of chain mail were attached
to the shoulders of certain cavalrymen
as a defence against sword cuts.
Through all the age of modern warfare
inventors have pressed 1
various bullet-proof 1
where they have been c
rifle fire their weight I
too heavy an addition to the soldier's
burden. (See, however, Axmour
Plates, ad Jin.) Last of all we may
reckon those secret coats of mail which
are said to be worn on occasion by
modern rulers in dread of the assassin.
The London detective department has #
such coats of fence in its armoury ;
and on the other side it may be
remembered that the Kelly gang of
bushrangers, driven to bay, were found
to have forged suits of plate for them-
selves out of sheets of boikr-iron. _,
Andent arms and armour are now g^^f* 7 ' * lku ^ cJ '
eagerly sought by European and
American collectors; and high prices are paid down for every
noteworthy piece. The supply is assisted by the efforts of many
forgers of false pieces, the most cunning of whom bring
all archaeological skill to their aid, and few great
national or private collections are free from some
example of this industry. For the genuine pieces competition
runs high. Suits of plate of the earliest period may be sought
in vain, and the greatest collectors may hardly hope for such a
panoply of the late Gothic period as that which is the ornament
of the Wallace collection. Even this famous harness is not
wholly free from suspidon of restoration. Armour of the latter
half of the z6th century, however, often appears in the sale-
rooms and is found in many private collections, although the
" ancestral armour " which decorates so many andent halls in
England is generally the plates and pots which served the pike-
men of the 17th-century militia.
It is not hard to undentand this scardty of ancient pieces. In
the first place it must be remembered that the fully armed man
was always a rare figure in war, and only the rich could engage
in the costly follies of the later tournaments. The novelists have
done much to encourage the belief that most men of gentle rank
rode to the wars lance in hand, locked up in full harness of plate;
but the country gentleman, serving as light ho rsem an or mounted
archer, would hold himself well armed had he a quilted jack or
brigandine and a basinet or salet. Men armed cap apu crowd
the illuminations of chronicle books, the artists having the
same tastes as the boy who decorates his Latin g r a mm a r with
battles which are hand-to-hand conflicts of epauletted generaL.
Monuments and brasses also show these fully armed men, but
here again we must recognise the tendency which made the last
of the cheap miniaturists endow their clients lavishly with heavy
watch-chains and rings. As late as the 18th century the portrait
painters drew their military or naval sitters in the breastplates
and pauldrons, vambraces and rerebraces of an earlier age.
Andent wills and inventories, save those of great folk or military
adventurers, have scanty reference to complete harnesses.
Ringed hawberks, in a damp northern climate, will not survive
59°
ARMSTEAD— ARMSTRONG
long neglect, and many of them must have been cat in pieces for
burnishers or for the mail skirts and gussets attached to the
later arming doublets. As the fashion of plate armour changed,
the smith might adapt an old harness to the new taste, but more
often it would be cast aside. Men to whom the sight of a steel
coat called up the business of their daily life wasted no senti-
mentality over an obsolete piece. The early antiquaries might
have saved us many priceless things, but it was not until a few
virtuosi of the 1 8th century were taken with the Gothic fancy that
popular archaeology dealt with aught but Greek statuary and
Roman inscriptions. The 19th century was well advanced before
an interest in medieval antiquities became common amongst
educated men, and for most contemporaries of Dr Johnson a
medieval helm was a barbarous curiosity exdting die same
measure of mild interest as does the. Zulu knobkerry seen by
us as we pass a pawnbroker's window. (O. Ba.)
7. Fire-arms. (For the development of cannon, see
Actuexy and Obdnance.) — Hand-cannons appear almost
simultaneously with the larger bombards. They were made by
the Flemings in the 14th century. An early instance of the use of
band fire-arms in England is the siege of Huntercombe Manor in
137 5. These were simply small cannon, provided with a stock of
wood, and fired by the application of a match to the touch-hole.
During the 15th century the hand-gun was steadily improved,
and its use became more general. Edward IV., landing in
England in 147 1 to reconquer his throne, brought with him a
force of Burgundian hand-gun men (mercenaries), and in 1476
the Swiss at Morat had no less than 6000 of their men thus armed.
The prototype of the modern military weapon is the arquebus
(q.v.), a form of which was afterwards called in England the
ealiver. Various dates are given for the introduction of the
arquebus, which owed many of its details to- the perfected cross-
bow which it superseded. The Spanish army in the Italian wars
at the beginning of the x6th century was the first to make full
and effective use of the new weapon, and thus to make the fire
action of infantry a serious factor in the decision of battles.
Hie Spaniards also took the next step in advance. The musket
(q.v.) was heavier and more powerful than the arquebus, and,
in the hands of the duke of Alva's army in the Netherlands, so
conclusively proved its superiority that it at once replaced its
rival in the armies of Europe. Both the arquebus and the
musket had a touch-hole on the right side of the barrel, with
a pan for the priming, with which a lighted quick match was
brought in contact by pressing a trigger. The musket, on account
of its weight, was provided with a long rest, forked in the upper
part and furnished with a spike to stick in the ground. The
matchlock (long-barrelled matchlocks are still used by various
uncivilized peoples, notably in India) was the typical weapon
of the soldier for two centuries. The class of hand fire-arms
provided with an arrangement for striking a spark to ignite
the powder charge begins with the wkeeLhck. This lock waa in-
vented at Nu r e m ber g in 1 $z 5, but was seldom applied to the arque-
bus and musket on account of the costliness of its mechanism
and the uncertainty of its action. The early forms of flint-lock
(snaphance) were open to the same objections, and the fire-lock
(as the flint-lock was usually called) remained for many years
after its introduction the armament of special troops only, till
about the beginning of the 18th century it finally superseded the
old matchlock. Thenceforward the fire-lock (called familiarly
In England "Brown Bess") formed with the bayonet (?.«.) the
armament of all infantry, and the fiie-arms carried by other
troops were constructed on the same principle. Flint-lock
muskets were supplanted about 1830-1840 by the percussion
musket, in which a fulminate cap was used. A Scottish clergy-
man, Alexander Forsyth, invented this method of ignition in
1607, but it waa not till i8ao that it began to come into general
use. (Szv Gtm .) The system of firing the charge by a fulmin-
ate was followed by the invention of the needle-gun (?.».). The
muzzle-loading rifle, employed by special troops since about 1800,
Came into general use in the armies of Europe about 1854-1860.
It was superseded, as a result of the success of the needle-gun in
the war of 186$, by the breech-loading rifle, this in its turn giving
way to the magazine rifle about 1886-1890. (See Urns.) Neither
breech-loaders nor revolvers, however, are Inventions of modern
date. Both were known in Germany as early as the dose of the
z 5th century. There are in the Musee d'Artillerie at Paris wheel-
lock arquebuses of the 16th century which are breech-loaders;
and there is r in the Tower armoury, a revolver with the old
matchlock, the date of which is about 1 550. A German arquebus
of the 16th century, in the museum of Sigmaringen, is a revolver
of seven barrels. Nor is rifling a new thing in fire-arms, for there
was a rifled arquebus of the 1 5th century, in which the balls were
driven home by a mallet, and a patent was taken out in Vnj^»nA
for rifling in 1635. All these systems were thus known at an early
period in the history of fire-arms, but for want of the minutely
accurate workmanship required and, above all, of a satisfactory
firing arrangement, they were left in an undeveloped state until
modern times. The earliest pistols were merely shorter hand-
guns, modified for mounted men, and provided with a straight
stock which was held against the breastplate (poitrinal or
petronel). The long-barrelled pistol was the typical weapon of the
cavalry of the 16th century. (See Cavalry.) With the revival
of shock tactics initiated by Gustavus Adolphus the length of the
pistol barrel became less and less, and its stock was then shaped
for the hand alone. (See Pistol.) (C. F. A.)
ARH8TRAD, HENRY HUGH (1828-1005), English sculptor,
was first trained as a silversmith, and achieved the highest
excellence with the "St George's Vase" and the "Outrun
Shield." He rose to the front rank among contemporary
sculptors, his chief works being the external sculptural
decorations of the colonial office in Whitehall, the sculptures
on the southern and eastern sides of the podium of the Albert
Memorial, the large fountain at King's College, Cambridge, and
numerous effigies, such as " Bishop Wilberforce " at Winchester,
and "Lord John Thynne" at Westminster, with smaller por-
traiture and much ideal work. His sense of style and nobility
was remarkable; and he waa besides gifted with a Jin*
power of design and draughtsmanship, which he put to good
use in his early years for book illustration. He was elected
associate of the Royal Academy in 187$ and a full member
in 1880.
ARMSTRONG, ARCHIBALD (<L 167a), court jester, called
"Archy," was a native of Scotland or of Cumberland, and
according to tradition first distinguished himself as a sheep-
stealer; afterwards he entered the service of James VI., with
whom, he became a favourite. When the king succeeded to the
English throne, Archy was appointed court jester. In 16x1 he
was granted a pension of two shillings a day, and in 1617 he
accompanied James on his visit to Scotland. His influence waa
considerable and he was greatly courted and flattered, but his
success appears to have turned his head. He became presumptu-
ous, insolent and mischievous, excited foolish jealousies between
the king and Henry, prince of Wales, and was much disliked by the
members of the court In 1623 he accompanied Prince Charles
and Buckingham in their adventure into Spain, where he was
much caressed and favoured by the Spanish court and, according
to his own account, was granted a pension. His conduct here
became more intolerable than ever. He rallied the infanta on
the defeat of the Armada and censured the conduct of the
expedition to Buckingham's face. Buckingham declared he
would have him hanged, to which the jester replied that " dukes
had often been hanged for insolence but never fools for talking."
On his return he gained some complimentary allusions from Ben
Jonson by his attacks upon the Spanish marriage. He retained
his post on the accession of Charles I., and accumulated a con*
siderable fortune, including the grant by the king of 1000 acres
in Ireland. After the death of Buckingham in 1628, whom he
declared " the greatest enemy of three .kings," the principal
object of his dislike and rude jesto was Laud, whom he openly
vilified and ridiculed. He pronounced the following grace at
Whitehall in Laud's presence: " Great praise be given to God
and little laud to the devil," and after the news of the rebellion
in Scotland in 1637 be greeted Laud on his way to the council
chamber at Whitehall with: " Who's fool now? Does not your.
ARMSTRONG
Grace hear the news from Stirling about the liturgy?" On
Laud's complaint to the council, Archy was sentenced the same
day " to have his coat pulled over his head and be discharged the
king's service and banished the king's court" He settled in
London as a money-lender, and many complaints were made to
the privy council and House of Lords of his sharp practices. In
1 641 on the occasion of Laud's arrest, he enjoyed a mean revenge
by publishing Archy's Dream; sometimes Jester to his Majestic,
but exiled ike Court by Cantcrburie's malice. Subsequently he
resided at Arthuret in Cumberland, according to some accounts
his birthplace, where he possessed an estate, and where he dfed in
267a, his burial taking place on the xst of April He was twice
married, his second wife being Sybilla Bell. There is no record
of any legal offspring, but the baptism of a " base son " of
Archibald Armstrong is entered in the parish register of the 17th
of December 1643. A Banquet 0/ Jests: A change of Cheare,
published about 1630, a collection chiefly of dull, stale jokes,
Is attributed to him, and with still less reason probably A
choice Banquet of Witty Jests . . . Being an addition to Archie's
Jests, taken out of his Closet but never published in Jus Lifetime
(x66o)
ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1700-1770), British physician and
writer, was bom about 1709 at Castletown, Roxburghshire,
where his father was parish minister. He graduated M.D. (x 732)
at Edinburgh University, and soon afterwards settled in London,
where he paid more attention to literature than to medicine. He
was, in 1746, appointed one of the physicians to the military
hospital behind Buckingham House; and, in 1760, physician
to the army in Germany, an appointment which he held till the
peace of x 763, when he retired on half-pay. For many years he
was closely associated with John Wilkes, but quarrelled with him
in 1763. He died on the 7th of September 1779* Armstrong's
first publication, an anonymous one, entitled An Essay for
Abridging the Study of Physic (1735), was a satire on the ignorance
of the apothecaries and medical men of his day. This was
followed two years after by the Economy of Love, a poem the
indecency of which damaged his professional practice. In 1744
Appeared his Art of Preserving Health, a very successful didactic
poem, and the one production on which his literary reputation
rests. His Miscellanies (1770) contains some shorter poems
displaying considerable humour.
ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1758-1843), American soldier, diplo-
matist and political leader, born at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the
2 5th of November x 758. His father, also named John Armstrong
(1725-1795), a native of the north of Ireland, who had emigrated
to the Pennsylvania frontier between 1745 and 1748, served
successively as a brigadier-general in the Continental army
(1776-77), as brigadier-general and then major-general of the
Pennsylvania militia (i777- 8 3)» during the War of Independ-
ence, and was a member of the Continental Congress in 1770-
x 780 and again in x 787-1 788. The son studied for a time at the
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and served
as a major in the War of Independence. In March 17 83; while
the Continental army was stationed at Newburgh (q.v.), New
York, he wrote and issued, anonymously, the famous " Newburgh
Addresses." In 1784 he led a force of Pennsylvania militia
against the Connecticut settlers in Wyoming Valley, and treated
them in such a high-handed manner as to incur the disapproval
even of the Pennsylvania legislature. In 1789 he married the
sister of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, and
removed to New York city, where his own ability and his family
connexion gave him great political influence. In 1801-2 and
again in 1803-4, he was a member of the United States Senate.
From 1804 to 1810 he was the United States minister to France,
and in March x8oo he was joined with James Bowdoin as a
special minister to treat through France with Spain concerning
the acquisition of Florida, Spanish spoliations of American
commerce, and the " Louisiana " boundary. During the War
of 1812, he was a brigadier-general in the United States army
from July 18x2 until January 1813, and from then until August
1814 secretary of war in the cabinet of President Madison, when
bis unpopularity forced him to resign. " In spite of Armstrong's
59«
services, abilities and experience/' says Henry Adams, u 1 ,
thing in his character always created distrust He had €vtry
advantage of education, social and political connexion, ability
and self-confidence; . . . but he suffered from the reputation of
indolence and intrigue." Nevertheless, he " introduced into the
army an energy wholly new," an energy the results of which were
apparent " for half a century." After his resignation he lived
in retirement at Red Hook, New York, where he died on the
xst of April 1843. He published Notices of the War of 1819
(2 vols., 1836; new ed., 1840), the value of which is greatly
impaired by its obvious partiality.
The best account of Armstrong's career as "ti n iVtfT to Fiance and
as secretary of war may be found in Henry Adams's History of the
United States, 1801-1817 (9 vols., New York, 1889-1890).
ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN (1839-1893), American
soldier, philanthropist and educator, was born on Maui, one of
the Hawaiian Islands, on the 30th of January 1839, his parents,
Richard and Clarissa Armstrong, being American missionaries.
He was educated at the Punahou school in Honolulu, at Oahn
College, into which the Punahou school developed in 1852, and
at Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, where he
graduated in 1862. He served In the Civil War, on the Union
side, from 1862 to 1865, rising in the volunteer service to the
regular rank of colonel and the brevet rank of brigadier-general,
and, after December 1863, acted as one of the officers of the
coloured troops commanded by General William Birney. In
November 1865 he was honourably mustered out of the volunteer
service. His experience as commander of negro troops had added
to his interest, always strong, in the negroes of the south, and in
March 1866 he became superintendent of the Ninth District of
Virginia, under the Freedman's Bureau, with headquarters near
Fort Monroe. While in this position he became convinced that
the only permanent solution of the manifold difficulties which the
f reedmen encountered lay in their moral and industrial education.
He remained in the educational department of the Bureau until
this work came to an end in 1872; though five years earlier, at
Hampton, Virginia, near Fort Monroe, he had founded, with
the aid principally of the American Missionary Association,
an industrial school for negroes, Hampton Institute, which was
formally opened in 1868, and at the head of which he remained
until his death, there, on the nth of May 1893. After 1878
Indians were also admitted to the Institute, and during the last
fifteen years of his life Armstrong took a deep interest in the
"Indian question. " Much of his time after x 868 was spent in the
Northern and Eastern states, whither he went to raise funds for
the Institute. See Samuel Chapman Armstrong, a Biographical
Study (New York, 1904)1 by his daughter, Edith Armstrong
Talbot.
His brother, William N. Armstrong, was attorney-general
in the cabinet of the Hawaiian king Kalakaua I. He ac-
companied that monarch on a prolonged foreign tour in x88x,
visiting Japan, China, Siam, India, Europe and the United States,
and in x 904 published an amusing account of the journey, called
Round the World with a King.
ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE ARMSTRONG, Baron
(1810-1900), British inventor, founder of the Elswick manufac-
turing works, was born on the 26th of November 18 10, at New-
castle-on-Tyne, and was educated at a school in Bishop Auckland:
The profession which he adopted was that of a solicitor, and from
1833 to 1847 he was engaged in active practice in Newcastle as
a member of the firm of Donkln, Stable 8c Armstrong. His
sympathies, however, were always with mechanical and scientific
pursuits, and several of his inventions date from a time anterior
to bis final abandonment of the law. In 1 841-1843 he published
several papers on the electricity of effluent steam. This subject
he was led to study by the experience of a colliery engineman,
who noticed that he received a sharp shock on exposing one
hand to a jet of steam issuing from a boiler with which his
other hand was in contact, and the inquiry was followed by the
invention of the " hydro-electric " machine, a powerful generator
of electricity, which was thought worthy of careful investigation
by Faraday. The question of the utilization of water-power
592
ARMY
bad engaged bis attention even earlier, and in 1839 he invented
an improved rotary water motor. Soon afterwards he designed
a hydraulic crane, which contained the germ of all the hydraulic
machinery for which he and Elswick were subsequently to become
famous. This machine depended simply on the pressure of
water acting directly in a cylinder on a piston, which was con-
nected with suitable multiplying gear. In the first example,
which was erected on the quay at Newcastle in 1846, the necessary
pressure was obtained from the ordinary water mains of the
town; bat the merits and advantages of the device soon became
widely appreciated, and a demand arose for the erection of
cranes in positions where the pressure afforded by the mains was
insufficient. Of course pressure could always be obtained by the
aid of special reservoirs, but to build these was not always de-
sirable, or even practicable. Hence, when in 1850 a hydraulic
fr»^»fl»tfr« was required for a new ferry station at New Holland,
00 the Humber estuary, the absence of water mains of any kind,
coupled with the prohibitive cost of a special reservoir owing to
the character of the soil, impelled him to invent a fresh piece of
apparatus, the " accumulator," which consists of a large cylinder
containing a piston that can be loaded to give any desired pressure,
the water being pumped in below it by a steam-engine or other
prime mover. This simple device may be looked upon as the
crown of the hydraulic system, since by its various modifications
the installation of hydraulic power became possible in almost
any situation. In particular, it was rendered practicable on
board ship, and its application to the manipulation of heavy
naval guns and other purposes on warships was not the least
important of Armstrong's achievements.
The Elswick works were originally founded for the manufacture
of this hydraulic machinery, but it was not long before they
became the birthplace of a revolution in gunmaking; indeed,
could nothing more be placed to Armstrong's credit than their
establishment, his name would still be worthy of remembrance.
Modern artillery dates from about 1855, when Armstrong's
first gun made its appearance. This weapon embodied all the
ewential features which distinguish the ordnance of to-day from
the cannon of the middle ages— it was built up of rings of metal
shrunk upon an inner steel barrel; it was loaded at the breech;
it was rifled; and it threw, not a round ball, but an elongated
projectile with ogival head. The guns constructed on this
principle yielded such excellent results, both in range and
accuracy, that they were adopted by the British government
in 1859, Armstrong himself being appointed engineer of rifled
ordnance and receiving the honour of knighthood. At the same
time the Elswick Ordnance Company was formed to manufacture
the guns under the supervision of Armstrong, who, however,
had no financial interest in the concern; it was merged in the
Elswick Engineering Works four years later. Great Britain thus
originated a principle of gun construction which has since been
universally followed, and obtained an armament superior to that
possessed by any other country at that time. But while there
was no doubt as to the shooting capacities of these guns, defects
in the breech mechanism soon became equally patent, and in a
few years caused a reversion to muzzle-loading. Armstrong
resigned his position in 1863, and for seventeen years the govern-
ment adhered to the older method of loading, in spite of the
improvements which experiment and research at Elswick and
elsewhere had during that period produced in the mechanism
and performance of heavy guns. But at last Armstrong's
results could no longer be ignored; and wire-wound breech-
loading guns were received back into the service in 1880. The
use of steel wire for the construction of guns was one of Arm-
strong's early ideas. He perceived that to coil many turns of thin
wire round an inner barrel was a logical extension of the large
hooped method already mentioned, and in conjunction with
I. K. Brunei, was preparing to put the plan to practical test
when the discovery that it had already been patented caused
him to abandon his intention, until about 1877. This incident
well illustrates the ground of his objection to the British system
of patent law, which be looked upon as calculated to strifle
Invention and impede progress; the patentees in this case did
not manage to make a practical success of their inventioa
themselves, but the existence of prior patents was sufficient to
turn him aside from a path which conducted him to valuable
results when afterwards, owing to the expiry of those patents,
he was free to pursue it as he pleased.
Lord Armstrong, who was raised to the peerage in 1887, was
the author of A Visit to Egypt (1873), and Electric UowmaA
in Air and Water (1897), besides many professional papers. He
died on the 27th of December zooo, at Rothbury, Northumber-
land. His title became extinct, but his grand-nephew and heir,
W. H. A. F. Watson-Armstrong (b. 1863), was in 1903 created
Baron Armstrong of Bamburgh and Cragside,
ARMY (from Fr. ormie, Lat annate), a considerable body
of men armed and organized for the purpose of warfare on land
(Ger. Armee), or the whole armed force at the disposal of a state
or person for the same purpose (Ger. fiter— host). The appli-
cation of the term is sometimes restricted to the permanent,
active or regular forces of a state. The history of the develop-
ment of the army systems of the world is dealt with in this
article in sections x to $8, being followed by sections 39 to 59
on the characteristics of present-day armies. The remainder of
the article is devoted to sections on the history of the principal
armies of Europe, and that of the United States. For the
Japanese Army see Japan, and for the existing condition of
the army in each country see under the country heading,
Gkneeal History
1. Early Armies.— It is only with the evolution of the speci-
ally military function in a tribe or nation, expressed by the
separation of a warrior-class, that the history of armies (as now
understood) commences. Numerous savage tribes of the present
day possess military organizations based on this system, but
it first appears in the history of civilization amongst the
Egyptians. By the earliest laws of Egypt, provision was made
for the support of the warriors. The exploits of her armies
under the legendary Sesostris cannot be regarded as historical,
but it appears certain that the country possessed an army,
capable of waging war in a regular fashion, and divided thus
early into separate arms, these being chariots, infantry and
archers. The systems of the Assyrians and Babylonians present
no particular features of interest, save that horsemen, as distinct
from charioteers, appear on the scene. The first historical
instance of a military organization resembling those of I
times is that of the Persian empire.
2. Persia.— Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the 1
of Persia at first consisted mainly of cavalry, and owed much
of their success to the consequent ease and rapidity of their
movements. The warlike Persians constantly extended their
power by fresh conquests, and for some time remained a dis-
tinctly conquering and military race, attaining their highest
power under Cyrus and Cambyses. Cyrus seems to have been the
founder of a comprehensive military organization, of which we
gather details from Xenophon and other writers. To each
province was allotted a certain number of soldiers as standing
army. These troops, formed originally of native Persians only,
were called the king's troops. They comprised two classes, the
one devoted exclusively to garrisoning towns and castles, the
other distributed throughout the country. To each province
was appointed a military commander, responsible for the number
and efficiency of the troops in bis district, while the civil governor
was answerable for their subsistence and pay. Annual musters
were held, either by the king in person or by generals deputed
for the purpose and invested with full powers. This organization
seems to have fully answered its original purpose, that of holding
a vast empire acquired by conquest and promptly repelling
inroads or putting down insurrections. But when a great
foreign war was contemplated, the standing army was aug-
mented by a levy throughout the empire. The extent of the
empire made such a levy a matter of time, and the heterogeneous
and unorganized mass of men of all nations so brought together
was a source of weakness rather than strength. Indeed, the
vast hosts over which the Greeks gained their victories comprised
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but a small proportion of the true Persians. Hie cavalry
alone seems to have retained its national character, and with
it something of its high reputation, even to the days of
Alexander.
3. Greece. — The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot,
armed with spear, sword, bow, &c, and commanded by the
chiefs in their war-chariots. In historic times all this is changed.
Greece' becomes a congeries of city-states, each with its own
citizen-militia. Federal armies and permanent troops arc rare,
the former owing to the centrifugal tendency of Greek politics,
the latter because the " tyrannies," which must have relied
very largely on standing armies to maintain themselves, had
ultimately given way to democratic institutions. But the
citizen-militia of Athens or Sparta resembled rather a modern
" nation in arms " than an auxiliary force. Service was com-
pulsory in almost all states, and as the young men began their
career as soldiers with, a continuous training of two or three
years, Hellenic armies, like those of modern Europe, consisted
of men who had undergone a thorough initial training and were
subsequently called up as required. Cavalry, as always in the
broken country of the Peloponnesus, was not of great importance,
and it is only when the theatre of Greek history is extended to
the plains of Tbessaly that the mounted men become numerous.
In the 4th century the mainstay of Greek armies was the hoptite
(6irXin?f ), the heavy-armed infantryman who fought in the corps
de bat a ill e; the light troops were men who could not provide
the full equipment of the hoplite, rather than soldiers trained
for certain special duties such as skirmishing. The fighting
formation was that of the phalanx, a solid corps of hoplitcs armed
with long spears. The armies were recruited for each war by
calling up one or more classes of men in reserve according to
age. It was the duty and privilege of the free citizen to bear
arms; the slaves were rarely trusted with weapons.
4. Sparta. — So much is common to the various states. In
Sparta the idea of the nation in arms was more thoroughly
carried out than in any other state in the history of civilization.
In other states the individual citizen often lived the life of a
soldier, here the nation lived the life of a regiment. Private
homes resembled the " married quarters" of a modern army;
the unmarried men lived entirely in barracks. Military exer-
cises were only interrupted by actual service in the field, and
the whole life of a man of military age was devoted to them.
Under these circumstances, the Spartans maintained a practi-
cally unchallenged supremacy over the armies of other Greek
states; sometimes their superiority was so great that, like the
Spanish regulars in the early part of the Dutch War of Inde-
pendence, they destroyed their enemies with insignificant loss
to themselves. The surrender of a Spartan detachment, hope-
lessly cut off from all assistance, and the victory of a body of
well- trained and handy light infantry over a dosed battalion of
Spartiates were events so unusual as seriously to affect the course
of Greek history.
5. Greek Mercenaries.-*-Thc military system of the 4th century
was not called upon to provide armies for continuous service
on distant expeditions. When, after the earlier campaigns of
the Peloponnesian War, the necessity for such expeditions
arose, the system was often strained almost to breaking point,
(e.g. in the case of the Athenian expedition to Syracuse), and
ultimately the states of Greece were driven to choose between
unprofitable expenditure of the lives of citizens and recruiting
from other sources. Mercenaries serving as light troops, and
particularly as peltasts (a new form of disciplined 'Might in-
fantry ") soon appeared. The corps de bataille remained for
long the old phalanx of citizen hoplites. But the heavy losses
of many years, told severely on the resources of every state, and
ultimately non-national recruits — adventurers and soldiers of
fortune, broken men who had lost their possessions in the wars,
political refugees, runaway slaves, &c. — found their way even
into the ranks of the hoplitcs, and Athens at one great crisis
(407) enlisted slaves, with the promise of citizenship as their
reward. The Arcadians, like the Scots and the Swiss in modern
history, furnished the most numerous contingent to the new.
professional armies. A truly national army was indeed to appear
once more in the history of the Peloponnesus, but in the mean-
time the professional soldier held the field. The old bond of
strict citizenship once broken, the career of the soldier of fortune
was open to the adventurous Greek. Taenarum and Cdrinth
became regular entrepots for mercenaries. The younger Cyrus
raised his army for the invasion of Persia precisely as the em-
perors Maximilian and Charles V. raised regiments of Lands-
knechU — by the issue of recruiting commissions to captains of
reputation. This army became the famous Ten Thousand. It
was a marching city-state, its members not desperate adventurers,
but men with the calm self-respect of Greek civilization. On
the fall of its generals, it chose the best officers of the army
to command, and obeyed implicitly. Chcirisophus the Spartan
and Xcnophon the Athenian, whom they chose, were not plausible
demagogues; they were line officers, who, suddenly promoted
to the chief command under circumstances of almost over-
whelming difficulty, proved capable of achieving the impossible.
The merit of choosing such leaders is not the least title to fame
of the Ten Thousand mercenary Greek hoplites. About the
same time Iphic rates with a body of mercenary peltasts destroyed
a mora or corps of Spartan hoplitcs (391 B.C.).
6. Epaminondas. — Not many years after this, Spartan
oppression roused the Thcban revolt, and the Thcban revolt
became the Theban hegemony. The army which achieved this
under the leadership of Epaminondas, one of the great captains
of history, had already given proofs of its valour against
Xenophon and the Cyrcian veterans. Still earlier it had won the
great victory of Delium (424 B.C.).
It was organized, as were the professional armies, on the
accepted model of the old armies, viz. the phalangite order, but
the addition of peltasts now made a Thcban army, unlike the
Spartans, capable of operating in broken country as well as in
the plain. The new tactics of the phalanx, introduced by
Epaminondas, embodied, for the first time in the history of war,
the modern principle of local superiority of force, and suggested
to Frederick the Great the famous " oblique order of battle."
Further, the cavalry was more numerous and better led than
that of Peloponnesian states. The professional armies had well
understood the management of cavalry; Xenophon's handbook of
the subject is not without value in the 20th century. In Greek
armies the dearth of horses and the consequent numerical weak-
ness of the cavalry prevented the bold use of the arm on the
battlefield (sec Cavalry). But Thebes had always to deal
with nations which possessed numerous horsemen. Jason of
Phcrac, for instance, put into the field against Thebes many
thousands of Thessalian horse; and thus at the battle of Tegyra
in 375 the Thcban cavalry under Pclopidas, aided by the corps
d'ilile of infantry called the Sacred Band, carried all before them.
At Lcuctra Epaminondas won a glorious victory by the use of
his " oblique order " tactics; the same methods achieved the
second great victory of Man tincia (362 B.c.)at which Epaminondas
fell. Pclopidas had already been slain in a battle against the
Thcssalians, and there was no leader to carry on their work.
But the new Greek system was yet to gain its greatest triumphs
under Alexander the Great
7. Alexander. — The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of
Maccdon, may most justly be compared to those of Frederick
William I. in Prussia. Philip had lived at Thebes as a hostage,
and had known Iphicratcs, Epaminondas and Pclopidas. He
grafted the Thcban, system of tactics on to the Macedonian
system of organization. That the latter — a complete territorial
system — was efficient was shown by the fact that Philip's blow
was always struck before his enemies were ready to meet it
That the new Greek tactics, properly used, were superior to the
old was once more demonstrated at Chacronea (338 B.C.), where
the Macedonian infantry militia fought in phalanx, and the
cavalry, led by the young Alexander, delivered the last crushing
blow. On his accession, like Frederick the Great, Alexander
inherited a well-trained and numerous army, and was not slow
to use it. The invasion of Asia was carried out by an army
of the Greek pattern, formed both of Hellenes * * '
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non-Hellenes on an exceedingly strong Macedonian nucleus.
Alexander's own guard was composed of picked horse and foot.
The infantry of the line comprised Macedonian and Greek hop-
lit cs, the Macedonians being subdivided into heavy and medium
troops. These fought in a grand phalanx, which was subdivided
into units corresponding to the modern divisions, brigades and
regiments, the fighting formation being normally a line of
battalion masses. The arm of the infantry was the 1 8-foot pike
(sarissa). The pcltasts, Macedonian and Greek, were numerous
and well trained, and there was the usual mass of irregular light
troops, bowmen, slingcrs, &c The cavalry included the Guard
(ayrina), a body of heavy cavalry composed of chosen Mace-
donians, the line cavalry of Macedonia (iraipot) and Thcssaly,
the numerous small contingents of the Greek states, mercenary
corps and light lancers for outpost work. The final blow and
the gathering of the fruits of victory were now for the first lime
the work of the mounted arm. The solid phalanx was almost
unbreakable in the earlier stages of the battle, but after a long
infantry fight the horsemen had their chance.* In former wars
they were too few and too poorly mounted to avail themselves
of it, and decisive victories were in consequence rarely achieved
in battles of Greek versus Greek. Under Epaminondas, and still
more under Philip and Alexander, the cavalry was strong enough
for its new work. Battles are now ended by the shock action
of mounted men, and in Alexander's time it is noted as a novelty
that the cavalry carried out the pursuit of a beaten army. There
were further, in Alexander's army, artillerymen with a battering
train, engineers and departmental troops, and also a medical
service, an improvement attributed to Jason of Pherae. The
victories of this army, in close order and in open, over every kind
of enemy and on every sort of terrain, produced the Hellenistic
world, and in that achievement the history of Greek armies
doses, for after the return of the greater part of the Europeans
to their homes the armies of Alexander and his successors, while
preserving much of the old form, become more and more
orientalized.
The decisive step was taken in 323, when a picked contingent
of Persians, armed mainly with missile weapons, was drafted
into the phalanx, in which henceforward they formed the middle
ranks of each file of sixteen men. But, like the third rank of
Prussian infantry up to 1888, they normally fought as skirmishers
in advance, falling into their place behind the pikes of the Mace-
donian file-leaders only if required for the decisive assault. The
new method, of course, depended for success on the steadiness
of the thin three-deep line of Macedonians thus left as. the line
of battle. Alexander's veterans were indeed to be trusted, but
as time went on, and little by little the war-trained Greeks left
the service, it became less and less safe to array the Hellenistic
army in this shallow and articulated order of battle. The purely
formal organization of the phalanx sixteen deep became thus
the actual tactical formation, and around this solid mass of
16,384 men gathered the heterogeneous levies of a typical
oriental army. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, retained far more of
the tradition of Alexander's system than his contemporaries
farther cast, yet his phalanx, comparatively light and mobile
as it was, achieved victories over the Roman legion only at
the cost of self-destruction. Even elephants quickly became a
necessary adjunct to Hellenistic armies.
8. Carthage. — The military systems of the Jews present* few
features of unusual interest. The expedient of calling out
successive contingents from the different tribes, in order to ensure
continuity in military operations, should, however, be noticed.
David and Solomon possessed numerous permanent troops
which served as guards and garrisons; in principle this organ-
ization was identical with that of the Persians, and that of
Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Particular interest
attaches to the Carthaginian military forces of the 3rd century
B.C. Rarely has any army achieved such renown in the short
space of sixty years (264-202 B.C.). Carthage produced a
scries of great generals, culminating in Hannibal, who is marked
out, even by the little that is known of him, as the equal of
Napoleon. But Napoleon was supported by a national army,
Hannibal and his predecessors were condemned to work with
armies of mercenaries. For the first time in the world's history
war is a matter with which the civil population has no concern.
The merchants of Carthage fought only in the last extremity;
the wars in which their markets were extended were conducted
by non-national forces and directed by the few Carthaginian
citizens who possessed military aptitudes. The civil authorities
displayed towards their instruments a spirit of hatred for which
it is difficult to find a parallel Unsuccessful leaders were
crucified, the mercenary soldiers were cheated of their pay, and
broke out into a mutiny which shook the empire of Carthage
to its foundations. But the magnetism of a leader's personality
infused a corporate military spirit into these heterogeneous
Punic armies, and history has never witnessed so complete an
illustration of the power of pure and unaided esprit de corps
as in the case of Hannibal's army in Italy, which, composed
as it was of Spaniards, Africans, Gauls, Numidians, Italians
and soldiers of fortune of every country, was yet welded by him
into thorough efficiency. The army of Italy was as great in its
last fight at Zama as the army of Spain at Rocroi; its victories
of the Trebia, Trasimcne and Cannae were so appalling that,
two hundred years later, the leader to whom these soldiers
devoted their lives was still, to a Roman, the " dire " Hannibal
In their formal organization the Carthaginian armies re-
sembled the new Greek model, and indeed they were created
in the first instance by Xanlhippus, a Spartan soldier in the
service of Carthage, who was called upon to raise and train an
army when the Romans were actually at the gates of Carthage,
and justified his methods in the brilliant victory of Tunis
(255 B.C.). For the solid Macedonian phalanx of 16,000 spears
Xanthippus substituted a line of heavy battalions equal in its
aggregate power of resistance to the older form, and far more
flexible. The triumphs of the cavalry arm in Hannibal's battles
far excelled those of Alexander's horesemen. Hannibal chose
his fighting ground whenever possible with a view to using their
full power, first to defeat the hostile cavalry, then to ride down
the shaken infantry masses, and finally to pursue au fond. At
Cannae, the greatest disaster ever suffered by the Romans, the
decisive blow and the slaughter were the work of Hannibal's
line cavalry, the relentless pursuit that of his light horse. But
a professional' long-service army has always the greatest diffi-
culty in making good its losses, and in the present case it was
wholly unable to do so. Even Hannibal failed at last before the
sustained efforts of the citizen army of Rome.
g. Roman Army under the Republic. — The earliest organiza-
tion of the Roman army is attributed to Romulus, who formed it
on the tribal principle, each of the three tribes contributing its
contingent of horse and foot. But it was to Servius Tullius
that Rome owed, traditionally, the complete classification of
her citizen-soldiers. For the details of the Roman military
system, see Roman Army. During the earlier period of Roman
history the army was drawn entirely from the first classes of the
population, who served without pay and provided their own
arms and armour. The wealthiest men (cquites) furnished the
cavalry, the remainder the infantry, while the poorer classes
cither fought as light troops or escaped altogether the privilege
and burden of military service. Each " legion " of 3000 heavy
foot was at. first formed in a solid phalanx. The introduction of
the clastic and handy three-line formation with intervals (similar
in many respects to Alexander's) was brought about by the
Gallic wars, and is attributed to M. Furius Camillus, who also,
during the siege of Vcii, introduced the practice of paying the
soldiers, and thus removed the chief obstacle to the employment
of the poorer classes. The new order of battle was fully developed
in the Pyrrhic Wars, and the typical army of the Republic may
be taken as dating from the latter part of the 3rd century B.C.
The legionary was still possessed of a property qualification, but
it had become relatively small. An annual levy was made at
Rome to provide for the campaign of the year. Discipline was
severe, and the rewards appealed as much to the soldier's honour
as to his desire of gain. A legion now consisted of three lines
{Htutdti, Prince pes, Triarix) t each line composed of men of
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595
similar age and experience, and was further subdivided into
thirty " maniples/' each of two " centuries." The normal
establishment of 300 cavalry, 3000 heavy and 1200 light infantry
was still maintained, though in practice these figures were often
exceeded. In place of the old light-armed and somewhat
inferior rorarii, the new velites performed light infantry duties
(21 x B.C.), at the same time retaining their place in the maniples,
of which they formed the last ranks (compare the Macedonian
phalanx as reorganized in 323, § 7 above). The 300 cavalry
of the legion were trained for shock action. But the strength
of the Roman army lay in the heavy legionary infantry of citizens.
The thirty maniples of each legion stood in three lines of battle,
but the most notable point of their formation was that each
maniple stood by itself on its own small manoeuvre-area, free to
take ground to front or flank. To the Roman legion was added
a legion of allies, somewhat differently organized and possessing
more cavalry, and the whole force was called a " double legion "
or briefly a " legion." A consul's army consisted nominally of
two double legions, but in the Funic wars military exigencies
rather than custom dictated the numbers of the army, and the
two consuls at Cannae (216 B.C.) commanded two double consular
armies, or eight double legions. -
zo. Characteristics of the Roman yfmiy.— Such in outline was
the Roman military organization at the time when it was put
to the severe test of the Second Punic War. Its elements were
good, its military skill superior to that of any other army of
ancient history, while its organization was on the whole far better
than any that had gone before. The handy formation of
maniples at open order was unique in the ancient world, and it
did not reappear in history up to the advent of Gustavus Adol-
phus. In this formation, in which everything was entrusted to
the skill of subordinates and fhe individual courage of the rank
and file, the Romans met and withstood with success every type
of impact, from the ponderous shock of the Macedonian phalanx
and the dangerous rush of Celtic savages to the charge of ele-
phants. Yet it was no particular virtue in the actual form
employed that carried the Roman arms to so many victories.
There would have been positive danger in thus articulating the
legion had it been composed of any but the most trustworthy
soldiers. To swiftness and precision of manoeuvre they added
a dogged obstinacy over which nothing but overwhelming
disaster prevailed. It is, therefore, not unnatural to ask wherein
the system which produced these soldiers failed, as it did within
a century after the battle of Zama. The greatest defect was the
want of a single military command. The civil magistrates of
Rome were ex officio leaders of her armies, and though no Roman
officer lacked military training, the views of a consul or praetor
were almost invariably influenced by the programme of his
political party. When, as sometimes happened, the men under
their command sided in the political differences of their leaders,
all real control came to an end.. The soldiers of the Republic
hardly ever forgot that they were citizens with voting powers;
they served as a rule only during a campaign; and, while there
could be little question as to their patriotism and stubbornness,
they lacked almost entirely that esprit do corps which is found
only amongst the members of a body having a permanent cor-
porate existence. Thus they had the vices as well as the virtues
of a nation in arms, and they fell still further short of the ideal
because of the dubious and precarious tenure of their generals'
commands. The great officers were usually sent home at the
end of a campaign, to be replaced by their elected successors,
and they showed all the hesitation and fear of responsibility
usually found in a temporary commander. Above all, when.
two armies, each under its own consul or praetor, acted together,
the command was either divided or exercised on alternate days.
11. Roman Empire.—Tbt essential weaknesses of militia
forces and the accidental circumstances of that under con-
sideration led, even in earlier times, to the adoption of various
expedients which for a time obviated the evils to which allusion has
been made. But a change of far greater importance followed
the final exploits of the armies of the old system. The increasing
dominions of the Republic, the spread of wealth and luxury,
the gradual decadence of the old Roman ideas, all tended to
produce an army more suited to the needs of the newer time
than the citizen, militia, of the 3rd century. Permanent troops
were a necessity; the rich, in their newly acquired dislike of
personal efiort, ceased to bear their share in the routine life of
the army, and thus the proletariat began to join the legions
with the express intention of taking to a military career. The
actual change from the old rtgime to the new was in the main
the work of Galus Marius. The urgent demand for men at the
time of the Teutonic invasions caused the service to be thrown
open to all Roman citizens irrespective of census. The new
territories furnished cavalry, better and mora numerous than
the old equiles, and light troops of various kinds to replace the
vtliies. Only the heavy foot remained a purely Italian force> and
the spread of the Roman citizenship gradually abolished the
distinction. between a Roman and an allied legion. The higher
classes had repeatedly .shown themselves unwilling to serve under
plebeians (e.g. Varro and Flaminius); Marius preferred to have
as soldiers men who did not despise him as an inferior. Under
all these influences for good or for evil, the standing army was
developed in the first half of the 1st century B.C. The tactical
changes in the legion indicate its altered character. The small
maniples gave way to heavy " cohorts," ten cohorts forming
the legion; as in the Napoleonic wars, light and handy formations
became denser and more rigid with the progressive decadence
in moral of the rank and file. It is more significant still that in
the days of Marius the annual oath of allegiance taken by
the soldier came to be replaced by a personal vow, taken once
and for all, of loyalty to the general. UH bene, ibi palria was
an expression of the new spirit of the array, and Caesar had but
to address his men as qmirites (civilaans> to queU a mutiny*
Hastati, principes and triarii were now merely expressions in
drill and tactics. But perhaps the most important of all these
changes was the growth of regimental spirit and tradition. The
legions were now numbered throughout the army, and the
Tenth Legion has remained a classic instance of a " crack "
corps. The moral of the Roman army was founded no longer,
on patriotism, but on professional pride and esprit de corps.
With this military system Rome passed through the era of
the Civil Wars, at the end of which. Augustus found himself
with forty-five legions on his hands. As soon as possible he
carried through a great reorganization, by which, after ruthlessly
rejecting inferior elements, he obtained a smaller picked force
of twenty-five legions, with numerous auxiliary forces. These
were permanently stationed m the frontier provinces of the
Empire, while Italy was garrisoned by the Praetorian cohorts,
and thus was formed a regular long-service army, the strength
of which has been estimated at 300,000 men. But these measures,
temporarily successful, produced in the end an army which not
only was perpetually at variance with the civil populations it
was supposed to protect, but frequently murdered the emperors
to Whom it had sworn allegiance when it raised them to the
throne. The evfl fame of the Italian cohorts has survived in the
phrase " praetorianism " used to imply a venal military despotism.
The citizens gradually ceased to bear arms, and the practice of
self-mutilation became common. The inevitable denouement
was delayed from time to time by the work of an energetic
prince. But the ever-increasing inefficiency and factiousness
of the legions, and the evanescence of all military spirit in the
civil population, made it easy for the barbarians, when once
the frontier was broken through, to overrun the decadent
Empire. The end came when the Gothic heavy horse annihilated
the legions of Valens at Adrianople (aj>. 378).
There was now no resource but to take the barbarians into
Roman pay. Under the name olfoedcraH, the Gothic mercenary
cavalry played the most conspicuous part in the succeeding
wars of the JEmpire, and began the reign of the heavy cavalry
arm, which lasted for almost a thousand years. Even so soon as
within six years of the death of Valens twenty thousand Gothic
horse decided a great battle in the emperor's favour. These men,
however, became turbulent and factious, and it was not until
the emperor Leo I. had regenerated the native Roman *■•"•--
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ARMY
ttot the balance was maintained between the national and the
bs«d warrior. The work of this emperor and of his successors
fossd eventual expression in the victories of Belisarius and
X arses, in which the Romans, in the new rile of horse-archers,
so well combined their efforts with those of the foedcrati that
•dther the heavy cavalry of the Goths nor the phalanx of
Prankish infantry proved to be capable of resisting the imperial
forces. At the battle of Casilinum (553) Roman foot-archers
and infantry bore no small part of the work. It was thus in the
Eastern Empire that the Roman military spirit revived, and the
Byzantine army, as evolved from the system of Justinian,
became eventually the sole example of a fully organized service
to be found in medieval history.
1 a. The " Dark Ages."— In western Europe all traces of
Roman military institutions quickly died out, and the conquerors
of the new kingdoms developed fresh systems from the simple
tribal levy. The men of the plains were horsemen, those of
marsh and moor were foot, and the four greater peoples retained
these original characteristics long after the conquest had been
completed. In organisation the Lombards and Franks, Visigoths
and English scarcely differed. The whole military population
formed the mass of the army, the chiefs and their personal
retainers the HiU. The Lombards and the Visigoths were natur-
ally cavalry; the Franks and the English were, equally naturally,
infantry, and the armies of the Merovingian kings differed but
little from the English fyrd with which Offa and Penda fought
their battles. But in these nations the use of horses and armour,
at first confined to kings and great chiefs, gradually spread
downwards- to the ever-growing classes of tkegns, comiles, &c.
Finally, under Charlemagne were developed the general lines
of the military organisation which eventually became feudalism.
For his distant wars he required an efficient and mobile army.
Hence successive "capitularies" were issued dealing with
matters of recruiting, organisation, discipline and field service
work. Very noticeable are his system of forts (burgi) with
garrisons, his military train of artillery and supplies, and the
reappearance of the ancient principle that three or four men
should equip and maintain one of themselves as a warrior. These
and other measures taken by him tended to produce a strong
veteran army, very different in efficiency from the tumultuary
levy, to which recourse was had only in the last resort. While
war (as a whole) was not yet an art, fighting (from the indi-
vidual's point of view) had certainly become a special function;
after Charlemagne's time the typical feudal army, composed
of well-equipped cavalry and ill-armed peasantry serving on
foot, rapidly developed. Enemies such as Danes and Magyars
could only be dealt with by mounted men who could ride round
them, compel them to fight, and annihilate them by the shock
of the charge; consequently the practice of leaving the infantry
in rear, and even at home, grew up almost as a part of the feudal
system of warfare. England, however, sought a different remedy,
and thus diverged from the continental methods. This remedy
was the creation of a fleet, and, the later Danish wars being
there carried out, not by bands of mounted raiders, but by large
armies of military settlers, infantry retained its premier position
in England up to the day of Hastings. Even the tkegns, who
there, as abroad, were the mainstay of the army, were heavy-
armed infantry. The only contribution made by Canute to the
military organisation of England was the retention of a picked
force of hus carles (household troops) when the rest of the army
with which he had conquered has realm was sent back to Scandi-
navia. At Hastings, the forces of Harold consisted wholly of
infantry. The English array was composed of the king and his
personal friends, the hus carles, and the contingents of the fyrd
under the local tkegns; though better armed, they were organised
after the manner of their forefathers. On that field there perished
the best infantry in Europe, and henceforward for three centuries
there was no serious rival to challenge the predominance of the
heavy cavalry.
13. The Byzantines (cf. article Roman Emtox, Late*).—
While the west of Europe was evolving feudalism, the Byzantine
empire was acquiring an army and military system scarcely
surpassed by any of those of antiquity and not often <
up to the most modern times. The foederaU dimpprar ed after
the time of Justinian, and by a.d. 600 the army had become
at once professional and national For generations, regiments
had had a corporate existence. Now brigades and divisions also
appeared in war, and, somewhat later, in peace likewise. With
the disappearance of the barbarians, the army b ec ame one
homogeneous service, minutely systematized, and generally
resembling an army in the modern sense of the word. The
militia of the frontier districts performed efficiently the service
of surveillance, and the field forces of disciplined regulars were
moved and employed in accordance with well-reasoned principles
of war; their maintenance was provided for by a scutage, levied,
in lieu of service, on the central provinces of the empire. Later,
a complete territorial system of recruiting and command was
introduced. Each " theme " (military district) had its own
regular garrison, and furnished a field division of some 5000
picked troopers for a campaign in any theatre of war. Provision
having been made in peace for a depot system, all weakly men
and horses could be left behind, and local duties handed over
to second line troops; thus the field forces were practically
always on a war footing. Beside the " themes " under their
generals, there were certain districts on the frontiers, called
" dissuras," placed under chosen officers, and specially organized
for emergency service. The corps of officers in the Byzantine
army was recruited from the highest daises, and there were
many families (e.g. that from which came the celebrated Nice-
phorus Phocas) in which soldiering was the traditional career.
The rank and file were either military settlers or men of the
yeoman class, and in either case had a personal interest in the
safety of the theme which prevented friction between safeties
and dvilians. The principal arm was, cf course* cavalry, and
infantry was employed only in special duties. Engineer, train
and medical services were maintained in each theme. Of the
ensemble of the Byzantine army it has been said that " the art
of war as it was understood at Constantinople . . . was the only
system of real merit existing. No western nation could have
afforded such a training to its officers till the 16th or . . . 17th
century." The vitality of such an army remained intact long
after the rest of the empire had begun to decay, and though the
old army practically ceased to exist after the great disaster of
Manzikert (1071), the barbarians and other mercenaries who
formed the new service were organized, drilled and trained to
the same pitch of military efficiency. Indeed the greatest
tactical triumph of the Byzantine system (Calavryta, 1079)
was won by an army already largely composed of foreigners.
But mercenaries in the end developed practorianism. as usual,
and at last they actually mutinied, in the presence of the enemy,
for higher pay (Constantinople, 1204).
14. Feudalism. — From the military point of view the change
under feudalism was very remarkable. For the first time in the
history of western Europe there appears, in however rough a
form, a systematized obligation to serve in arms, regulated on a
territorial basis. That army organization in the modern sense
— organization for tactics and command— did not develop ia
any degree commensurate with the devdopment of military
administration, was due to the peculiar characteristics of the
feudal system, and the virtues and weaknesses of medieval
armies were-its natural outcome. Personal bravery, the primary
virtue of the soldier, could not be wanting in the members oi a
military class, the milter of which was war and manly exercises.
Pride of caste, ambition and knightly emulation, ail helped to
raise to a high standard the individual efficiency of the feudal
cavalier. But the gravest faults of the system, considered as an
army organisation, were directly due to this personal element.
Indiscipline, impatience of superior control, and dangerous
knight-errantry, together with the absence of any chain oi
command, prevented the feudal cavalry from achieving results
at all proportionate to the effort expended and the potentialities
of a force with so many soldierly qualities. If such delects were
habitually found in the best dements of the army— the feudal
tenants and subtenants who formed the heavy cavalry arm—
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597
little could be expected of the despised and utamed-foot-
soldiery of the levy. The swift raids of the Danes and others
(see above) had created a precedent which in French and German
wars was almost invariably followed. The feudal levy rarely
appeared at all on the battlefield, and when it was thus employed
it was ridden down by the hostile knights, and even by those
of its own party, without offering more than the feeblest re-
sistance. Above all, one disadvantage, common to all rlsssn of
feudal soldiers, made an army so composed quite untrustworthy.
The service which a king was able to exact from his feudatories
was so slight (varying from one month to three in the year) that
no military operation which was at all likely to be prolonged
could be undertaken with any hope of success.
15. Medieval Mercenaries.— It was natural, therefore, that a
sovereign who contemplated a great war should employ mer-
cenaries. These were usually foreigners, as practically all national
forces served on feudal terms. While the greater lords rode with
him on all his expeditions, the bulk of his army consisted of pro-
fessional soldiers, paid by the levy of scutate imposed upon the
feudal tenantry. There had always been soldiers of fortune.
William's host at Hastings contained many such men; later,
the Flemings who invaded England in too days of Henry L sang
to each other—
" Hop, hop, Willcken, hop! England is mine and thine," —
and from all the evidence it is clear that in earlier days the hired
soldiers were adventurers seeking lands and homes. But these
men usually proved tobe most undesirable subjects,and sovereigns
soon began to pay a money wage for the services of mercenaries
properly so called. Such were the troops which figured in
English history under Stephen. Such troops, moreover, formed
the main part of the armies of the early Plantagenets. They
were, as a matter of course, armed and armoured like the knights,
with whom they formed the men-at-arms (gendarmes) of the
army. Indeed, in the nth and 12th centuries, the typical army
of France or the Empire contains a relatively small percentage of
*' knights," evidence of which fact may be found even in so
fanciful a romance as Aucassin and Nicolcie. It must be noted,
however, that not all the mercenaries were heavy cavalry; the
Brabancon pikeman and the Italian crossbowman (the value of
whose weapon was universally recognized) often formed part of a
feudal army.
16. Infantry in Feudal Times.— These mercenary foot soldiers
came as a rule from districts in which the infantry arm had
maintained its ancient predominance in unbroken continuity.
The cities of Flanders and Brabant, and those of the Lombard
plain, had escaped feudal interference with their methods of
fighting, and their burgher militia had developed into solid
bodies of heavy-armed pikemen. These were very different from
those of the feudal levy, and individual knightly bravery usually
failed to make the slightest impression on a band of infantry
held together by the stringent corporate feeling of a trade-
gild. The more adventurous of the young men, like those of the
Greek cities, took service abroad and fought with credit in their
customary manner. The reign of the " Brabancon " as a mer-
cenary was indeed short, but he continued, in his own country,
to fight in the old way, and his successor in the profession of
arms, the Genoese crossbowman, was always highly valued. In
England, moreover, the infantry of the ddfyrd was not suffered
to decay into a rabble of half-armed countrymen, and in France
a burgher infantry was established by Louis VL under the name
of the milice des communes, with the idea of creating a counter-
poise to the power of the feudatories. Feudalism, therefore, as
a military system, was short-lived, Its limitations had always
necessitated the employment of mercenaries, and in several
places a solid infantry was coming into existence, which was
drawn from the sturdy and self-respecting middle classes, and
in a few generations was to prove itself a worthy opponent not
only to the knight, but to the professional man-at-arms.
17. The Crusades.— It is an undoubted fact that the long wars
of the Crusades produced, directly, but slight improvement in the
feudal armies of Europe. In the East large bodies of men were
successfully kept under arms for a considerable period, but the
apfjfcatfon of crusading nirthods to Euro^
impracticable. In the first place, much of the permanent force of
these armies was contributed by the military orders, which had
no place in European political activities. Secondly, enthusiasm
mitigated much of the evil of individualism. In the third place,
there was no custom to limit the period of service, since the
Crusaders had undertaken a definite task and would merely have
stultified their own purpose In leaving the work only half done.
There were, therefore, sharp contrasts between crusading and
European armies. In the latter, systematJsation was confined to
details of recruiting; in the armies of the Cross, men were from
time to time obtained by the accident of religious fervour, while
at the same time continuous service produced a relatively high
system of tactical organisation. Different conditions, therefore,
produced different methods, and crusading unity and discipline
could not have been imposed on an ordinary army, which indeed
with its paid auxiliaries was fairly adequate for the somewhat
desultory European wars of that time. The statement that the
Crusaders had a direct influence on the revival of infantry is
hardly susceptible of convincing demonstration, but it is at any
rate beyond question that the social and economic results of the
Crusades materially contributed to the downfall of the feudal
knight, and in consequence to a rise in the relative importance
of the middle classes, Further, not onry were the Crusading
knights compelled by their own want of numbers to rely on the
good qualities of the foot, but the .foot themselves were the
" survivors of the fittest," for the weakly men died before they
reached the Holy Land, and with them there were always
knights who had lost their horses and could not obtain remounts.
Moreover, when " simple " and " gentle " both took the Cross
there could be no question of treating Crusaders as if they were
the mere feudal levy. But the little direct influence of the whole
of these wars upon military progress in Europe is shown dearly
enough by the fact that at the very dose of the Crusades a great
battle was lost through knight-errantry of the true feudal type
(Mansurah).
18. The Period of Transition (1 200-1400).— Besides the
infantry already mentioned, that of Scotland and that of the
German dries fought with credit on many fields. Their arm was
the pike, and they were always formed in solid masses (called in
Scotland, schiltrotu). The basis of the medieval commune being
the suppression of the individual in the social unit, it was natural
that the burgher infantry should fight "in serried ranks and
in better order " than a line of individual knights, who, more-
over, were almost powerless before walled dries. But these
forces lacked offensive power, and it was left for the English
archers, whose importance dates from the latter years of the
13th century, to show afresh, at Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt,
the value of missile action. When properly supported by other
arms, they proved themselves capable of meeting both the
man-at-arms and the pikeman. The greatest importance
attaches to the evolution of this idea of mutual support and
combination. Once it was realised, war became an art, and
armies became specially organised bodies of troops of different
arms. It cannot be admitted, indeed, as has been claimed,
that the 14th century had a scientific system of tactics, or that
the campaign of Poitiers was arranged by the French " general
staff." Nevertheless, during this century armies were steadily
coming to consist of expert soldiers, to the exdusion of national
levies and casual mercenaries. It is true that, by his system of
"indents," Edward III. of England raised national armies
of a professional type, but the English soldier thus enrolled,
when discharged by his own sovereign, naturally sought similar
employment elsewhere. This system produced, moreover, a
class of unemployed soldiers, and these, with others who became
adventurers from choice or necessity, and even with foreign
troops, formed the armies which fought in the Wars of the Roses
—armies which differed but slightly from others of the time.
The natural result of these wars was to implant a hatred of
soldiery in the heart of a nation which had formerly produced
the best fighting men in Europe, a hatred which left a deep
imprint on the constitutional and social life of the po r
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ARMY
France, where Joan of Arc passed like a meteor across the
military firmament, the idea of a national regular army took a
practical form in the middle of the 15th century. Still, the
forces thus brought into existence were not numerous, and the
soldier of fortune, in spite of such experiences of his methods
as those of the Wars of the Roses, was yet to attain the zenith
of his career.
19. The Condottieri. — The immediate result of this confused
period of destruction and reconstruction was the condottiere,
who becomes important about 1300. In Italy, where the
condottieri chiefly flourished, they were in demand owing to the
want of feudal cavalry, and the inability of burgher infantry
to undertake wars of aggression. The " free companies " (who
served in great numbers in France and Spain as well as in Italy)
were " military societies very much like trade-gilds," which
(so to speak) were hawked from place to place by their managing
directors, and hired temporarily by princes who needed their
services. Unlike the older hirelings, they were permanently
organized, and thus, with their experience and discipline,
became the best troops in existence. But the carrying on of
war " in the spirit of a handicraft " led to bloodless battles,
indecisive campaigns, and other unsatisfactory results, and the
reign of the condottieri proper was over by 1400, subsequent
free companies being raised on a more strictly national basis.
With all their defects, however, they were the pioneers of
modern organization. In the inextricable tangle of old and
new methods which constitutes the military system of the
15th century, it is possible to discern three marked tendencies.
One is the result of a purely military conception of the now
special art of war, and its exposition as an art by men who
devote their whole career to it The second is the idea of a
national army, resulting from many social, economical and
political causes. The third is the tendency towards minuter
organization and subdivision within the army. Whereas the
individual feudatories had disliked the close supervision of a
minor commander, and their army had in consequence remained
always a loosely-knit unit, the men who made war into an art
belonged to small bands or corps, and naturally began their
organization from the lower units. Herein, therefore, was the
germ of the regimental system of the present day.
20. The Swiss. — The best description of a typical European
army at the opening of the new period of development is that
of the French army in Italy in 1494, written by Paolo Giovio.
He notes with surprise that the various corps of infantry and
cavalry are distinct, the usual practice of the time being to
combine one lancer, one archer, one groom, &c, into a small
unit furnished and commanded by the lancer. There were
Swiss and German infantry, armed with pike and halbert, with
a few " shot," who marched in good order to music. There
were the heavy men-at-arms (gendarmes), accompanied as of old
by mounted archers, who, however, now fought independently.
There were, further, Gascon slingers and crossbowmen, who
had probably acquired, from contact with Spain, some of the
lightness and dash of their neighbours. The artillery train was
composed of 140 heavy pieces and a great number of lighter
guns; these were then and for many generations thereafter
a special arm outside the military establishments (see Artil-
lery). In all this the only relic of the days of Crecy is the
administrative combination of the men-at-arms and the horse
archers, and even this is no longer practised in action. The
most important element in the army is the heavy infantry of
Swiss and Germans. The Swiss had for a century past gradually
developed into the most formidable troops of the day. The
wars of 2iika (q.v.) in Bohemia (1420) materially assisted in the
downfall of the heavy cavalry; and the victories of the Swiss,
beginning with Scmpach (1382), had by 1480 proved that their
solid battalions, armed with the long pike and the halberd,
were practically invulnerable to all but missile and shock action
combined. By fortune of war, they never met the English, who
had shown the way to deal with the sckiltron as early as Falkirk.
So great was their confidence against ordinary troops, that on
Obc occasion (1444) they detached 1600 men to engage 50,000.
It was natural that a series of victories such as Granson, Morat
and Nancy should place them in the forefront of the military
nations of Europe. The whole people devoted itself thereupon
to professional soldiering, particularly in the French service,
and though their monopoly of mercenary employment lasted
a short time only, they continued to furnish regiments to the
armies of France, Spain and the Pope up to the most modern
times. But their efficiency was thoroughly sapped by the growth
of a mutinous and Insubordinate spirit, the memory of which
has survived in the proverb Point d* argent, point dt Suisse,
and inspired Machiavelli with the hatred of mercenaries which
marks every page of bis work on the art of war. One of their
devices for extorting money was to appear at the muster with
many more soldiers than had been contracted for by their em-
ployers, who were forced to submit to this form of blackmail
At last the French, tired of these caprices, inflicted on the Swiss
the crushing defeat of Marignan (a. v.), and their tactical system
received its death-blow from the Spaniards at Pa via (1525).
21. The Landsknechts. — The modern army owes far more of its
organization and administrative methods to the Landsknechts
("men of the country, 1 ' as distinct from foreigners) than to the
Swiss. As the latter were traditionally the friends of France,
so these Swabians were the mainstay of the Imperial armies,
though both were mercenaries. The emperor Maximilian exerted
himself to improve the new force, which soon became the model
for military Europe. A corps of Landsknechts was usually
raised by a system resembling that of " indents," commissions
being issued by the sovereign to leaders of repute to enlist men.
A " colour " (Fahnlcin) numbered usually about 400 men, a
corps consisted of a varying number of colours, some corps
having 12,000 men. From these troops, with their intense
pride, esprit de corps and comradeship, there has come down
to modern times much of present-day etiquette, interior economy
and " regimental customs " — In other words, nearly all that
is comprised in the " regimental " system. Amongst the most
notable features of their system were the functions of the provost,
who combined the modern offices of provost-marshal, transport
and supply officer, and canteen manager; the disciplinary code,
which admitted the right of the rank and file to judge offences
touching the honour of the regiment; and the women who,
lawfully or unlawfully attached to the soldiers, marched with
the regiment and had a definite place in its corporate life. The
conception of the regiment as the home of the soldier was thus
realized in fact.
22. The Spanish Army.— The tendencies towards professional
soldiering and towards subdivision had now pronounced them-
selves. At the same time, while national armies, as dreamed of
by Machiavelli, were not yet in existence, two at least of the
powers were beginning to work towards an ideal. This ideal
was an army which was entirely at the disposal of its own
sovereign, trained to the due professional standard, and organized
in the best way found by experience to be applicable to military
needs. On these bases was formed the old Spanish army which,
from Pa via (1525) to Rocroi (1643), was held by common consent
to be the finest service in existence. Almost immediately after
emerging from the period of internal development, Spain found
herself obliged to maintain an army for the Italian wars. In
the first instance this was raised from amongst veterans of the
war of Granada, who enlisted for an indefinite time. Probably
the oldest line regiments in Europe are those descended from the
famous lercios, whose formation marks the beginning of military
establishments, just as the Landsknechts were the founders of
military manners and customs. The great captains who led the
new army soon assimilated the best points of the Swiss system,
and it was the Spanish army which evolved the typical com-
bination of pike and musket which flourished up to 1700. Out-
side the domain the tactics, it must be credited with an important
contribution to the science of army organization, in the depot
system, whereby the tercios in the field were continually ** fed "
and kept up to strength. The social position of the soldier was
that of a gentleman, and the youiig nobles (who soon came to
prefer the tercios to the cavalry service) thought it no shame*
ARMY
599
when their commands were reduced, to "take a pike" in
another regiment. The provost and his gallows were as much
in evidence in a Spanish camp as in one of Landsknechts, but
the comradeship and esprit de corps of a Urcio were the admira-
tion of all contemporary soldiers. With all its good qualities,
however, this army was not truly national; men soon came from
all the various nations ruled by the Habsburgs, and the soldier
of fortune found employment in a krcio as readily as elsewhere.
But it was a great gain that corps, as such, were fully recognized
as belonging to the government, however shifting the personnel
might be. Permanence of regimental existence had now been
attained, though the universal acceptance and thorough appli-
cation of the principle were still far distant. During the xoth
century, the French regular army (originating in the compafnies
d'ordonnance of 1445), which was always in existence, even when
the Swiss and gendarmes were the best part of the field forces,
underwent a considerable development, producing amongst
other things the military terminology of the present day. But
the wars of religion effectually checked all progress in the latter
part of the century, and the European reputation of the French
army dates only from the latter part of the Thirty Years' War.
aj. The Sixteenth Century.— The battle of St Quentin (1557)
is usually taken as the date from which the last type of a purely
mercenary arm (as distinct from corps) comes into prominence.
" Brabancon " or " Swiss " implied pikemen without further
qualification, the new term "Rciter" similarly implied mercenary
cavalry fighting with the pistoL Heavy cavalry could disperse
arqucbusiers and musketeers, but it was helpless against solid
masses of pikemen; the Rciters solved the difficulty by the use
of the pistol. They were well armoured and had little to fear
from musket-balls. Arrayed in deep squadrons, therefore,
they rode up to the pikes with impunity, and fired methodically
dons le tas, each rank when it had discharged its pistols filing
to the rear to reload. These Reiters were organized in squadrons
of variable strength, and recruited in the same manner as were
the Landsknechts. They were much inferior, however, to the
latter in their discipline and general conduct, for cavalry had
many more individual opportunities of plunder than the foot,
and die rapacity and selfishness of the Reiters were consequently
in marked contrast to the good order and mutual helpfulness
in the field and in quarters which characterized the regimental
system of the Landsknechts.
24. Dutch System.— The most interesting feature of the Dutch
system, which was gradually evolved by the patriots in the long
War of Independence, was its minute attention to detail. In
the first years of the war, William the Silent had to depend,
lor field operations, on mutinous and inefficient mercenaries
and on raw countrymen who had nothing but devotion to oppose
to the discipline and skill of the best regular army in the world.
Such troops were, from the point of view of soldiers like Alva,
mere canaille, and the ludicrous ease with which their armies
were destroyed (as at Jemmingen and Mookerheyde), at the cost
of the lives of perhaps a dozen Spanish veterans, went far to
justify this view. But, fortunately for the Dutch, their fortified
towns were exceedingly numerous, and the individual bravery
of citizen-militia, who were fighting for the lives of every soul
within their walla, baffled time after time all the efforts of Alva's
men. In the open, Spanish officers took incredible liberties with
the enemy; once, at any rate, they marched for hours together
along submerged embankments with hostile vessels firing into
them from either side. Behind walls the Dutch were practically
a match for the most furious valour of the assailants.
The insurgents' first important victory in the open field, that
of Rymenant near Malines (1577)* was won by the skill of
" Bras de Fcr," de la Noue, a veteran French general, and the
stubbornness of the English contingent of the Dutch army—
for England, from 157 a onwards, sent out an ever-increasing
number of volunteers. This battle was soon followed by the
great defeat of Gembloux (1578). and William the Silent was
not destined to see the rise of the Dutch army. Maurice of
Nassau was the real organizer of victory. In the wreck of all
feudal and burgher military institutions,, he turned to the old
models of Xeaopbon, Polybtus, Athan and the rest Drill, a*
rigid and as complicated as that of the Macedonian phalanx,
came into vogue, the infantry was organized more strictly into
companies and regiments, the cavalry into troops or cornets.
The Reiter tactics of the pistol were followed by the latter, the
former consisted of pikes, halberts and " shot." This form was
generally followed in central Europe, as usual, without the spirit,
but in Holland it was the greater trustworthiness of the rank and
file that allowed of more flexible formations, and here we no longer
see the foot of an army drawn up, as at Jemmingen, in one solid
and immovable " square." In their own country and with the
system best suited thereto, the Dutch, who moreover acquired
greater skill and steadiness day by day, maintained their ground
against all the efforts of a Parma and a Spinola. Indeed, it
is the best tribute to«the vitality of the Spanish system that
the inevitable deMch was so long delayed. The campaigns of
Spinola in Germany demonstrated that the " Dutch " system, as
a system for general use, was at any rate no better than the
system over which it had locally asserted its superiority, and
the spirit, and not the form, of Maurice's practice achieved the
ultimate victory of the Netherlander*. In the Thirty Years' War„
the unsuccessful armies of Mansfeld and many others were
modelled on the Dutch system, — the forces of Spinola, of Tilly
and of Wallcnstein, on the Spanish. In other words, these
systems as such meant little; the discipline and spirit behind
them, everything. Yet the contribution made by the Dutch
system to the armies of to-day was not small; to Maurice and
his comrades we owe, first the introduction of careful and
accurate drill, and secondly the beginnings of an acknowledged
science of war, the groundwork of both being the theory and
practice of antiquity. The present method of " forming fours "
in the British infantry is ultimately derived from Aelian, just as
the first beats of the drums in a march represent the regimental
calls of the Landsknechts, and the depots and the drafts for the
service battalions date from the Italian wars of Spain.
35. The Thirty Years 1 War.— Hitherto all armies had been
raised or reduced according to the military and political situation
of the moment. Spain had indeed maintained a relatively high
effective in peace, but elsewhere a few personal guards, small
garrisons, and sometimes a small regular army to serve as a
nucleus, constituted the only permanent forces kept under arms
by sovereigns, though, in this era of perpetual wars, armies were
almost always on a war footing. The expense of maintenance
at that time practically forbade any other system than this,
called in German Werbc-syslcm, a term for which in English there
is no nearer equivalent than " enlistment ° or " levy " system.
It is worth noticing that this very system is identical in principle
with that of the United States at the present day, viz., a small
permanent force, inflated to any required size at the moment of
need. The exceptional conditions of the Dutch army, indeed,
secured for its regiments a long life; yet when danger was
finally over, a large portion of the army was at once reduced.
The history of the British army from about 1740 to 1820 is a
most striking, if belated, example of the Werbe-system in practice.
But the Thirty Years' War naturally produced an unusual con-
tinuity of service in corps raised about 1620-1630, and fifty
years later the principle of the standing army was universally
accepted. It is thus that the senior regiments of the Prussian
and Austrian armies date from about 1630. At this time an
event took place which was destined to have a profound influence
on the military art. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden landed in
Germany with an army better organized, trained and equipped
than any which had preceded it. This army, by its great victory
of Breitcnfeld (1631), inaugurated the era of " modern " warfare,
and it is to the system of Gustavus that the student must turn
for the initial point of the progressive development which has
produced the armies of to-day. Spanish and Dutch methods
at once became as obsolete as those of the Landsknechts.
26, The Swedish Army.— The Swedish army was raised by a
carefully regulated system of conscription, which was " preached
in every pulpit in Sweden." There were indeed entitled
regiments of the usual type, and it would scemjhat C
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obtained the best even of the soldiers of fortune. But the
national regiments were raised on the Indetta system. Each
officer and man, under this scheme, received a land grant within
the territorial district of his corps, and each of these districts
supplied recruits in numbers proportionate to its population.
This curious mixture of feudal and modern methods produced
the best elements of an army, which, aided by the tactical and
technical improvements introduced by Gustavus, proved itself
incomparably superior to its rivals. Of course the long and
bloody campaigns of 1630-34 led to the admission of great
numbers of mercenaries even into the Swedish corps; and
German, Scottish and other regiments figured largely, not only
fn the armies of Duke Bernhard and his successors, but in the
army of Gustavus' own lifetime. As early as 1632 one brigade
of the army was distinguished by the title " Swedish," as alone
containing no foreigners. Yet the framework was much the
same as it had been in 1630. The battle-organization of two
lines and two wings, which was typical of the later "linear"
f ac tics, began to supplant the system of the terries. How cum-
brous the latter had become by 1630 may be judged from any
battle-plan of the period, and notably from that of Lutzen.
Gustavus' cavalry fought four or three deep only, and depended
as little as possible on the pistol. The work of riding down the
pikes was Indeed rendered easier by the Improved tactical
handlncss of the musketeers, but it was fiery leading which
•lone compelled victory, for there were relatively few Swedish
horse and many squadrons of Germans and others, who in
themselves were far less likely to charge boldly than the
"J'appenhcimcrs" and other crack corps of the enemy. The
infantry was of the highest class, and only on that condition
could loose and supple lines be trusted to oppose the solid
lfrt fat of Tilly and Wallcnstein. Cumbrous indeed these were,
but by long practice they had acquired no small manoeuvring
power, of which Breitenfeld affords a striking example. The
hwroVs, however, completely surpassed them. The progress
thus made may be gauged from the fact that under Gustavus
lb* largest closed body of infantry was less than 300 strong.
Briefly, the genius of a great commander, the ardour of a born
tavalry leader, better arms and better organization, carried the
ft writes to the end of their career of victory, but how personal
was the vii viva which inspired the army was quickly noticeable
a fur th* death of Gustavus. Even a Bernhard could, in the
M*4, evoke no more heroism from a Swedish army than from
ntty oilier, and the real Swedish troops fought their last battle
at NoflUngen (1634). After this, little distinguished the
" Swedish " forces from the general mass of the armies of the
Him, save their system, to which, and to its influence on the
hitting of such leaders as Baner, Torstensson and Wrangel,
*JJ thrir. later victories were due. So much of Gustavus* work
fturvf ved even the carnage of Nordlingen, and his system always
uM«jft#4 better results, even with the heterogeneous troops of
fliit later period, than any other of the time.
37. The English Civil War (see Great Rebellion).— The
utunj-i 00 either side which, about the same time, were fighting
out the t//i*&titutjonal quarrel in England were essentially
different from all those of the continent, though their formal
ot&thi/Mfon was similar to that of the Swedes. The military
*»(;/« »«i'/n of a national conscience had appeared rarely indeed
\u 1 Ik 'thirty Years' War, which was a means of livelihood for,
ratru-r than an assertion of principle by, those who engaged in it.
f « fcngis nd, on the other hand, there were no mercenaries, and
ih* whole rbs racier of the operations was settled by the burning
d«Mrc of a true " nation in arms " to decide at once, by the
uH/itrriOM-ot of battle, the vital points at issue. A German
uiiv 'Fritz Hoenig) has indicated Worcester as the prototype
t,i *> 'id 11 ■ at any rate, battles of this kind invariably resulted in
fmiivft wlirn entrusted to a "standing" army of the 18th cen-
lu/y But the national armies disappeared at the end of the
liinyyU , titer the Restoration, English political aims became,
*/ t*t *a military activity was concerned, similar in scope and
tn*viu>n to those of the continent; and the example of Cromwell
*jj4 Che "New Model/ 1 which might have revolutionized
military Europe, passed away without having any maifeei
influence on the armies of other nations.
28. Standing Armies .— Nine years after N5rdbngen, the old
Spanish army fought its last and most honourable battle at
Rocroi. Its conquerors were the new French troops, whose
victory created as great a sensation as Paviaand Crecy had done.
Infusing a new military spirit into the formal organization of
Gustavus' system, the French army was now to " set the fashion "
for a century. France had been the first power to revive regular
forces, and the famous " Picardie " regiment disputed for pre-
cedence even with the old tercios. The country had esnerged
from the confusion of the past century with the foreign and
domestic strength of a practically absolute central power. The
Fronde continued the military history of the army from the
end of the Thirty Years' War; and when the period of consolida-
tion was finally dosed, all was prepared for the introduction
of a " standing army," practically always at war strength, and
entirely at the disposal of the sovereign. The reorganization
of the military establishments by Louvois may be taken ss the
formal date at which standing armies came into pcomixieoce
(see historical sketch of the French army below). Other powers
rapidly followed the lead of France, for the defects of enlisted
troopa had become very clear, and the possession of an army
always ready for war was an obvious advantage in dynastic
politics. The French proprietary system of regiments, and the
general scheme of army administration which replaced it, may
be taken as typical of the armies of other great powers in the
time of Louis XIV.
20. Character of the Standing Armies.— A peculiar character
was from the first Imparted to the new organizations by the
results of the Thirty Years' War. A well-founded horror of
military barbarity had the effect of separating the soldier from
the civilian by an impassable gulf . The drain of thirty years on
the population, resources and finances of almost every country
in middle Europe, everywhere limited the size of the new armies;
and the decision in 1648 of all questions save those of dynastic
interest dictated the nature of their employment. The best
soldiers of the time pronounced in favour of small field armies, for
in the then state of communications and agriculture large forces
proved in practice too cumbrous for good work. In every
country, therefore, the army took the form of a professional body,
nearly though not quite independent of extra recruits for war.
set apart entirely from all contact with civil life, rigidly restricted
as to conduct in peace and war, and employed mostly in the
" maintenance " of their superiors' private quarrels. Iron
discipline produced splendid tenacity in action, and wholesale
desertion at all times. In the Seven Years' War, for instance,
the Austrians stated one-fifth of their total loss as due to desertion,
and Thackeray's Barry Lyndon gives no untrue picture of the
life of a soldier under the old regime. Further, since men were
costly, rigid economy of their lives in action, and minute care
for their feeding and shelter on the march, occupied a dispro-
portionate amount of the attention of their generals. Armies
necessarily moved slowly and remained concentrated to facilitate
supply and to check desertion, and thus, when a commander
had every unit of his troops within a short ride of his head-
quarters, there was little need for intermediate general officers,
and still less for a highly trained staff.
30. Organisation in the 18th Century. — All armies were now
almost equal in fighting value, and war was consequently re du ced
to a set of rules (not principles), since superiority was only to be
gained by methods, not by men. Soldiers such as Marlborough,
who were superior to these jejune prescriptions, met indeed
with uniform success. But the methods of the 18th century
failed to receive full illustration, save by the accident of a great
captain's direction, even amidst the circumstances for which
they were designed. It is hardly to be wondered at, therefore,
that they failed, when forced by a new phase of development
to cope with events completely beyond their element. The inner
organization was not markedly altered. Artillery was still out-
side the normal organization of the line of battle, though in
the period 1600-1740 much was done in all countries to improve
ARMY
601
the material, and above all to turn the personnel into disciplined
soldier*. Cavalry was organised in regiments and squadrons,
and armed with sabre and pistol. Infantry had by 1703 begun
to assume its three-deep line formation and the typical weapons
of the arm, musket and bayonet. Regiments and battalions
were the units of combat as well as organisation. In the fight
the company was entirely merged in the higher unit, but as an
administrative body it still remained. As for the higher organ-
ization, an army consisted simply of a greater or less number
of battalions and squadrons, without, as a rule, intermediate
commands and groupings. The army was arrayed as a whole
in two lines of battle, with the infantry in the centre and the
cavalry on the flanks, and an advanced guard; the so-called
reserve consisting merely of troops not assigned to the regular
commands. It was divided, for command in action, into right
and left wings, both of cavalry and infantry, of each line. This
was the famous " linear " organization, which in theory produced
the maximum effort in the minimum time, but in practice,
bandied by officers whose chief care was to avoid the expenditure
of effort, achieved only negative results. To see its defects one
need only suppose a battalion of the first line hard pressed by
the enemy. A battalion of the second line was directly behind it,
but there was no authority, less than that of the wing commander,
which could order it up to support the first. All the conditions
of the time were opposed to tactical subdivision, as the term is
now understood. That the 18th century did not revive sckiltrons
was due to the new fire tactics, to which everything but control
was sacrificed. This "control," as has been said, implied not
so much command as police supervision. But far beyond any
faults of organisation and recruiting, the inherent vice of these
armies was, as Machiavelli had pointed out two centuries pre-
viously, and as Prussia was to learn to her cost in 1806, that
once they were thoroughly defeated, the only thing left to be
done was to make peace at once, since there was no other armed
force capable of retrieving a failure.
31. Frederick tke Great. — The military career of Frederick
the Great is very different from those of his predecessors. With
an army organised on the customary system, and trained and
equipped, better indeed, but still on the same lines as those of
his rivals, the king of Prussia achieved results out of all propor-
tion to those imagined by contemporary soldiers. It is to his
campaigns, therefore, that the student must refer for the real,
if usually latent, possibilities of the army of the 18th century.
The prime secret of his success lay in the fact that he was his
own master, and responsible to no superior for the uses to which
he put his men. This position had never, since the introduction
of standing armies, been attained by any one, even Eugene and
Leopold of Dessau being subject to the common restriction;
and with this extraordinary advantage over his opponents,
Frederick had further the firmness and ruthless energy of a
great commander. Prussia, moreover, was more strictly organised
than other countries, and there was relatively little of that
opposition of local authorities to the movement of troops which
was conspicuous in Austria. The military successes of Prussia,
therefore, up to 1757, were not primarily due to the system and
the formal tactics, but were the logical outcome of greater energy
in the leading, and less friction in the administration, of her
armies. But the conditions were totally different in 1758-1762,
when the full force of the alliance against Prussia developed
itself in four theatres of war. Frederick was driven back to the
old methods of making war, and his men were no longer the
soldiers of Leuthen and Hohenfricdberg. If discipline was
severe before, it was merciless then; the king obtained men by
force and fraud from every part of Germany, and had both to
repress and to train them in the face of the enemy. That under
such conditions, and with such men, the weaker party finally
emerged triumphant, was indeed a startling phenomenon. Yet
its result for soldiers was not the production of the national
army, though the dynastic forces had once more shown them-
selves incapable of compassing decisive victories, nor yet the
removal of the barrier between army and people, for the opera-
tions of Frederick's recruiting agents made a lasting impression,
and, further, large numbers of men who had thought to make
a profession of arms were turned adrift at the end of the war.
On the contrary, all that the great and prolonged tour dc fores
of these years produced was a tendency, quite in the spirit of
the age, to make a formal science out of the art of war. Better
working and better methods were less sought after than system-
atixation of the special practices of the most successful com-
manders. Thus Frederick's methods, since 1758 essentially the
same as those of others, were taken as the basis of the science
now for the first time called "strategy," the fact that his
opponents had also practised it without success being strangely
ignored. Along with this came a mania for imitation. Prussian
drill, uniforms and hair-powder were slavishly copied by every
state, and for the next twenty years, and especially when the
war-trained officers and men had left active service, the purest
pedantry reigned in all the armies of Europe, including that of
Prussia. One of the ablest of Frederick's subordinates wrote
a book in which he urged that the cadence of the infantry step
should be increased by one pace per minute. The only excep-
tions to the universal prevalence of this spirit were in the Austrian
army, which was saved from atrophy by its Turkish wars, and
in a few British and French troops who served in the Ameri-
can War of Independence. The British regiments were sent to
die of fever in the West Indies; when the storm of the French
Revolution broke over Europe, the Austrian army was the only
stable element of resistance.
33. The French Revolution— Very different were the armies of
the Revolution. Europe, after being given over to professional
soldiers for five hundred years, at last produced the modern
system of the "nation in arms." The French volunteers of
179 a were a force by which the routine generals of the enemy,
working with instruments and by rules designed for other
conditions, were completely puzzled, and France gained a short
respite. The year 1793 witnessed the most remarkable event
that is recorded in the history of armies. Raw enthusiasm was
replaced, after the disasters and defections which marked the
beginning of the campaign, by a systematic and unsparing
conscription, and the masses of men thus enrolled, inspired by
ardent patriotism and directed by the ferocious energy of the
Committee of Public Safety, met the disciplined formalists with
an opposition before which the attack completely collapsed. It
was less marvellous in fact than in appearance that this should
be so. Not to mention the influence of pedantry and senility
on the course of the operations, it may be admitted that Frederick
and his army at their best would have been unable to accomplish
the downfall of the now thoroughly roused French. Tactically,
the fire of the regulars' line caused the Revolutionary levies to
melt away by thousands, but men were ready to fill the gaps.
No complicated supply system bound the French to magazines
and fortresses, for Europe could once more feed an army with-
out convoys, and roads were now good and numerous. No fear
of desertion kept them concentrated under canvas, for each
man was personally concerned with the issue. If the allies tried
to oppose them on an equal front, they were weak at all points,
and the old organization had no provision for the working of a
scat tered army. While ten victorious campaigns had not carried
Marlborough nearer to Paris than some marches beyond the
Sambre, two campaigns now carried a French army to within
a few miles of Vienna. It was obvious that, before such forces
and such mobility, the old system was doomed, and with each
successive failure the old armies became more discouraged.
Napoleon's victories finally closed this chapter of military
development, and by 1808 the only army left to represent it
was the British. Even to this the Peninsular War opened a
line of progress, which, if different in many essentials from
continental practice, was in any case much more than a copy of
an obsolete model.
ii. The Conscription.— In 1793, at a moment when the danger
to France was so great as to produce the rigorous emergency
methods of the Reign of Terror, the combined enemies of the
Republic had less than 300,000 men in the field between Basel
and Dunkirk. On the other band, the call of the " country in
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ARMY
danger " produced more than four times this number of men
for the French armies within a few months. Louis XIV., even
when all France had been awakened to warlike enthusiasm by
a similar threat (1709), had not been able to put in the field
more than one-fifth of this force. The methods of the great
war minister Carnot were enforced by the ruthless committee,
and when men's lives were safer before the bayonets of the
allies than before the civil tribunals at home, there was no
difficulty in enlisting the whole military spirit of France. There
is therefore not much to be said as to the earliest application
of the conscription, at least as regards its formal working, since
any system possessing elasticity would equally have served the
purpose. In the meanwhile, the older plans of organization had
proved inadequate for dealing with such imposing masses of
men. Even with disciplined soldiers they had long been known
as applicable only to small armies, and the deficiencies of the
French, with their consequences in tactics and strategy, soon
produced the first illustrations of modern methods. Unable
to meet the allies in the plain, they fought in broken ground
and on the widest possible front. This of course produced
decentralization and subdivision; and it became absolutely
necessary that each detachment on a front of battle 30 m. long
(e.g. Stokach) should be properly commanded and self-sufficing.
The army was therefore constituted in a number of divisions,
each of two or more brigades with cavalry and artillery sufficient
for its own needs. It was even more important that each
divisional general, with his own staff, should be a real commander,
and not merely the supervisor of a section of the line of battle,
for he was almost In the position that a commander-in-chief
had formerly held. The need of generals was easily supplied
when there was so wide a field of selection. For the allies the
mere adoption of new forms was without result, since it was
contrary both to tradition and to existing organization. The
attempts which were made in this direction did not tend to
mitigate the evils of inferior numbers and moral. The French
soon followed up the divisional system with the further organ-
ization of groups of divisions under specially selected general
officers; this again quickly developed Into the modern army
corps.
34. Napoleon. — Revolutionary government, however, gave
way in a few years to more ordinary institutions, and the spirit
of French politics had become that of aggrandizement in the
name of liberty. The ruthless application of the new principle
of masses had been terribly costly, and the disasters of 1799
reawakened in the mass of the people the old dislike of war
and service. Even before this it had been found necessary to
frame a new act, the famous law proposed by General Jourdan
(1708). With this the conscription for general service began.
The legal term of five years was so far exceeded that the service
came to be looked upon as a career, or servitude, for life; it
was therefore both unavoidable and profitable to admit substi-
tutes. Even in 1806 one quarter of Napoleon's conscripts failed
to come up for duty. The Grande Armte thus from its inception
contained elements of doubtful value, and only the tradition of
victory and the 50 % of veterans still serving aided the genius
of Napoleon to win the brilliant victories of 1805 and 1806.
But these veterans were gradually eliminated by bloodshed and
service exposure, and when, after the peace of Tilsit, " French "
armies began to be recruited from all sorts of nations, decay
had set in. As early as 1806 the emperor had had to " antici-
pate " the conscription, that is, call up the conscripts before
their time, and by 18 10 the percentage of absentees in France
had grown to about 80, the remainder being largely those who
lacked courage to oppose the authorities. Finally, the armies
of Napoleon became masses of men of all nations fighting even
more unwillingly than the armies of the old regime. Little
success attended the emperor's attempt to convert a " nation
in arms 1 ' into a great dynastic army. Considered as such,
it had even fewer elements of solidity than the standing armies
of the 18th century, for it lacked the discipline which had made
the regiments of Frederick invincible. After 181 2 it was at-
tacked by huge armies of patriots which possessed advantages
of organization and skilful direction that the fcafe en masn of
1793 had lacked. Only the now fully developed genius and
magnificent tenacity of Napoleon staved off for a time the
dib&de which was as inevitable as had been that of the old
regime.
35. The Grande Armte. — In 1 805-1 806, when the older spirit
of the Revolution was already represented by one-half only
of French soldiers, the actual steadiness and mamruvring
power of the Grande Antic had attained its highest level. The
army at this time was organized into brigades, divisions and
corps, the last-named unit being as a rule a marshal's command.
and always completed as a small army with all the necessary
arms and services. Several such corps (usually of unequal
strength) formed the army. The greatest weakness of the
organization, which was in other respects most pliant and
adaptable, was the want of good staff-officers. The emperor
had so far cowed his marshals that few of them could take
the slightest individual responsibility, and the combatant staff-
officers remained, as they had been in the 18th century, either
Confidential clerks or merely gallopers. No one but a Napoleon
could have managed huge armies upon these terms; in fact
the marshals, from Berthier downwards, generally failed when
in independent commands. Of the three arms, infantry and
cavalry regiments were organized in much the same way as in
Frederick's day, though tactical methods were very different,
and discipline far inferior. The greatest advance had taken
place in the artillery service. Field and horse batteries, as
organized and disciplined units, had come into general use
during the Revolutionary wars, and the division, corps and
army commanders had always batteries assigned to their several
commands as a permanent and integral part of the fighting troops:
Napoleon himself, and his brilliant artillery officers Slnannont
and Drouot, brought the arm to such a pitch of efficiency that
it enabled him to win splendid victories almost by its own
action. As a typical organization we may take the III. corps of
Marshal Davout in 1806. This was formed of the following
troops: —
Cavalry brigade — General Vialannes — three regiments, 1538 men.
Corps artillery, 12 guns.
1st Division— General Morand — five infantry regiments in three
brigades, 12 guns. 10.820 men.
2nd Division — General Friant — five regiments in three brigades,
8 guns. 8758 men.
3rd Division — General Gudin—four regiments in three brigades,
12 guns, 9077 men.
A comparison of this ordre de bataitte with that of a modern
army corps will show that the general idea of corps organization
has undergone but slight modification since the days of Napoleon.
More troops allotted to departmental duties, and additional
engineers for the working of modern scientific aids, are the only
new features in the formal organization of a corps in the 20th
century. Yet the spirit pf 1806 and that of 1906 were essentially
different, and the story of the development of this difference
through the 19th century closes for the present the history of
progress in tactical organization.
36. The Wars of Liberation. — The Prussian defeat at Jena was
followed by a national surrender so abject as to prove conclusively
the eternal truth, that a divorce of armies from national interests
is completely fatal to national well-being. But the oppression of
the victors soon began to produce a spirit of ardent patriotism
which, carefully directed by a small band of able soldiers, led in
the end to a national uprising of a steadier and more lasting kind
than that of the French Revolution. Prussia was compelled, by
the rigorous treaty of peace, to keep a small force only under arms,
and circumstances thus drove her into the path of military
development which she subsequently followed. The stipulation
of the treaty was evaded by the Kriimper system, by which men
were passed through the ranks as hastily as possible and dis-
missed to the reserve, their places being taken by recruits.
The regimental establishments were therefore mere cadres, and
the personnel, recruited by universal service with few exemp-
tions, ever-changing. This system depended on the willingness
of the reserves to come up when called upon, and the arrogance of
ARMY
603
the French was quite sufficient to ensure this. The denouement of
the Napoleonic wars came too swiftly for the full development of
the armed strength of Prussia on these lines; and at the outbreak
of the Wars of Liberation a newly formed Landvekr and numerous
volunteer corps took the field with no more training than the
French had had in 1793. Still, the principles of universal
service (allgemeine Wchrpfiicht) and of the army reserve were,
for the first time in modern history, systematically put into
action, and modern military development has concerned itself
more with the consolidation of the Kriimper system than with
the creation of another. The debut of the new Prussian army was
most unsuccessful, for Napoleon had now attained the highest
point of soldierly skill, and managed to inflict heavy defeats on
the allies. But the Prussians were not discouraged; like the
French in 1703 they took to broken ground, and managed to win
combats against all leaders opposed to them except Napoleon
himself. The Russian army formed a solid background for the
Prussians, and in the end Austria joined the coalition. Recon-
stituted on modern lines, the Austrian army in 1813, except in the
higher leading, was probably the best-organized on the continent.
After three desperate campaigns the Napoleonic regime came to
an end, and men felt that there would be no such struggle again
in their lifetime. Military Europe settled down into grooves
along which it ran un til 1 866. France, exhausted of its manhood,
sought a field for military activities in colonial wars waged by
long-service troops. The conscription was still in force, but the
citizens served most unwillingly, and substitution produced a
professional army, which as usual became a dynastic tool,
Austria, always menaced with foreign war and internal disorder,
maintained the best army in Europe. The British army, though
employed far differently, retained substantially the Peninsular
system.
37. European Armies 18 15- 1870.— The events of the period
181 5-1859 showed afresh that such long-service armies were
incomparably the best form of military machine for the purpose
of giving expression to a hostile " view " (not " feeling ").
Austrian armies triumphed in Italy, French armies in Spain,
Belgium, Algeria, Italy and Russia, British in innumerable and
exacting colonial wars. Only the Prussian forces retained the
characteristics of the levies of 1813, and the enthusiasm which
had carried these through Leipzig and the other great battles
was hardly to be expected of their sons, ranged on the side of
despotism in the troubled times of 1848-1850. But the principle
was not permitted to die out. The Bronnzell-Olmutz incident
of 1850 (see Seven Weeks' War) showed that the organization
of 1813 was defective, and this was altered in spite of the fiercest
opposition of all classes. Soon afterwards, and before the new
Prussian army proved itself on a great battlefield, the American
Civil War, a fiercer struggle than any of those which followed
it in Europe, illustrated the capabilities and the weaknesses
of voluntary-service troops. Here the hostile " view " was
replaced by a hostile " feeling," and the battles of the disciplined
enthusiasts on either side were of a very different kind from
those of contemporary Europe. But, if the experiences of
1 861-1865 proved that armies voluntarily enlisted " for the
war " were capable of unexcelled feats of endurance, they
proved further that such armies, whose discipline and training
in peace were relatively little, or indeed wholly absent, were
incapable of forcing a swift decision. The European " nation
in arms," whatever its other failings, certainly achieved its
task, or failed decisively to do so, in the shortest possible time.
Only the special characteristics of the Americaa theatre of war
gave the Union and Confederate volunteers the space and time
necessary for the creation of armies, and so the great struggle
in North America passed without affecting seriously the war
ideas and preparations of Europe. The weakness of the staff
work with which both sides were credited helped further
to confirm the belief of the Prussians in their system, and in
this instance they were justified by the immense superiority
of their own general staff to that of any army in existence. It
was in this particular that a corps of 1870 differed so essentially
from a corps of Napoleon's time. The formal organization had
not been altered save as the varying relative importance of
the separate arms bad dictated. The almost intangible spirit
which animates the members of a general staff, causes them not
merely to " think " — that was always in the quartermaster-
general's department— but to " think alike," so that a few
simple orders called "directives" sufficed to set armies in
motion with a definite purpose before them, whereas formerly
elaborate and detailed plans of battle had to be devised and
distributed in order to achieve the object in view. A comparison
of the number of orders and letters written by a marshal and
by his chief of staff in Napoleon's time with similar documents
in 1870 indicates dearly the changed position of the staff. In
the Grand* Annie and in the French army of 1870 the officers
of the general staff were often absent entirely from the scene
of action. In Prussia the new staff system produced a far
different result— indeed, the staff, rather than the Prussian
military system, was the actual victor of 1870. Still, the system
would probably have conquered in the end In any case, and
other nations, convinced by events that their departure from
' the ideal of 1813, however convenient formerly, was no longer
justified, promptly copied Prussia as exactly, and, as a matter
of fact, aa slavishly, as they had done after the Seven Years'
War.
38. Modern Developments.— Satxk 1870, then, with the single
exception of Great Britain, all the major European powers have
adopted the principle of compulsory short service with reserves.
Along with this has come the fullest development of the terri-
torial system (see below). The natural consequence therefore
of the heavy work falling' upon the shoulders of the Prussian
officer, who had to instruct Ins men, was, in the first place, a
general staff of the highest class, and in the second, a system of
distributing the troop* over the whole country in such a way
that the regiment* were permanently stationed in the district in
which they recruited and from which they drew their reserves.
Prussia realized that if the>seservists were to be obtained when
required the unit must be strictly localized; France, on the
contrary, lost much time and spent much trouble, in the mobil-
ization of 2870, in forwarding the reservists to a regiment
distant, perhaps, 300 ra. The Prussian system did not work
satisfactorily at first, for until all the district staff-officers were
trained in the same way there was great inequality in the
efficiency of the various army corps, and central control, before
the modern development of railways, was relatively slight.
Further, the mobilisation must be completed, or nearly so,
before concentration begins, and thus an active professional
army, always at war strength, might annihilate the frontier
corps before those in the interior were ready to move. But the
advantages far outweighed the defects of the system, and,
such professional armies having after 1870 disappeared, there
was little to fear. Everywhere, therefore, save in Great Britain
(for at that time the United States was hardly counted as a
great military power, in spite of its two million war-trained
veterans in civil life), the German model was followed, and is
now followed, with but slight divergence. The period of reforms-
after the Prussian model (about 1873-1800) practically estab-
lished the military systems which are treated below as those of
the present day. The last quarter of the century witnessed a
very great development of military forces, without important
organic changes. The chief interest to the student of this
period lies in the severe competition between the great military
powers for predominance in numbers, expressed usually in the
reduction of the period of service with the colours to a minimum.
The final results of this cannot well be predicted: it is enough
to say that it is the Leitmotiv in the present stage in the develop-
ment of armies. Below will be found short historical sketches
of various armies of the present day which are of interest in
respect of their historical development. Details of existing
forces are given in articles dealing with the several states to
which they belong. Historical accounts of the armies of Japan
and of Egypt will be found in the articles on those states.
The Japanese wais of 1804*95 and 1004-5 contributed little
to the history of military organization as a pure science. T"
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ARMY
, of this war were the demonstration of the wide
applicability of the German methods, upon which exclusively the
Japanese army bad formed itself, and still more the first illustra-
ooa of the new moral force of nationalities as the decisive
factor. The form of armies remained unaltered. Neither the
events of the Boer War of 1 800-1002 nor the Manchurian
operations were held' by European soldiers to warrant any
serious modifications in organization. It is to the moral force
alluded to above, rather than to mere technical improvements,
that the best soldiers of Europe, and notably those of the French
general tuff (see the works of General H. Bonnal), have of late
years devoted their most earnest attention.
Present-Day Armies
jo. The main principles of all military organization as de-
veloped in history would seem to be national recruiting and
allegiance, distinctive methods of training and administration,
continuity of service and general homogeneity of form. The
method of raising men is of course different in different states. In
this regard armies may conveniently be classed as voluntarily en-
listed, levied or conscript, and militia, represented respectively
by the forces of Great Britain, Germany and Switzerland. It
must not be forgotten, however, that voluntary troops may
be and are maintained even in states in which the bulk of the
army is levied by compulsion, and the simple militia obligation
of defending the country is universally recognized.
40. Compulsory Service.— Universal liability to service (all-
gemeine Wtkrpfiickt) draws into the active army all, or nearly
all, the men of military age for a continuous period of short
service, after which they pass successively to the reserve, the
second and the third line troops (Lattdmhr, Landsturm, &c).
In this way the greatest number of soldiers is obtained at the
cheapest rate and the number of trained men in reserve available
to keep the army up to strength is in theory that of the able-
bodied manhood of the country. In practice the annual levy
is, however, not exhaustive, and increased numerical strength
is obtained by reducing the term of colour-service to a minimum.
This may be less in a hard-worked conscript army than in one
which depends upon the attractions of the service to induce
recruits to join. In conscript armies, training for war is carried
out with undeviating rigour. In these circumstances the recruits
are too numerous and the time available is too limited for the
work of training to be committed to a few selected instructors,
and every officer has therefore to instruct his own men. The
result is usually a corps of officers whose capacity is beyond
question, while the general staff is composed of men whose ability
is above a high general average. As to the rank and file, the
men taken for service are in many respects the best of the nation,
and this superiority is progressively enhanced, since increase of
population is not often accompanied by a corresponding increase
in the mili tary establishments. In Germany in 1 005 , it is stated ,
nearly half the contingent was excused from serving in peace
time, over and above the usual numbers exempted or medically
rejected. The financial aspect of compulsory service may be
summed up in a few words. The state does not offer a wage,
the pay of the soldier is a mere trifle, and, for a given expendi-
ture, at least three times as many men may be kept under arms
as under any known " voluntary " system. Above all, the state
has at its disposal for war an almost inexhaustible supply of
trained soldiers. This aspect of compulsory service has indeed
led its admirers sometimes to sacrifice quality to quantity;
but, provided always that the regular training is adequate, it
may be admitted that there is no limit to the numbers which
are susceptible of useful employment. There are, however,
many grave defects inherent in all armies raised by compulsory
levy (see Conscription, for a discussion of the chief economical
and social questions involved). Most of the advantages of
universal service result, not from the compulsory enlistment,
but from the principle of short service and reserves. But the
cost of maintaining huge armies of the modern European type
on the voluntary system would be entirely prohibitive, and those
nations which have adopted the aligemcint Wekrpjtidd have
done so with full cognizance of the evil as well as of the good
points of the system.
The chief of these evils is the doubtful element which exists in
all such armies. Under the merciless discipline of the old regime
the most unwilling men feared their officers more than the
enemy. Modern short service, however, demands the good-will
of all ranks and may fail altogether to make recalcitrants into
good soldiers, and it may be taken for granted that every
conscript army contains many men who cannot be induced to
fight. Herein lies the justification of the principle of " masses,'*
and of reduced colour-service; by drawing into the ranks the
maximum number of men, the government has an eventual
residuum of the bravest men in the nation left in the ranks.
What has been said of the officers of these armies cannot be
applied to the non-commissioned officers. Their promotion is
necessarily rapid, and the field of selection is restricted to those
men who are willing to re-engage, i.e. to serve beyond their
compulsory term of two or three years. Many men do so to
avoid the struggles of civil life, and such " fugitive and cloistered
virtue " scarcely fosters the moral strength required for com-
mand. As the best men return to civil life, there is no choice
but to promote inferior men, and the latter, when invested
with authority, not infrequently abuse it. Indeed in some armies
the soldier regards his officer chiefly as his protector from the
rapacity or cruelty of his sergeant or corporal. A true short-
service army is almost incapable of being employed on peace
service abroad; quite apart from other considerations, the cost
of conveying to and from home annually one-third or one-half
of the troops would be prohibitive. If, as must be the case, a
professional force is maintained for oversea service many men
would join it who would otherwise be serving as non-com-
missioned officers at home and the prevailing difficulty would
thus be enhanced. When colonial defence calls for relatively
large numbers of men, i.e. an army, home resources are severely
strained.
41. Conscription in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a
proportion of the able-bodied manhood of a country, is now
rarely practised. The obvious unfairness of selection by lot
has always had the result of admitting substitutes procured by
those on whom the lot has fallen; hence the poorer classes are
unduly burdened with the defence of the country, while the rich
escape with a money payment. In practice, conscription in-
variably produces a professional long-service army in which each
soldier is paid to discharge the obligations of several successive
conscripts. Such an army is therefore a voluntary long-service
army in the main, plus a proportion of the unwilling men found
in every forced levy. The gravest disadvantage is, however, the
fact that the bulk of the nation has not been through the regular
army at all; it is almost impossible to maintain a large and costly
standing army and at the same time to give a full training to
auxiliary forces. The difference between a " national guard "
such as that of the siege of Paris in 1870-71 and a Landwrkr
produced under the German system, was very wide. Regarded
as a compromise between universal and voluntary service,
conscription still maintains a precarious existence in Europe.
As the cardinal principle of recruiting armies, it is completely
obsolete.
42. Voluntary Service.— Existing voluntary armies have
usually developed from armies of the old regime, and seem to
owe their continued existence either to the fact that only com-
paratively small armaments are maintained in peace, other and
larger armies being specially recruited during a war (a modi-
fication of the " enlistment system "), or to the necessities
of garrisoning colonial empires. The military advantages and
disadvantages of voluntary service are naturally the faults and
merits of the opposite system. The voluntary army is available
for general service. It includes few unwilling soldiers, and its
resultant advantage over an army of the ordinary type has been
stated to be as high as 30 %. At all events, we need only examine
military history to find that with conscript armies wholesale
shirking is far from unknown. That loss from this cause does
not paralyse operations as it paralysed those of the ifcth century.
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605
is due to the fact thafsuch fugitives do not desert to the enemy,
but reappear in the ranks of their own side; it must not there-
fore be assumed that men have become braver because the
" missing " are not so numerous. In colonial and savage warfare
the superior personal qualities of the voluntary soldier often
count for more than skill on the part of the officers. These
would be diminished by shortening the time of service, and this
fact, with the expense of transport, entails that a reasonably
long period must be spent with die colours. On the other hand,
the provision of the large armies of modem warfare requires
the maintenance of a reserve, and no reserve is possible if the
whole period for which men will enlist is spent with the colours.
The demand for long service in the individual, and for trained
men in the aggregate, thus produces a compromise. The prin-
ciple of long service, i.e. ten years or more with the colours, is
not applicable to the needs of the modern pronde guerre, it gives
neither great initial strength nor great reserves. The force thus
produced is costly and not lightly to be risked', it affords rela-
tively little opportunity for the training of officers, and tends to
become a class apart from the rest of the population. On the
other hand, such a force is the best possible army for foreign
and colonial service. A state therefore which relies on voluntary
enlistment for its forces at home and abroad, must either keep an
army which is adaptable to both functions or maintain a separate
service for each.
In a state where relatively small armaments are maintained
in peace, voluntary armies are infinitely superior to any that
could be obtained under any system of compulsion. The state
can afford to give a good wage, and can therefore choose its
recruits carefully. It can thus have either a few incomparable
veteran soldiers (long-service), or a fairly large number of men
of superior physique and intelligence, who have received an
adequate short-service training. Even the youngest of such
men are capable of good service, while the veterans are probably
better soldiers than any to be found in co n scr ipt armies. This
is, however, a special case. The raw material of any but a
small voluntary army usually tends to be drawn from inferior
sources; the cost of a larger force, paid the full wages of skilled
labourers, would be very great, and numbers commensurate
with those of an army of the other model could only be obtained
at an exorbitant price. The short-service principle is therefore
accepted. Here, however, as recruiting depends upon the
good-will of the people, it is impossible to work the soldiers with
any degree of rigour. Hence the voluntary soldier must serve
longer than a conscript in order to attain the same proficiency.
The reserve is thus weakened, and the total trained regular
force diminished. Moreover, as fewer recruits are required
annually, there is less work for the officers to do. In the par-
ticular case of Great Britain it is practically certain that in future,
reliance wffl be placed upon the auxiliary forces and the civil
population for the provision of the enormous reserves required
in a great war; this course is, however, only feasible in the case
of an insular nation which has time to collect its strength for
the final and decisive blow overseas. The application of the
same principle to a continental military power depends on the
capacity for stern and unflagging resistance displayed by the
corps de couverture charged with the duty of gaining the time
necessary for the development and concentration of the national
masses. In Great Britain (except in the case of a surprise
invasion) the place of this corps would be taken by " command
of the sea." Abroad, the spirit of the exposed regiments them-
'selves furnishes the only guarantee, and this can hardly be
calculated with sufficient certainty, under modern conditions,
to justify the adoption of this new " enlistment system." Volun-
tary service, therefore, with all its intrinsic merits, is only
applicable to the conditions of a great war when the war reserve
can be trained ad hoc.
43. The militia idea (see Militia) has been applied most com-
pletely in Switzerland, which has no regulararmy, but trains almost
the whole nation as a militia. The system, with many serious
disadvantages, has the great merit that the maximum number
of men receives a certain amount of training at a
toth to the sUte aid to the individual Mention should also be
made of the system of augmenting the national forces by recruiting
" foreign legions." This is, of course, a relic of the Werbesystem,
it was practised habitually by the British governments of the
18th and early 19th centuries. " Hessians " figured conspicu-
ously in the British armies in the American War of Independence,
and the " King's German Legion " was only the best and most
famous of many foreign corps in the service of George III
during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. A new German
Legion was raised during the Crimean War, but the almost
universal adoption of the Krtmper system has naturally put an
end to the old method, for all the best recruits are now accounted
for in the service of their own countries.
Aunt Organization
44. Arms of Ike Service.— Organisation into " arms " is pro-
duced by the multiplicity of the weapons used, their functions
and their limitations. The M three arms "— a term universally
applied to infantry (*.».), cavalry (?.«.) and artillery (?.».)—
coexist owing to the fact that each can undertake functions
which the others cannot properly fulfil Thus cavalry can close
with an enemy at the quickest pace, Infantry can work in difficult
ground, and artillery is effective at great ranges. Infantry
indeed, having the power of engaging both at close quarters and
at a distance, constitutes the chief part of a fighting force.
Other " arms," such as mounted infantry, cyclists, engineers, Ac.,
are again differentiated from the three chief arms by their
proper functions. In deciding upon the establishment in peace,
or the composition of a force for war, it is therefore necessary
to settle beforehand the relative importance of these functions
in carrying out the work in band. Thus an army operating in
Essex would be unusually strong in infantry, one on Salisbury
Plain would possess a great number of guns, and an army
operating on the South African veldt would consist very larger/
of mounted men. The normal European war has, however,
naturally been taken as the basis upon which the relative
proportions of the three arms are calculated. At the battle of
Kohn (1757) the cavalry was more than half as strong as the
infantry engaged. At Borodino (i8t») there were 30 cavalry
to too of other arms, and $ guns per 1000 men. In 1870 the
Germans had at the outset 7 cavalrymen to every 100 men of
other arms, the French 10. As for guns, the German artillery
had 3, the French 3) per 1000 men. In more modern times the
proportions have undergone some alteration, the artillery having
been increased, and the cavalry brought nearer to the Napoleonic
standard. Thus the relative proportions, in peace time, now
stand at s or 6 guns per 1000 men, and 16 cavalry eokUers
to 100 men of other arms. It must be borne in mind that cavalry
and artillery are maintained in peace at a higher effective than
infantry, the strength of the latter being much inflated in war,
while cavalry and artillery are not easily extemporised, Thus
m theManchurfan campaign these proportions w e re v ery different.
The Russian army on the eve of the battle of Mukden (seth of
February 1905) consisted of 370 battalions, 14s squadrons and
1 53 field batteries (1 sco guns), with, in addition, over aoo heavy
guns. The strength of this force, which was organized in three
armies, was about 300,000 Infantry and 18,000 cavalry and
Cossacks, with 3} guns per tooo men of other arms. The
Japanese armies consisted of 300,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry,
000 field and 170 heavy guns, the proportion of field artillery
being t$ guns per tooo men.
It is perhMps not superfluous to mention that all the smaller
units in a modern army consist of one arm only. Formerly
several dissimilar weapons were combined in the same unit.
The knight with his four or five variously armed retainers
constituted an example of this method of organisation, which
slowly died out ss weapons became more uniform and their
functions better defined
45. Command.— The first essential of a good organisation is
to ensure that each member of the organised body, in Us own
sphere of action, should contribute his share to the achievement
of the common object Further, H is entirely beyond the «•
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ARMY
of one man, or of a few, to control every action and provide
for every want of a great number of individuals. The modern
system of command, therefore, provides for a system of grades,
in which, theoretically, officers of each grade control a group
of the next lower units. A lieutenant-colonel, for instance,
may be in charge of a group of eight companies, each of which
is under a captain. In practice, all armies are permanently
organised on these lines, up to the colonel's or lieutenant-colonel's
command, and most of them are permanently divided into various
higher units under general officers, the brigade, division and
army corps. The almost invariable practice is to organize
infantry into companies, battalions and regiments. Cavalry is
divided into troops, squadrons and regiments* Artillery is
organized in batteries, these being usually grouped in various
ways. The other arms and departments are subdivided in the
same general way. The commands of general officers are the
brigade of infantry, cavalry, and in some cases artillery, the
division of two or more infantry brigades and a force of artillery
and mounted troops, or of cavalry and horse artillery, and the
army corps of two or more divisionsand " corps troops.' 1 Armies
of several corps, and groups of armies are also formed.
46. A brigade is the command of a brigadier or major-general,
or of a colonel. It consists almost invariably of one arm only.
In armies of the old regime it was not usual to assign troops of
all arms to the subordinate generals. Hence the brigade is a
much older form of organization than the division of all arms,
and in fact dates from the 16th century. The infantry brigade
consists, in the British service, of the brigadier and his staff,
four battalions of infantry, and adminstrative and medical
units, the combatant strength being about 4000 men. In
Germany and France the brigade is composed of the staff, and
two regiments (6 battalions) with a total of over 6000 combatants
at war strength. The cavalry brigade is sometimes formed of
three, sometimes of two regiments; the number of squadrons
to a regiment on service is usually four, exceptionally three,
and rarely five and six. The " brigade " of artillery in Great
Britain is a lieutenant-colonel's command, and the term here
corresponds to the Abiheilung of the German, and the groupe of
the French armies (see Artillery). In Germany and France,
however, an artillery brigade consists of two or more regiments,
or twelve batteries at least, under the command of an artillery
general officer.
47. A division is an organisation containing troops of all
arms. Since the virtual abolition of the "corps artillery "
(see Artillery), the force of field artillery forming part of an
infantry division is sometimes as high as 7a guns (Germany);
in Great Britain the augmented division of 1906 has 54 field
guns, xa field howitzers, and 4 heavy guns, a total of 70. The
term " infantry " division is, in strictness, no longer applicable,
since such a unit Is a miniature army corps of infantry, artillery
and cavalry, with the necessary services for the supply of
ammunition, food and forage, and for the care of the sick, and
wounded. A more exact title would be " army " division. In
general it is composed, so far as combatants are concerned,
of the divisional commander and bis staff, two or more infantry
brigades, a number of batteries of field artillery forming a regi-
ment, brigade or group, a small force, varying from a squadron
to a regiment,of cavalry (divisional cavalry), with some engineers.
The force of the old British division (1005) may be taken, on an
average, aa 10,000 men, increased in the 1006 reorganization
to about 15,000 combatants. In other armies the fighting force
of the division amounts to rather more than 14*000. The
cavalry division (see Cavalry) is composed of the staff, two or
three cavalry brigades, horse artillery, with perhaps mounted
infantry, cyclists, or even light infantry in addition. In many,
if not most, armies cavalry divisions are formed only in war.
In the field the cavalry division is usually an independent unit
with its own commander and staff. " Cavalry corps " of several
divisions have very rarely been formed in the past, a division
having been regarded as the largest unit capable of being led
by one man. There is, however, a growing tendency in favour
of the corps organisation, at any rate in war.
48. Army C#r^.— The " corps " of the 18th century was simply
a large detachment, more or less complete in itself, organized
for some particular purpose {e.g. to cover a siege), and placed
for the time being under some general officer other than the chief
commander. The modern army corps is a development from
the division of all arms, which originated in the French Revolu-
tionary wars. It is a unit of considerable strength, furnished
with the due proportion of troops of all arms and of the auxiliary
and medical services, and permanently placed under the com-
mand of one general- The corps organization (though a carps
d'armfe was often spoken of as an armee) was used in Napoleon's
army in all the campaigns of the Empire. It may be mentioned,
as a curious feature of Napoleon's methods, that he invariably
constituted each corps d*armie of a different strength, so that the
enemy would not be able to estimate his force by the simple
process of counting the corps flags which marked the marshals'
headquarters. Thus in 181 a he constituted one corps of 73,000
men, while another had but 18,000. After the fall of Napoleon
a further advance was made. The adoption of universal service
amongst the great military nations brought in its train the
territorial organization, and the corps, representing a largos
district, soon became a unit of peace formation. For the smooth
working of the new military system it was essential that the
framework of the war army should exist in peace. The Prussians
were the first to bring the system to perfection; long before 1866
Prussia was permanently divided into army corps districts,
all the troops of the ILL army corps being Brandenburgers,
all those of the VI. Silesians, and so on, though political reasons
required, and to some extent still require, modifications of this
principle in dealing with annexed territory (e.g. Hanover and
Alsace-Lorraine). The events of 1866 and of 1870-71 caused
the almost universal adoption of the army corps regional system.
In the case of the British army, operating as it usually did in
minor wars, and rarely having more than sixty or seventy
thousand men on one theatre even in continental wars, there
was less need of so large a unit as the corps. Not only was a
British army small in numbers, but it preserved high traditions
of discipline, and was sufficiently well trained to be susceptible
as a unit to the impulse given by one man. Even where the
term " corps " does appear in Peninsular annals, the implication
is of a corps in the old sense of a grand detachment Neither
cavalry nor artillery was assigned to any of the British " corps "
at Waterloo.
40. Constitution of the Army Corps.—hx 1870-71 the LTL
German army corps (with which compare Marshal Davout's
ordre de bataille above) consisted of the following combatant
units, (a) staff; (b) two infantry divisions (4 brigades, 8
regiments or 34 battalions), with, in each division, a cavalry
regiment, 4 batteries of artillery or 34 guns, and engineers;
(c) corps troops, artillery (6 field batteries), pioneer battalion
(engineers), train battalion (supply and transport), A rifle
battalion was attached to one of the divisions.
This ordre de bataille was followed more or less generally by all
countries up to the most modern times, but between 1800 and
1902 came a very considerable change in the point of view from
which the corps was regarded as a fighting unit. This change was
expressed in the abolition of the corps artillery. Formerly the
corps commander controlled the greater part of the field artillery,
as well as troops of other arms; at the present time he has a
mere handful of troops Unless battalions are taken from the
divisions to form a corps reserve, the direct influence of the corps
organization on the battle is due almost solely to the fact that
the commander has at his disposal the special natures of artillery
and also some horse artillery Thus the (augmented) division
is regarded by many as the fighting unit of the 30th, as the corps
was that of the 19th century. In Europe there is even a tendency
to substitute the ancient phrase " reserve artillery " for " corps
artillery," showing that the role to be played by the corps
batteries h subordinated to the operations of the masses of divi-
sional artillery, the whole being subject, of course, to the technical
supervision of the artillery general officer who accompanies
the corps headquarters. Thus limited, the army corps has now
ARMY
607
- ame to consist of the staff, two or more divisions, the corps or
serve artillery (of special batteries), a small force of "corps "
ivalry, and various technical and departmental troops. The
ivalry is never very numerous, owing to the demands of the
r idependent cavalry divisions on the one hand and those of the
ivisional cavalry on the other. The engineers of an army corps
idude telegraph, bauoon and pontoon units. Attached to the
ftps are reserves of munitions and supplies in ammunition
1 damns, field parks, supply parks, Ac The term and the organ*
_ation were discontinued in England in 1906, on the augmetota-
on of the divisions and the assignment of certain former
corps troops" to the direct control of the army commanders.
t should be noticed that the Japanese, who had no corps
rganisatkm during the war of 1904-5, afterwards increased
-_ he strength of their divisions from 15,000 to 90,000; the
~ ugraented " division,'* with the above ftacc strength, becomes
all intents and purposes a corps, and the generals commanding
dvistons were in 1006 given the title of generals-in-chief .
50. Army.*— The term " army " is applied, in war time, to any
ommand of several army corps, or even of several divisions,
', jpemting under the orders of one commander-in-chief. The
_ irmy in this tense (distinguished by a number or by a special
' itle) varies, therefore, with circumstances. In the American
3vil War, the Army of the Omo consisted in 1864 only of the
..iTtty staff and tlieXXIU. corps. At the other extreme we find
Jiat the German II. Army in 1870 consisted of seven army corps
' tad two cavalry divisions, and the III. Army of six army corps
nut two cavalry divisions. Theterm " army "in this sense is
.'therefore very elastic in its application, but it is generally held
that large groups of corps operating in one theatre of war should
be subdivided into armies, and that the strength of sn army
'.should not exceed about 150,000 men, if indeed this figure is
reached at ail. This again depends upon circumstances. It
' might be advisable to divide a force of five corps into two armies,
7 or on the other hand it might be impossible to find suitable
; leaders for more than two armies when half a million men were
\ present for duty. In France, organisation has been carried a
step further. The bulk of the national forces is, in case of war,
organised into a " group of armies " under a commander, usually,
though incorrectly, called the generalissimo. Tins office, of
' course, does not exist in peace, but the insignia, the distinctive
" marks of the headquarters flag, &c, are stated in official publica-
tions, and the names of the generalissimo and of his chief of staff
_ are known. Under the generalissimo would be four-or five army
commanders, each with three or four army corps under him.
Independent of tins " group of armies " there would be other and
minor " armies " where required.
5». Chief Command.— The leading of the " group- of armies "
referred to above doe* not, in France, imply the supreme com-
mand, which would be exercised by the minister of war in Paris.
The German system, on the other hand, is based upon the leader*
ship of the national forces by the sovereign in person, and even
though the headquarters of the "supreme war lord" (Oberst*
Kriegskerr) are actually in the field in one theatre of operations,
he directs the movements of the German armies in all quarters.
Similarly, in 1864, General Grant accompanied and controlled
*s a "group" the Armies of the Potomac and the James,
supervising at the same time the operations of other groups and
Armies. In the same campaign a subordinate general, Sherman,
commanded a " group "consisting of the Armies of the Tennessee,
the Cumberland and the Ohio. The question as to whether the
supreme command and the command of the principal group of
Annies should be in the same hands is very difficult of solution.
In practice, the method adopted in each case usually grows out
of the military and political conditions. The advantage of the
German method is that the supreme commander is in actual
contact with the troops, and can therefore form an accurate
judgment of their powers. Under these conditions the risk of
having cabinet strategy forced upon the generals is at its
minimum, and more especially so if the supreme commander is
Jhc head of the state. On the other hand, his judgment fa very
liable to be influenced unduly by facts, coming under his own
notice, which may in reality have no more than a local signifi-
cance. Further, the supreme commander is at the mercy of
distant subordinates to a far greater degree than he would be if
free to go from one army to another. Thus, in 1870 the king
of Prussia's headquarters before Paris were subjected to such
pressure from subordinate army commanders that on several
occasions selected staff-officers had to be sent to examine, for
the king's private information, the real state of things at the
front. The conduct of operations by one group commander in
the campaign of 1864 seemed, at a distance, so eccentric and
dangerous that General Grant actually left his own group of
armies and went in person to take over command at the
threatened point Balanced judgment is thus often impossible
unless the supreme command is independent of, and in a position
to exercise general supervision over, each and every group or
army. At the other end of the scale is the system of command
employed by the Turks in 1877, in whkh four armies, three of
them being actually on the same theatre of war, were directed
from Constantinople. This system may be condemned un-
reservedly. It Is recognked that, once the armies on either side
have become seriously engaged, a commander-in-chief on the
spot must direct them. Thus in 1004, while the Japanese and
Russian armies were under the supreme command of their
respective sovereigns, General Kuropatkin and Marshal Oyama
personally commanded the chief groups of armies in the field
This is substantially the same as the system of the French army.
It is therefore permissible to regard the system pursued by the
Germans in 1870, and by the Union government in 1864, more
as suited to special circumstances than as a general rule. As has
been said above, the special feature of the German system of
command is the personal leadership of the German emperor, and
this brings the student at once to the consideration of another
important part of the " superior leading."
53. The Chief of tit* Central S*$ is, as his title implies, the
chief staff officer of the service, and as such, he has duties of the
highest possibie importance, both in peace and war. For the
genera] subject of staff duties see Stajf. Here we are concerned
only with the peculiar position of the chief of staff under a system
in which the sovereign is the actual commander-in-chief. It is
obvious in the first place that the sovereign may not be a great
soldier, fitted by mental gifts, training and character to be placed
at the head of an army of, perhajw, a million men. Allowing
that it is imperative that, whatever he may be in himself, the
sovereign should ex officii command the armies, it is easy to see
that the ablest general in these armies must be selected to act as
his adviser, irrespective of rank and seniority. This officer must
therefore be assigned to a station beyond that of his many rank,
and his orders ate in fact those of the so vereign himself. Nor is it
sufficient that he should occupy an unofficial position as adviser,
or ad lotus. If lie wereno more than thi^ the wrwaagn could act
without his adviser being even aware of theartion taken. As the
staff is the machinery for the transmission of orders and dear
patches, ail orders of the comraander^n-chief are signed by the
chief of staff as a matter of course, and tills position is therefore
that in which the adviser has the necessary influence. The
relations between the sovereign and his chief military adviser
are thus of the first importance to the smooth working of the
great military machine, and never have the possibilities of tins
apparently strange system been mere fully exploited than by
King WsUiam and his chief of staff, von Moltke in 1866 and in
1870*71. It is not true to say that the king was the mere
figurehead of the German armies, or that Moltke was the real
commander-in-chief. ' Those who have said this forget that the
sole responsibility for the consequences of every order lay with the
king, and that it is precisely the fear of this rosponsibilty that
has made so many brilliant subordinates fail when in chief
command. The characters of the two men supplemented each
othet, as also in the case of Blucher and Gneisenau and that of
Radetzky and Hess. Under these circumstances, the German
system of command works, on the whole, smoothly. Matters
would, however, be different if either of the two officers failed to
realize their mutual interdependence, and the system i? '
6o8
ARMY
cue only required when the self-sufficing great soldier is not
available for the chief executive command.
53. First and Second Lines.— The organization into anna and
units is of course maintained in peace as well as for war. Military
forces are further organised, in peace, into active and reserve
troops, first and second lines, &&, according to the power pos-
sessed by the executive over the men. Broadly speaking, the
latter fall into three clswsm, regulars, auxiliary forces and
irregular troops. The regulars or active troopa are usually
liable to serve at all times and in any country to which they
may be sent Auxiliary forces may be defined as all troops
which undergo actual military training without being constantly
under arms, and in Great Britain these were until 1008 repre-
sented by the Militia, the Yeomanry and the Volunteers, and
now by the Territorial Force and the Special Reserve. In a
country in which recruiting is by voluntary enlistment the
classification is, of course, very different from that prevailing in
a conscript army. The various "lines "are usually composed
of separate organizations; the men are recruited upon different
engagements, and receive a varying amount of training. Of
the men not permanently embodied, only the reserve of the
active army has actually served a continuous term with the
colours. Other troops, called by various appellations, of which
" militia *' may be taken as generic, go through their military
training at intervals. The general lines of army organization
in the case of a country recruiting by universal service are as
follows —The male population is divided into classes, by ages,
and the total period of liability to service is usually about
35 years. Thus at any given time, stauming two years' colour-
service, the men of so and *i years of age would constitute the
active army serving with the colours, those of, say, 33 and 33,
the reserve. The Landwekr or second line army would consist
of all men who bad been through the active army and were now
aged 34 to 36. The third line would similarly consist of men
whose ages were between 36 and 44. Assuming the same annual
levy, the active army would consist of 200,000 men, its reserve
200,000, the second line of 1400,000, and the third of 800,000.
Thus of 2,500,000 men liable to, and trained for, military service,
aoo,ooo only would be under arms at any given time. The
simple system here outlined is of course modified and compli-
cated in practice owing to re-engagements by non-commissioned
officers, the speedy dismissal to the reserve of intelligent and
educated men, &c
54. War RJuerms. — In war, the reserves increase 'the field
armies to 400,000 men, the whole or part of the second line is
called up and formed into auxiliary regiments, brigades and
divisions, and in case of necessity the third line is also called
upon, though usually this is only in the last resort and for home
defence only* The proportion of reservists to men with the
colours varies of course with the length of service. Thus in
France or Germany, with two years' service in force, half of the
rank and file of a unit in war would be men recalled from civil
life. The true military value of reservists is often questioned,
and under certain circumstances it is probable that units would
take the field at peace strength without waiting for their reserv-
ists. The frontier guards of the continental military powers,
which are expected to move at the earliest possible moment
after hostilities have begun, are maintained at a higher effective
'than other units, and do not depend to any great extent on
receiving reservists. The peace footing of cavalry and artillery
units is similarly maintained at an artificial level. An operation
of the nature of a coup de main would in any case be carried
out by the troops available at the moment, however large might
be the force required— twenty weak battalions would, in fact,
be employed instead of ten strong ones. There is another class
of troops, which may be called depot troops. These consist of
officers and men left behind when the active corps completed
with reserves takes the field, and they have (a) to furnish drafts
for the front— and (6) to form a nucleus upon which all later
formations are built up. The troops of the second line undertake
minor work, such ss guarding railways, and also furnish drafts
for the field army. Later, when they have been for some time
under arms, the second Una troopa are often employed by I
selves in first line. A year's training under war conditions
should bring such troops to the highest efficiency Aa for
irregulars, they have real military value only when the various
permanent establishments do not take up the whole fighting
strength of the nation, and thus states having universal service
armies do not, as a rule, contemplate the employment of com-
batants other than those shown on the peace rolls. The status
of irregulars is ill defined, but it is practically agreed that com-
batants, over whose conduct the military authorities have an
disciplinary power, should be denied the privileges of recognised
soldiers, and put to death if captured. So drastic a procedure
is naturally open to abuse and is not always expedient, Still,
it is perfectly right that the same man shall not be allowed,
for example, to shoot a sentry at one moment, and to claim
the privileges of a harmless civilian at the next. The division
into first, second and third lines foUowagenerallyixom the above.
The first line troops, in a conscript army, are the " active army"
or regulars, permanently under arms in peace time, and its
reserves, which are used on the outbreak of war to complete
the existing unite to full strength. The German terms Landmtkr
and Landstum are often applied to armies of the second and the
third lines.
55. The military characteristics of the various type* of regular
troops have been dealt with in considering the advantages and
disadvantages of the several forms of recruiting. It only se-
mains to give some indication of the advantages which such
forces (irrespective of* their time of service) possess over troops
which only come up for training at intervals. Physically, the
men with the colours are always superior to the rest, owing to
their constant exercise and the regularity and order under
which they live; as soldiers, they are more under the control of
their officers, who are their leaders in daily life, in closer tooch
with army methods and discipline, and, as regards their formal
training, they possess infinitely greater power of strategic and
tactical manoeuvre. Their steadiness under fire is of course
more to be relied upon than that of other troopa. Wellington,
speaking of the contrast between old and young aoldiexa
(regulars), was of opinion that the chief difference lay in the
greater hardinm, power of endurance, and general *■— r*ig"»i«g
qualities given by experience. This is of course more than ever
true in respect of regular and auxiliary troopa, as waa strikingly
demonstrated in the Spanish-American War. On the whole, it Is
true to say that only a regular army can endure defeat without
dissolution, and that volunteers, reservists or militiamen fresh
from civil life may win a victory but cannot make the fullest
use of it when won. At the same time, when they have been
through one or two arduous campaigns, raw troops become to
all intents and purposes equal to any regulars. On the other
hand, the greatest military virtue of auxiliary forces is their
enthusiasm. With this quality were won the great victories of
1793-94 in France, those of 1813 in Germany, and the beginnings
of Italian unity at Calatafimi and Palermo. The earlier days of
the American Civil War witnessed desperate fighting, of which
Shiloh is the best example, between armies which had had but
the slightest military training. In the same war the first battle
of Bull Run illustrated what has been said above as to the
weaknesses of unprofessional armies. Both sides, raw and un
trained, fought for a long time with the greatest determination,
after which the defeated army was completely dissolved in rout
and the victors quite unable to pursue. So far it Is the relative
military value of the professional soldier and the citizen-soldier
that has been reviewed. A continental army of the French or
German stamp is differently constituted. It is. first of all, clear
that the drilled citizen-soldier combines the qualities of training
and enthusiasm. From this it follows that a hostile " feeling '*
as well as a hostile ** view " must animate such an army if it is
to do good service- If a modern " nation in arms " is engaged
in a purely dynastic quarrel against a professional army of
inferior strength, the result will probably be victory for the latter.
But the active army of France or Germany constitutes but a
small part of the M nation in arms,*' and the army for war fc
ARMY
609
co m po s ed in addition of men who have at some period in the
past gone through a regular training. Herein lies the difference
between continental and British auxiliary forces. In the French
army, an ex-soldier during his ten years of reserve service was
by the law of 1005 only liable for two months' training, and for
the rest of his military career for two weeks' service only. The
further reduction of this liability was proposed in 1907 and led
to much controversy. The question of the value of auxiliary
forces, then, as between the continous work of, say, English
territorials, and the permanent though dwindling influence of
an original period of active soldiering, is one of considerable
importance. It is largely decided in any given case by the
average age of the men in the ranks.
56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of
war is called mobilisation. This is, of course, a matter which
primarily depends on good administration, and its minutest
details are in all states laid down beforehand. Reservists have
to be summoned, and, on arrival, to be clothed and equipped
out of stores maintained in peace. Officers and men of the regular
army on leave have to be recalled, the whole medically examined
for physical fitness to serve, and a thousand details have to be
worked out before the unit is ready to move to its concentration
station. The coucentration and the strategic deployment are,
of course, dependent upon the circumstances of each war, and the
peace organization ceases to be applicable. But throughout a
war the depots at home, the recruiting districts of second-line
troops, and above all the various arsenals, manufactories and
offices controlled by the war department are continually at work
in maintaining the troops in the field at proper strength and
effectiveness.
57. Territorial System. — The feudal system was of course a
territorial system in principle. Indeed, as has been shown above,
a feudal army was chiefly at fault owing to the dislocation of
the various levies. Concentration was equally the characteristic
of the professional armies which succeeded those of feudalism,
and only such militia forces as remained in existence preserved
a local character. The origin of territorial recruiting for first-
line troops is to be found in the " cantonal " system, said to have
been introduced by Louis XIV., but brought to the greatest
perfection in Prussia under Frederick William I. But long
service and the absence of a reserve vitiated the system in
practice, since losses had to be made good by general recruiting,
and even the French Revolution may hardly be said to have
produced the territorial system as we understand it to-day.
It was only in the deliberate preparation of the Prussian army
on short-service lines that we find the beginning of the " terri-
torial system of dislocation and command." This is so intimately
connected with the general system of organization that it cannot
be considered merely as a method of recruiting by districts.
It may be defined as a system whereby, for purposes of command
in peace, recruiting, and of organization generally, the country is
divided into districts, which are again divided and subdivided
as may be required. In a country in which universal service
prevails, an army corps district is divided into divisional districts,
these being made up of brigade and of regimental districts. Each
of these units recruits, and is in peace usually stationed, in its
own area; the artillery, cavalry and special arms are recruited
for the corps throughout the whole allotted area, and stationed
at various points within the same. Thus in the German army
the III. army corps is composed entirely of Brandenburgers.
The infantry of the corps is stationed in ten towns, the cavalry
in four and the artillery in five. In countries which adhere to
voluntary recruiting, the system, depending as it does on the
calculable certainty of recruiting, is not so fully developed, but
in Great Britain the auxiliary forces have been reorganized in
divisions of all arms on a strictly terri torial basis. The advantage
of the system as carried into effect in Germany is obvious.
Training is carried out with a minimum of friction and expense,
as each unit has an ample area for training. Whilst the brigadiers
can exercise general control over the colonels, and the divisional
generals over the brigadiers, there is little undue interference
of superior authority in the work of each grade, and the men,
if soldiers by oompubton, at any fate are serving dose to their
own homes. Most of the reservists required on mobilization
reside within a few miles of their barracks. Living in the midst
of the civil population, the troops do not tend to become a class
apart. Small garrisons are not, as formerly, allowed to stagnate;
since modern communications make supervision easy. Further,
it must be borne in mind that the essence of the system is the
organixatkmand training for war of the whole military population.
Now so great a mass of men could not be administered except
through this decentralization of authority, and the corollary
of short service universally applied is the full territorial system,
in which the whole enrolled strength of the district is subjected
to the authority of the district commander. Practice, however,
falls short of theory, and the dangers of drawing whole units
from disaffected or unmilitary districts are often foreseen and
discounted by distributing the recruits, non-regionaily, amongst
more or less distant regiments.
58. Army Administration. — The existing systems of command
and organization, being usually based upon purely military
considerations, have thus much, indeed almost all, in common.
Administration differs from them m one important respect.
While the methods of command and organization are the resubX
of the accumulated experience of many armies through many
hundred years, the central administration in each case is the
product of the historical evolution of the particular country,
and is dependent upon forms of government, constitutions
and political parties. Thus France, after 1870, remodelled the
organization of her forces in accordance with the methods which
were presumed to have given Germany the victory, but the head-
quarters staff at Paris is very different in all branches from that
of Berlin. Great Britain adopted German tactics, and to some
extent even uniform, but the Army Council has no counterpart
in the administration of the German emperor's forces.
The first point for. consideration, therefore, is, what is the
ultimate, and what .is the proximate, authority supervising the
administration? The former is, in most countries, the people
or its representatives in parliament, for it is in their power to
stop supplies, and without money the whole military fabric must
crumble. The constitutional chief of the army is the sovereign,
or, in republics, the president, but in most countries the direct
control of army matters by the representatives of the people
extends over all affairs into which the well-being of the civil
population, the expenditure of money, alleged miscarriages of
military justice, &c, enter, and it is not unusual to find grand
strategy, and even the technical deficiencies of a field-gun or
rifle, the subject of interpellation and debate. The peculiar
influence of the sovereign is in what may be termed patronage
(that is, the selection of officers to fill important positions and,
the general supervision of the officer-corps), and in the fact that
loyalty is the foundation of the discipline and soldierly honour,
which it is the task of the officers to inculate into their men. In
all cases the head of the state is ipso facto the head of the army J
The difference between various systems may then be held to
depend on the degree of power allowed to or held by him. This
reacts upon the central administration of the army, and is the
cause of the differences of system alluded to. For the civil chief
of the executive is not necessarily a soldier, much less an expert
and capable soldier; he must, therefore, be provided with technical
advisers. The chief of the general staff is often the principal
of these, though in some cases a special commander-in-chief,
or the minister for war, or, as in France and England, a com-
mittee or council, has the duty of advising the executive on
technical matters.
59. Branches of Administration.— In these circumstances the
only general principle of army administration common to all
systems is the division of the labour between two great branches.
Military administration, in respect of the troops and material
which it has to control, is divided between the departments
of the War Office and the General Staff. In the staff work of
subordinate units, e.g, army corps and divisions, the same classi-
fication of duties is adopted, " general staff " duties being per-
formed by one set of officers, " routine staff " duties by another.
6io
ARMY
The work of a General Slaf may be taken as consisting in
preparation for war, and this again, both in Great Britain
and abroad, consists of military policy in all its branches, staff
duties in war, the collection of intelligence, mobilization, plans
of operations and concentration, training, military history
and geography, and the preparation of war regulations. These
subjects are usually subdivided into four or five groups, each
of which is dealt with by a separate section of the general staff,
the actual division of the work, of course, varying in different
countries. Thus, the second section of the French staff deals
with " the organization and tactics of foreign armies, study of
foreign theatres of war, and military missions abroad." A
War Office is concerned with peace administration and with the
provision of men and material in war. Under the former cate-
gory fall such matters as " routine " administration, finance,
justice, recruiting, promotion of officers (though not always),
barracks and buildings generally, armament, equipment and
clothing, ftc, in fact all matters not directly relevant to the
.training of the troops for and the employment of the troops in
war. In war, some of the functions of a war office are suspended,
but on the other hand the work necessary for the provision of
^men and material to augment the army and to make good its
losses is vastly increased. In 1870 the minister of war, von
and the quartermaster-general's branch, which supervises the
provision and issue of supplies, stores and materiel of all kinds.
Over and above these, provision has to be made for control
of all the technical parts of administration, suck as artillery
and engineer services (in Great Britain, this, with a portion of
the quartermaster-general's department, is under the master-
general of the ordnance), and for military legislation, preparation
of estimates, &c. These are, of course, special subject*, not
directly belonging to the general administrative system. It
Is only requisite that the latter should be sufficiently elastic
to admit of these departments being formed as required. How-
ever these subordinate offices may be multiplied, the main work
of the war office is in the two departments of the adjutant-
general (personnel) and the quartermaster-general (materiel).
Beyond and wholly distinct from these is the general staff,
the creation of which is perhaps the most important con*
tribution of the past century to the pure science of military
organization.
British Army
60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England
was essentially a national militia. Every freeman was bound to
bear arms for the defence of the country, or for the maintenance
Comparative Strength of Various Armies
(a) Compulsory Service (1906).
France.
Germany.
Russia.
Austria-
Hungary.
Italy.
Annual Contingent for the Colours
Medically unfit and exempt
Excused from Service in Peace, able-bodied
Total of Men becoming liable for Service in 1907 .
230,000
90,000
222,000
127,000
291,000
254,000
120,000
606,000
128.000
§7.000
285,000
83.00 »
1 10.000
122.000
320,000
540,000
080,000
470,000
31S.000
Total Permanent Armed Force in Peace .....
610.000
(not includ-
ing colonial
troops)
610,000
1,226,000
356,000
269.000
First-Line Troops, war-strength (estimated) ....
Second-Line Troops, war-strength (estimated) ....
Numbers available in excess ofthesc (estimated) .
Total War Resources of all kinds
1,350,000
3,000,000
450.000
1,675,000
2,275,000
3,950,000
2,187,000
t ,429,000
9.384.000
950.000
1450,000
5.000,000
860,000
1.150,000
1,200.000
4,800,000
7,900,000
13,000,000
7,400,000
3.150.000
Annual Military Expenditure — total
Annual Military Expenditure— per head of population
(approximate)
£27,720,000
13s. 9<i.
£33,228,000
10s. 9d.
£36,080,000
5s. 3d.
£15,840,000
6s. 8d.
£11,280.000
6a. $d.
\b) Authorized Establishments and Approximate Military Resources of the British Empire ( 1 906-1907).
British
Regular
Army.
Reserves
for
Regular
Army.
Auxiliary
Forces.
Native
Troops
(Regular,
Reserve,
Ac).
Colonial
Forces
(various).
Total.
Great Britain
Channel Islands, Malta. Bermuda, Colonies and Dependencies .
India *"
117,000
65,000
75,000
120,000
■0 oto o>>o e»o
202,000
30,000
59.000
(reserves)
737.000
101.000
307.000
105.000
70.000
20.000
Canadian Forces
Australian Forces (including New Zealand)
South African Forces
Totals
257.ooo
120,000
672,000
202,000
89,000
1440,000
Note. — Ex-soldiers of regular and auxiliary forces, still fit for service, and estimated levies en mas it, are not counted. Enlistment
chiefly voluntary.
(c) The Regular Army of the United States has a maximum authorised establishment (1006) of 60,000 enlisted men; the Organised
Militia was at the same date 1 10,000 strong. Voluntary enlistment throughout. (See United States.) In 1906- 1907 the total numbers
available for a levee en masse were estimated at 13,000,000.
Roon, accompanied the headquarters in the field, but this
arrangement did not work well, and will not be employed again.
The chief duties other than those of the general staff fall into
two classes, the " routine staff," administration or adjutant-
general's branch, which deals with all matters affecting personnel,
of order. To give some organization and training to the levy.
the several sheriffs had authority to call out the contingents of
their shires for exercise. The " fyrd," as the levy was named,
was available for home service only, and could not be moved
even from its county except in the case of emergency; and it
BRITISH]
ARMY
6ir
was principally to repel oversea Invasions that its services wen
required. Yet even in those days the necessity of some more
permanent forte was felt, and bodies of paid troops were main-
tained by the kings at their own cost. Thus Canute and his
«uccessors t and even some of the great earls kept op a household
force (kuscortes). The English army at Hastings consisted of
thefyrd and the corps of huscarles.
The English had fought on foot; but the mailed horseman
had now become the chief factor in war, and the Conqueror
introduced into England the system of tenure by knight-service
familiar in Normandy. This was based on the unit of the feudal
host, the constabidaria of ten knights, the Conqueror granting
lands in return for finding one or more of these units (in the case
of great barons) or some fraction of them (in the case of lesser
tenants). The obligation was to provide knights to serve, with
horse and arms, for forty days in each year at their own charges.
This obligation could be handed on by sub-enfeoffment through
a whole series of under-tenants. The system being based,
not on the duty of personal service, but on the obligation to
supply one or more knights (or it might be only the fraction of
a knight), it was early found convenient to commute this for a
money payment known as " scutage " (see Kntcht Service and
Scutace). This money enabled the king to hire mercenaries,
or pay such of the feudal troops as were willing to serve beyond
the usual time. From time to time proclamations and statutes
we're issued reminding the holders of knights' fees of their duties;
but the immediate object was generally to raise money rather
than to enforce personal service, which became more and more
rare. The feudal system had not, however, abrogated the old
Saxon levies, and from these arose two national institutions —
the posse comitates, liable to be called out by the sheriff to
maintain the king's peace, and later the militia (q.v.). The posse
comitatus, or power of the county, included all males able to bear
arms, peers and spiritual men excepted; and though primarily
a police force it was also bound to assist in the defence of the
country. This levy was organized by the Assize of Arms under
Henry II. (1181), and subsequently under Edward I. (1285) by
the so-called " Statute of Winchester," which determined the
numbers and description of weapons to be kept by each man
According to his property, and also provided for their periodical
inspection The early Plantagcncts made free use of mercenaries.
But the weakness of the feudal system in England was preparing,
through the i?th and 13th centuries, a nation in arms absolutely
unique in the middle ages. The Scottish and Welsh wars were, of
course, fought by the feudal levy, but this levy was far from
being the mob of unwilling peasants usual abroad, and from the
fyrd came the English archers, whose fame was established by
Edward I.'s wars, and carried to the continent by Edward III.
Edward III. realized that there was better material to be had
in his own country than abroad, and the army with which he
invaded France was an army of national mercenaries, or, more
simply, of English soldiers. The army at Crccy was composed
exclusively of English, Welsh and Irish. From the pay fist of
the army at the siege of Calais (1346) it appears that all ranks,
from the prince of Wales downward, were paid, no attempt being
made to force even the feudal nobles to serve abroad at their own
expense. These armies were raised mainly by contracts entered
into " with some knight or gentleman expert in war, and of great
revenue and livelihood in the country, to serve the king in war
with a number of men." Copies of the indentures executed when
Henry V. raised his array for the invasion of France in 141 5 are in
existence. Under these the contracting party agreed to serve the
king abroad for one year, with a given number of men equipped
according to agreement, and at a stipulated rate of pay. A
certain sum was usually paid in advance, and in many cases
the crown jewels and plate were given in pledge for the rest.
The profession of arms seems to have been profitable. The
pay of the soldier was high as compared with that of the
ordinary labourer, and be had the prospect of a share of
plunder in addition, so that it was not difficult to raise men
where the commander had a good military reputation. Edward
III. is said to have declined the services of numbers of foreign
mercenaries who wished to enrol under him in his wars against
France.
The funds for the payment of these armies were provided
partly from the royal revenues, partly from the fines paid in lien
of military service, and other fines arbitrarily imposed, and
partly by grants from parliament. As the soldier's contract
usually ended with the war, and the king had seldom funds to
renew it even if he so wished, the armies disbanded of themselves
at the close of each war. To secure the services of the soldier
during his contract, acts were passed (18 Henry VI. c. 19; and
7 Henry VII. c. 1) inflicting penalties for desertion; and in
Edward VI. 's reign an act " touching the true service of captains
and soldiers " was passed) somewhat of the nature of a Mutiny
Act.
61 . It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between
the Hundred Years' War and 1642. The final failure of the
English arms in France was soon followed by the Wars of the
Roses, and in the long period of civil strife the only national
force remaining to England was the Calais garrison. Henry VIIL
was a soldier-king, but he shared the public feeling for the old
bow and bill, and English armies which served abroad did not,
it seems, win the respect of the advanced professional soldiers
of the continent. In 15 19 the Venetian ambassador described
the English forces as consisting of 150,000 men whose peculiar,
though not exclusive, weapon was the long bow (Fortescue
i. 117). The national levy made in 1588 to resist the Armada
and the threat of invasion produced about 750 lancers (heavy-
armed cavalry), 2000 light horse and 56,000 foot, beside 20,000
men employed in watching the coasts. The small proportion
of mounted men is very remarkable in a country in which
Cromwell was before long to illustrate the full power of cavalry
on the battlefield. It is indeed not unfair to regard this army
as a miscellaneous levy of inferior quality.
It was in cavalry that England was weakest, and by three
different acts it was sought to improve the breed of horses, though
the light horse of the northern counties had a good reputation,
and even won the admiration of the emperor Charles V. Perhaps
the best organized force in England at this time was the London
volunteer association which ultimately became the Honourable
Artillery Company. At Flodden the spirit of the old English
yeomanry triumphed over the outward form of continental
battalions which the Scots had adopted, and doubtless the great
victory did much to retard military progress in England. The
chief service of Henry VIII. to the British army was the for-
mation of an artillery train, in which he took a special interest.
Before he died the forces came to consist of a few permanent
troops (the bodyguard and the fortress artillery service), the
militia or general levy, which was for home, and indeed for
county, service only, and the paid armies which were collected
for a foreign war and disbanded at the conclusion of peace, and
were recruited on the same principle of indents which had
served in the Hundred Years' War. In the reign of Mary, the
old Statute of Winchester was revised (1553), and the new act
provided for a readjustment of the county contingents and in
some degree for the rearmament of the militia. But, from the
fall of Calais and the expedition to Havre up to the battle of the
Dunes a century later, the intervention of British forces in
foreign wars was always futile and generally disastrous*. During
this time, however, the numerous British regiments in the service
of Holland learned, in the long war of Dutch independence, the
art of war as it had developed on the continent since 1450, and
assimilated the regimental system and the drill and armament
of the best models. Thus it was that in 1642 there were many
hundreds of trained and war-experienced officers and sergeants
available for the armies of the king and the parliament. By this
time bows and bills had long disappeared even from the militia,
and the Thirty Years' War, which, even more than the Low
Countries, offered a career for the adventurous man, contributed
yet more trained officers and soldiers to the English and Scottish
forces. So closely indeed was war now studied by Englishmen
that the respective adherents of the Dutch and the Swedish
systems quarrelled on the eve of the battle of Edgehill. Fran--
bi2
ARMY
(BRITISH
and Horace Vere, Sir John Norris, and other Englishmen had
become generals of European reputation. Skippon, Astley,
Goring, Rupert, and many others soon to be famous were dis-
tinguished as company and regimental officers in the battles
and sieges of Germany and the Low Countries.
The home forces of England had, as has been said, little or
nothing to revive their ancient renown. Instead, they had come
to be regarded as a menace to the constitution. In Queen
Elizabeth's time the demands of the Irish wars had led to
frequent forced levies, and the occasional billeting of the troops
in England also gave rise to murmurs, but the brilliancy and
energy of her reign covered a great deal, and the peaceful policy
of her successor removed all immediate cause of complaint.
But after the accession of Charles I. we find the army a constant
and principal source of dispute between the king and parliament,
until under William III. it is finally established on a constitutional
footing. Charles, wishing to support the Elector Palatine in
the Thirty Years' War, raised an army of 10,000 men. He was
already encumbered with debts, and the parliament refused
all grants, on which he had recourse to forced loans. The army
was sent to Spain, but returned without effecting anything,
and was not disbanded, as usual, but billeted on the inhabitants.
The billeting was the more deeply resented as it appeared that
the troops were purposely billeted on those who had resisted
the loan. Forced loans, billeting and martial law— all directly
connected with the maintenance of the army— formed the main
substance of the grievances set forth in the Petition of Right.
In accepting this petition, Charles gave up the right to maintain
an army without consent of parliament; and when in 1639 he
wished to raise one to act against the rebellious Scots, parliament
was called together, and its sanction obtained, on the plea that
the army was necessary for the defence of England. This army
again became the source of dispute between the king and parlia-
ment, and finally both sides appealed to arms.
62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed
primarily the abundance of good officers produced by the wars
on the continent, and in the second place the absolute inadequacy
of the military system of the country; the commissions of array,
militia ordinances, &c, had at last to give way to regular methods
of enlistment and a central army administration. It was clear,
at the same time, that when the struggle was one of principles
and not of dynastic politics, excellent recruits, far different from
the wretched levies who. had been gathered together for the
Spanish war, were to be had in any reasonable number. These
causes combined to produce the ' New Model " which, origin-
ating in Cromwell's own cavalry and the London trained bands
of foot, formed of picked men and officers, severely disciplined,
and organized and administered in the right way, quickly
proved its superiority over all other armies in the field, and in
a few years raised its general to supreme civil power. The 15th
of February 1645 was the birthday of the British standing army,
and from its first concentration at Windsor Park dates the
scarlet uniform. The men were for the most part voluntarily
enlisted from existing corps, though deficiencies had immediately
to be made good by impressment.
Four months later the New Model decided the quarrel of king
and parliament at Naseby. When Cromwell, the first lieutenant-
general and the second captain-general of the army, sent his
veterans to take part in the wars of the continent they proved
themselves a match for the best soldiers in Europe. On the
restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the army, now some 80,000
strong, was disbanded. It had enforced the execution of
Charles I., it had dissolved parliament, and England had been
for years governed under a military regime. Thus the most
popular measure of the Restoration was the dissolution of the
army. Only Monk's regiment of foot(now the Coldstream Guards)
survived to represent the New Model in the army of to-day.
At the same time the troops (now regiments) of household
cavalry, and the regiment of foot which afterwards became the
Grenadier Guards, were formed, chiefly from Royalists, though
the disbanded New Model contributed many experienced re-
cruits. The permanent forces of the crown came to consist once
more of the " garrisons and guards," maintained by the king
from the revenue allotted to him for carrying on the govern-
ment of the country. The " garrisons " were commissioned to
special fortresses — the Tower of London. Portsmouth, Ace. The
" guards " comprised the sovereign's bodyguards (" the yeomen
of the guard " and " gentlemen-at-arms." who had existed since
the times of Henry VII. and VIII.), and the regiments mentioned
above. Even this small force, at first not exceeding 3000 men,
was looked on with jealousy by parliament, and every attempt
to increase it was opposed. The acquisition of Tangier and
Bombay, as part of the dower of the infanta of Portugal, led to
the formation of a troop of horse (now the xst Royal Dragoons)
and a regiment of infantry (the and, now Queen's R.W. Surrey,
regiment) for the protection of the former; and a regiment of
infantry (afterwards transferred to the East India Company)
to hold the latter (1661). These troops, not being stationed in
the kingdom, created no distrust; but whenever, as on several
occasions during Charles's reign, considerable armies were
raised, they were mostly disbanded when the occasion ceased.
Several regiments, however, were added to the permanent
force, including Dumbarton's regiment (the 1st or Royal Scots,
nicknamed Pontius Pilate's Bodyguard) — which had a long
record of service in the armies of the continent, and represented
the Scots brigade of Gustavus Adolphns's army— and the 3rd
Buffs, representing the English regiments of the Dutch army and
through them the volunteers of 157s, and on Charles's death
in 1685 the total force of " guards and garrisons " had risen to
16,500, of whom about one-half formed what we should now
call the standing army.
63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more
obstinate than his predecessor in his- efforts to increase the
army, and Monmouth's rebellion afforded him the opportunity.
A force of about 20,000 men was maintained in F-«gia«H
and a large camp formed at Hounslow. Eight cavalry and
twelve infantry regiments (the senior of which was the ;th
" Royal " Fusiliers, formed on a new French model) were raised,
and given the numbers which, with few exceptions, they still
bear. James even proposed to disband the militia, which had
not distinguished itself in the late rebellion, and further augment
the standing army; and although the proposal was instantly
rejected, be continued to add to the army till the Revolution
deprived him of his throne. The army which he had raised was
to a great extent disbanded, the Irish soldiers especially, whoa
he had introduced in large numbers on account of their religion,
being all sent home.
The condition of the army immediately engaged the attention
of parliament. The Bill of Rights had definitely established that
" the raising or keeping of a standing army within the kingdom,
unless it be by the consent of parliament, is against the law," and
past experience made them very jealous of such a force. But civil
war was imminent, foreign war certain; and William had only
a few Dutch troops, and the remains of James's army, with
which to meet the storm. Parliament therefore sanctioned a
standing army, trusting to the checks established by the BQ1
of Rights and Act of Settlement, and by placing the pay of the
army under the control of the Commons. An event soon showed
the altered position of the army. A regiment mutinied and
declared for James. It was surrounded and compelled to lay
down its arms; but William found himself without legal power
to deal with the mutineers. He therefore applied to parliament,
and in 1689 was passed the first Mutiny Act, which, after repeat-
ing the provisions regarding the army inserted in the Bill of
Rights, and declaring the illegality of martial law, gave power to
the crown to deal with the offences of mutiny and desertion by
courts-martial. From Xhis event is often dated the history of
the standing army as a constitutional force (but see Fortcscue,
British Army, i. 335).
64. Under William the army was considerably augmented.
The old regiments of James's army were reorganised, retaining,
however, their original numbers, and three of cavalry and eleven
of infantry (numbered to the 28th) were added. In 1690 parlia-
ment sanctioned a force of 63,000 men, further increased to
BRITISHt
ARMY
61$
6 5 poo in 1691 ; but on peace being made in 1697 the Commons
immediately passed resolutions to the effect that the land forces
be reduced to 7000 men in England and 1 2,000 in Ireland. The
War of the Spanish Succession quickly obliged Great Britain
again to raise a large army, at one time exceeding 200,000 men;
but of these the greater number were foreign troops engaged for
the continental war. Fortescue (op. cii. L 555) estimates, the
British forces at home and abroad as 70,000 men at the highest
figure. After the peace of Utrecht the force was again reduced
to 8000 men in Great Britain and 11,000 in the plantations
(i.e. colonies) and abroad. From that time to the present the
strength of the army has been determined by the annual votes.
of parliament, and though frequently the subject of warm debates
in both houses, it has ceased to be a matter of dispute between
the crown and parliament. The following table shows the
fluctuations from that time onward — the peace years showing
the average peace strength, the war years the ""'tr^m to
which the forces were raised: —
Peace.
Year. Number.
17SO. • • . 18,857
i-93 ... 17.013
If 22 . . . 71,790
I845 .... ' 100,01 1
1857 .... 156.995
1866 .... 203404
Year.
»745 .
1 761 .
1777 .
1812 .
1856 .
1858.
Was.
NoBibec
74.18?
67.776
90.734
^45.996
275.079
222,874
Note.— Prior to 1856 the British forces serving in India are not
included.
During William's reign the small English army bore' an
honourable part in the wars against Louis XIV., and especially
distinguished itself under the king at §teinkirk, Neerwinden
and Namur. Twenty English regiments took part in the
campaign of 1694. In the great wars of Queen Anne's reign the
British army under Marlborough acquired a European reputation;
The cavalry, which had called forth the admiration of Prince
Eugene when pasted in review before him after its long march
across Germany (1704), especially distinguished itself in the
battle of Blenheim, and Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malpiaquet
were added to the list of English victories. But the army as
usual was reduced at once, and even the cadres of old regiments
were disbanded, though the alarm of Jacobite insurrections
soon brought about the re-creation of many of these. During
the reign of. the first and second Georges an artillery corps was
organised, and the army further increased by five regiments of
cavalry and thirty-five of infantry. Flesh laurels were won at
Dettingen (1743), in which battle twenty English regiments
took part; and though Fontenoy (?.».) was a day of disaster
for the English arms, it did not lower their reputation, but
rather added to it Six regiments of infantry won the chief
glory of Prince Ferdinand's victory of Minden (q.t.) in 1759,
and throughout the latter part of the Seven Years' War the
British contingent of Ferdinand's army served with almost
unvarying distinction in numerous actions. About, this time
the first English regiments were sent to India, and the 39th
shared in dive's victory at Ptassey. During the first half of
George III.'s reign the army was principally occupied in America ;
and though the conquest of Canada may be counted with pride
among its exploits, this page in its history » certainly the
darkest. English armies capitulated at Saratoga and at York-
town, and the war ended by the evacuation of the revolted
states of America and the acknowledgment of their independence.
65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars,
from which a fresh period in the history of the army may be
dated, it will be well to review the general condition of the
army in the preceding century, injured as it was by the distrust
of parliament and departmental weakness and corruption which
went far to«neutralize the good work of the duke of Cumberland
as commander-in-chief and of Pitt as war administrator.
Regiments were raised almost as. in the days of the Edwards.
The crown contracted with a distinguished soldier, or gentleman
of high position, who undertook to raise the men, receiving a
certain sum as bounty-money for each recruit In some casts,
in. lieu of money, the contractor received the nomination of all
or some of the officers, and recouped himself by selling the com-
missions. This system—termed " raising men for rank "—was
retained for many years, and originally helped to create the
"purchase system" of promotion. For the maintenance of
the regiment the colonel received an annual sum sufficient to
cover the pay of the men, and the expenses of clothing and of
recruiting. The colonel was given a " beating order," without
which no enlistment was legal, and was responsible for maintain-
ing .his regiment at full strength. " Muster masters " were
appointed to muster the regiments, and to see that the men for
whom pay was drawn were really effective. Sometimes, when
casualties were numerous, the allowance was insufficient to
meet the cost of recruiting, and special grants were made. In
war time the tanks were also filled by released debtors, pardoned
criminals, and impressed paupers and vagrants. Where the
men were raised by voluntary enlistment, the period of service
was a matter of contract between the colonel and the soldier,
and the engagement was usually for life; but exceptional levies
were enlisted for the duration of war, or for periods of three or
, five years. As for the officers, the low rate of pay and the
purchase system combined to exclude all but men of independent
incomes. Appointments (except when in the gift of the colonel)
were made by the king at home, and by the commander-in-chieL
abroad; even in Ireland the power of appointment rested with
the local commander of the forces until the Union. The soldier
was clothed by his colonel, the charge being defrayed from the
" stock fund." The army lived in barracks, camps or billets.
The barrack accommodation in Great Britain at the beginning
of the 18th century only sufficed for five thousand men; and
though it had gradually risen to twenty thousand in 1792, a large
part of the army was constantly in camps and billets— the latter
causing endless complaints and difficulties.
66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France
did not tend to raise its reputation amongst the armies of Europe.
The campaigns of allied armies under the duke of York in the
Netherlands, in which British contingents figured largely,
were uniformly unsuccessful (1703-04 and 1709), though in
this respect they resembled those of almost all soldiers who
commanded against the " New French " army. The policy of
the younger Pitt sent thousands of the best soldiers to un-
profitable employment, and indeed to death, in the West Indies.
At home the administration was corrupt and ineffective, and the
people generally shared the contemptuous feeling towards the
regular army which was then prevalent in Europe. But a
better era began with the appointment of Frederick Augustus,
duke of York, as commander-in-chief of the army. He did
much to improve its organisation, discipline and training, and
was ably seconded by commanders of distinguished ability.
Under Abercromby in Egypt, under Stuart at Mai da, and under
Lake, Wellesley and others in India, the British armies again
attached victory to their standards, and made themselves feared
and respected. Later, Napoleon's threat of invading England
excited her martial spirit to the highest pitch to which it had
ever a ttained. Finally, her military glory was raised by the series
of successful campaigns in the Peninsula, until it culminated
in the great victory of Waterloo, and the army emerged from
the war with the most solidly founded reputation of any in
Europe.
The events of this period belong to the history of Europe,
and fall outside the province of an article dealing only with the
army. The great augmentations required during the war were
effected partly by raising additional regiments, but principally
by increasing the number of battalions, some regiments being
given as many as four. On the conclusion of peace these
battalions were reduced, but the regiments were retained, and
the army was permanently increased from about twenty thousand,
the usual peace establishment before the war, to an average
of eighty thousand. The duke of York, on first appointment
to the command, had introduced a uniform drill throughout
the army, which was further modified according to Sir David
Dundas's system in 1800; and, under the direction of Sir John
Moore and others, a high perfection of drill was attained. *
6t4
ARMY
(BRITISH
the beginning of the war, the infantry, like that of the continental
powers, was formed in three ranks; but a two-rank formation
had been introduced in America and in India and gradually
became general, and in 1809 was finally approved. In the Penin-
sula the army was permanently organized in divisions, usually
consisting of two brigades of three or four battalions each,
and one or two batteries of artillery. The duke of Wellington
had also brought the commissariat and the army transport to
a high pitch of perfection, but in the long peace which followed
these establishments were reduced or broken up.
67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the
Crimean War is marked by a number of Indian and colonial
wars, but by no organic changes in the army, with perhaps the
single exception of the Limited Service Act of 1847, by which
enlistment for ten or twelve years, with power to re-engage to
complete twenty-one, was substituted for the life enlistments
hitherto in force. The army went to sleep on the laurels and
recollections of the Peninsula. The duke of Wellington, for many
years commander-in-chief, was too anxious to hide it away in
the colonies in order to save it from further reductions or utter
extinction, to attempt any great administrative reforms. The
force which was sent to the Crimea in 1854 was an agglomeration
of battalions, individually of the finest quality, but unused to
work together, without trained staff, administrative departments
or army organisation of any kind. The lesson of the winter
before Sevastopol was dearly bought, but was not thrown away.
From that time successive war ministers and commanders-in-
chief have laboured perscveringly at the difficult task of army
organisation and administration. Foremost in the work was
Sidney Herbert (Lord Herbert of Lea), the soldier's friend,
who fell a sacrifice to his labours (1861), but not before he had
done much for the army. The whole system of administration
was revised. In 1854 it was inconceivably complicated and
cumbersome. The " secretary of state for war and colonies,"
sitting at the Colonial Office, had a general but vague control,
practically limited to times of war. The " secretary at war "
was the parliamentary representative of the army, and exercised
a certain financial control, not extending, however, to the
ordnance corps. The commander-in-chief was responsible to
the sovereign alone in all matters connected with the discipline,
command or patronage of the army, but to the secretary at
war in financial matters. The master-general and board of
ordnance were responsible for the supply of material on requisi-
tion, but were otherwise independent, and had the artillery and
engineers under them. The commissariat department had its
headquarters at the treasury, and until 1852 the militia were
under the home secretary. A number of minor subdepartments,
more or less independent, also existed, causing endless confusion,
correspondence and frequent collision. In 1854 the business of
the colonies was separated from that of war, and the then secretary
Of state, the duke of Newcastle, assumed control over all the
other administrative officers. In the following year the secretary
of state was appointed secretary at war also, and the duties of
the two offices amalgamated. The same year the commissariat
office was transferred to the war department, and the Board of
Ordnance abolished, its functions being divided between the
commander-in-chief and the secretary of state. The minor
departments were gradually absorbed, and the whole administra-
tion divided under two great chiefs, sitting at the war office
and Horse Guards respectively. In 1870 these two were welded
into one, and the war office now existing was constituted.
Corresponding improvements were effected in every branch.
The system of clothing the soldiers was altered, the contracts
being taken from the colonels of regiments, who received a money
allowance instead, and the clothing supplied from government
manufactories. The pay, food and general condition of the
soldier were improved; reading and recreation rooms, libraries,
gymnasia and facilities for games of all kinds being provided.
Barracks (q.v.) were built on improved principles, and a large
permanent camp was formed at Aldershot, where considerable
forces were collected and manoeuvred together. Various educa-
tional establishments were opened, a staff college was established
for the instruction of officers wishing to qualify for the staff,
and regimental schools were improved.
68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference
of the government of India, led to important changes. The
East India Company's white troops were amalgamated with the
Queen's army, and the whole reorganized (see Indian Army
below).
The fact that such difficulties, as those of 1854 and 1857,
not to speak of the disorders of 1848, had been surmounted by
the weak army which remained over from the reductions of
forty years, coupled with the instantaneous and effective re-
joinder to the threats of the French colonels in 1859— the creation
of the Volunteer Force — certainly lulled the nation and its repre-
sentatives into a false sense of security. Thus the two obvious
lessons of the German successes of 1866 and 1870— the power
of a national army for offensive invasion, and the rapidity with
which such an army when thoroughly organized could be moved
— created the greatest sensation in England. The year X870 is,
therefore, of prune importance in the history of the regular
forces of the crown. The strength of the home forces at different
times between 1815 and 1870 is given as follows (Biddulph,
Lord CardweU at the War Office):—
Regulars.
Auxiliaries.
Field Guns.
1820
5o376
60,740
n
1830
34.614
30
1840
S:£S
20,791
30
1850
20.868
.£
i860
100,701
229,501
1870
,. 89 '° 51 A
(later 109,000)
281,692
I80
69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and
is connected indissolubly with the name of Edward, Lord
Cardwell, .secretary of state for war 1860*1874. la the matter of
organization the result of his labours was seen in the perfectly
arranged expedition to Ashanti (1874); as for recruiting, the
introduction of short service and reserve enlistment together
with many rearrangements of pay, &c, proved so far popular
that the number of men annually enlisted was more than trebkd
(11,742 in 1869; 39,071 in 1885; 40,720 in 1898), and so far
efficient that " Lord Cardwell's . . . system, with but small
modification, gave us during the Boer War 80,000 reservists,
of whom 06 or 97 % were found efficient, and has enabled us to
keep an army of 150,000 regulars in the field for 15 mouths"
(Rt Hon. St John firodrkk, House of Commons, 8th of March
1001). The localization of the army, subsequently completed
by the territorial system of 1882, was commenced under Card-
well's regime, and a measure which encountered much powerful
opposition at the time, the abolition of the purchase of com*
missions, was also effected by him (1871). The machinery of
administration was improved, and autumn manomvres were
practised on a scale hitherto unknown in England. In 1871
certain powers over the militia, formerly hehl by lords-lieutenant,
were transferred to the crown, and the auxiliary forces were
placed directly under the generals commanding districts. In
1881 came an important change in the infantry of the line, whkh
was entirely remodelled in two-battalion regiments bearing
territorial titles. This measure (the " linked battalion " system)
aroused great opposition; it was dictated chiefly by the neces-
sity of maintaining the Indian and colonial garrisons at full
strength, and was begun during Lord Cardwell's tenure of office,
the principle being that each regiment should have one battalion
at home and one abroad, the latter being fed by the former,
which in its turn drew upon the reserve to complete it for war.
The working of the system is to be considered as belonging to
present practice rather than to history, and the reader is there*
fore referred to the article United Kingdom. On these general
lines the army progressed up to 1899, when the Boer War called
into the field on a distant theatre of war all the resources of
the regular army, and in addition drew largely upon the existing
auxiliary forces, and even upon wholly untrained civilians,
for the numbers required to make war in an, area whkh
BRITISB-rNDIANl
ARMY
615
comprised nearly all Africa south of the Zambezi. As the result
of this war (see Transvaal) successive schemes of reform were
undertaken by the various war ministers, leading up to Mi
Haldane's " territorial" scheme (1908), which put the organiza-
tion of the forces in the United Kingdom (q.v.) on a new basis.
Innovations had not been unknown in the period immediately
preceding the war; as a single example we may Cake the develop-
ment of the mounted infantry (q.v.) It was natural that the war
Itself, and especially a war of so peculiar a character, should
intensify the spirit of innovation. The corresponding period in
the German army lasted from 187 1 to 1888, and such a period
of unsettlement is indeed the common, practically the universal,
result of a war on a large scale. Much that was of value in
the Prussian methods, faithfully and even slavishly copied by
Great Britain as by others after 1870, was temporarily forgotten,
but the pendulum swung back again, and the Russo-Japanese
War led to the disappearance, so far as Europe was concerned,
of many products of the period of doubt and controversy which
followed the struggle in South Africa. Side by side with con-
tinuous discussions of the greater questions of military policy,
amongst these being many well-reasoned proposals for universal
service, the technical and administrative efficiency of the service
has undergone great improvement, and this appears to be of more
real and permanent value than the greater part of the solutions
given for the larger problems. The changes in the organisation
of the artillery afford the best .evidence of this spirit of practical
and technical reform. In the first place the old " royal regi-
ment " was divided into two branches. The officers for the field
and horse artillery stand now on one seniority list for promotion,
the garrison, heavy and mountain batteries on another. In each
branch Important changes of organization have been also made.
-In the field branch, both for Royal Field and Royal Horse
Artillery, the battery is no longer the one unit for all purposes.
A lieutenant-colonel's command, the "brigade," has been
created. It consists of a group, in the horse artillery of two, in
the field artillery of three batteries. For the practical training
of the horse and field artillery a targe area of ground on the
wild open country of Dartmoor, near Okehampton, has for some
years been utilized. A similar school has been started at Glen
Imaal in Ireland, and a new training ground has been opened
on Salisbury Plain. Similarly, with the Royal Garrison Artillery
a more perfect system has been devised for the regulation and
practice of the fire of each fortress, in accordance with the vary-
ing circumstances of its position, ftc. A practice school for the
garrison artillery has been established at Lydd, but the various
coast fortresses themselves carry out .regular practice with
service ammunition.
Indian Axicy
70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct
divisions, the Bengal, Madras and Bombay armies. This separa-
tion was the natural result of the original foundation of separate
settlements and factories in India; and each retains to the
present day much of its old identity.
Bengal. — The English traders in Bengal were long restricted by
the native princes to a military establishment of ah ensign and 30
men ; and this force may be taken as the germ of the Indian army.
In 1 681 Bengal received the first reinforcement from Madras, and
two years later a company was- sent from Madras, raising the little
Bengal army to a strength of 250 Europeans.. In 1695 native soldiers
were first enlisted; In 1 701-1702 the garrison of Calcutta consisted
of 120 soldiers and seamen gunners. In 1756 occurred the defence
of Calcutta against Suraj-ud-Dowlah, and the terrible tragedy of
the Black Hole. The work of reconquest and punishment was carried
out by an expedition from Madras, and in the little force with which
Clive gained the great victory of Plassey the Bengal army was
represented by a Tew hundred men only (the British 39th, now
Dorsetshire regiment, which was also present, was the first King's
regiment sent to India, and bears the motto Primus in Indis) ; but
from this date the military power of the Company rapidly increased.
A company of artillery had been organized in 1748; and in 1757,
shortly before Plassey, the 1st regiment of Bengal native infantry
was raised. Next, in 1759 the native infantry was augmented, in
1760 dragoons were raised, and in r763 the total forces amounted
to 1500 Europeans and 12 battalions of native infantry (11,500 men).
In 1765 the European infantry was divided into 3 regiments, and .^
\ each, consisting of
infantry, 1 troop of
766. on the reduction
» of the Bengal army
sly. This danj
to whom the I
on of the next thirty
»r of brigades and oT
in 1704 the Bengal
000 natives.
adras- presidency was
ide! coast, consisting
milt and garrisoned,
1745 the garrison of
ile a similar number,
tdants of the Portu-
various independent
ler places were con-
From this time the
1 of incident, and it
rcot, Kavaripak and
yral army was sent to
72 the Madras army
natives, and in 1784
0.
part of the marriage
1 of Portugal, and In
raised to defend it.
IV, and the regiment
8 Bombay became a
a cart as the others
s forces were not so
ive been the first to
rre sent to Madras in
1 1757. In 1772 the
1 3500 sepoys, but in
Mahratta power, the
neral reorganization
ency had been borne
the service. These
nents formed. The
rparate lists, and an
while the divisional
ral and Company's
consequent on the
t the native infantry
* total force in Ind&
tives.
th wars and annexa-
Horse artillery was
tented. '• Irregular
nd recruited from a
ind found their own
tised in various parts
he Punjab irregular
in 1849), consisting
1 5 of infantry, and
ther kind of force,
id " contingents "—
he strongest of these
the nizam's army.
:he army. Sanitary
riishments instituted
tnproved.
ng and recruiting of
The officers were
liege at Addiscombe
ippointmcnts. The
the infantry being
ngetic plains. The
ring Manommedans.
nmedans, recruited
only other elements
ed from Nepal, and
s army was chiefly
ates connected with
nd of the Mahratta,
' was recruited from
it chiefly formed of
ight cavalry mainly
1 00,000 strong), the
f all arms, with 276
field guns,— truly a
orthy of the great
n the East, but in*
te great mutiny r*
6t6
In 1856 the establishment in the several presidencies was as
British Cavalry Regiments
British Infantry Battalion*
Company's European Battalions
European and Native Artillery
Battalions
Native Infantry Battalions
Native Cavalry Regiments
Bengal JMadraaJBombay. Total.
15
3
12
3
I
3
3
7
1
1
4
3
5
29
3
24
155
39
An account of the events of 1S57-58 will be found under Indian
Mutiny. After the catastrophe the reorganization of the military
forces on different lines was of course unavoidable. Fortunately,
the armies of Madras and Bombay had been almost wholly untouched
by the <spirit of disaffection, and in the darkest days the Sikhs,
though formerly enemies of the British, had not only remained
faithful to them, but had rendered them powerful assistance.
75. The Rtortanitalion— By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was
virtually crushed, and the task of reorganization commenced. On
the 1st of September 1858 the East India Company ceased to rule,
and Her Majesty's government took up the reins of power. On the
Important question of the army, the opinions and advice of the most
distinguished soldiers and civilians were invited. Masses of reports
and evidence were collected in India, and by a royal commission in
England. On the report of this commission the new system was
based. The local European army was abolished, and its personnel
amalgamated with the royal army. The artillery became wholly
British, with the exception of a few native mountain batteries.
The total strength of the British troops, all of the royal army,
was largely increased, while that of the native troops was largely
diminished. Three distinct native armies — those of Bengal, Madras
and Bombay — were still maintained. The reduced Indian armies
consisted of cavalry and infantry only, with a very few artillery,
distributed as follows:—
Battalions Regiments
Infantry, Cavalry.
Bengal .... 49 19
Madras .... 40 4
Bombay .... 30 7
Punjab Force . . . ia 6
Total . 131 36
There were also three sapper battalions, one to each army.
The Punjab force, which had s batteries of native artillery attached
to it, continued under the Punjab government. In addition, the
Hyderabad contingent of 4 cavalry, 6 infantry regiments and 4
batteries, and a local force in central India of 2 regiments cavalry
and 6 infantry, were retained under the government of India.
After all the arrangements had been completed the army of India
consisted of 62,000 British and 125,000 native troops.
76. The Modern A Tmy.— The college at Addiscombe was closed in
i860, and the direct appointment of British officers to the Indian
local forces ceased in 1 861 . In that year a staff corps was formed by
royal warrant in each presidency " to supply a body of officers for
service in India, by whom various offices and Appointments hitherto
held by officers borne on the strength of the several corps in the
Indian forces shall in future be held. Special rules were laid down.
The corps was at first recruited partly from officers of the Company's
service and partly from the royal army, holding staff appointments
(the new regimental employment being considered as staff duty)
and all kinds of political and civil posts; for the system established
later see 1 ndi a : A rmv. The native artillery and sappers and miners
were to be officered from the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers.
The only English warrant and non-commissioned officers now
to be -employed ia the native army were to be those of the Royal
Engineers with the sappers and miners.
A radical change in the regimental organization of all the native
armies was effected in 1863. The Punjab Frontier Force was from
the first organized on the irregular system, which was there seen
at its best, as also were the new regiments raised during the Mutiny.
This system was now applied to the whole army, each regiment and
battalion having seven British officers attached to it for command,
and administrative duties, the immediate command of troops and
companies being left to the native officers. Thus was the system
reverted to, which was initiated by Give, of a few British officers
only being attached to each corps for the higher regimental duties
of command and control. Time had shown that this was more
effective than the regular system instituted in 1796 of British officers
commanding troops and companies.
A new spirit was breathed into the army: The supremacy of the
commandant was the main principle. He was less hampered by
the unbending regulations enjoined upon the old regular regiments,
had greater powers of reward: and punishment, was in a position to
assume larger responsibility and greater freedom of action, and
was supported in the full exercise of his authority. The system
made the officers.
ARMY [CANADIA*
Up to 1881 the native army underwent little change, but in that
year 18 regiments of infantry and 4 of cavalry were broken up,
almost the same total number of men being maintained in fewer and
stronger regiments. The only reduction made in the British troops
was in the Royal Artillery, which was diminished by It batteries.
The events of 1885, however, on the Russo-Afghan frontier, led
to augmentations. The 1 1 batteries Royal Artillery were brought
back from England ; each of the 9 British cavalry regiments in India
received a fourth squadron; each of the British infantry battalions
was increased by 100 men, and 3 battalions were added. The native
cavalry had a fourth squadron added to each regiment ; three of the
four regiments broken up in 1881 were re-raised, while the native
infantry was increased in regimental strength, and 9 new battalions
raised composed of Gurkhas, Sikhs and Punjabis. The addition ia
all amounted to 10,600 British and 21,200 native troops, la 1890
the strength of the army of India was 73,°o° British and, including
irregulars, 147,500 native troops. For the Indian volunteers, see
Volunteers.
Many important changes took place between 1883 and 1904.
Seven Madras infantry regiments were converted into regiments for
service, in Burma, composed of Gurkhas and hardy noes from
northern India; six Bengal and Bombay regiments were similarly
converted into regiments of Punjabis, Pathans and Gurkhas; the
native mountain batteries have been increased to ten; a system of
linked battalions has been introduced with the formation of regi-
mental centres for mobilisation; and reserves for infantry and
mountain artillery have been formed. The number of British officers
with each regiment has been increased to nine, and the two wing
commands in battalions have been converted into 4 double -co mp any
commands of 250 men each, under a British commander, who is
responsible to the commandant for their training and efficie n c y ,
the command of the companies being left to the native officers.
This system, which is analogous to the squadron command in the
cavalry, admits of closer individual attention to training, and
distributes among the senior British regimental officers effecth*
responsibility of a personal kind.
An addition (at the imperial expense) of five battalions of Sikhs,
Punjabi Mahommedans, Jats and hillmcn in northern India was
made in 1900, as the result of India being called upon to furnish
garrisons for Mauritius and other stations overseas.
The unification of the triplicate army departments in the different
presidential armies was completed in 1 891, all being brought directly
under the supreme government ; and the three separate staff corps
of Bengal, Madras and Bombay were fused into one in 1891 as the
Indian Staff Corps. The term " Indian Staff Corps " was in tarn
replaced by that of " Indian Army " in 1903. These measures
prepared the way for the new system of army organization which.
by authority of parliament, abolished divided control and placed
the whole army of India under the governor-general and the
commander-in-chief in India.
Canadian Forces
77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity
of protection against Indians caused the formation of a militia,
and in 1665 companies were raised in every parish. The military
history of the Canadian forces under French rule is full of incident,
and they served not only against Indian raiders but also again*.
the troops of Great Britain and of her North American colosws.
Six militia battalions took part in the defence of Quebec in 1759.
and even the transfer of Canada from the French to the British
crown did not cause the disbandment of the existing forces. The
French Canadians distinguished themselves not less than the British
settlers in the War of American Independence, and in particular in
the. defence of Quebec against Montgomery and Arnold. In 1787
an ordinance was made whereby three battalions of the militia were
permanently embodied, each contingent serving for two years,
at the end of which time a fresh contingent relieved it, and after
this a succession of laws and regulations were made with a view to
complete organization of the force. The brunt of the fighting on
the American frontier in the war of 1 812 was borne very largely by
the permanent force of three battalions and the fresh units called
out, all these being militia corps. Up to 1828 a distinction had
been. made between the British and the French regiments: this was
then abolished. The militia was again- employed on active sen ice
during the disturbances of 1837, and the " Active Militia " in 1S61
had grown to a strength of 25,000 men. The Fenian troubles of
1864 and 1866 caused the.embodiment of the Canadian forces once
more. In 1867 took place the unification of Canada, after whkh the
whole force was completely organized on the basis of a militia act
(1868). A department of Militia and Defence with a responsible
minister was established, and the strength of the active militia of all
arms was fixed at 40,000 rank and file. Two years later the militia
furnished 6000 men to deal with the Fenian Raid of 1870, and took
part in Colonel (Lord) Wolscley's Red River expedition. In 1871
a permanent force, serving the double purpose of a regular nucleus
and an instructional cadre, was organised in two troops of cavalry,
two. batteries of artillery and one regiment of infantry, and in 1876
the Royal Military College of Canada was founded at Kingston
In 1885 the Riel rebellion was dealt with, and the important actio*
of Batocbe won, by the militia, without assistance from regular
AUSTRIAN: FRENCH]
ARMY
617
troops. In (he same year Cajuriacor*nbuted a force of t^wMfsw
to the Nile expedition of Lord Wolselcy : the experience of these
men was admittedly of great assistance in navigating the "Rapids.
The militia sent contingents of all arms to serve in the South African
War, 1809-1909, including " Stratacons's Hone," a special corps,
recruited almost entirely from the Active Militia and the North-west
Mounted Police. The latter, a permanent constabulary of mounted
riflemen, was formed in 1873.
After the South African War an extensive scheme of reorganization
was taken in hand, the command being exercised for two years
(1 9O2-i904)by Maior-Geaeral Lord Dundonald.aod subsequently by
a militia council (Militia Act iooa)^imilar in constitution to the home
Army Council- For details of the present military strength of
Canada, see the article Canada.
Austrian Auiy
78. The Landskntchl infantry constituted the mainstay of the
imperial armies in the 16 th century. Maximilian I. and Charles
V. are recorded to have marched and carried the " long pike " in
their ranks. Maximilian also formed a corps of Kyrisser, who
were the origin of the modern cuirassiers. It was not, however,
until much later that the Austrian army came into existence as
a permanent force, Rudolph II. formed a small standing force
about 1600, but relied upon the " enlistment " system, like
other sovereigns of the time, for the bulk of his armies. The
Thirty Years' War produced the permanence of service which
led in all the states of Europe to the rise of standing armies.
In the Empire at was Wallenstcin who first raised a distinctly
imperial army of soldiers owing no duty but to the sovereign;
and it was the suspicion that he intended to use this army,
which was raised largely at his own expense, to further his own
ends, that led to his assassination. From that time the regiments
belonged no longer to their colonels, but to the emperor; and
the oldest regiments in the present Austrian army date from the
Thirty Years' War, at the close of which Austria bad 19 infantry,
6 cuirassier and 1 dragoon regiments. The almost continuous
wars of Austria against France and the Turks (from 1495 to
1895 Austrian troops took part in 7000 actions of all sorts) led
to a continuous increase in her establishments. The wars of the
time of Montecucculi and of Eugene were followed by that of
the Polish Succession, the two Turkish wars, and the three
great struggles against Frederick the Great. Thus in 1763 the
army had been almost continuously on active service for more
Chan 100 years, in the course of which its organization had been
modified in accordance with the lessons of each war. This, in
conjunction with the fact that Austria took part in other Turkish
campaigns subsequently, rendered this army the most formidable
opponent of the forces of the French Revolution (179a). But
the superior leading, organisation and numbers of the emperor's
forces were totally inadequate to the magnitude of the task of
suppressing the Revolutionary forces, and though such victories
as Neerwinden were sufficient proof of the efficiency and valour
of the Austrian*, they made no headway. In later campaigns,
in which the enemy had acquired war experience, and the best
of their officers bad come to the front, the tide turned against
the Imperialists even on the field of battle. The archduke
Charles's victories of 1706 were more than counterbalanced by
Bonaparte's Italian campaign, and the temporary success of
1709 ended at Marengo and Hohenlinden.
79. The Austrian*, during the short peace which preceded
the war of 180$, suffered, in consequence of all this, from a
feeling of distrust, not merely in their leaders, but also in the
whole system upon which the army was raised, organized and
trained This was substantially the same as that of the Seven
Years' War time. Enlistment being voluntary and for long
service, the numbers necessary to cope with the output of the
French conscription could not be raised, and the inner history
of the Austrian headquarters m the Ulm campaign shows that
the dissensions and mutual distrust of the general officers had
gone far towards the disintegration of an army which at that
time had the most esprit do corps and the highest military
qualities of any army in Europe. But the disasters of 1805
swept away good and bad alike in the abolition of the old system.
Already the archduke Charles had designed a " nation in arms "
after the French model, and on this basis the reconstruction
The conscription was put m force and the necessary
■ obtained; the administration was at the same
time reformed and the organization and supply services brought
into line with modern requirements. The war of 1809 surprised
Austria in the midst of her reorganization, yet the new army
fought with the greatest spirit. The invasion of Bavaria was by
no means so leisurely as it had been in 180$, and the archduke
Charles obtained one signal victory over Napoleon in person.
Aspern and Wagram were most desperately contested, and
though the archduke ceased to take part in the administration
after 1809 the work went on steadily until, in 1813, the Austrian
armies worthily represented the combination of discipline with
the "nation in arms 4 * principle. Their intervention in the
War of Liberation was decisive, and Austria, in spite of her
territorial losses of the past years, put into the field well-drilled
armies far exceeding in numbers those which had appeared in
the wars of the Revolution. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria's
hold on Italy necessitated the maintenance of a large army of
occupation. This army, and in particular its cavalry, was
admittedly the best in Europe, and, having to be ready to
march at a few days' notice, it was saved from the deadening
influence of undisturbed peace which affected every other
service in Europe from 1815 to 1850.
80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar
tone of the army of 1848, of which English leaders may obtain a
good idea from George Meredith's Vittoria. It was, however,
a natural result of this that the army lost to some considerable
extent the spirit of the " nation In arms " of 1809 and 1813.
It was employed in dynastic wars, and the conscription was of
course modified by substitution; thus, when the war of 1859
resulted unfavourably to the Austrians, the army began to lose
confidence, precisely as had been the case in 1805. Once move,
in 1866, an army animated by the purely professional spirit,
which was itself weakened by distrust, met a " nation in arms,"
and in this case a nation well trained in peace and armed with a
breechloader. Bad staff work, and tactics which can only be
described as those of pique, precipitated the disaster, and in
seven weeks the victorious Prussians were almost at the gates
of Vienna,
The result of the war, and of the constitutional changes about
this time, wss the re-adoption of the principles of 1806-1813,
the abolition of conscription and long service in favour of
universal service for a short term, and a thorough reform in the
methods of command and staff work. It has been said of the
Prussian army that "discipline is— the officers." This is more
true of the " K.K." army 1 than of any other in Europe; the
great bond of union between the heterogeneous levies of recruits
of many races is the spirit of the corps of officers, which retains
the personal and professional characteristics of the old army of
Italy.
French Army
81. The French army (see for further details France: Low
and Institutions) dates from the middle of the 15th century, at
which time Charles VII. formed, from mercenaries who had
served him in the Hundred Years' War, the compagnics i'ordon-
none*, and thus laid the foundation of a national standing army.
But the armies that followed the kings in their wars still consisted
mainly of mercenaries, hired for the occasion; and the work of
Charles and his successors was completely undone in the confusion
of the religious wars. Louvois, was minister of Louis XIV., was
the true creator of the French royal army. The organization of
the first standing army is here given in some detail, as it served
as a model for all armies for more than a century, and is also
followed to some extent in our own times. Before the advent of
Louvois, the forces were royal only in name. The army was a
fortuitous concourse of regiments of horse and foot, each of which
was the property of its colonel. The companies similarly
> The phrase " K. und K." (KoistHich und JCftritf* A) is applied
to all services common to the Austrian and Hungarian armies.
M K.-K. M (Koiserlick-Kdniglick) refers strictly only to the troops
of Austria, the Hungarian army being known as the " K.Ung.
(Royal Hungarian) service.
6i8
ARMY
belonged to their captains, and, the state being then in no condi-
tion to buy out these vested interests, superior control was almost
illusory. Indeed, all the well-known devices for eluding such
control, for instance, showing imaginary men on the pay lists,
can be traced to the French army of the x 6th century. A further
difficulty lay in the existence of the offices called Colonel-General,
Marshal-General and Grand Master of Artillery, between whom
no common administration was possible. The grand master
survived until 1743, but Louvois managed to suppress the other
offices, and even to put one of his own subordinates into the office
of grand master. Thus was assured direct royal control, exer-
cised through the war minister. Louvois was unable indeed
to overthrow the proprietary system, but he made stringent
regulations against abuses, and confined it to the colonels
(mestre de camp in the cavalry) and the captains. Henceforward
the colonel was a wealthy noble, with few duties beyond that of
spending money freely and of exercising his court influence on
behalf of his regiment. The real work of the service was done by
the lieutenant-colonels and lieutenants, and the king and the
minister recognized this on all occasions. Thus Vauban was
given, as a reward for good service, a company in the " Picardie "
regiment without purchase. Promotions from the ranks were
very rare but not unknown, and all promotions were awarded
according to merit except those to captain or colonel. One of the
captains in a regiment was styled major, and acted as adjutant.
This post was of course filled by selection and not by purchase.
The grades of general officers were newly fixed by Louvois— the
brigadier, marichal de camp, lieutenant-general and marshal of
France. The general principle was to give command, but not
promotion, according to merit. The rank and file were recruited
by voluntary enlistment for four years' service. The infantry
company was maintained in peace at an effective of 60, except
in the guards and the numerous foreign corps, in which the
company was always at the war strength of zoo to 200 men.
This arm was composed, in 1678, of the Gardes frattfaises, the
Swiss guards, the old (vieux and peiits vitux) regiments of the line,
of which the senior, u Picardie," claimed to be the oldest regiment
in Europe, and the regiments raised under the new system. The
rigimenl du roi, which was deliberately made the model of all
others and was commanded by the celebrated Martinet, was the
senior of these latter. The whole infantry arm in 1678 numbered
320,000 field and garrison troops. The cavalry consisted of the
liaison du Roi (which Louvois converted from a " show " corps
to one of the highest discipline and valour), divided into the
Gardes du Corps and. the Mousquclaiics, the Gendarmerie
(descended from the old feudal cavalry and the ordonnanu
companies) and the line cavalry, the whole being about 55,000
strong. There were also 10,000 dragoons. In addition to the
regular army, the king could call out, in case of need, the ancient
arribc-bon or levy, as was in fact done in 1674. On that occasion,
however, it behaved badly, and it was not again employed. In
1 688 Louvois organized a militia raised by ballot. This numbered
35,000 men and proved to be better, at any rate, than the arriere-
ban. Many infantry regiments of the line were, as has been said,
foreign, and in 1678 the foreigners numbered 30,000, the greater
part of these being Swiss.
82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than
an arm of the service. In sieges a sum of money was paid for each
piece put in battery, and the grand master was not subordinated
to the war office. A nominee of Louvois, as has been said, filled
the post at this time, and eventually Louvois formed companies
of artillerymen, and finally the regiment of " Fusiliers " which
Vauban described as the " finest regiment in the world." The
engineer service, as organized by Vauban, was composed of
engineers " in ordinary," and of line officers especially employed
in war. Louvois further introduced the system of magazines.
To ensure the regular working of supply and transport, he
instituted direct control by the central executive, and stored
great quantities of food in the fortresses, thereby securing for
the French armies a precision and certainty in military operations
which bad hitherto been wanting. The higher administration
of the army, under the minister of war, fell into two branches,
that of the commissaries and that of the inspecting officers. The
duties of the former resembled those of a modern " routine *
staff — issue of equipment, checking of returns, &c The latter
exercised functions analogous to those of a general staff, super-
vising the training and general efficiency of the troops. Lovvois
also created an excellent hospital service, mobile and stationary,
founded the Hotel des Invalldes in Paris for the maintenance of
old soldiers, established cadet schools for the training of young
officers, and stimulated bravery and good conduct by reviving
and creating military orders of merit.
83. The last half of the x 7th century is a brilliant period m the
annals of the French armies. Thoroughly organized, animated
by the presence of the king, and led by such generals as Coed*.
Turenne, Luxembourg, Catinat and Vendome, they made head
against coalitions which embraced nearly all the powers of
Europe, and made France the first military nation of Europe.
The reverses of the later part of Louis XIV.'s reign were not of
course without result upon the tone of the French army, and the
campaigns of Marlborough and Eugene for a time diminished the
repute in which the troops of Louis were held by other powers.
Nevertheless the War of the Spanish Succession closed with
French victories, and generals of the calibre of Villars and Berwick
were not to be found in the service of every prince. The war of
the Polish Succession in Germany and Italy reflected no discredit
upon the French arms; and the German general staff, in its
history of the wars of Frederick the Great, states that " in 1740
the French army was still regarded as the first in Europe," Since
the death of Louvois very little had changed. The army was
still governed as it had been by the great war minister, and some-
thing had been done to reduce evils against which even he had
been powerless. A royal regiment of artillery had come into
existence, and the engineers were justly regarded as the most
skilful in Europe. Certain alterations had been made in the
organiea tion of both the guard and the line, and the total strength
of the French in peace was somewhat less than soo.ooo.
Relatively to the numbers maintained in other states, it was that
as powerful as before. Indeed, only one feature of importance
differentiated the French army from its contemporaries— the
proportion of officers to men, which was one to eleven. In view
of this, the spirit of the army was necessarily that of its officers,
and these were by no means the equals of their predecessors of
the time of Turenne or Luxembourg. Louvois' principle of
employing professional soldiers for command and wealthy men
for colonelcies and captaincies was not deliberately adopted, but
inevitably grew out of the circumstances of the time. The system
answered fairly whilst continual wars gave (he professional
soldiers opportunities for distinction and advancement. But in
a long peace the captains of eighteen and colonels of twenty-three
blocked all promotion, and there was no work save that of
routine to be done. Under these conditions the best sonnets
sought service in other countries, the remainder lived only for
pleasure, whilst the titular chiefs of regiments and companies
rarely appeared on parade. Madame de Genlis relates how,
when young courtiers departed to join their regiments for a few
weeks' duty, the Jadies of the court decked them with favours,
as if proceeding on a distant and perilous expedition.
On the other hand, the fact that the French armies required
large drafts of miUtia to bring up their regular forces to war
strength gave them a vitality which was unusual in armies of
the time. Even in the time of Louis XIV. the military spirit of
the country had arisen at the threat of invasion, and the French
armies of 1709 fought far more desperately, as the casualty lists
of the allies at Malplaquet showed, than those of 1703 or 1704.
In the time of the Revolution the national spirit of the French
army formed a rallying-point for the forces of order, whereas
Prussia, whose army was completely independent of the people,
lost all power of defending herself after a defeat in the field. It
is difficult to summarize the conduct of the royal armies ra the
wars of 1740-63. With a few exceptions the superior leaders
proved themselves incompetent, and in three great battles,
at least, the troops suffered ignominious defeat (Dettingcn
x743» Rossbach 1757, Minden 1140). On the other hand;
FRENCH}
ARMY
619
Manhal Saxe and others of the younger generals were excellent
commanders, and Fontenoy was a victory of the first magnitude.
The administration, however, was corrupt and inefficient, and
the general reputation of the French armies fell so low that
Frederick the Great once refused an important command to
one of his generals on the ground that his experience had been
gained only against French troops.
Under Louis XVL things improved somewhat; the American
War and the successes of Lafayette and Rochambeau revived
a more warlike spirit. Instruction was more carefully attended
to, and a good system of drill and tactics was elaborated at the
camp of St Oner. Attempts were made to reform the adminis-
tration. Artillery and engineer schools had come into existence,
and the intellectual activity of the best officers was remarkable
(see Max JIhns,GercA.dfr Kriegstrissensckaften, vol. in*, passim).
But the Revolution soon broke over France, and the history
of the royal army was henceforward carried on by that revolu-
tionary army, which, under a new flag, was destined to raise the
military fame of France to its greatest height
84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was
so of the revolutionary army. At the outbreak of the Revolution
the royal army consisted of 294 infantry battalions, 7 regiments
of artillery, and 62 regiments of cavalry, numbering about
173,000 in all, but capable of augmentation on war strength to
310,000. To this might be added about 60,000 militia (see
Chuquet, Prtmiire invasion prussienne).
Tlie first step of the Constituent Assembly was the abrogation
of an edict of 1781 whereby men of non-noble birth had been
denied commissioned rank (1700). Thus, when many of the
officers emigrated along with their fellows of the noblesse, trained
non-commissioned officers, who would already have been
officers save for this edict, were available to fill their places.
The general scheme of reform (see Conscription) was less satis-
factory, but the formation of a National Guard, comprising in
theory the whole military population, was a step of the highest
importance. At this time the titles of regiments were abandoned
in favour of numbers, and the costly and dangerous liaison du
Rri abolished. But voluntary enlistment soon failed; the old
corps, which kept up their discipline, were depleted, and the
men went to the volunteers, where work was less exacting and
promotion more rapid. " Aussi fut-on," says a French writer,
" rtduii bientBl 6 forcer Vtngagemeni vdonlaire el d imfoser U
ekoix du corps.*' The " first invasion " (July 1792) put an end
to half-measures, and the country was declared " in danger."
Even these measures, however, were purely designed to meet
the emergency, and, after Valmy, enthusiasm waned to such a
degree that, of a paper strength of 800,000 men (Dece m ber 1792),
only xi 2,000 el the line and 290,000 volunteers were actually
present. The disasters of the following spring once more called
for extreme energy, and 300,000 national guards were sent to
the line, a step which was followed by a compulsory levee en
masse; one million men were thus assembled to deal with the
manifold dangers of civil and foreign war. France was saved
by mere numbers and the driving energy of the Terrorists, not
by discipline and organization. The latter was chaotic, and
almost every element of success was wanting to the tumultuary
levies of the year 1793 save a ferocious energy born of liberty
and the guillotine. But under the Terrorist regime the army
became the rallying-porat of the nation, and when Lazare Carnot
(q.v.) became minister of war a better organization and discipline
began to appear. The amalgamation of the old army and the
volunteers, which had been commenced but imperfectly carried
out, was effected on a different and more thorough principle.
The infantry was organized in demj-brigades of three battalions
(usually one of the old army to two of volunteers) . A permanent
organization in divisions of all arms was introduced, and the
ablest officers selected for the commands. Arsenals and manu-
factories of warlike stores were created, schools of instruction
.were re-established; the republican forces were transformed
from hordes to armies, well disciplined, organized and
equipped. Later measures followed the same* lines, and the
artillery and engineers, which in 1790 were admittedly the best
In Europe and which owing to the rohtrier element in their
officer cadres had not been disorganized by the emigration,
steadily improved. The infantry, and in a less degree the
cavalry, became good and trustworthy soldiers, and the glorious
campaigns of 1704, 179$ and 1796, which were the direct result
of Caraot's administration, bore witness to the potentialities
of the essentially modem system. But, great as was the triumph
of 1796-97, the exhaustion of years of continuous warfare
had made itself felt: the armies were reduced to mere skeletons,
and no sufficient means existed of replenishing them, till in 1798
the conscription was introduced. From that time the whole
male population of France was practically at her ruler's disposal;
and Napoleon had full scope for his genius in organizing these
masses. His principal improvements were effected in the interval
between the peace of Amiens and the war with the third coalition,
while threatening the invasion of England. His armies were
collected in large camps on the coasts of the Channel, and there
received that organization which, with minor variations, they
retained during all his campaigns, and which has since been
copied by all European nations. The divisions had already-given
place to the army corps, and Napoleon completed the work of his
pred e cessors. He withdrew the whole of the cavalry and a
portion of the artillery from the divisions, and thus formed
" corps troops " and cavalry and artillery reserves for the whole
army. The grade of marshal of France was revived at Napoleon's
coronation. At the same time, the operation of Jourdan's law,
acquiesced in during times of national danger and even during
peace, soon found opposition when the conscripts realized that
long foreign wars were to be their lot. It was not the actual losses
of the field armies, great as these undoubtedly were, which led
Napoleon in the full tide of his career to adopt the fatal practice of
" anticipating " the conscription, but the steady increase in the
number of rifroefoires, men who refused to come up for service.
To hunt these men down, no less than forty thousand picked
soldiers were engaged within the borders of France, and the
actual French clement in the armies of Napoleon grew less and
less with every extension of the empire. Thus, in the Grand
Army of 1809, about one-third of the corps of all arms were
purely German, and in 181 2 the army which invaded Russia,
467,000 strong, included 280,000 foreigners. In other words,
the million of men produced by the original conscription of 1793
had dwindled to about half that number (counting the various
subsidiary armies in Spain, &c), and one hundred thousand of
the best and sturdiest Frenchmen were engaged in a sort of civil
war in France itself. ■ TTie conscription was " anticipated "
even in 1806, the conscripts for 2807 being called up before their
time. As the later wars of the Empire dosed one by one the
foreign sources of recruiting, the conscription became more
terrible every year, with the result that more rifradaires and
more trusted soldiers to hunt them down were kept in non-
effective employment. Finally the capacity for resistance was
exhausted, and the army, from the marshals downward,
showed that it had had enough.
85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish
the conscription, but it had again to be resorted to within three
years. In 181 8 the annual contingent was fixed at 40,000, and
the period of service at six years; in 1824 the contingent was
increased to 60,000, and in 1832 to 80,000. Of this, however, a
part only, according to the requirements of the service, were
enrolled; the remainder were sent home on .leave or furlough.
Up to 1855 certain exemptions were authorized, and substitution
or exchange of lots amongst young men who had drawn was
permitted, but the individual drawn was obliged either to serve
personally or find a substitute. The long scries of Algerian wars
produced further changes, and in 1855 the law of " dotation "
or exemption by payment was passed, and put an end to per-
sonal substitution. The state now undertook to provide sub-
stitutes for all who paid a fixed sum, and did so by high
bounties to volunteers or to soldiers for re-engaging. Although
the price of exemption was fixed as high as £92, on an aver-
age 23,000 were claimed annually, and in 1859 as many as
42,000 were granted. Thus gradually the conscription bccan»*
620
ARMY
fGUMAlf
father subsidiary to voluntary enlistment, and in 1866, out
of a total establishment of 400,000, only 120,000 were con-
scripts. Changes had also taken place in the constitution of
the army. On the Restoration its numbers were reduced to
150,000, the old regiments broken up and recast, and a royal
guard created in place of the old imperial one. When the revolu-
tion of July 1830 had driven Charles X. from his throne, the
royal guard, which had made itself peculiarly obnoxious, was
dissoved; and during Louis Philippe's reign the army was
augmented to about 240,000 with the colours. Under the
Provisional Government of 1848 it was further increased, and in
1854, when France allied herself with England against Russia,
the army was raised to 500,000 men. The imperial guard was
re-created, and every effort made to revive the old Napoleonic
traditions in the army. In 1859 Napoleon III. took the field
as the champion and ally of Italy, and the victories of Montebello,
Magenta and Solferino raised the reputation of the army to the
highest pitch, and for a time made France the arbiter of Europe.
But the campaign of 1866 suddenly made the world aware that
a rival military power had arisen, which was prepared to dispute
that supremacy.
Marshal Niel (q.v.), the then war minister, saw clearly that
the organization which had with difficulty maintained 150,000
men in Italy, was no match for that which had within a month
thrown 250,000 into the very heart of Austria, while waging
a successful war on the Main against Bavaria and her allies.
In 1867, therefore, he brought forward a measure for the re-
organization of the army. This was to have been a true
" nation in arms " based on universal service, and Niel calculated
upon producing a first-line army 800,000 strong— half with the
colours, half in reserve — with a separate army of the second
line. But many years must elapse before the full effect of this
principle of recruiting can be produced, as the army is incom-
plete in some degree until the oldest reservist is a man who has
been through the line training. Niel himself died within a year,
and 1870 witnessed the complete ruin of the French army. The
law of x868 remained therefore no more than an expression of
principle.
86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the
French field troops consisted of 368 battalions, 25a squadrons,
and 084 guns. The strength of the entire army on peace footing
was 393,000 men; on war footing, 567,000. Disasters followed
one another in rapid succession, and the bulk of this war-trained
long-service army was captive in Germany within three months
of the opening battle. But the spirit of the nation rose to the
occasion as it had done in 1793. The next year's contingent
of recruits was called out and hastily trained. Fourth battalions
.were formed from the depot cadres, and organized into rSgiments
de marche. The gardes mobiles (Niel's creation) were mobilized,
and by successive decrees and under various names nearly all
the manhood of the country called to arms.
The regular troops raised a&rigiments de marcke, &c, amounted
to 213,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry and 10,000 artillery. The
garde mobile exceeded 300,000, and the mobilized national guard
exceeded x, 100,000— of whom about 180,000 were actually
in the field and 250,000 in Paris; the remainder preparing
themselves in camps or depots for active work. Altogether the
new formations amounted to nearly 1,700,000. Though, in the
face of the now war-experienced well-led and disciplined Germans,
their efforts failed, this cannot detract from the admiration
which must be felt by every soldier for the patriotism of the
people and the creative energy of their leaders, of whom
Gambetta and Freycinet were the chief. After the war every
Frenchman set himself to solve the army problem not less
seriously than had every Prussian after Jena, and the reformed
French army (see France) was the product of the period
of national reconstruction. The adoption of the "universal
service " principle of active army, reserves and second-line
troops, the essential feature of which is the line training of every
roan, was almost as a matter of course the basis of the re-
organization, for the want of a trained reserve was the most
obvious cause of the disasters of " the terrible year."
GeUCAN AftlfY
87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871.
or at earliest 1866. Before the unification of the German empire
or confederation, the several states possessed distinct armies,
federal armies when required being formed from the contingents
which the members of the union, like those of an ordinary
alliance, engaged to furnish. The armies of the Holy Romaa
Empire were similarly formed from "single," "double/' or
" treble " contingents under the supreme command of specially
appointed field m a r shals of the Empire. In the troubles of 1 &4J
there was witnessed the curious spectacle of half of a victories
army being unable to pursue the enemy; this, being composed
of " Prussian " as distinct from " federal contingent " troops,
had to stop at the frontier of another state. The events of 1S66
and 1870 put an end to all this, and to a very great extent to the
separate armies of the old confederation, all being now re-
modelled on Prussian lines. The Prussian army therefore .b
at once the most important and historically the most interesting
of the forces of the German empire. Its dibtU (about 1630)
was not satisfactory, and in the Thirty Years' War troops of
Sweden, of the Emperor, of the League, &c, plundered Branden-
burg unharmed. The elector, when appealed to for protection,
could but answer, "Que faire? lis ont des canons." The
humiliations of this time, were, however, avenged by the troops
of the next ruler of Brandenburg, called the Great Elector. The
supposed invincibility of the Swedes did not prevent him from
inflicting upon them a severe defeat at Fehrbellin, and there-
after the Prussian contingents which took part in the many
European wars of the time acquitted themselves creditably.
One of their generals was the famous Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau,
and the reckless gallantry of this leader was conspicuous oa
many fields, from Blenheim to Malplaquct But Leopolds
greatest work was done in the years of peace (1715-40), during
which Prussia was preparing the army with which Frederick
the Great won his battles. He had introduced (about 1700)
iron ramrods into the infantry service, and for over twenty
years the Prussian infantry was drilled to a perfection which
gave it a superiority of five to three over the best-drilled troops
of the Austrian service, and still greater predominance over the
French, which was then accounted the best in Europe. Frederick
William I., king of Prussia, directed and supervised the creation
of the new Prussian army, and Leopold was his principal assist-
ant In organization and methods of recruiting, as well as in
tactical efficiency, the army of 1740 was equally pre-eminent.
Then came the wars of Frederick the Great It is not too much
to say that the infantry won his earlier battles; the cavalry
had been neglected both by Frederick William and by Leopold,
and Frederick wrote that " it was not worth the devil's while to
fetch it away." But the predominance of the infantry was so
far indisputable that Frederick was able to devote himself to ike
reorganization of the mounted arm, with results which appeared
in the splendid victories of Hohenfriedberg, Rossbach, Leuthen
and Zomdorf. But long before the close of the Seven Years'
War the incomparable infantry of the old army had disappeared,
to be replaced by foreigners, deserters and vagabonds of ail
kinds, not to mention the unwilling Saxon and other recruits
forced into the king's service. The army of 200,000 men whkb
Frederick bequeathed to his successor was indeed superb, and
deserved to be the model of Europe. But with Frederick's
death the genius which had animated it, and which alone gave
value to such heterogeneous materials, was gone. The long
peace had the customary effect of sapping the efficiency of
the long-service troops. They still retained their imposing
appearance and precision of movement, and overweening scU-
confidence. But in 1806, after two crushing defeats and a series
of humiliating surrenders, Prussia found herself at the feet of the
conqueror, shorn of half her territory, obliged to receive French
troops in all her towns and fortresses, and only existing on
sufferance. But in these very disasters were laid the seeds
of her future greatness. By the treaty of Tilsit the Prussian
army was limited to 43 ,000 -men This limitation suggested
I
GERMAN: ITALIAN]
ARMY
621
to Scharnhorst "universal, service" on the J?rw**** ' system
already described (see ( 36 above).
88. The bitter, humiliation and suffering endured under the
French yoke aroused a national spirit which was capable of any
sacrifices. The civilian became eager to be trained to fight
t against the oppressor of his country; and when Prussia rose in
r 1813, the armies she poured into the field were no longer pro-
■ f essional, but national armies, imperfectly trained and organised,
1 but animated by a spirit which more than compensated for
i these defects. At the close of the war her rulers, with far-seeing
sagacity, at once devoted themselves to organize on a permanent
1 footing the system which had sprung up under the necessities
r and enthusiasm of the moment Universal compulsory service,
and a three years' term in the ranks, with further periods in
the reserve and Landwekr, were then introduced; and though
i variations have subsequently been made in the distribution of
t time, the principles were substantially the same as those now in
force. By the law of 1814 the periods of service were fixed at
r three years in the army, two in the reserve and fourteen in the
Landwekr, and the annual contingent at 40,000 men. As the
r population increased,^ was felt that the service was unequally
distributed, pressing unnecessarily heavily on some, while others
1 escaped altogether. Further, the experiences of Brannzell and
Olmau in 1850, and of 1859, when Prussia armed in anticipation
of a war with France, aroused great doubts as to the efficiency
of the Landwekr, which then formed the bulk of Prussia's forces,
and of whom many had been as long as ten years away from the
colours. At this time the French remark that the Prussian
army was " a sort of militia " was by no means untrue. Accord-
ingly, by the law of i860 the annual contingent was fixed at
\ 63/900, the period in the reserve was increased from two to four
years, and that in the Landwekr reduced from fourteen to five,
The total armed force thus remained nearly the same (is con-
tingents of 63,000, in place of 19 of 40,000), but the army and its
reserves were more than doubled (increased from 5 X 40,000 to
7 X 63,000) while the Landwekr was proportionately reduced.
This change was not effected without great opposition, and led
to a prolonged struggle between the king, guided by Bismarck,
and the parliament. It required the victories of 1866 and
1870, and the position thereby won for Prussia, to reconcile the
nation to the new law. The military alliance (i860) of Prussia
with the other German states gave place in 187 1 to the union of
all the armies into the German army as it is to-day. Some
retained their old peculiarities of uniform, and even more than
this was allowed to Bavaria and to Saxony, but the whole army,
which has been increased year by year to its present strength,
is modelled on the Prussian part of it, The Prussian army corps
are the Guard, and the line numbered I. to XI., and XV. to
xvm.
89. The Saxon Army formerly played a prominent part in all
the wars of northern Europe, chiefly in connexion with Poland.
In the War of the Austrian Succession the Saxon army played
a prominent part, but in the end it suffered a heavy .defeat
in the battle of Kesselsdorf (1745). In the Seven Years' War
Saxony was overrun by the Prussians almost without resistance,
and the military forces of the country under Field Marshal
Rutowski were forced to surrender en masse at Pirna (1756);
the men were compelled by Frederick the Great to join the
Prussian army, and fought, though most unwillingly, through
the remainder of the war as Prussian soldiers. A few outlying
regiments which had not been involved in the catastrophe
served with the Austrians, and on one occasion at least, at Kolin,
\ v fi}rt+A a severe blow on the Prussians. At the outbreak of the
wars of the French Revolution the Saxon army was over 30,000
strong. It took part in the campaign of Jena on the side of the
Prussians, and during the Napoleonic domination in Germany
Saxony furnished strong contingents to the armies of Napoleon,
who in return recognized her elector as king, and largely in-
creased his territories. The newly made king remained faithful
to Napoleon even in his reverses; but the army was too German
1 From Krumperpferde (cast hones attached to batteries, oYc., for
odd jobs), applied to the recruits in jest.
in feeling to fight willingly under the French flag. Their defection
at Leipzig contributed not • little to the results of that bloody
day. After the peace the king was shorn of a great part of hi*
dominions, and the army was reconstituted on a smaller scale.
In 1866 Saxony sided with Austria, and her army shared in the
disasters of the brief campaign and the crowning defeat at
Koniggritx. Under the crown prince's leadership, however,
the Saxons distinguished themselves by their courage and
steadiness wherever they were engaged. After the war Saxony
became part of the North German Confederation, and in 1870-
187 x her troops, under the command of the crown prince*
formed the XII. corps of the great German army. They were
assigned to the II. army of Prince Frederick Charles, and
delivered the decisive attack on the French right at Gravelotte.
Subsequently a IV. army was formed under the command of
the crown prince, in which the XII. corps, now under Prince
George of Saxony, served with unvarying credit in the campaign
of Sedan and the siege of Paris. The Saxon army is now organised
in every respect on Prussian lines, and forms two army corps
(XII. at Dresden and XIX. at Leipzig) Of the German army.
The German emperor, in concert with the king of Saxony, names
the officers for the higher commands. Saxony retains, however,
her separate war ministry, budget, &c; and appointments and
promotion to all but the highest commands are made by the king.
The colours of the older Saxon forces, and especially the green
of the tunics, are retained in many of the uniforms of the present
day.
00. The Bavarian Army has perhaps the most continuous record
of good service in the field of any of the minor German armies.
The oldest regiments dace from the Thirty Years' War, in which
the veteran army of the Catholic league, commanded by Count Titty
and formed on the nucleus of the Bavarian army, played a con-
the war the Bavarian general, Count Mercy,
/ opponent of Turenne and Conde. Hence-
were engaged in almost every war between
France and Austria, taking part succeativdy in the wars of the
Grand Alliance, the Spanish Succession (in which they came into
conflict with the English), and the Polish and Austrian Succession
wars. In pursuance of the traditional anti-Austrian policy, the
troops of Bavaria, led by a distinguished Bavarian, Marshal (Prince)
Wrede, served in the campaigns of 1805 to 1813 side by side with
the French, and Napoleon made the electorate into a kingdom.
But in 1813 Bavaria joined the Alliance, and Wrede tried to inter-
cept the French on their retreat from Leipzig. Napoleon, however,
inflicted a severe defeat on his old general at Hanau, and opened
his road to France. In 1866 the Bavarians took part against Prassia,
but owing to their dilatoriness in taking the field, the Prussians
were able to beat them in detail. In 1870, reorganised tosomeextent
on Prussian lines, they joined their former enemy In the war against
France, and bore their full share in the glories and losses of the
campaign, the II. Bavarian corps having suffered more heavily
than any but the III. Prussian corps. The i. Bavarian corps dis-
tinguished itself very greatly at Sedan and on the Loire. Bavaria
stiff retains her separate war office and special organization, and the
troops have been less affected by the Prussian influence than those
of the other states. The Bavarian corps are numbered separately
(I. Bav., Munich; II. Bav., WQrzburgjIH. Bav„ Nuremberg), and
the old light blue uniforms and other distinctive peculiarities of
detail are still maintained.
91. WtrUemberg furnishes one army corps- (XIII.; headquarters,
Stuttgart), organised, clothed and equipped in all respects like the
Prussian army. Like the Bavarians, the Wurttembergera fought
against the Prussians in 1866, but in 1870 made common cause with
them against the French, and by the convention entered into the
following year placed their army permanently under the command
of the Prussian king as emperor. The emperor nominates to
the highest commands, but the king of Wurttemberg retains the
nomination and appointment of officers in the lower grades.
92. The old Hanoverian Army disappeared,. of course, with the
annexation of Hanover to Prussia in 1866, but it is still represented
officially by certain regiments of the X. army corps, and, in one case
at hast, battle honours won by the King's German Legion in the
British service are borne on German colours of to-day. The Hessian
Army is now represented by the XXV. (Grand-ducal Hessian)
division, which forms part of. the XVI II. army corps.
Italian Aim
The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is
the basis of the military organisation of Italy, as its constitu-
tion is of that of the modern Italian kingdom. The Picdmontese
have long borne a high reputation for their military qualities, a
62a
reputation timed by the mien of the house of Savoy fa.*.),
many oi whom showed special ability in preserving the inde-
pendence of their small kingdom between two such powerful
neighbours as France and Austria. During the wars of the
French Revolution Piedmont was temporarily absorbed into
the French republic and empire. The Italian troops who
fought under Napoleon proved themselves, in many if not most
cases, the best of the French allies, and Italy contributed large
numbers of excellent general officers to the Grande ArmU.
After 1815 various causes combined to place Piedmont (Sardinia)
at the bead of the national movement which agitated Italy during
the ensuing thirty years, and bring her in direct antagonism* to
Austria. Charles Albert, her then ruler, had paid great attention
to the army, and when Italy rose against Austria in 1048 he took the
field with an excellent force of nearly 70,000 men. At the outset'
fortune favoured the arms of Italy; but the genius and energy of
Radettky, the veteran Austrian commander, turned the tide, and
in the summer of 1840 after many battles the Picdmontese army
was decisively defeated at Novara, and her king compelled to sue
for peace. Chariea, Albert abdicated in favour of his son Victor
Emanuel, a prince who had already distinguished himself by his
personal gallantry in the field. Under his care the army soon re-
covered its efficiency, and the force which joined the allied armies in
the Crimea attracted general admiration from the excellence of its
organization, equipment and discipline. In 1859 Piedmont again
took op arms against Austria for the liberation of Italy; but this
time she had the powerful assistance of France, and played but a
subordinate part herself. In this campaign the Sardinian army was
composed of one cavalry and five infantry divisions, and numbered
about 60,000 combatants. By the peace of VUkfranca, Italy,
with the exception of Venetia, was freed from the Austrians, and
Lombardy was added to Piedmont. The revolutionary campaign of
Garibaldi in the following year united the whole peninsula under
the rule 0/ Victor Emanuel, and in 1866, when Italy for the third
time took up arms against Austria — this time as the ally of Prussia —
her forces had risen to nearly 450,000, of whom about 270.000
actually took the field. But tn quality these were far from being
equal to the old Piedmontese army; and the northern army, under
the personal command of the long, was decisively defeated at
Custozza by the archduke Albert of Austria.
The existing organization of the Italian army is determined by
the laws of 1873. which made universal liability to service the basis
of recruiting. The territorial system has not, however, been adopted
at the same time, the materials of which the Italian army is com-
posed varying so much that it was decided to blend the different
types of soldiers so far as possible by causing them to serve together.
The colonial wars in which Italian troops have taken part have been
marked with great disasters, but relieved by the gallantry of the
officers and the rank and file.
Russian Axxy
04. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition
of the Strelitz (?.».) by Peter the Great in 1608, the nucleus of
the new forces being four regiments of foot, two of which are
well known to-day under their old .titles of Preobraahenski and
Semenovsld. Throughout the 18th century Russian military
progress obeyed successive dynasties of western European
models— first those of Prussia, then those of France. In the
earlier part of the 19th century the army, used chiefly in wars
against the revolutionary spirit, became, like others of that
time, a dynastic force; subsequently the "nation in arms"
principle reasserted itself, and on this basis has been carried out
the reorganization of Russia's military power. The enormous
development of this since 1874 Is one of the most striking
phenomena in recent military history. In 189a, in expectation
of a general European war, whole armies were massed is the
districts of Warsaw and Vilna, three-fifth* of the entire forces
being in position on the German and Austrian frontiers.
The Russo-Japanese War of 1901-3 is generally held to have
proved that the fighting power of the Russian has in no way
diminished in intrinsic value from that of the days of Zorndorf,
Borodino and Sevastopol. The proverbial stubbornness of the rank
and file is the distinctive quality of the armies of the tsar, and in
view of the general adoption of two-years' service in other countries
it is a matter for grave consideration whether, against European
forces and in defence of their own homes, the Russians would not
prove more than formidable antagonists to the men of more highly
individualized races who are their probable opponents. Equally
remarkable is the new power of redistribution possessed by Russia.
Formerly it was usual to count upon one campaign at least elapsing
.before Russia could intervene effectively in European wars; much,
4a fact the greater part, of her losses in the Crimean War was due
ARMY (RUSSIAN: SPANISH
totheerioraousdiltaaceawhkhhadtobetmvefsedeaifoot. Ne^
days the original equal distribution of the army over the country
has been modified in. accordance with the political needs of ear a
moment. In 189a the centre of gravity was shifted to Poland ar-J
Kiev, in 1904 the performances of the trans-Siberian railway ts
transporting troops to the seat of war in Manchuria excited tW
admiration of military Europe. The attitude of the army in tar
troubles which followed upon the Japanese War belongs to tibt
history of Russia, not to that of military organization, and it wiD be
sufficient to say that the conduct of the " nation in arms " at tissea
of political unrest may vary between the extremes of unquestkxaai
obedience to authority and the most dangerous form of bcroa
examples of both being frequent in the history of nearly all natii-r*
armies. A remarkable innovation in the modern history of lita
army is the conversion of the whole of the cavalry, except a few
large <
peculiarities of the light troops of the 18th century.
Spanish Axxy
95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but
little, in their military organization, from other feudal states,
As usual, mercenaries were the only forces on which reliance
was placed for foreign wars. These troops called almmgdtara
(Arabic ■■scouts) won a great reputation on Italian and Greek
battlefields of the 13 th century, and with many transformation
in name and character appeared from time to time up to the
Peninsular War. Castile, however, had a military system very
different from the rest. The forces of the kingdom were cam-
posed of local contingents similar to the English fyrd, pro-
fessional soldiers who were paid followers of the great lords,
and the heavy cavalry of the military orders. The groups of
cities called Hermonrfoo'er, while they existed, aho had permanect
forces in their pay. At the union of Castile and Aragon the
Castilian methods received a more general application. The
new Htrmandad was partly a light cavalry, partly a police, and
was organized in the ratio of one soldier to every hundred
families. In the conquest of Grenada (1483-92) *mes*ai*i
or contingents were furnished by the crown, the nobles and the
dries, and permanently kept in the field. The Henmaniti
served throughout the war as a matter of course. From the
veterans of this war was drawn the army which in the Itahaa
wars won its reputation as the first army in Europe,
In 1596 the home defence of Spain was reorganized and the
ordenama, or militia, which was then formed of aO men- not
belonging to the still extant feudal contingents, was generally
analogous to the system of "assizes at anas" In FHgHmi
This ordenama served in. the Peninsular War.
96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the
out the Spanish army as the model for others to follow, and for mere
than a century the Spanish army maintained its prestige as the
first in Europe. The oldest regiments of the present Spanish amy
claiming descent from the tercios date from I53$« An <
regiment was reduced commonly took s ~ ;t ~
(e.t. Tilly), the scHor soldado was count*
regiment was reduced commonly took a pike In some other corps
(e.t. Tilly), the scHor soldado was counted as a gentleman, and bis
wife and family received state allowances. Nor was this army open
only to Spaniards. Walloons, Italians, Burgundians and other
nationalities ruled over by the Habsburgs all contributed their
?uotaa. But the career of the old army came to an end at Rocrai
1643), And after this the forces of the monarchy began more and
more to conform to the French model.
97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to rfoo is foB of
incident, and in the long war of the Spanish Succession both tat
army and the ordenansa found almost continuous employment.
They were now organized, as were most other armies ol Europe,
on the lines of the French army, and in 1714 the old terries, which
had served in the Spanish Netherlands under Marlborougm, were
brought to Spain. The king's regiment " Zatnora " of the present
army descends from one of these which, as the stress of BovadiBs.
had been raised in 1580. The army underwent few changes of
importance during the 18th century, and it is interesting to note
that there were never less than three Irish regiments in the
lJftfcmss
In 1808 the /rfesis, Ultoni* (-Ulster) and J
come to consist (as had similar corps in the French service befara
the Revolution) largely of native soldiers. At that time the Spanish
army consisted of 119 Spanish and foreign (Swiss, Walloon and
Irish) battalions, with 24 cavalry regiments and about 8000 artillery
and engineers. There were further 51 battalions of mAitaa, and the
TURKISH: AMERICAN] ARMY
total forces numbered actually 137,00a The part played by the
Spanish standing army in the Peninsular War was certainly -wholly
insignificant relatively to these figures. It must be borne in mind,
however, that only continued wars can give real value to long •service
troops of the old style, and this advantage the Spanish regulars
did not possess. Further, the general decadence of administration
reacted in the usual way, the appointment of court favourites to
high command was a flagrant evil, and all that can be urged is that
the best elements of the army behaved as well as did the Prussians
of 1806. that the higher leading and the administration of the army
in the field were both sufficiently weak to have mined most armies,
sind that the men were drawn from the same country and the same
classes which furnished the tutrrilUros whom it became fashionable
to exalt at the expense of toe soldiers. In the later campaigns of
Wellington, Spanish divisions did good service, and the corps of
La Romafia (a picked contingent of troops which had been sent
623
wars of the 19th century was the destruction of the old army, and
the present army of Spain still bears traces of the confusion out of
which it a
The most important changes were in 1870, when conscription was
introduced, and in 187a, when universal service was proposed in its
place. The military virtues of the rank and file and the devotion
of the officers were conspicuously displayed in the Spanish-American
War of I898, and it cannot be claimed even for the Germans of 1*70
that they fired so coolly and accurately as did the defenders of
& Juan and £1 Caney.
Turkish Abut
08. The writers who have left the most complete and trust-
worthy contemporary accounts of the Turkish army in the
i4tbr and 15th centuries, when it reached the height of its most
characteristic development, are Bertrandon de la Brocqiuere,
equerry to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and Francesco
Filelfo of Tolentxno. Bertrandon, a professional soldier, visited
Palestine in 1432, and returned overland in 1433, traversing
the Balkan Peninsula by the main trade-route from Con-
stantinople to Belgrade. He wrote an account of his journey
for Philip: see Early Travels in Palestine, translated and edited
by T. Wright (London, 1848). Filelfo served as secretary to the
Venetian baylo at Constantinople, and recorded his observations
in a series of letters (see Filelfo). Both ascribe the military
superiority of the Turks over the nations of western Europe to
two facts—firstly to their possession of a well-organized stand-
ing army, an institution unknown elsewhere, and secondly to
their far stricter discipline, itself a result of their military organ-
ization- and of the moral training afforded by Islam.
The regular troops comprised the Janissaries (q.v.), a corps of
infantry recruited from captured sons of Christians, and trained to
form a privileged caste of scientific soldiers and religious fanatics;
and the Spahis, a body of cavalry similarly recruited, and armed with
scimitar, mace and bow. Celibacy was one of the rules of this
standing army, which, in its semi-monastic ideals and constitution,
resembled the knightly orders of the West in their prime. The
Janissaries numbered about 12,000, the Spahis about 8000. A
second army of some 40,000 men, mostly mounted and armed like
the Spahis, was feudal in character, and consisted chiefly of the
personal followers of the Moslem nobility ; more than half its numbers
were recruited in Europe. This force of 60,000 trained soldiers was
accompanied by a horde of irregulars, levied chiefly among the
barbarous mountaineers of the Balkans and Asia Minor, ana very
ill-armed and ill-disciplined. Their numbers may be estimated at
140,000, for Bertrandon gives 200,000 as the tout of the Turkish
forces. Many 15th and 16th century writers give a smatler total,
but refer only to the standing and feudal armies. Others place
the total higher. Laonicus Chalcocondylas in his Turcica Hisloria
states that at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 the sultan com-
manded 400,000 troops, but most other eye-witnesses of the siege
give a total varying from 150,000 to 300,000. Many Christian
soldiers of fortune enlisted with the Turks as artillerists or engineers,
and supplied them at Constantinople with the most powerful cannon
of the age. Other Christians were compelled to serve as engineers or
in the ranks. As late as 1683 a corps of Wallachians was forced to
join the Turkish arniy before Vienna, and entrusted with the task of
bridging the Danube. But in the 1 8th and early 19th centuries the
introduction of Christians tended to weaken the moral of the army
already sapped by defeat; it was found impossible to maintain the
discipline of the Janissaries, whose privileges had become a source
of danger; and the feudal nobility became more and more inde-
pendent of the sultan's authority. These three causes contributed
to make reorganization inevitable.
The destruction of the Janissaries in 1826 marked the close of the
history of the old Turkafc army? already the re-creation of the
service on the accepted models of western Europe had been com-
menced. This was still incomplete when the new force was called
upon to meet the Russians in 1828, and though the army displayed
its accustomed bravery, its defective organization and other causes
led to its defeat. Since then the army has been almost as constantly
on active service as the British; the Crimean Wax, the Russo-
Turkish War of 1877 and the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 witnessed
the employment of a large proportion of the sultan's available
forces, while innumerable local revolts in different parts of the
empire called for great exertions, and often for fierce fighting on
the part of the troops locally in garrison and those sent up from the
nearest provinces.
United States ,A*my-
00, The regular army of the United States has always been
small. From the first it has been a voluntary force, and until
1898 its chief work in peace was to furnish numerous small posts
on the frontier and amongst the Indiana, and to act as a reserve
to the civil power in the great cities. In war-time the Tegular
army, if, as was usually the case, it was insufficient tn numbers
for the task of subduing the enemy, formed the nucleus of large
armies raised " for the war." In 1700 the rank and file of the
army, as fixed by act of Congress, amounted to isi6 men; and
in 1814 an English expedition of only 3500 men was able to seise
and burn Washington, the capital of a country which even then
numbered eight millions of inhabitants. In 2861, at the begin*-
ning of the Civil War, the whole regular force amounted to about
15,300 men. In April of that year the president called out
75,000 volunteers for three months; and in May a further
call for 42.000 was made. In July a call for 500,000 men
was authorized by Congress, and as even this vast force proved
insufficient it was found necessary to use a system of drafts.
In October 1863 a levy of 300,000 men was ordered, and m
February 1864 a further call of 500,000 was made. Finally, in
the beginning of 1865 two further levies, amounting in all to
500,000 men, were ordered, but were only partially carried but
in consequence of the cessation of hostilities. The total number
of men called under arms by the government of the United
States, between April 1861 and April 1865, amounted to
3,759,049, of whom 2,656,053 were actually embodied in the
armies. If to these be added the x, 100,000 men embodied by
the South during the same time, the total armed forces reach the
enormous amount of nearly four millions,drawn from a population
of only 34 millions— figures before which the celebrated uprising
of the French nation in 1793, or the efforts of France and
Germany in the Franco-German War, sink into insignificance.'
These 2,700,000 Federals were organised into volunteer regi-
ments bearing state designations. The officers, except general
and staff officers, were appointed by the governors of the re-
spective states. The maximum authorized strength of the
regular army never, during the war, exceeded 40,000 men;
and the number in the field, especially towards the close of the*
war, was very much less. The states, in order to obtain men
to fill their quotas, offered liberal bounties to induce men to
enlist, and it therefore became very difficult to obtain recruits
for the regular army, for which no bounties were given. The
regular regiments accordingly dwindled away to skeletons.
The number of officers present was also much reduced, since
many of them, while retaining their regular commissions, held'
higher rank in the volunteer army. After the close of the Civil
War the volunteers were mustered out; and by the act of
Congress of the 28th of July 1866 the line of the army was made
to consist of 10 regiments of cavalry of 12 troops each, 5 regi-
ments of artillery of 12 batteries each and 45 regiments of
infantry of 10 companies. The actual strength in August 1867
was 53,962. The act of the 3rd of March 1869 reduced the
number of infantry regiments to 25 and the enlisted strength
of the army to 35,036. The numbers were further reduced,
without change in organization, to 32,788 in 1870 and to 25,000
in 1874. The latter number remained the maximum for
twenty-four years.
In March 1898, in view of hostilities with Spain, the
artillery was increased by 2 regiments, and, in April, 3 com-
panies were added to each infantry regiment, giving it
624
ARMY
[MINOR ARMIES
$ battalion* of 4 compute* each. Tne strength of batteries,
troops and companies was increased, the maximum enlisted
strength reached during 1898 being over 63,000. A volunteer
army was also organized. Of this army, 3 regiments of engineer
troops, 3 of cavalry and 10 of infantry were United States
volunteers, all the officers being commissioned by the president.
The other organizations came from the states, the officers being-
appointed by the respective governors. As fast as they were
organised and filled up, they were mustered into the service
of the United States. The total number furnished for the war
with Spain was 10,017 officers and 215,218 enlisted men. All
general and staff officers were appointed by the president. Three
hundred and eighty-seven officers of the regular army received
volunteer commissions. After the conclusion of hostilities with
Spain, the mustering out of the volunteers was begun, and by
June 1809 all the volunteers, except those in the Philippines,
were out of the service. The latter, as well as those serving
elsewhere, having enlisted only for the war, were brought home
and mustered out as soon as practicable.
The act of the 2nd of March 1809 ftdded 2 batteries to each
regiment of artillery. On the and of February root Congress
passed an important bill providing for the reorganization and
augmentation (max. 100,000) of the regular army, and other
measures foUowedia the next years. (See Units*) States.)
Minob Armies
too. Dutch and Belgian Armies.— The military power of the
" United Provinces " dates its risft from the middle of the 16th
century, when, after a long and sanguinary struggle, they succeeded
In emancipating themselves from the yoke of Spain; and in the
following century it received considerable development in conse-
quence of the wars they had to maintain against Louis XIV. In
r7os they had in their pay upwards of 100,000 men, including many
*** ttish regiments, besides 30,000 in the service of the
English and Scottish 1 _ .
Dutch East India Company.
But the slaughter of Malplaquet
deprived the republic of the flower of the army. Its part in the
War of the Austrian Succession was far from being; as creditable
as its earlier deeds, a Prussian army overran Holland in 1787 almost
without opposition, and at the beginning of the wars of the French
Revolution the army had fallen to 36,000 men. In 1795 Holland
was conquered by the French under Pichegru, and in the course of
the changes which ensued the army was entirely reorganized, and
under French direction bore its share in the great wars of the empire.
With the fall of Napoleon and the reconstitution of the Nether-
lands, the Dutch-Belgian army, formed of the troops of the now
united countries, came into existence. The army fought at Waterloo,
but was not destined to a long career, for the revolution of 1830
brought about the separation of Belgium. A Dutch garrison under
Baron Chaste, a distinguished veteran of the Napoleonic ware,
defended Antwerp against the French under Marshal Gerard, and
the Netherlands have been engaged in many arduous colonial wars
in the East Indies. The Belgian army similarly has contributed
officers and txm<omnussk>nea officers to the service of the Congo
Free Sate.
101. Swiss Army.— The inhabitants of S wi tz er land were always
a hardy and independent race, but their high military reputation
dates from the middle of the 15th century, when the comparatively
Hi-armed and untrained mountaineers signally defeated Charles
the Bold of Burgundy and the flower of the chivalry of Europe in
the battles of Granson, Morat and Nancy. The Swabian war,
towards the end of that century, and the Milanese war. at the begin-
ning of the following one, added to the fame of the Swiss infantry,
and made it the model on which that arm was formed all over
Europe. The wealthier countries vied with each other m hiring
them as mercenaries, and the poor but warlike Swiss found the
profession of arms a lucrative one.
A brief account of the Swiss mercenaries will be found earlier in
this article. Their fall was due in the end to their own indiscipline
in the first place, and the rise of the Spanish standing army and its
musketeers in the second. Yet it does not seem that the military
Sputation of the Swiss was discredited, even by reverses such as
arignan. On the contrary, they continued all through the 1 7th
and 18th centuries to furnish whole regiments for the service of other
countries, notably of France, and individuals, like Jomini in a later
age, followed the career of the soldier of fortune everywhere. The
most nouble incident in the later military history of the Swiss, the
heroic faithfulness of Louis XVI.'s Swiss guard, is proverbial, and
has been commemorated with just pride by their countrymen.
The French Revolutionary armies overran Switzerland, as they did
all the small neighbouring states, and during Napoleon's career she
had to submit to his rule, and furnish her contingent to his armies.
On the fall of Napoleon she regained her independence, and returned
to her old trade of furnishing soldiers to the sovereigns and powers of
Europe. Charles X. of France had at one time as many as 17,000
Swiss in his pay; Naples and Rome had each four regiments. The
recruiting for these foreign services was openly ack n owl e dge d *ad
encouraged by the government. The young Swiss engaged vsUaUy
for a period of four or six years; they were formed in separate
regiments, officered by countrymen of their own, and i e tei »ed a
higher rate of pay than the national regiments; and at the dose
of their engagement returned with their earnings, to settle f"
paternal holdings. A series of revolution*, however.
f their e
their pate
them from France and Italy, and recently the advance of (
ideas, and the creation of great national armies based on the principle
of personal service, has destroyed their occupation. Switzerland a
now remarkable in a military sense as being the only country that
maintains no standing army (see Militia).
102. The Swedish Army can look back with pride to the days of
Gustavus Adolphus and of Charles XI I. The contributions made by
Portuguese, at one time exceed! n
Marshal Beresford. Trained and
A large
saaiary
it to the military science of the 1 7th century have been noticed above.
The triumphs of the small ana highly disciplined army of Cbariei
were often such as to recall the similar victories of the Creeks under
Alexander. Tha then nebulous armies of Russia and Poland re*
sembled indeed the forces of Darius in the 4U1 century sue, but Petei
the Great succeeded at last in producing a true army, and the
resistance of the Swedes collapsed under the weight of the wssth;
superior numbers then brought against them. '
The Danish Army has a long and meritorious record ofgoodserrict
dating from the Thirty Yean? War.
103. The existing Army of Portugal dates from the !
War, when a considerable force of Portt
60,000 men. was organised under Marshal Beresfort
partly officered by English officers, it proved itself not unworthy <f
its allies, and bore its full share in the series of campaigns and
battles by which the French were ultimately expelled from Spain.
At the peace the army numbered about 50,000 infantry and 5000
cavalry, formed on the English model, and all in the highest state
of efficiency. This force was reduced in 18IJ, under the new
constitutional government, to about one-half.
104. The Rumanian, Bulgarian and Servian armies sue the
youngest in Europe. The conduct of the Rumanians before Plrvas
in 1877 earned for them the respect of soldiers of all conntriea,
Serviaand Bulgaria came to war in 1685, and tha Bulgarian soldiers,
under the most adverse conditions, achieved splendid v ktm m
under the leadership* of their own officers. In the crisis foBovias
the Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (1908-9), it seemed
likely that the Servian forces might play an unexpectedly active
part in war even with a strong power.
BiBLiocRAruY. — Below are the titles of some of the snore is*
Krtant works on the subject of armies. See also under biographkal
idings and articles dealing with the several arms, Ac / *
Mtkra of the works, mentioned below are concerned
the development of strategy and tactics.
V. der Goltx, Das Volk in Waff en (1883, »*" •*•! ia °*» &"*&*
translation, P. A. Ashworth, Nation %n Arms, London, 1887. new
ed., 1907, French, Nation armee, Paris, 1889); lahns, Heeresurr.
fassunt ana* Votkerleben (Berlin. 1885); Berndt, Die ZeM im Krtete
(Vienna, 1895): F. N. Maude, Eoolutum of Modem Strategy <I9°J>.
Voluntary versus Compulsory Service (1897), and War ami the Worlds
' " '1907); Pierron, Mithodes dt guerre, vol. I; lahns. Gears***
negswissenukaflen (an exhaustive bibliography, with critical
notes); Troschke, Mil. L t U er a tu r sett den Befretungskriegru (Berka,
1870); T. A. Dodge. Great Captains (Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar,
Gustavus, Napoleon) ; Bronsart v. Schellendorf .(Eng. tsanx*. War
Office, 1905) Duties of the General Staff; Fave, Histoire at iuctujmt
des trots armes (Liege, 1850); Maynert, Gesck. des Kriegsmtsenj u.
der Heertsterfassungen in Euroba (Vienna, 1869): Jahna, Handbudk
fir cine Gescbickte des Kriegswesens *. der Until his smr Reumssmmes
(Leipzig, 1880) ; de la Barre Duparcq. Histoire de Fart do Im guerre
avant t usage de bpudre (Paris, i860); Rustow and Kochly. Ge-
sckichte des griechiscken Kriegswesens (Aarau, 185a); Kochly and
Rustow, Gnetkiscke KriegssckriftsteUer (Leipzig, 1855); Fdrstrr.
in Hermes, xii. (1877); D. G. Hogarth, Philip and Alexander
(London, 1897); Mscdougall, Campaigns of Hannibal (London,
1858); Rustow, Heerwesen, 6fc, Julius Casars (Nordhaueen, 1855);
Organ der M. Wissensck. Verein of 1877 (Vienna) ; Porybiua litera-
ture of the 17th and 18th centuries: supplement to M.W.B., 18S3;
the works of Xenophon, Aelian, Arnan, vegetius, Polybius, Caesar,
&c (see Kochly and Rustow: a collection was made in the 15th
century, under the title Veteres de re militori scriptores, 148; >;
Oman, A History of the Art of War: Middle Ann (London, i8o«>;
Delpech. La Tactiqne au XIII' sikle (Paris, 1886); Kohler. Die
Entwicketung des Kriegswesens 9. n. Jakrkdl. bis est den HmsiUn-
kriegen (Brcslau. 1886- 1893); Ricotti, Sloria detlo Compagnte d%
Ventura (Turin. 1 846); Steger, Gesck. Francesco Storms nnd d ttaL
Condottieri (Leipzig, 1865): J. A. Symonds, Toe Renaissance ta
Italy and Tke Age of Ike Despots ; A Brandenburg Mobilisation of terr
(German General Staff Monograph, No. 3); Palacky, "Kriegskunst
der Bohmen," Zeitsckrifl bdkmisck. Museums (Prague. taaS);
George, Battles of English History (London, 1895); Biottot. Us
Grands inspirit dewant la science: Jeanne eVArc (Paris, 1907);
V. Eflger, Kriegswesen, fire, der Eidgenosseu. 14., if., id. Jakrkdl.
(1873); °* u Chauvelays, Les Armies do Charles le Temermwe
(Parn\ 1879); GuuTaume, Hist, des bandes * s rsf s en an ce .dems Im
ARNAL— ARNAUD
625
Pays-Bos (Brussels, 1873); the works of FroMsait, de Brantome,
Marhiavetli. Lien hard Frunsperger (Kriegsbuch, 1570}, de la None,
du Bcllay, &c; Villari, Life and Times of Mackiavclli (English
version): "Die from men Landsknechte " (M. W. B., supplement,
1660) : KriegsbUder aus der Zeil der Landsknechte (Stuttgart, 1883) ;
C. H. Firth, Cromwell's Army (London, 1902); HeiFmann, Das
Kriegswesen der Kaiserlicken und Sckweden (Leipzig, i8<o);
C. Walton, History of the British Standing Army, 1660-1700 (London,
1894); E. A. Altham in United Service Magazine, February 1007;
Austrian official history, of Prince Eugene's campaigns. &c; de la
und Staff im Kriege (Vienna, 1895) ; E. d'Hautcrivc, L'Armie sous la
Revolution (Paris, 1894); C. Rousset, Les Volontaires de 1791-1794-,
Michclet. Us Soldats de Id Revolution (Paris, 1878); publications of
the French general staff on the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars; H. Bonnal, Esprit de la guerre modeme (a series of studies in
military history, 1805-1870); Paimblant du Rouil, La Division
Durutte, les Rifractaires. also supplement, M.W.B., 1890; "The
French Conscription" (suppl. M.W.B., 189a); C. v. der GoKz.
Von Rassbach bis Jena una Auerstadt (a new edition of the original
Rossback und Jena, Berlin, 1883) ; German General Staff Monograph,
No. 10; M.W.B. supplements of 1845, l8 46, 1847, 1854, 1855.1856,
1857. 1858, 1862, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1887; v. Dunckcr. P reus sen
wakrend der front, Ohhupation (1872); Archives of Prussian war
ministry, publications of 1892 and 1896; histories of the wars of
1866 and 1870; V. Charcton, Comme la Prusse a pripart sa revanche,
1806-1813; Reports of Col. Baron Stoffel, French attach* at Berlin
(translation into English, War Office, London); Haxthauscn, Les
Forces militaires de la Prusse (Paris, 1853): de la Barre Ouparcq,
sttudes historiques gtnirales et militaires sur la Prusse (Paris, J 854) ;
Paixhans, Constitution militaire de la France (Paris, 1849); Due
d'Aumale, Les Institutions militaires de la France (Paris, 1867);
C. v. Decker, Ober die Persdnlichkeil des preussischen Satdaten
(Berlin, 1842) ; War Office, Army Book of the British Empire (London.
1893); M. Jahns, Das franzdsxsche Heer won der grossen Revolution
bis tur Cegenwart (Leipzig, 1873); Baron Kaulbars, The German
Army (in Russian) [St Petersburg, 1890I : Die Schweit im 19. Jahr-
hundert (Berne and Lausanne, 1899); Heimann, L'Armie allemonde
(Paris, 1895) ; R. de 1' Homme de Courbiere, GrundsAge der deutschen
MilitatverwaUung (Berlin, 1882); G. F. R. Henderson, The Science
of War (London, 1905) ; J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army
(London, 1899 ); R- de l'Homrne de Courbiere, Cesch. der
brandenburt-preussiscn. Heeresverfassung (Berlin, 1852): Krippen-
tagel and Kustel, Die preuss. Armee von derdltesten Zeil bu sur
Cegenwari (Berlin, 168%); Gansauge, Das brandenbg.-preuss. K rites -
wesen t J440,i640,i74o{aer]in, 1839); A.v.Boguslawksi,.Dtt Landwehr,
181J-180J (1893); A. R. v. Sichart, Cesch. d. k. hannover. Armee
(Hanover, 1866) ; v. Reitzenstein, Die h. hannover. Kavallerie, i6ji-
1866 (1892); Schlee, Zur Cesch. des hessischen Kriegstoestns(Kassel t
1867); Leichtlen, Badens Kriegsverfassung (Carlsruhe, 1815); v. Stad-
linger, Cesch. des wuruembergiscken Kriegswesens (Stuttgart, 1858);
Munich, Entwickelung der bayerischen Armee (Munich, 1864);
official Cesch. d. k. bayer t Armee (Munich, 1901 onward) ; Wflrdingcr,
Kriegsgeschichte v. Bayern (Munich, 1868); H. Meynert, Cesch.
des dsterr. Kriegswesens (Vienna, 1852), Kriegswesen Ungarns
(Vienna, 1876); Anger, Cesch. der K.-X. Armee (Vienna, 1886);
Beitr&ge tur Cesch. des dsterr. Heerwesens, 1754-1814 (Vienna, 1872) ;
R. v. Ottenfeld and Teuber, Die dsterr. Armee, 1/00-1867 (Vienna,
189s); v. Wredc, Cesch. d. K. «. K. Wehrmacht (Vienna, 1902);
May de Rainmoter, Histoire militaire de la Suisse (Lausanne, 1788) ;
Cusachs y Barado, La Vida MHitar en Espaha (Barcelona, 1888) ;
GuiUaume, Hist, de I'infanterie wallonne sous la maison d'Espagne
(Brussels, 1876); A. Vitu, Histoire civile de Varmie (Paris, 1868);
A. Pascal, Hist, de Varmie (Paris, 1847); L. Jablonski, L'Armie
franchise d trovers les Ages; C. Romagny, Hist, ginhale de I'armie
nationale (Paris, 1893); E. Simond, Hist. mil. dela France; Susane,
Hist, de I'infanterie, cavalerie, artillerie franchises (Paris, 1874);
Pere Daniel, Hist, des milices franchises (172 1) ; the official Historique
des corps de troupe (Paris, 1900- ) ; Cahu, Le Soldat francais
(Paris, 1876); J. Molard. Cent ans de P armee franchise, 1789-1889
(Paris, 1890); v. Stein, Lehre vom Heerwesen (Stuttgart, 1872);
du Verger de S. Thomas, Lltalie el son ormie, 186$ (Paris, 1866):
" C. Mattel " Military Italy (London. 1884); Sir R. Biddulph. Lord
CardwettattheWar Office (London. 1904) ; Willoughby Verner, Military
Ltfe of the Duke of Cambridge (London, ioos); W. H. Daniel. The
Military Forces o( the Crown (London, 1902); War Office, Annual
Report of the British Army; Broome, Rise and Progress of the Bengal
Army (Calcutta, X850): W. J. Wilson. Hist, of The Madras Army
(London. 1 1882-1885); C. M. Clode, Military Forces of the Crown;
Blume, Die Grundtage unserer Wehrkraft (Berlin, 1899); Spenser
Wilkinson) The Brain of an Army (London, 1890 and 1895); v.
Olbcrg, Die franzbsische Armee im Exerzirplatz una im Felde (Berlin,
1861); Die Heere und Flotte der Cegenwart, ed. Zepelin (Berlin,
1896); Molard, Puissances militaires de I' Europe (Paris, 1895);
works of Montecucculi, Puysfgur, Vauban, Feuquieres, Guibert.
Folard, Guichard, Joly de Maizeroy, Frederick the Great, Marshal
Saw, the prince de Ltgne, Napoleon. Carnot, Scharnborst, Clause-
witz, Napoleon III., Moltke, Hatnley, Ac.
n 11
The principal general military periodicals are>— EngUsh,/**moi
of the R. United Service Institution; United States, Journal of the
Military Service Institution; French, Revue oThistoire and Revue
des armies itrangeres (general staff) ; Rau and Lauth, L'Etat militaire
des puissances (about every 4 years); Revue militaire ginirale,
founded in 1907 by General Langlois; Almanack' du drapeau (a
popular aide-memoire published annually); German, the Viertcljahrs-
heft of the general staff: MUitar-Wothenblatt (referred to above
as M.W.B.— the supplements are of great value); von LobeH's
Jahresberichte (annual detailed reports on the state, Ac., of all armies
— an English precis appears annually in the Journal of the R.U.S.
Institution); Austrian, Streffleurs 6st. Militar » Zeitschrift, with
which was amalgamated (1907) the Organ d. militdrwissenschaft.
Vereins. The British War Office issues from time to time handbooks
dealing with foreign armies, and,, quarterly since April 1907, a
critical review and bibliography of recent military literature in
the principal languages, under the name of Recent Publications of
Military Interest. (C. F. A.)
ARNAL, &TIENNE (1794-1872), French actor, was born at
Meulan, Seine-et-Oisc, on the 1st of February 1794. After
serving in the army, and working in a button factory, he took
to the stage. His first appearance (181 5) was in tragedy, and for
some time he was unsuccessful; it was not until 1827 that he
showed his real ability in comedy parts, especially in plays by
Felix August Duvert (1795-1876) and Augustin Theodore
Lauzanne (1805-1877), whose Cabinets parliculiers (1832),
Le Marx dela dame de chaurs (1837), Passe minuii, V Homme
blast (1843), La Clef dans ledos (1 848 ),&c, contained parts written
for him. He was twenty years at the Vaudeville, and completed
at the various Parisian theatres a stage career of nearly half a
century. Arnal was the author of Epttre a boufil (1840), which
is reprinted in his volume of poetry, Boulades en vers (1861).
ARNALDUS DE VILLA NOVA, also called Arnaldus de
Villanueva, Arnaldus Villanovanus or Arnaud de Ville-
neuve (c. 1235-13 13), alchemist, astrologer and physician,
appears to have been of Spanish origin, and to have studied
chemistry, medicine, physics, and also Arabian philosophy. After
having lived at the court of Aragon, he went to Paris, where he
gained a considerable reputation; but he incurred the enmity of
the ecclesiastics and was forced to flee, finally finding an asylum
in Sicily. About 1313 he was summoned to Avignon by Pope
Clement V., who was ill, but he died on the voyage. Many
alchemical writings, including Thesaurus Thesaurorum or Rosarius
Phihsopkorum, Novum Lumen, Flos Florum, and Speculum
Akkimiae, are ascribed to him, but they are of very doubtful
authenticity. Collected editions of them were published at
Lyons in 1504 and 1532 (with a biography by Symphorianus
Campegius), at Basel in 1585, at Frankfort in 1603, and at Lyons
in 1686. He is also the reputed author of various medical works,
including Breviarium Practicac.
See J. B. Haureau in the Histoire litUraire de la France (1881),
vol. 28; E. Lalande, Arnaud de Villeneuve, sa vie et ses amvres
(Paris, 1896). A list of writings is given by J. Ferguson in his
BMiotheca Chemica (1906). Sec also U. Chevalier, Repertoire des
sources hist., 6*c, Bio-bibliogrupkie (Paris, 1903).
ARNAUD, HENRI (1641-1721), pastor and general of the
Vaudois or Waldensians of Piedmont, was born at Embrun.
About 1650 his family returned to their native valley of Luserna,
where Arnaud was educated at La Tour (the chief village), later
visiting the college at Basel (1662 and 1668) and the Academy
at Geneva (1666). He then returned home, and seems to have
been pastor in several of the Vaudois valleys before attaining
that position at La Tour (1685). He was thus the natural leader
of his co-religionists after Victor Amadeus expelled them (1686).
from their valleys, and most probably visited Holland, the ruler
of which, William of Orange, certainly gave him help and money.
Arnaud occupied himself with organizing his 3000 countrymen
who bad taken refuge in Switzerland, and who twice (168 7-1688)
attempted to regain their homes. The English revolution of
1688, and the election of William to the throne, encouraged the
Vaudois to make yet another attempt. Furnished with detailed
instructions from the veteran Josue 1 Janavel (prevented by age
from taking part in the expedition) Arnaud, with about 1000
followers, started (August 17, 1689) from near Nyon on
the Lake of Geneva for the gtorieuse rentrie. On the 27th of
August, the valiant band, after many hardships and dangers,
\a
I
626
ARNAULD
1 the Valley of St Martin, having passed by Sallanches and
[ the Col de Very (6506 ft.), the Enclave de la Fendtfe
(7425 ft.), the Col du Bonhomme (8147 ft.), the Col du Mont
Iseran (9085 ft), the Grand Mont Cenis (6893 ft), the Petit
Mont Cenis (7166 ft), the Col de Clapier (8173 ft), the Col de
Coteplane (7589 ft), and the Col du Pix (8550 ft.). They soon
took refuge in the lofty and secure rocky citadel of the Balsillc,
where they were besieged (October 24, 1689 to May 14, 1600)
by the troops (about 4000 in number) of the king of France
and the duke of Savoy. They maintained this natural fortress
against many fierce attacks and during the whole of a winter.
In particular, on the and of May, one assault was defeated without
the loss of a single man of Arnaud's small band. But another
attack (May 14) was not so successful, so that Arnaud with-
drew his force, under cover of a thick mist, and led them
over the hills to the valley of Angrogna, above La Tour. A
month later the Vaudois were received into favour by the duke
of Savoy, who had then abandoned his alliance with France
for one with Great Britain and Holland. Hence for the next
six. years the Vaudois helped Savoy against France, though
suffering much from the repeated attacks of the French troops.
But by a clause in the treaty of peace of 1696, made public in
1698, Victor Amadeus again became hostile to the Vaudois,
about 3000 of whom, with Arnaud, found a shelter in Protestant
countries, mainly in Wtirttemberg, where Arnaud became the
pastor of D0rrmenz-Sch5nenberg, N.W. of Stuttgart (1699).
Once again (1704- 1706) the Vaudois aided the duke against
France. Arnaud, however, took no part in the military opera-
tions, though he visited England (1707) to obtain pecuniary aid
from Queen Anne. He died at Schdncnberg (which was the
church hamlet of the parish of Dttrrmenz) in 1 7 2 1 . It was during
his retirement that he compiled from various documents by other
hands his Hisloire de la glorieuse rentrie des Vaudois dans leurs
tallies, which was published (probably at CasscI) in 17x0, with
a dedication to Queen Anne. It was translated into English
(1827) by H. Dyke Adand, and has also appeared in German
and Dutch versions. A part of the original MS. is preserved
in the Royal Library in Berlin.
See K. H. Klaiber, Henri Arnaud, tin ZebensbUd (Stuttgart,
1880); A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Les ValUes vaudoises (Paris, 1881);
various chapters in the Bulletin du bicentenaire de la tlorieuu
rentrie (Turin, 1889). (W. A. B. C.)
ARNATJLD, the surname of a family of prominent French
lawyers, chiefly remembered in connexion with the Jansenist
troubles of the 17th century. At their head was Antoine
Arnauld (1560-1619), a leader of the Paris bar; in this capacity
he delivered a famous philippic against the Jesuits in 1594,
accusing them of gross disloyalty to the newly converted
Henry IV. This speech was afterwards known as the original
sin of the Arnaulds.
Of his twenty children several grew up to fight the Jesuits
on more important matters. Five gave themselves up wholly
to the church. Henri Arnauld (1597-1692), the second son,
became bishop of Angers in 1649, and represented Jansenism
on the episcopal Bench for as long as forty-three years. The
youngest son, Antoine (1612-1604), was the most famous of
Jansenist theologians (see below). The second daughter,
Anceuque (1 591-1661), was abbess and reformer of Port Royal;
here she was presently joined by her sister Acnes (1593-1671)
and two younger sisters, both of whom died early.
Only two of Antoine's children married— Robert Arnaulo
d'Andilly (1 588-1674), the eldest son, and Catherine Le-
maistre ( 1 500-1651), the eldest daughter. But both of these
ended their lives under the shadow of the abbey. Andilly's
five daughters all took the veil there; the second, Anceuque
de St Jean Arnauld d'Andilly (1 624-1 684) rose to be abbess,
was a writer of no mean repute, and one of the most remarkable
figures of the second generation of Jansenism. One of Andilly's
sons became a hermit at Port Royal; the eldest, Antoine
(161 5-1699), was first a soldier, afterwards a priest. As the
Abb£ Arnauld, he survives as author of some interesting Memoirs
of his time. The second son. Simon Arnauld de Pompon ne
(1616-1600), carry entered public life. After bolting varices
embassies, he rose to be foreign secretary to Lonis XTY\. a^
was created marquis de Pomponne. Lastly Madame Lcmji-tr-.
and two of her sons became identified with Port RoyaL Oi
her husband's death she took the veil there. Her eldest «.-*
Antoine Lemaistre (1 608-1658), became the first of the s -.-
tains, or hermits of Port Royal. There he was joined by **_.
younger brother, Isaac Lemaistre ds Sao (1615-1684). who
presently took holy orders, and became confessor to the henr~:s
The Arnaulds* connexion with Port Royal (?.».) — a coorct
of Cistercian nuns in the neighbourhood of Versailles — dat"d
back to 1509, when the original Antoine secured the abbey's
chair for his daughter Angelique, then a child of eight. Abe.:
1608 she started to reform her convent in the direction of it*
original Rule; but about 1623 she made the acquaintance -i
du Vergier (q.v.) and thenceforward began to move in a J.=-
senist direction. Her later history is entirely bound up «.' v
the fortunes of that revival. Angeliquc's strength lay chi*r.
in her character. Her sister and collaborator, Agnes, was aV
a graceful writer; and her Letters, edited by Prosper Fru^re
(2 vols., Paris, 1858), throw most valuable light on the inner
aims and aspirations of the Jansenist movement. The nix
relative to join their projects of reform was their nepht*
Antoine Lemaistre, who threw up brilliant prospects at the t«r
to settle down at the Abbey gates (1638). Here he was presenv,
joined by his brother, de Sad, and other hermits, who led 1-
austere semi-monastic existence, though without taking art-
formal vow. In 1646 they were joined by their uncle, Area J :
d'Andilly, hitherto a personage of some importance at court aei
in the world; he was a special favourite of the queen rrgr"
Anne of Austria, and had held various offices of dignity ir. li-r
government. Uncle and nephews passed their time parO> r.
ascetic exercises— though Andilly never pretended to to r.
austerity with the younger men — partly in managing the con vest
estates, and partly in translating religious classics. Ar.c.ly
put Joscphus, St Augustine's Confessions, and many ciJct
works, into singularly delicate French. Lemaistre attacked
the lives of the saints; in 1654 Sad set to work on a trarokucn
of the Bible. His labours were interrupted by the outbrtat
of persecution. In 1661 he was forced to go into hiding; ta
1666 he was arrested, thrown into the Bastille, and kept ihtre
more than two years. Meanwhile his friends printed his trans-
lation of the New Testament— really in Holland, nominally at
Mons in the Spanish Netherlands (1667). Hence it is usual!?
known as the Nouveau Testament de Mons. It found cnthus-
astic friends and violent detractors. Bossuet approved its
orthodoxy, but not its over-elaborate style; and it was de-
structively criticized by Richard Simon, the founder of Bibbol
criticism in France. On the other hand it undoubtedly <ud
much to popularize the Bible, and was bitterly attacked by the
Jesuits on that ground.
By far the most distinguished of the family, however, was
Antoine — le grand Arnauld, as contemporaries called him—
the twentieth and youngest child of the original .
Antoine. Born in 161 2, he was originally intended JJJE?
for the bar; but decided instead to study theology
at the Sorbonne. Here he was brilliantly successful, and was
on the high-road to preferment, when he came under the influence
of du Vergier, and was drawn in the direction of Jansenism.
His book, De la friquente Communion (1643), did more than
anything else to make the aims and ideals of this movement
intelligible to the general public Its appearance raised a violent
storm, and Arnauld eventually withdrew into hiding; for more
than twenty years he dared not make a public appearance in
Paris. During all this time his pen was busy with innumerable
Jansenist pamphlets. In T655 two very outspoken Lettrts i
un due et pair on Jesuit methods in the confessional brought
on a motion to expel him from the Sorbonne. This motion
was the immediate cause of Pascal's Provincial Letters. Pascal,
however, failed to save his friend; in February 1656 Arnauld
was solemnly degraded Twelve years later the tide of fortune
turned. The so-called peace of Clement IX. put an end to
ARNAULT— ARNDT
627
persecution. Arnauld emerged from his retirement, was most
graciously received by Louis XIV., and treated almost as a
popular hero. He now set to work with Nicole (o.».) on a great
work against the Calvinists: La PerpHuUi de la Joi catkciique
iemekant Feuckaristie. Ten years later, however, another storm
of persecution burst. Arnauld was compelled to fly from France,
and take refuge in the Netherlands, finally settling down at
Brussels. Here the last sixteen years of his life were spent in
incessant controversy with Jesuits, Calvinists and misbelievers
of all kinds; here he died on the 8th of August 1604. His in-
exhaustible energy is best expressed by Ins famous reply to
Nicole, who complained of feeling tired. "Tired I" echoed
Arnauld, " when you have all eternity to rest in?" Nor was
this energy by any means absorbed by purely theological
questions. He was one of the first to adopt the philosophy of
Descartes, though with certain orthodox reservations; and
between 1683 and 1085 he had a long battle with Malebranche
on the relation of theology to metaphysics. On the whole,
public opinion leant to Arnauld's side. When Malebranche
complained that his adversary had misunderstood him, Boileau
silenced him with the question: " My dear sir, whom do you
expect to understand you, if M. Arnauld does not?" And
popular regard for Arnauld's penetration was much increased
by his Art.de peuser, commonly known as the Part-Royal Logic,
which has kept its place as an elementary text-book until quite
modern times. Lastly a considerable place has quite lately
been claimed for Arnauld among the mathematicians of ms
age; a recent critic even describes him as the Euclid of the
17th century. In general, however, since his death his reputa-
tion has been steadily on the wane. Contemporaries admired
him chiefly as a master of close and serried reasoning; herein
Bossuet, the greatest theologian of the age, was quite at one
with d'Aguesseau, the greatest lawyer. But a purely contro-
versial writer is seldom attractive to posterity. Anxiety to
drive home every possible point, and cut his adversary off from
every possible line of retreat, makes him seem intolerably
prolix. "In spite of myself," Arnauld once said regretfully,
" my books are seldom very short." And even lucidity may
prove a snare to those who trust to it alone, and scornfully
refuse to appeal to the imagination or the feelings. It is to be
feared that, but for his connexion with Pascal, Arnauld's name
would be almost forgotten— or, at most, live only in the famous
■epitaph Boileau consecrated to his memory —
" Au pied de cet autel de structure grossiere
Git sans pompe, enferme dans une vile Were
he plus savant mortel qui jamais ait ecrit."
Full details as to the lives and writings of the Arnauld* will be
found in the various books mentioned at the close of the article on
Port Royal. The most interesting account of Angelique will be
found in Memoires pour sertir a I kistoirt de Port-Royal (3 vols.,
l'trecht/1742). Three volumes of her correspondence were also pub-
lished at the same time and place. There are excellent modern lives
of her in English by Miss Frances Martin {Antttiquc Arnauld, 1871)
and by A. K. H. (Antique of Port Royal, 1905). Antoinc Arnauld s
complete works — thirty-seven volumes in Torty-two
published in Paris, 1775-1781. No modern biography 1
out there is a study of his philosophy in Bouillicr, Hisioitt de la
philosophic cartitienne (Paris, 1668): and his mathematical achieve-
ments are discussed by Dr Bopp in the 14th volume of the Abhand-
lungen tur GeschuhU der mathematischen W is sense ha f ten (Leipzig.
1902). The memoirs of Arnauld d'Andilly and of his son, the abbe
Arnauld, are reprinted both in Peti tot's and Poujoulat's collections
of memoirs illustrative of the 17th century. (St. C.)
ARNAULT. ANTOINB VINCENT (1766-1834), French drama-
tist, was born In Paris in January 1766. His first play, Marius
d Mintnrnrs (1791), immediately established his reputation.
A year later he followed up his first success with a second
republican tragedy, Lucre ce. He left France during the Terror
and on his return was arrested by the revolutionary authorities,
but was liberated through the intervention of Fabre d'Eglantine
and others. He was commissioned by Bonaparte in 1 797 with the
reorganization of the Ionian Islands, and was nominated to the
Institute and made secretary general of the university. He was
faithful to his patron through his misfortunes, and after the
Hundred Days remained in exile until 181 9. In 1829 he was
re-elected to the Academy and became perpetual secretary in
1833. Others of his plays are Blanche el Montcassin, ou Us
f V4niliens (1798); and Germanicus (18 16), the performance of
which was the occasion of a disturbance in the parterre which
threatened serious political complications. His tragedies are
perhaps less known now than his Fables (1813, 181 5 and 1826),
which are written in very graceful verse. Arnault collaborated
in a Vie politique el mililairc de NapoUon (182a), and wrote some
very interesting Souvenirs d'ttn sexagtnaire ( 1833), which contain
much out-of-the-way information about the history of the years
previous to 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of
September 1834*
His eldest son, £milien Laden (1787-1863), wrote several
tragedies, the leading roles in which were interpreted by Talma.
See Sainte-Beuve, Cauteries du lundi, vol. 7. Arnault's (Euvres
completes (4 vols.) were published at the Hague and Paris in 1818-
1819, and again (8 vols.) at Paris in 1824.
ARNDT. ERNST MORITZ (1769-1860), German poet and
patriot, was born on the 26th of December 1769 at Schorju in the
island of Rfigen, which at that time belonged to Sweden. He
was the son of a prosperous farmer, and emancipated serf of
the lord of the district, Count Putbus; bis mother came of
well-to-do German yeoman stock. In 1787 the family removed
into the neighbourhood of Stralsund, where Arndt was enabled
to attend the academy. After an interval of private study he
went in 1791 to the university of Greifswald as a student of
theology and history, and in 1793 removed to Jena, where he fell
under the influence of Fichtc. On the completion of his university
course he returned home, was for two years a private tutor in the
family of Ludwig Roscgarten (1 758-1818), pastor of Wittow and
poet, and having qualified for the ministry ua" candidate of
theology," assisted in the church services. At the age of twenty-
eight he' renounced the ministry, and for eighteen months he led
a wandering life, visiting Austria, Hungary, Italy, France and
Belgium. Returning homewards up the Rhine, he was moved
by the sight of the ruined castles along its banks to intense
bitterness against France. The impressions of this journey he
later described in Rcisendurchcinen Tkeil Teutseklonds t Ungarns,
Italiens und Prankreichs in den Jakren 1798 und 1709 (1802-1804).
In 1 800 he settled in Greifswald as privat-docent in history, and the
s&mc y t&T published UberditFreiketi der alien Rcpubtiken. In 1803
appeared Cermanien und Europa, " a fragmentary ebullition,"
as he himself called it, of his views on the French aggression.
This was followed by one of the most remarkable of his books,
Vcrstuk einer Cesckickte der Leibeigensckaft in Pommern und
RUgen (Berlin, 1803), a history of serfdom in Pomerania and
Rugen, which was so convincing an indictment that King
Gustavus Adolphus IV. in 1806 abolished the evil. Arndt had
meanwhile risen from privat-docent to extraordinary professor,
and in 1806 was appointed to the chair of history at the univer-
sity. In Una year he published the first part of his Geist der Zeil,
in which he flung down the gauntlet to Napoleon and called on
his countrymen to rise and shake off the French yoke. So great
was the excitement it produced that Arndt was compelled to
take refuge in Sweden to escape the vengeance of Napoleon.
Settling in Stockholm, he obtained government employment,
but devoted himself to the great cause which was nearest his
heart, and in pamphlets, poems and songs communicated bis
enthusiasm to his countrymen. Schill's heroic death at Stralsund
impelled him to return to Germany and, under the disguise of
" Almann, teacher of languages," he reached Berlin in December
1809. In 1810 he returned to Greifswald, but only for a few
months. He again set out on his adventurous travels, lived in
close contact with the first men of his time, such as Blucher,
Gneiscnau and Stein, and in 181 a was summoned by the last
named to St Petersburg to assist in the organization of the final
struggle against France. Meanwhile, pamphlet after pamphlet;
full of bitter hatred of the French oppressor, came from his pen,
and his stirring patriotic songs, such as Was isl das deutscke
Vaterlandf Der Gotl, der Eisen wacksen liess, and Was biasen
die Trompetent were on all lips. When, after the peace, the
university of Bonn was founded in 1818, Arndt was appointed to
6a8
ARNDT— ARNE
the chair of modern history. In this year appeared the fourth
part of his Ceist der Zeit, in whioh he criticized the reactionary
policy of the German powers. The boldness of his demands for
reform offended the Prussian government, and in the summer
of 1810 he was arrested and his papers confiscated. Although
speedily liberated, he was in the following year, at the instance
of the Central Commission of Investigation at Mains, established
in accordance with the Carlsbad Decrees, arraigned before a
specially constituted tribunal. Although not found guilty, he
was forbidden to exercise the functions of his professorship, but
was allowed to retain the stipend. The next twenty years he
passed in retirement and literary activity. In 1840 he was
reinstated in his professorship, and in 1841 was chosen rector of
the university. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 rekindled
in. the venerable patriot his old hopes and energies, and he took
his seat as one of the deputies to the National Assembly at
Frankfort. He formed one of the deputation that offered the
imperial crown to Frederick William IV., and indignant at the
king's refusal to accept it, he retired with the majority of von
Gagern's adherents from public life. He continued to lecture
and to write with freshness and vigour, and on his ooth birthday
received from all parts of Germany good wishes and tokens of
affection. He died at Bonn on the 29th of January i860. Arndt
was twice married, first in iBoo, his wife dying in the following
year; a second time in 181 7.
Arndt's untiring labour for his country rightly won for htm the
title of " the most German of all Germans. ,r Hi* lyric poems are
not, however, all confined to politics. Many among the Gcdichte
(1 803-1818; complete edition, i860) are religious pieces of great
beauty. Among his other works are Reise durck Sckwtden (1797);
Sebenstunden, erne Besckreibung und Cesckichte der sckottldndiscken
Inseln und der Orkaden (1820); Die Frage Ober die Niederlande
(1831); Erinnerungen aus dent dusseren Leben (an autobiography,
and the most valuable source of information for Arndt's life. 1840);
Rkein- und Akrwanderungen (1846), Wander ungen und Wandlungen
mil fern Reuksfreikerrn von Stein (1858), and Fro populo Cermanico
(1854), which was originally intended to form the fifth part of the
Ceist der Zeit. Arndt s Werke have been edited by H. Rosen and
H. Meisner in 8 vols, (not complete) (1892-1898). Biographies
have been written by E. Langenberg (1869) and Wilhelm Baur
(Jth ed.. 1882); see. also H. Meisner and R. Geerds, E. At. Arndt,
etn Lebensbild in Briefen (1898). and R. Thielc. E. hi. Arndt (1894).
There are monuments to his memory at Schorita, his birthplace, and
at Bona, where he is buried.
ARNDT, JOHANN (1555-1621), German Lutheran theologian,
was born at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and studied in several
universities. He was at Helmstadt in 1576; at Wittenberg in
1577. At Wittenberg the crypto-Calvinist controversy was then
at its height, and he took the side of Melanchthon and the
crypto-Calvinists. He continued his studies in Strassburg,
under the professor of Hebrew, Johannes Pappus (1540-1610),
a zealous Lutheran, the crown of whose life's work was the
forcible suppression of Calvinistic preaching and worship in the
city, and who had great influence over him. In Basel, again,
he studied theology under Simon Sulzer (1 508-1 585), a broad-
minded divine of Lutheran sympathies, whose aim was to
reconcile the churches of the Helvetic and Wittenberg confessions.
In 1581 he went back to Ballenstedt, but was soon recalled to
active life by his appointment to the pastorate at Badeborn in
1583. After some time his Lutheran tendencies exposed him to
the anger of the authorities, who were of the Reformed Church.
Consequently, in 1500 he was deposed for refusing to remove the
pictures from his church and discontinue the use of exorcism
in baptism. He found an asylum in Quedlinburg (1500), and
afterwards was transferred to St Martin's church at Brunswick
(1509). Arndt's fame rests on his writings. These were mainly
of a mystical and devotional kind, and were inspired by St
Bernard, J. Tauler and Thomas a Kcmpis. His principal
work, Wakres Ckristentum (1606-1609), which has been translated
into most European languages, has served as the foundation
of many books of devotion, both Roman Catholic and Protestant
Arndt here dwells upon the mystical union between the believer
and Christ, and endeavours, by drawing attention to Christ's
life in His people, to correct the purely forensic side of the
Reformation theology, which paid almost exclusive attention
to Christ's death for His people. Like Luther, Arndt was wry
fond of the little anonymous book, Deutsche Tktol*&e, He
published an edition of it and called attention to its merits
in a special preface. After Wakres Ckristentum, his best-kixnra
work is Paradiesg&rtlein oiler ckrisUichen Tugenden, which was
published in 161 2. Both these books have been translated into
English; ParadiesgdrUein with the title the Garden of Parodist.
Several of his sermons are published in R. Nesselmann's 3*u*
der Predigten (1858). Arndt has always been held in very
high repute by the German Pietists. The founder of Pietism,
Philipp Jacob Spener, repeatedly called attention to him a»d
his writings, and even went so far as to compare him with Plato
(cf. Karl Scheele, Plato und Johamn Arndt, Em Vortrag, *c,
1857).
A collected edition of his works was published m Leipzig aad
Gdrlitz in 1734. A valuable account of Arndt is to be found 13
C Aschmann s Essai sur la vie, ©*«., de J. AmdL Sec further,
Hcrzog-Hauck, Realeneyklopddie,
ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE (1710-1778), English moska]
composer, was born in London on the 12th of March 17 10. his
father being an upholsterer. Intended for the legal profcssk>a,
he was educated at Eton, and afterwards apprenticed to aa
attorney for three years. His natural inclination for mus^r.
however, proved irresistible, and his father, finding from ha
performance at an amateur musical party that he was alreaiy
a skilful violinist, furnished him with the means of educating
himself in his favourite art. On the 7th of March 1733 be
produced his first work at Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre, a set nog
of Addison's Rosamond, the heroine's part being performed by
his sister, Susanna Maria, who afterwards became celebrated as
Mrs Cibbcr. This proving a success was immediately followed
by a burletta, entitled The Opera of Operas, based on Fielding's
Tragedy of Tragedies. The part of Tom Thumb was played by
Arne's young brother, and the opera was produced at the Up-
market theatre. On the 1 9th of December 1 733 Arne produced at
the same theatre the masque Dido and Aeneas, a subject of which
the musical conception had been immortalized for Englishmen
more than half a century earlier by Henry PurceJL Arne's
individuality of style first distinctly asserted itself in the music
to Dr Dalton's adaptation of Milton's Csmus, which was per-
formed at Drury Lane in 1738, and speedily established his
reputation. In 1740 he wrote the music for Thomson acd
Mallet's Masque of Alfred, which is noteworthy as oontainirg
the most popular of all his airs—" Rule, Britannia!" In 1 740 be
also wrote his beautiful settings of the songs, " Under the green-
wood tree," " Blow, blow, thou winter wind " and " Wh<o
daisies pied," for a performance of Shakespeare's As Yam Lite II
Four years before this, in 1736, he had married Cecilia, the
eldest daughter of Charles Young, organist of All Halle *s
Barking. She was considered the finest English singer of the
day and was frequently engaged by Handel in the performance
of his music. In 1 742 Arne went with his wife to Dublin, where
he remained two years and produced his oratorio Abd, contain;:^
the beautiful melody known as the Hymn of Eve, the operas
Britannia, Eliza and Comus, and where he also gave a nuir.txT
of successful concerts. On his return to London he was engaged
as leader of the band at Drury Lane theatre (1744), and as
composer at Vauxhall (1745)- In this latter year he composed
his successful pastoral dialogue, Colin and Phoebe, and in 1746
the song, " Where the bee sutks." In X759 he received the degree
of doctor of music from Oxford. In 1760 he transferred
his services to Covent Garden theatre, where on the 28th of
November he produced his Thomas and Sally. Here, too, on
the 2nd of February 1762 he produced his Artaserxes, an opera
in the Italian style with recitative instead of spoken dialogue,
the popularity of which is attested by the fact that it con-
tinued to be performed at intervals for upwards of eighty years.
The libretto, by Arne himself, was a very poor translation of
Metastasio's Artaserse. In 1762 also was produced the ballad-
opera Love in a Cottage. His oratorio Judith, of which the first
performance was on the 27th of February 1 761 at Drury Lane,
was revived at the chapel of the Lock hospital, Pimlico, on the
ARNETH— ARNHEM
639
29th of February 1764, in which year was also performed his
setting of Metastases Oltmpiadc in the original language at the
King's theatre in the Haymarket. At a later performance of
Judith at Covent Garden theatre on the 26th of February 1773
Arne for the first time introduced female voices into oratorio
choruses. In 1 769 he wrote the musical parts for Garrick's ode
for the Shakespeare jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon, and in 1770
he gave a mutilated version of Purccll's King Arthur. One of
his last dramatic works was the music to Mason's Caractacus,
published in 1775. Though inferior to Purcell in intensity of
feeling, Arne has not been surpassed as a composer of graceful
and attractive melody There is true genius' in such airs as
-Rule, Britannia!" and "Where the bee sucks," which still
retain their original freshness and popularity. As a writer of
glees he does not take such high rank, though he deserves
notice as the leader in the revival of that peculiarly English
form of composition. He was author as well as composer of
The Guardian outwitted, The Rose, The Contest of Beauty and
Virtue, and Phoebe at Court. Dr Arne died on the 5th of March
1778, and was buried at St Paul's, Covent Garden.
See also the article in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), and two
interesting papers in the Musical Times, November and December
1 90 1.
ARNETH, ALFRED, Rttte* von (1819-1807), Austrian
historian, born at Vienna on the xoth of July 1819, was the
son of Joseph Calasanza von Arneth (1791-1863), a well-known
historian and archaeologist, who wrote a history of the Austrian
empire (Vienna, 1827) and several works on numismatics. Alfred
Arneth studied law, and became an official of the Austrian state
archives, of which in 1868 he was appointed keeper He was a
moderate liberal in politics and a supporter of the ideal of German
unity As such he was elected to the Frankfort parliament in
1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet
and in 1869 was nominated to the Upper House of the Austrian
Reichsrath. In 1879 he was appointed president of the Koiserlicke
Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academy of Sciences) at Vienna,
and in 1806 succeeded von Sybel as chairman of the historical
commission at Munich. He died on the 50th of July 1897.
Arneth was an indefatigable worker, and, as director of the
archives, his broad-minded willingness to listen to the advice
of experts, as well as his own sound sense, did much to promote
the more scientific treatment and use of public records in most
of the archives of Europe. -His scientific temper and the special
facilities which he enjoyed for drawing from original sources
give to his numerous historical works a very special value.
Among his publications may be mentioned: Lehen des Feld-
marschoMs Crafen Guido Starhembert (Vienna, 1863); Print Ettgen
ton Savoyen (3 vols., ib. 1864); Gesch. der Maria Theresa (10 vols.,
ib. 1 863- 1 879) Maria Theresa u. Marie Antoinette, ihr Brxefwtchstl
(ib. 1866); Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II., ihr Brief -
wuhstt (1866): Maria Theresa und Joseph II., thre Korrespondenz
samt Briefen Josephs an seinen' Bruder Leopold (3 vols., 1867);
Beaumarchais und Sonnenfels (1868); Joseph II und Kalharina von
Russland, ihr Briefxocchsel (1869); Johann Christian Barthenstein
und seine Zeit (1871): Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana, ihr
Briefmechsd (a vols., 1872); Brtefe der Kaiserin Maria Theresa an
ihre Kinder und Freunde (4 vols.. 1881), Marie Antoinette: Corre-
spondence secrete entre Marie-Thhese el le comte de Mercy-Argenteau
(3 vols., Paris, 1 875), in collaboration with Auguste Gcffroy, Graf
Philipp Cobentl und seine Memoiren (1885); Correspondence secrete
du comte de Mercy-Argeuteau avec Vempereur Joseph II el Kaunitt
(a vols., 1889-1891), in collaboration with Jules Flanunennont;
Anton Ritter von Schmerling. Episoden aus seinem Lehen i8j$,
1848-1849 (1895); Johann Freiherr von Wessenberg, ein dsUr-
reichischer Staalsmann des 19. Jahrh. (2 vols., 1898). Arneth also
published in 1893 two volumes of early reminiscences under the title
of Aus meinem Lehen.
ARHHFJa, or Abnhedc, the capital of the province of Gelder-
land, Holland, on the right bank of the Rhine (here crossed by
a pon to on bridge), and a junction station 35 m. by rail E.S.E.
of Utrecht. Pop. (1900) 57,240. It is connected by tramway
with Zutphen and Utrecht, and there is a regular service of
steamers to Cologne, Amsterdam, Nijmwegen, Tiel, 's Herto-
genbosch and Rotterdam. Arnhem is a gay and fashionable
town prettily situated at the foot of the Veluwe hills, and enjoys
a special reputation for beauty on account of its wooded and
hilly surroundings, which have attracted many wealthy people
to its neighbourhood. The Groote Kerk of St Euscbius, built
in the third quarter of the 15th century, contains the marble
monument to Charles (d. 1538), the last duke of Gcldcrland
of the Egmont dynasty. High up against the wall is an effigy
of the same duke in his armour. The fine lofty tower contains
a chime of forty-five bells. The Roman Catholic church of St
Walburgis is of earlier date, and a new Roman Catholic church
dates from 1804. The town hall was built as a palace by Maarten
van Rossum, Duke Charles's general, at the end of the 15th
century, and was only converted to its present use in 1830.
Its grotesque external ornamentation earned for \l the name
of Duivelshuto, or devil's house. The provincial government
house occupies the site of the former palace of the dukes of
Gelderland. Other buildings are the court-house, a public
library containing many old works, a theatre, a large concert-hall,
a museum of antiquities (as well as a separate collection of Spanish
antiquities), a gymnasium, a teachers' and art school, a building
(1880) to contain the provincial archives, a hospital (1880)
and barracks. On account of its proximity to the fertile Bctuwe
district and its situation near the confluence of the Rhine and
Yscl, the markets and shipping of Arnhem are in a flourishing
condition. A wharf for building and repairing iron steamers
was constructed in 1889. The manufactures include woollen
and cotton goods, paper, earthenware, soap, carriages, furniture
and tobacco, which is cultivated in the neighbourhood. Wool-
combing and dyeing are also carried on, and there are oil and
timber mills.
The environs of Arnhem are much admired. Following either
the Zutphen or the Utrecht road, numerous pleasing views of
the Rhine valley present themselves, and country houses and
villas appear among the woods on every side. At Bronbeek,
a short distance east of the town, is a hospital endowed by King
William III. for soldiers of the colonial army. Beyond is the
popular summer resort of Velp, with the castle of Biljocn built
by Charles, duke of Gelderland, in 1530, and the beautiful park
of the ancient castle of Rozendaal in the vicinity. The origin
of the castle of Rozendaal is unknown. The first account of it
is in connexion with a tournament given there by Reinald I.,
count of Gelderland, in the beginning of the 14th century, and
it ever after remained the favourite residence of the counts and
dukes of Gelderland. About the beginning of the 1 8th century
fountains and lanes in the style of those at Versailles were laid
out in the park, and soon after the castle itself, of which only
the round tower remained (and is still standing), was rebuilt.
The park is open to the public, and is famous for the beauty of
the beech avenues and fir woods. Beyond this is De Steeg,
another popular resort, whence stretches theiamous Middachten
Alice of beech trees to Diercn. On the Apeldoorn road is
Sonsbcek, with a wooded park and small lakes, formerly a private
scat and now belonging to the municipality. On the west of
Arnhem is another pleasure ground, called the Reeberg, with a
casino, and the woods of Heienoord. Close by is the ancient
and well-preserved castle of Doomwerth with its own chapel
It was the seat of an independent lordship until 1402, after which
time it was held in fief from the dukes of Gelderland. Beyond
Doomwerth, at Renkum, is the royal country seat called Oranje-
Nassau's Oord, which was bought by the crown in 1881.
History.— Aiuhem, called Arnoidi Villa in the middle ages,
is, according to some, the Arenacum of the Romans, and is first
mentioned in a document in 893. In 1233 Otto II., count of
Gelderland, chose this spot as his residence, conferred municipal
rights on the town, and fortified it At a. later period it entered
the Hanseatic League. In 1473 it was captured by Charles
the Bold of Burgundy. In 1505 it received the right of coining
from Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian I. In 1514 Charles
of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, took it from the Spaniards;
but in 1543 it fell to the emperor Charles V., who made it the
seat of the council of Gelderland. It joined the union of Utrecht
In 1579* *&d came finally under the effective government of the
states-general in 1585, all the later attacks of the Spaniards
being repulsed. In 1 586 Sir Philip Sidney died in the town from
630
ARNICA— ARNIM
the effects of his wound received before Zutphen. The French
took the town in 1672, but left it dismantled in 1674. It was
refortificd by the celebrated Dutch general of engineers, Coehoorn,
in the beginning of the 18th century. In 1795 it was again
stormed by the French, and in 1813 it was taken from them
by the Prussians under Bulow. Gardens and promenades have
now taken the place of the old ramparts* the last of which was
levelled in 1853.
ARNICA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order
Compositae, and containing 18 species, mostly north-west
American. The most important species is Arnica montana
(mountain tobacco), a perennial herb found in upland meadows
in northern and central Europe (but not extending to Britain),
and on the mountains of western and central Europe. A closely
allied species (A. anguslifolia), with very narrow leaves, is met
with in Arctic Asia and America. The heads of flowers arc
large, 2 to 2 \ in. across, orange-yellow in colour, and borne on
the summit of the stem or branches; the outer ray-flowers are
an inch in length. The achenes (fruits) arc brown and hairy,
and are crowned by a tuft of stiflish hairs (pappus). The root-
stock of A. montana is tough, slender, of a dark brown colour
and an inch or two in length. It gives off numerous simple
roots from its under side, and shows on its upper side the remains
of rosettes of leaves. It yields an essential oil in small quantity,
and a resinous matter called arnicin, CuHaOs, a yellow crystal-
line substance with an acrid taste. The tincture prepared from
it is an old remedy which has a popular reputation in the treat-
ment of bruises and sprains. The plant was introduced into
English gardens about the middle of the 18th century, but is
not often grown; it is a handsome plant for a rockery.
ARNIM, ELISABETH (BETTINA) VON (1785-1859), German
authoress, sister of Klemens Brcntano, was born at Frankfort-
on-Main on the 4th of April 1785. After being educated at a
convent school in Fritzlar, she lived for a while with her grand-
mother, the novelist, Sophie Laroche (1 731-1807), at Offenbach,
and from 1803 to 1806 with her brother-in-law, Friedrich von
Savigny, the famous jurist, at Marburg. In 1807 she made at
Weimar the acquaintance of Goethe, for whom she entertained
a violent passion, which the poet, although entering into corre-
spondence with her, did not requite, but only regarded as a harm-
less fancy. Their friendship came to an abrupt end in 18x1,
owing to " Bettina's " insolent behaviour to Goethe's wife. In
this year she married Ludwig Achim von Arnim (q.v.), by whom
she had seven children. After her husband's death in 1831,
her passion for Goethe revived, and in 1835 she published her
remarkable book, Gocthes Briefwcchsel mil einem Kindc, which
purported to be a correspondence between herself and the poet.
Regarded at first as genuine, it was afterwards for many years
looked upon as wholly fictitious, until the publication in 1879
of G. von'Loeper's Brief t Gocthes an Sophie Laroche und
Bettina Brcntano, nebst dickteriscken Bcilagc*, which proved it
to be based on authentic material, though treated with the
greatest poetical licence. Equally fantastic is her correspond-
ence Die Gtinderode (1840), with her unhappy friend, the poet,
Karoline von Gttndcrodc (1780-1806), who committed suicide,
and that with her brother Klemens Brcntano, under the title
Klemens Brentanos FrUhlingskranz (1844). She also published
Dies Buck gehdrt dem Kdnig (1843), in which she advocated the
emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of capital punish-
ment. Among her other works may be mentioned llius Pam-
philius und die A mbrosia ( 1 848) , also a suppositi tious correspond-
ence. In all her writings she showed real poetical genius, com-
bined with evidence of an unbalanced mind and a mannerism
which becomes tiresome. She died at Berlin on the aoth of
January 1859. Part of a design by her for a colossal statue of
Goethe, executed in marble by the sculptor Karl Steinhiuser
(1813-1878), is in the museum at Weimar.
Her collected works (Sdmtlkhe Sehriflen) were published in Berlin
in 11 vols., 1853. Goethe's Briefwcchsel mil einem Kindc has been
edited by H. Grimm (4th ed., Berlin, 1890). Sec also C. Alberti,
B. von Arnim (Leipzig, 18*5) ; Moritz Carrierc, Bettina von Amim
(Breslau, 1887), and the literature cited under Ludwig von Arnim.
ARNIM, HARRY KARL KURT EDUARD VON. Count (1*24-
1881), German diplomatist, was a member of 00c of the mod
numerous and most widely spread famines of the Pnuuui
nobility. He was born in Pomerama on the 3rd of October
1824, and brought up by his uncle tieinrich von Arnun, «b*
was Prussian ambassador at Paris and foreign minister from
March to June 1848, while Count Arnim- Boy Leenburg, whose
daughter Harry von Arnim afterwards married, was minister*
president It is noticeable that the uncle was brought before
a court of justice and fined for publishing a pamphlet directed
against the ministry of Manteuffel. After holding other pub
in the diplomatic service Arnim was in 1864 appointed Prussia*
envoy (and in 1867 envoy of the North German Confederation^
the papal court In i860 he proposed that the governments should
appoint representatives to be present at the Vatican council a
suggestion which was rejected by Bismarck, and foretold that the
promulgation of papal infallibility would bring serious politkal
difficulties. After the recall of the French troops from Rome fee
attempted unsuccessfully to mediate between the pope and ike
Italian government. He was appointed in 187 1 German com-
missioner to arrange the final treaty with France, a task whkh
he carried out with such success that in 187 1 he was appointed
German envoy at Paris, and in 1872 received his definite appoint*
ment as ambassador, a post of the greatest difficulty and
responsibility. Differences soon arose between him and Bismarck,
he wished to support the monarchical party which was trying
to overthrow Thiers, while Bismarck ordered htm to stand aloof
from all French parties, he did not give that implicit obedience
to his instructions which Bismarck required. Bismarck, how-
ever, was unable to recall him because of the great influence
which he enjoyed at court and the confidence which the einprtw
placed in him. He was looked upon by the Conservative party.
who were trying to overthrow Bismarck, as his successor, and
it is said that he was closely connected with the court intrigue*
against the chancellor. In the beginning of 1874 he was rccalkd
and appointed to the embassy at Constantinople, but tins
appointment was immediately revoked. A Vienna newspaper
published some correspondence on the Vatican council, including
confidential despatches of Arnim's, with the object of shoving
that he had shown greater foresight than Bismarck. It «*
then found that a considerable number of papers were missng
from the Paris embassy, and on the 4U1 of October Arnun w»
arrested on the charge of embezzling stale papers. This recourse
to the criminal law against a man of his rank, who had hcM one
of the most important diplomatic posts, caused great astonish-
ment. His defence was that the papers were not official, and be
was acquitted on the charge of embezzlement, but convicted of
undue delay in restoring official papers and condemned to three
months' imprisonment. On appeal the sentence was increased
to nine months. Arnim avoided imprisonment by leaving the
country, and in 1875 published anonymously at Zurich s
pamphlet entitled " Pro nihilo," in which he attempted to sho«
that the attack on him was caused by Bismarck's personal
jealousy. For this he was accused of treason, insult to the
emperor, and libelling Bismarck, and in his absence condemned
to five years' penal servitude. From his exile in Austria he
published two more pamphlets on the ecclesiastical policy «
Prussia, " Dcr Nunaius kommt!" (Vienna, 1878), and "Q"™
faciamus nos?" (ib. 1870). He made repeated attempts * nic *
were supported by his family, to be allowed to return to Germany
in order to take his trial afresh on the charge of treason; ha
request had just been granted when he died on the 19th of M*y
1881.
In 1876 Bismarck carried an amendment to the criminal code
making it an offence punishable with imprisonment or s hoe
up to £250 for an official of the foreign office to cojnaMtfic*''
to others official documents, or for an envoy to act contrary to
his instructions. These clauses are commonly spoken of to
Germany as the "Arnim paragraphs." W. He.)
ARHIM, LUDWIG ACHIM (JOACHIM) VON (i 7 8i-i8.<'>'
German poet and novelist, was born at Berlin on the 2°uj
of January 1781. He studied natural science at Halle and
ARNIM-BOYTZENBURG— ARNO
631
Gdltingen, and published one or two essays on scientific subjects;
but his bent was from the first towards literature. From the
earlier writings of Goethe and Herder he learned to appreciate
the beauties of German traditional legends and folk-songs;
and, forming a collection of these, published the result (1806-
1808), in collaboration with Klcmens Brentano (?.».) under the
title Des Knaben W under horn. From 18 10 onward he lived
with his wife Bettina, Brentano's sister, alternately at Berlin
and on his estate at Wiepersdorf , near Dahme in Brandenburg,
where he died on the 21st of January 1831. Arnim was a prolific
and versatile writer, gifted with a sense of humour and a refined
imagination — qualities shown in the best-known of his works,
Des Knaben Wunderkom, deficient as this is in the philological
accuracy and faithfulness to original sources which would now
be expected of such a compilation. In general, however, his
writings, full as they are of the exaggerated sentiment and
affectations of the romantic school, make but little appeal to
modern taste. There are possible exceptions, such as the short
stories FUrst GanzgoU und Stinger Halbgott and Der tolle Invalid*
aufdem Fort Ratonneau and the unfinished romance DUKronen-
wdckUr (1817), which promised to develop into one of the finest
historical romances of the 19th century. Among Aram's other
works may be mentioned Hollins LUbisleben (1802), Der Winter-
garten (1609), a collection of tales; Armut, Reichtum Sckuld,
und Basse der Gr&fin Dolores (1810), a novel; Halle und Jerusalem
(x8xi), a dramatic romance; and one or two smaller novels,
such as Isabella von Agypten (181 2)
Arnitn's SdmtlUhe Werke were edited by his widow and published
in Berlin in 1839-1810; second edition in 22 vols., M53-1856.
Selections have been edited by T rk -*— «— '-°-- * ** "—*- ■*
Klemens und Bettina Brentano,
by J Dohmke (1892). M Koch, Arnim,
no, Gdrres (1893) Des Knaben W under-
^published, the best edition being that
horn has been frequently repi
of A. Birlingcr and VV Crecelh
Actum von Arnim und Klemens Brentano (1894)
.... , ...... . ._ ....... „ that
of A. Birlingcr and VV Crecelius (2 vols., 1872- 1876) See R. Steig,
ARNIM-BOYTZENBURG, HANS OBORO VON (1581-1641),
German general and diplomatist, was born in 1581 at Boytzen-
burg in Brandenburg. From 1613 to 1617 he served in the
Swedish army under Gustavus Adolphus, took part in the
Russian War, and afterwards fought against the Turks in the
service of the king of Poland. In 1626, though a Protestant,
he was induced by Wallenstcin to join the new imperial army,
in which he quickly rose to the rank of field marshal, and won
the esteem of his soldiers as well as that of his commander,
whose close friend and faithful ally he became. This attach-
ment to Wallcnstein, and a spirit of religious toleration, were
the leading motives of a strange career of military and political
inconstancy. Thus the dismissal of Wallcnstein and the perilous
condition of German Protestantism after the edict of Restitution
combined to induce Arnim to quit the imperial service for that of
the elector of Saxony. He had served under Gustavus many
yean before, and later he had defeated him in the field, "when
in command of a Polish army; the fortune of war now placed
Arnim at the head of the Saxon army which fought by the side
of the Swedes at Breitenfeld (1631), and indeed the alliance of
these two Protestant powers in the cause of thefr common religion
was largely his work. The reappearances of Wallcnstein, how-
ever, caused him to hesitate and open negotiations, though he
did not attempt to conceal his proceedings from the elector and
Gustavus. During the Lutzen campaign, Arnim was operat-
ing with success at the head of an allied army in Silesia. In
the following year he was under the hard necessity of opposing
his old friend in the field, but little was done Sy either; the
complicated political situation which followed the death of
Gustavus at Lutzen led him into a renewal of the private nego-
tiations of the previous year, though he did nothing actually
treasonable in his relations with Wallcnstein. In 1634 Wallen-
stein was assassinated, and Arnim began at once more active
operations. He won an important victory at Liegnitz in May
1634, but from this time he became more and more estranged
from the Swedes. The peace of Prague followed, In which
Arnira's part, though considerable, was not all-important (1635).
Soon after this event he refused an offer of high command in
the French army and retired from active life. From 1637 to
1638 he was imprisoned m Stockholm, having been seized at
Boytaenburg by the Swedes on suspicion of being concerned
in various intrigues. He made his escape ultimately, and
returned to Saxony. Arnim died suddenly at Dresden in 1641,
whilst engaged in raising an' army to free German soil from
foreign armies of all kinds. (See Thirty Years' War.)
See K. G. Helbig, " Wallenstein und Arnim " (1850) and " Der
Prager Friede," in Kaumer's Historisches Tauhenbuch (1858); also
E. D. M. Kirchner, Das Schloss Boytzenburg, Gfc. (i860) and Archm
fur die sSeksiseke Geschichte, vol. viii. (1870).
ARNO, A*n or Aqcila (e. 750-821), bishop and afterwards
archbishop of Salzburg, entered the church at an early age, and
after passing some time at Frcising became abbot of Elnon,
ot St Amand as it was afterwards called, where he made the
acquaintance of Alcuin. In 785 he was made bishop of Salzburg
and in 787 was employed by Tassilo III., duke of the Bavarians,
as an envoy to Charlemagne at Rome. He appears to have
attracted the notice of the Frankish king, through whose influence
in 798 Salzburg was made the scat of an archbishopric; and
Arno, as the first holder of this office, became metropolitan of
Bavaria and received the pallium from Pope Leo III. The area
of his authority was extended to the east by the conquests of
Charlemagne over the Avars, and he began to take a prominent
part in the government of Bavaria. He acted as one of th©
missi dominici, and spent some time at the court of Charlemagne,
where he was known by the assembled scholars as Aquila, and his
name appears as one of the signatories to the emperor's will
He established a library at Salzburg, furthered in other ways
the interests of learning, and presided over several synods called
to improve the condition of the church in Bavaria. Soon after
the death of Charlemagne in 8 14, Arno appears to have withdrawn
from active life, although he retained his archbishopric until
his death on the 24th of January 821. Aided by a deacon named
Benedict, Arno drew up about 788 a catalogue of lands and
proprietary rights belonging to the church in Bavaria, under
the title of tndiculus or Congestum Arnonis. An edition of this
work, which is of considerable value to historical students, was
published at Munich in 1 869 with notes by F. Keinz. Many other
works were produced under the protection of Arno, among them
a Salzburg consuetudinary, an edition of which appears in Quellen
und Erdrterungen zur bayrischen und deutschen Geschichte, Band
vii., edited by L. Rockinger (Munich, 1856). It has been sug-
gested by W. von Gicsebrecht that Arno was the author of an
early section of Annates Laurissenses majores, which deals with
the history of the Frankish kings from 741 to 829, and of which
an edition appears in Monument a Germaniae hisloriea. Scriptoret,
Band i. pp. 128-131, edited by G. H. Pcrtz (Hanover, 1826). H
this supposition be correct, Arno was the first extant writer to
apply the name Deutsch (theodisca) to the German language,
ARNO (anc. Am us), a river of Italy which rises from the
Monte Falterona, about 25 m. E.N.E. of Florence, 4265 ft.
above the sea. It first runs S.S.E. through a beautiful valley,
the Casentino; near Arczzo it turns W., and at Montcvarchi
N.N.W ; xo m. below it forces its way through the limestone
rock at Incisa and 10 m. farther on, at Pontassieve, it is joined
by the Sieve. Thence it runs westward to Florence and through
the gorge of Golfolina onwards to Empoli and Pisa, receiving
various tributaries in its course, and falls into the sea 7} m. west
of Pisa, after a total course of 155 m. In prehistoric times the
river ran straight on along the valley of the Chiana and joined
the Tiber near Orvieto; and there was a great lake, the north
end of which was at Incisa and the south at the lake of Chiusi.
The distance from Pisa to the mouth in the time of Strabo was
only 2\ m. The Serchio (anc. A user), which joined the Arno at
Pisa in ancient times, now flows into the sea independently.
The Arno is navigable for barges as far as Florence; but it is
liable to sudden floods, and brings down with it large quantities
of earth and stones, so that it requires careful regulation. The
most remarkable inundations were those of 1537 and 1740; in
the former year the water rose to 8 ft. in the streets of Florence.
The valley between Incisa and Arczzo contains accumulations
of fossil bones of the deer, elephant, rhinoceros, mastodon,,
hippopotamus, bear, tiger, &c-
632
ARNOBIUS— ARNOLD
ARNOBIDS (called Afcr, and sometimes " the Elder "), early
Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Venerea in
proconsular Africa during the reign of Diocletian. His conversion
to Christianity is said by Jerome to have been occasioned by a
dream; and the same writer adds that the bishop to whom
Araobius applied distrusted his professions, and asked some
prooflof them, and that the treatise Adversus Gcntes was com-
posed for this purpose. But this story seems rather improbable;
for Arnobius speaks contemptuously of dreams, and besides, his
work bears no traces of having been written in a short time, or
of having been revised by a Christian bishop. From internal
evidence (bk. iv. 36) the time of composition may be fixed at
about A.D. 303. Nothing further is known of the life of Arnobius.
He is said to have been the author of a work on rhetoric, which,
however, has not been preserved. His great treatise, in seven
books, Adversus Gcntes (or Nat tones), on account of which he takes
rank as a Christian apologist, appears to have been occasioned
by a desire to answer the complaint then brought against the
Christians, that the prevalent calamities and disasters were due
to their impiety and had come upon men since the establishment
of their religion. In the first book Arnobius carefully discusses
this complaint; he shows that the allegation of greater calam-
ities having come upon men since the Christian era is false;
and that, even if it were true, it could by no means be attributed
to the Christians. He skilfully contends that Christians who
worship the self-existent God cannot justly be called less religious
than those who worship subordinate deities, and concludes
by vindicating the Godhead of Christ In the second book
Arnobius digresses into a long discussion on the soul, which he
does not think is of divine origin, and which he scarcely believes
to be immortal. He cv.cn says that a belief in the soul's immor-
tality would tend to remove moral restraint, and have a pre-
judicial effect on human* life. In the concluding chapters he
answers the objections drawn from the recent origin of Christi-
anity. Books iii., iv. and v. contain a violent attack on the
heathen mythology, in which he narrates with powerful sarcasm
the scandalous chronicles of the gods, and contrasts with their
grossness and immorality the pure and holy worship of the
Christian. These books are valuable as a repertory of mytho-
logical stories. Books vi. and vii. ably handle the questions of
sacrifices and worship of images. The confusion of the final
chapter points to some interruption. The work of Arnobius
appears to have been written when he was a recent convert, for
he does not possess a very extensive knowledge of Scripture.
*He knows nothing of the Old Testament, and only the life of
Christ in the New, while he does not quote directly from the
Gospels. He is also at fault in regard to the Jewish sects. He
was much influenced by Lucretius and had -read Plato. His
statements concerning Greek and Roman mythology are based
respectively on the Protrepticus of Clement of Alexandria, and
on Antistius Labco, who belonged to the preceding generation
and attempted to restore Neoplatonism. There are some
pleasing passages in Arnobius, but on the whole he is a tumid
and a tedious author.
Editions.— Mignc. Pair. Lot. iv. 340; A. Rettfcrscheich in the
r. 349;
Vienna Corpus Script. Eccles. Lot. (187O.
Translations.— -A. H. Brycc and H. <
Fathers, vi.
Translations.— -A. H. Brycc and H. Campbell in AnU-Nictnc
Literature.— H. C. G. Moule in Diet. Ckr. Biog. \.\ Herzog-
Hauck, ReaUncyklopadie; and G. Krugcr, Early Ckr. Lit* p. 304
(where full bibliographies are given).
ARNOBIUS (" the younger "), Christian priest or bishop in
Gaul, flourished about 460. He is the author of a mystical
and allegorical -commentary on the Psalms, first published by
Erasmus in 1522, and by him attributed to the elder Arnobius.
It has been frequently reprinted, and in the edition of De la
Barrc, 1580, is accompanied by some notes on the Gospels by
the same author. To him has sometimes been ascribed the
anonymous treatise, Arnobii catholici tl Serapionis conjlutus de
Deo trino et uno . . . de gratiae liberi arbilrii concordia, which
was probably written by a follower of Augustine. The opinions
of Arnobius, as appears from the commentary, arc semi-
Pelagian,
ARNOLD, known as " Arnold op Brescia " (d. 1x5s). one
of the most ardent adversaries of the temporal power of the
popes. He belonged to a family of importance, if not noble,
and was born probably at Brescia, in Italy, towards the cod
of the zzth century. He distinguished himself in his monastic
studies, and went to France about n 15. He studied theology
in Paris, but there is no proof that he was a pupil of Abeferd.
Returning to Italy he became a canon regular. His life was
rigidly austere, St Bernard calling him " homo neque manducans
neque bibens." He at once directed his efforts against tbe
corruption of the clergy, and especially against the temporal
ambitions of the high dignitaries of the church. During the
schism of Anadetus (1x31-1x37) the town of Brescia was tor?,
by the struggles between the partisans of Pope Innocent 11.
and the adherents of the anti-pope, and Arnold gave efiect
to his abhorrence of the political episcopate by inciting the
people to rise against their bishop, and, exiled by Innocent IL,
went to France. St Bernard accused him of sharing the doctrines
of Abclard (sec Ep. 189, 195), and procured his condemxtatiua
by the council of Sens (1140) at the same time as that of the
great scholastic This was perhaps no more than the outcome
of the fierce polemical spirit of the abbot of Clairvaux. which
led him to include all his adversaries under a single anathema.
It seems certain that Arnold professed moral theology in Faro,
and several times reprimanded St Bernard, whom he accused
of pride and jealousy. St Bernard, as a last resort, beggrd
King Louis VII. to take severe measures against Arnold, mho
had to leave France and take refuge at Zurich. There he st-ca
became popular, especially with the lay nobility; but, denounced
anew by St Bernard to the ecclesiastical authorities, be returned
to Italy, and turned his steps towards Rome (1x45). It was
two years since, in 1143, the Romans had rejected the temporal
power of the pope. The urban nobles had set up a republic,
which, under forms ostensibly modelled on antiquity (r.g.
patriciate, stnatus populusque romanus, &c), concealed but
clumsily a purely oligarchical government. Pope Eugenius Hi.
and his adherents had been forced after a feeble resistance to
resign themselves to exile at Vitcrbo. Arnold, after returning
to Rome, immediately began a campaign of virulent denunciation
against the Roman clergy, and, in particular, against the Curia,
which he stigmatized as a " house of merchandise and den of
thieves." His enemies have attributed to him certain doctrinal
heresies, but their accusations do not bear examination. Accord-
ing to Otto of Freising (Lib. de gestis Friderici, bk. ii. chap, xx.)
the whole of his teaching, outside the preaching of penitence,
was summed up in these maxims: — " Clerks who have estates,
bishops who hold fiefs, monks who possess property, cannot be
saved." His eloquence gained him a hearing and a numerous
following, including many laymen, but. consisting principally
of poor ecclesiastics, who formed around him a party character-
ized by a rigid morality and not unlike the Lombard Patarcnes
of the nth century. But his purely political action was very
restricted, and not to be compared with that of a Ricnzi or a
Savonarola. The Roman revolution availed itself of Arnold's
popularity, and of his theories, but was carried out without his
aid. His name was associated with this political reform aokly
because his was the only vigorous personality which stood
out from the mass of rebels, and because he was the principal
victim of the repression that ensued. On the 15th of July 1148
Eugcnius III. anathematized Arnold and his adherents; but
when, a short time afterwards, the pope, through the support
of the king ol Naples and the king of France, succeeded in
entering Rome, Arnold remained in the town unmolested, under
the protection of the senate. But in 1x5a the German king
Conrad III., whom the papal party and the Roman republic
had in vain begged to intervene, was succeeded by Frederick 1.
Barbarossa. Frederick, whose authoritative temper was at once
offended by the independent tone of the Arnoldist party, con-
cluded with the pope a treaty of alliance (October a 6, 1152) of
such a nature that the Arnoldists were at once put in a minority
in the Roman government, and when the second successor
of Eugenius III., the energetic and austere A4n*4 IV.(thc
ARNOLD, BENEDICT
633
Englishman, Nicholas Breakspear), placed Rome under an inter-
dict, the senate* already rudely shaken, submitted, and Arnold
was forced to fly into Campania (1x55). At the request of the
pope he was seized by order of the emperor Frederick, then in
Italy, and delivered to the prefect of Rome, by whom he was
.condemned to death. In June irss Arnold was hanged, his
body burnt, and the ashes were, thrown into the Tiber. His
death produced but a feeble sensation in Rome, which was
already pacified, and passed almost unnoticed in Italy. The
adherents of Arnold do not appear actually to have formed,
either before or after his death, a heretical sect It is probable
that his adherents became merged in the communities of the
Lombard Waldenses, who shared their ideas on the corruption
of the clergy. Legend, poetry, drama and politics have from
time to time been much occupied with the personality of Arnold
of Brescia, and not seldom have distorted it, through the desire
to see in him a hero of Italian independence and a modern
democrat. He was before everything an ascetic, who denied
to the church the right of holding property, and who occupied
himself only as an accessory with the political and social con-
sequences of his religious principles.
The bibliography of Arnold of Brescia is very vast and of very
unequal value. The following works will be found useful : W. von
GiescbrechtM mold von Brescia (Munich, 1873); G.Gaggia, 4 rnaldo
da Brescia (Brescia, 1882); and notices by vacandard in the ReUme
des questions kisioriques /Paris, 1884), pp. 52-114, by R. Breyer in
the Histor. Taschenbuck (Leipzig, 1889), vol. via. pp. 123-178, and
by A. Hausrath in Neue. Heidelberg. Jahrb. (1891), Band L pp.
7*- '44- (P. A.)
ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801),. American soldier, born
in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 14th of January 1741. He
was the great-grandson of Benedict Arnold (1615-1678), thrice
colonial governor of Rhode Island between 1663 and 1678; and
was the fourth in direct descent to bear the name. He received
a fair education but was not studious, and his youth was marked
by the same waywardness which characterized his whole career.
At fifteen he ran away from home and took part in an expedition
against the French, but, restless under restraint,, he soon deserted
and" returned home. In 1762 he settled in New Haven, where
he became the proprietor of a drug and book shop; and he
subsequently engaged successfully in trade with the West Indies.
Immediately after the battle of Lexington Arnold led the local
militia company, of which he was captain, and additional
volunteers to Cambridge, and on the 29th of April 1775 he
proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety an ex-
pedition against Crown Point and Tlconderoga. After a delay
of four days the offer was accepted, and as a colonel of Massa-
chusetts militia he was directed to enlist in the west part of
Massachusetts and in the neighbouring colonies the men neces-
sary for the undertaking. He was forestalled, however, by
Ethan Allen (9.?.), acting on behalf of some members of the
Connecticut Assembly, Under him, reluctantly waiving bis
own claim to command, Arnold served as a volunteer; and
soon afterwards, Massachusetts having yielded to Connecticut,
and having angered Arnold by sending a committee to make an
inquiry into his conduct, he resigned and returned to Cambridge.
He was then ordered to co-operate with General Richard Mont-
gomery in the invasion of Canada, which he had been one of the
first to suggest to the Continental Congress. Starting with
1 xoo men from Cambridge on the 17th of September 1775, he
reached Gardiner, Maine, on the -20th, advanced through the
Maine woods, and after suffering terrible privations and hard-
ships, his little force, depleted by death and desertion, reached
Quebec on the 13th of November. The garrison had been
forewarned, and Arnold was compelled to await the coming of
Montgomery from Montreal. The combined attack on the 31st
of December 1775 failed; Montgomery was killed, and Arnold
was severely wounded. Arnold, who had been commissioned, a
brigadier-general in January 1776, remained m Canada until
the following June, being after April in command at Montreal.
Some time after the retreat from Canada-, charges of mis-
conduct and dishonesty, growing chiefly out of his seizure from
merchants in Montreal of goods for the use of his troops, were
brought against him; these charges were tardily investigated
by the Board of War, which in a report made on the 23rd of
May 1777, and confirmed by Congress, declared that his " char-
acter .and conduct " had been " cruelly and groundlessry
aspersed." Having constructed a flotilla on Lake Champlain,
Arnold engaged a greatly superior British fleet near Vakour
Island (October n, 1776), and after inflicting severe loss on
the enemy, made his escape under cover of night. Two days
later he was overtaken by the British fleet, which however he,
with only one war-vessel, and that crippled, delayed long enough
to enable his other vessels to make good their escape, fighting
with desperate valour and finally running his own 6hip aground
and escaping to Crown Point. The engagement of the nth
was, the first between British and American fleets. Arnold's
brilliant exploits had drawn attention to him as one of the most
promising of the Continental officers, and had won for him the
friendship of Washington. Nevertheless, when in February
1777 Congress created five new major-generals, Arnold, although
the ranking brigadier, was passed over, partly at least for
sectional reasons-— Connecticut had already two major-generals
— in favour of his juniors. At this time it was only Washington's
urgent persuasion that prevented Arnold from leaving the
service. Two months later while he was at New Haven, Governor
Tryon's descent on Danbury took place; and Arnold, who took
command of the militia after the death of General Wooster,
attacked the British with such vigour at Ridgefield (April 27,
1777) that they escaped to their ships with difficulty.
In recognition of this service Arnold was now commissioned
major-general (his commission dating from 17 th February) but
without his former relative rank. After serving in New Jersey
with Washington, he joined General Philip Schuyler in the
Northern Department, and in August 1777 proceeded up the
Mohawk Valley against Colonel *St Leger, and raised the siege
of Fort Stanwix (or Schuyler). Subsequently, after Gates
had superseded Schuyler (August 19), Arnold commanded the
American left wing in the first battle of Saratoga (September 19,
1 777)-. His ill-treatment at the hands of General Gates, whose
jealousy had been aroused, led to a quarrel which terminated
in Arnold being relieved of command. He remained with the
army, however, at the urgent request of his brother officers, and
although nominally without command served brilliantly in the
second battle of Saratoga (October 7, 1777), during which he
was seriously wounded. For his services he was- thanked by
Congress, and received a new commission giving him at last his
proper relative rank.
In June 1778 Washington placed him in command of Phil-
adelphia, Here he soon came into conflict with the state
authorities, jealous of any outside control. In the social life
of Philadelphia, largely dominated by families of Loyalist sym-
pathies, Arnold was the most conspicuous figure; he lived
extravagantly, entertained lavishly, and in April 1779 took for
his second wife, Margaret Shippen (1760-1804), the daughter of
Edward Shippen (1720-1806), a moderate Loyalist, who event-
ually became reconciled to the new order and was in 1709-1805
chief-justice of the state. Early in February 1779 the executive
council of Pennsylvania, presided over by Joseph* Reed, one of
his most persistent enemies, presented to Congress eight charges
of misconduct against Arnold, none of which was of any great
importance. Arnold at once demanded an investigation, and
in March a committee of Congress made a report exonerating
him; but Reed obtained a reconsideration, and in April 1779
Congress, though throwing Out four charges, referred the other
four to a court-martial. Despite Arnold's demand for a speedy
trial, it was December before the court was convened. It was
probably during this period, of vexatious delay that Arnold,
always sensitive and now incited by a keen sense of injustice,
entered into a secret correspondence, with Sir Henry Clinton
with a view to joining the British service. On the 26th of
January 1780 the court, before which Arnold had ably argued
his own case, rendered its verdict, practically acquitting him of
all intentional wrong, but, apparently in deference to the Pciuv
sylvania authorities, directing Washington to reprimand him
63+
ARNOLD, SIR E.— ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED
for two trivial and very venial offences. Arnold, who had
confidently expected absolute acquittal, was inflamed with a
burning anger that even Washington's kindly reprimand, couched
almost in words of praise, could not subdue.
It was now apparently, that he first conceived the plan of be-
traying some import ant post to the British. With this in view he
sought and obtained from Washington (August 1780) command
of West Point, the key to the Hudson River Valley. Arnold's
offers now became more explicit, and, in order to perfect the
details of the plot, Clinton's adjutant-general, Major John
Andre 1 , met him near Stony Point on the night of the 21st of
September. On the 33rd, while returning by land, Andre with
incriminating papers was captured, and the officer to whom he
was entrusted unsuspectingly sent information of his capture to
Arnold, who was thus enabled to escape to the British lines.
Arnold, commissioned a brigadier-general in the British army,
received £6315 in compensation for his property losses, and was
employed in leading an expedition into Virginia which burned
Richmond, and in an attack upon New London (g.v) in Sep-
tember 1 781. In December 1781 he removed to London and
was consulted on American affairs by the king and ministry,
but could obtain no further employment in the active service.
Disappointed at the failure of his plans and embittered by the
neglect and scorn which he met in England, he spent the years
1787-1701 at St John, New Brunswick, once more engaging in.
the West India trade, but an 1791 he returned to London, and
after war had broken out between Great Britain and France,
was active in fitting out privateers. Gradually sinking into
melancholia, worn down by depression, and suffering from a
nervous disease, he died at London on the 14th of June 1801.
Arnold had three sons — Benedict, Richard and Henry—by
Us first wife, and four sons — Edward Shippen, James Robertson,
George and William Fitch — by his second wife; five of them,
and one grandson, served in the British army. Benedict (1 768-
1795) was an officer of the artillery and was mortally wounded
in the West Indies. Edward Shippen (1780-18x3) became
lieutenant of the Sixth Bengal Cavalry and later paymaster at
Muttra, India*. James Robertson (1 781-1854) entered the corps
of Royal Engineers in 1798, served in the Napoleonic wars, in
Egypt and in the West Indies, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-
general, was an aide-de-camp to William IV., and was created
a knight of the Hanoverian Guelphic order and a knight of the
Crescent. George (1787-1828) was a lieutenant-colonel in the
Second Bengal Cavalry at the time of his death. William Fitch
(1704-1828) became a captain in the Nineteenth Royal Lancers;
his son, William Trail (1826-1855) served in the Crimean War
as captain of the Fourth Regiment of Foot and was killed during
the siege of Sevastopol.
Bibliography.— Jared Sparks' Life and Treason of Benedict
Arnold (Boston, 1835), in hit " Library of American Biography," is
biassed and unfair. The best general account is Isaac Newton
Arnold (C
Arnold's Life of Benedict A
(Chicago, 1880), which, while
Arnold's wife wholly responsible for his defection. Francois de
Barbe-Marbots's Complot <T Arnold et de Sir H. Clinton centre Us
Etats-Unis (Paris, 1816) contains much interesting material, but is
inaccurate. Two good accounts of the Canadian Expedition are
Justin H. Smith's Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec (New
York. 1903), which contains a reprint of Arnold's journal of the
expedition; and John Codman's Arnold's Expedition to Quebec
(New York, 1901). Arnold's Letters on the Expedition to Canada
were printed in the Maine Historical Society's Collections
for 1831 (repr. 1865). See also William Abbatt, The Crisis of the
Revolution (New York. 1899); The Northern Invasion of 1780
(Bradford Club Series, No. 6, New York, 1866); " The Treason of
The Northern Invasion of 1780
K ewYork, 1866); " The Treason of
Benedict Arnold " (letters of Sir Henry Clinton to Lord George
Germaine) in Pennsylvania Magatine of History and Biography,
vol. xxiL (Philadelphia, 1898); and Proceedings of a General Court
Martial for the Trial of Major-General Arnold (Philadelphia, 1760;
reprinted with introduction and notes, New York, 1865).
ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1004), British poet and jour-
nalist, was born on the 10th of June 1832, and was educated at
the King's school, Rochester; King's College, London; and
University College, Oxford, where in 1852 he gained the Newdi-
gate prize for a poem on Belshazzar's feast. On leaving (Word
he became a schoolmaster, and went to India as principal of the
government Sanskrit College at Poona, a post which he held
during the mutiny of 1857, when he was able to render servka
for which he was publicly thanked by Lord Elphinstone in the
Bombay council. Returning to England in 1861 he worked as
a journalist on the staff of the Daily Telegraph, a newspaper
with which he continued to be associated for more than forty
years. It was he who, on behalf of the proprietors of the Daily
Telegraph in conjunction with the New York Herald, arranged
for the journey of H. M. Stanley to Africa to discover the course
of the Congo, and Stanley named after him a mountain to the
north-east of Albert Edward Nyanza. Arnold must abo be
credited with the first idea of a great .trunk line traversing th*
entire African continent, for in 1874 he first employed the phrase
" a Cape to Cairo railway " subsequently popularized by Ced
Rhodes. It was, however, as a poet that be was best know
to his contemporaries. The Light of Asia appeared in 1879 tod
won an immediate success, going through numerous editions
both in England and America. It is an Indian epic, dealing
with the life and teaching of Buddha, which are expounded
with much wealth of local colour and not a little felicity of
versification. The poem contains many lines of unquestionable
beauty; and its immediate popularity was rather increased
than diminished by the twofold criticism to which it was sub*
jected. On the one hand it was held by Oriental scholars to give
a false impression of Buddhist doctrine; while, on the other,
trje suggested analogy between Sakyamuni and Christ offended
the taste of some devout Christians. The latter criticism prob-
ably suggested to Arnold the idea of attempting a second nans*
tive poem of which the central figure should be the founder of
Christianity, as the founder of Buddhism had been that of the
first. But though The Light of the World (1891), in which (his
idea took shape, had considerable poetic merit, it lacked the
novelty of theme and setting which had given the earlier poea
much of its attractiveness; and it failed tp repeat the success
attained by The Light of A sia. Arnold's other principal volumes
of poetry were Indian Song of Songs (1875), Pearls of the Fcah
(1883), The Song Celestial (1885), With Sadi in the Garden (i&tf*.
Potiphar's Wife (1892) and Adsuma (1893). In his law yean
Arnold resided for some time in Japan, and his third wife was
a Japanese lady. In Seas and Lands ( 1891 ) and Japonkc ( 1S02)
he gives an interesting study of Japanese life. He received the
order of C.S.I. on the occasion of the proclamation of Qu« a
Victoria as empress of India in 1877, and in 1S88 was aeaied
K.C.IJE. He also possessed decorations conferred by the ruler*
of Japan, Persia, Turkey and Siam, Sir Edwin Arnold died
on the 24th of March 1004.
ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1606-17 14),- German Protestant
divine, was born at Annaberg, in Saxony, where his father *w
a schoolmaster. In 1682 be went to the Gymnasium at Gets,
and three years later to the university of Wittenberg. Here
he made a special study of theology and history, and afterward*,
through the influence of P. J. Spener, " the father of pietism,
he became tutor in Quedlinburg. His first work, Die Erste tic*
su Christo, to which in modern times attention was again directed
by Leo Tolstoy, appeared in 1696. It went through five editio&a
before 1728, and gained the author much reputation. In d*
year after its publication he was invited to Giessen as professor
of church history. The life and work here, however, proved so
distasteful to him that he resigned in 2698, and returned to
Quedlinburg. In 1699 he began to publish his largest work,
described by Tolstoy (The Kingdom of God it unthin Ye*,
chap, iii.) as " remarkable, although little known," Unpertriucht
Kirchen- und KetMerhistorie, in which he has been thought by
some to show more impartiality towards heresy than toward*
the Church (cp. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Thedhgy, P '? V
His next work. Gcheimniss der gtttlichen Sophia, published
1 700, seemed to indicate that he had developed a form of n»)* lh
cism. Soon afterwards, however, his acceptance of a pastorate
marked a change, and he produced a number of noteworthy
works on practical theology. He was also known as the author
ARNOLD, MATTHEW
635
of Acred poems. Gottfried Arnold has rightly been classed
with the pietistic section of Protestant historians (BiNiotheca
Sacra, 1850).
See Calwer-Zefler, Theotogisihes Handworierbuch, and the account
of him in Albeit Kaapp's hew edition of Die trste Liebe tu Chritio
(I«45).
ARHOLD, MATTHEW (1&22-1888), English poet, literary
critic and inspector of schools was born at Laleham, near
Staines, on the 24th of December 1822. When it is said that he
was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of Rugby, and that Win-
chester, Rugby and tialliol College, Oxford, contributed their
best towards his education, it seems superfluous to add that, in
estimating Matthew Arnold and his work, training no less than
original endowment has to be considered. A full academic
training has its disadvantages as well as its gains. In the in-
dividual no less than in the species the history of man's develop-
ment is the history of the struggle between the impulse to
express original personal force and the impulse to make that
force bow to the authority of custom. Where in any individual
the first of these impulses U stronger than usual, a complete
academic training is a gain; but where the second of these
impulses is the dominant one, the effect of the academic habit
Upon the mind at its most sensitive and most plastic period is
apt to be crippling. In regard to Matthew Arnold, it would be
a bold critic of bis life and his writings who should attempt to
say what his work would have been if his training had been
different In his judgments on Goethe, Wordsworth, Byron,
Shelley and Hugo, it may be seen how strong was his impulse
to bow to authority. On the other hand, in Arnold's ingenious
reasoning away the conception of Providence to " a stream of
tendency not ourselves which makes for righteousness," we see
how strong was his natural impulse for taking original views.
The fact that the very air Arnold breathed during the whole of
the impressionable period of bis life was acad em ic is therefore a
"very important fact to bear in mind.
In one of his own most charming critical essays he contrasts the
poetry of Homer, which consists of " natural thoughts in natural
words," with the poetry of Tennyson, which consists of " distilled
thoughts in distilled words." " Distilled " is one of the happiest
words to be found in poetical criticism, and may be used with
equal aptitude in the criticism of life. To most people the waters
of life come with all their natural qualities— sweet or bitter—
undistilled. Only the ordinary conditions of civilisation,
common to all, flavoured the waters of life to Shakespeare, to
Cervantes, to Burns, to Scott, to Dumas, and those other great
creators whose minds were mirrors — broad and clear—for
reflecting the rich drama of life around them. To Arnold the
waters of life came distilled so carefully that the wonder is that
he had any originality left. A member of the upper stratum
of that " middle class " which he despised, or pretended to
despise— the eldest son of one of the most accomplished as well
as one of the most noble-tempered men of his time — Arnold
from the moment of his birth drank the finest distilled waters
that can be drunk even in these days. Perhaps, on the whole, the
surprising thing is how little he suffered thereby. Indeed those
who had formed an idea of Arnold's personality from their
knowledge of his " culture," and especially those who had been
delighted by the fastidious and feminine delicacy of his prose
style, used to be quite bewildered when for the first time they met
him at a dinner-table or in a friend's smoking-room. His prose
.was so self-conscious that what people expected to find in the
writer was the Arnold as he was conceived by certain " young
lions" of journalism whom he satirized—a somewhat- over-
cultured petit-moUre—almott, indeed, a coxcomb of letters. On
the other hand, those who had been captured by his poetry
expected to find a man whose sensitive organism responded
nervously to every uttered word as an acoiian harp answers to
the faintest breeze. What they found was a broad-shouldered,
manly— almost burly— Englishman with a fine countenance,
bronzed by the open air of England, wrinkled apparently by the
sun, wind-worn as an English skipper's, open and frank as a
fox-hunting squire's— and yet a . countenance whose finely
chiselled features were as high-bred and as commanding at
Wellington's or Sir Charles Napier's. The voice they heard waa
deep-toned, fearless, rich and frank, and yet modulated to express
every nuance of thought, every movement of emotion and
humour. In his prose essays the humour he showed was of a
somewhat thin-lipped kind; in his more important poems he
showed none at all; It was here, in this matter of humour, that
Arnold's writings were specially misleading as to the personality
of the man. Judged from his poems, it was not with a poet like
the writer of " The Northern Farmer," or a poet like the writer
of" Ned Bratts," that any student of poetry would have dreamed
of classing him. Such a student would actually have been more
likely to class him with two of his contemporaries between whom
and himself there were but few points in common, the M humour-
less " William Morris and the " humourless." Rosscttl. For,
singularly enough, between him and them there was this one
point of resemblance: while all three were richly endowed with
humour, while all three were the very lights of the sets in which
they moved,, the moment they took pen in hand to write poetry
they became sad. It would almost seem as If, like Rossetti,
Arnold actually held that poetry was not Che proper medium
forlmmour. No wonder, then, if the absence of humour in his
poetry did much to mislead the. student of his work as to the
real character of the man.
After a year at Winchester, Matthew Arnold entered Rugby
school in 1837. He early began to write and print verses.- His
first publication was a Rugby prize poem, AUtric at Rome, m
1840. This was followed in 1843, after he had gone up to Oxford
in 1840 as a scholar of Balliol, by his poem Cromwell, which won
the Newdigate prize. In 1844 he graduated with second-class
honours, and m 1845 was elected a fellow of Oriel College, where
among his colleagues was A. H. Clough, his friendship with
whom is commemorated in that exquisite elegy Tkyrsis. .From
1847 to 185*1 he acted as private secretary to Lord I^ansdowne;
and in the latter year, after acting for a short time as assistant-
master at Rugby, he was appointed to an inspectorship of schools,
a post which he retained until two years before his death. He
married, in June 1851, the daughter of Mr Justice Wightman.
Meanwhile, in 1849, appeared The Strayed Rentier, and other
Poems, by A, a volume which gained a considerable esoteric
reputation. In 1852 he published another volume under the
same mitial, Empedodes on Etna, and other Poems. Empedodes
is as undramatic a poem perhaps as was ever written in dramatic
form, but studded with lyrical beauties of a very high order.
In 1853 Arnold published a volume of Poems under his own
name. This consisted partially of poems selected from the two
previous volumes. A second series of poems, which contained,
however, only two new ones, was published in 1855. So great
was the impression made by these in academic circles, that in
1857 Arnold was elected professor of poetry at Oxford, and he
held the chair for ten years. In 1858 he published his classical
tragedy, Merope. Nine years afterwards his New Poems (1867)
were, published. While he held the Oxford professorship he
published several series of lectures, which gave him a high place
as a scholar and critic. The essays 1 On Translating Homer:
Three Lectures given at Oxford, published in 1861, supplemented
in 1862 by On Translating Homer: Last Words, a fourth lecture
given in reply to F. W. Newman's Homeric Translation in Theory
and Practice (1861), and On the Study of Celtic Literature, pub-
lished in 1867, were full of subtle and brilliant if not of profound
criticism. So were the two series of Essays in Criticism, the
first of which, consisting of articles reprinted from various
reviews, appeared in 1865. The essay on " A Persian Passion
Play " was added in the editions of 1875; and a second series,
edited by Lord Coleridge, appeared in 1888.
Arnold's poetic activity almost ceased after he left the chair
of poetry at Oxford. He was several times sent by government
to make inquiries into the state of education in France, Germany,
Holland and other countries; and his reports, with their
thorough-going and searching criticism of continental methods,
1 These essays were edited in 1905 with an introduction by W. H. D
Rouse
6 3 6
ARNOLD, MATTHEW
as contrasted with English methods, showed how conscientiously
he had devoted some of his best energies to the work. His fame
as a poet. and a literary critic has somewhat overshadowed the
fact that he was during thirty-five years of his life— from 1851
to xtMc^-employed in the' Education Department as one of
H.M. inspectors of schools, while his literary work was achieved
in such intervals of leisure as could be spared from the public
service. At the time of his appointment the government, by
arrangement with the religious bodies, entrusted the inspection
of schools connected with the Church of England to clergymen,
and agreed also to send Roman Catholic inspectors to schools
managed by members of that communion. Other schools—
those of the British and Foreign Society, the Wesleyans, and
undenominational schools generally— were inspected by laymen,
of whom Arnold was one*. Thece were only three or four of these
officers at first, and their districts were necessarily large. It is
to the experience gained in intercourse with Nonconformist
school managers that we may attribute the curiously intimate
knowledge of religious sects which furnished the material for
some of his keen though good-humoured sarcasms. The Edu-
cation Act of 1870, which simplified the administrative system,
abolished denominational inspection, and thus greatly reduced
the area assigned to a single inspector. Arnold took charge of
the district of Westminster, and remained in that office until
his resignation, taking also an occasional share in the inspection
of training colleges for teachers, and in conferences at the central
office. His letters, passim, show that some of the routine which
devolved upon him was distasteful, and that he was glad to
entrust to a skilled assistant much of the duty of individual
examination and the making up of schedules and returns. But
the influence he exerted on schools, on the department, and on.
the primary education of the whole country, was indirectly, far
greater than is* generally supposed. His annual reports, of
which more than twenty were collected into a volume by his
friend and official chief, Sir Francis (afterwards Lord) Sandford,
attracted, by reason of their freshness of style and thought,
much more of public attention than is usually accorded to blue-
book literature; and his high aims, and his sympathetic
appreciation of the efforts and difficulties of the teachers, had
a remarkable effect in raising the tone of elementary education,
and in indicating the way to improvement. In particular, he
insisted on the formative elements of school education, on
literature and the " humanities," as distinguished from the
collection of scraps of information and " useful knowledge ";
and he sought to impress all the young teachers with the necessity
of broader mental cultivation than was absolutely required to
obtain the government certificate. In his reports also he dwelt
often and forcibly on the place which the_study of the Bible,
not the distinctive formularies of the churches, ought to hold
in English schools. He urged that besides the religious and
moral purposes of Scriptural teaching, it had a literary value of
its own, and was the best, instrument in the hands even of the
elementary teacher for uplifting the soul and refining' and
enlarging the thoughts of young children.
On three occasions Arnold was asked to assist the government
by making special inquiries into the state of education in foreign
countries. These duties were especially welcome to him, serving
as they did as a relief from the monotony of school inspection
at home, and as opportunities for taking a wider survey of the
whole subject of education, and for expressing his views on
principles and national aims as well as administrative details.
In 1857, as foreign assistant commissioner, he prepared for the
duke of Newcastle's commission to inquire into the subject of
elementary education a report (printed i860) which was after-
wards reprinted (1 861) in a volume entitled The Popular Educa-
tion of France, with Notices of thai of Holland and Switzerland.
In 1865 he was again employed as assistant-commissioner by
the Schools Inquiry Commission under Lord Taunton; and his
report on this subject, On Secondary Education in Foreign
Countries (1866), was subsequently reprinted under the tide
Schools and Universities on the Continent (1868). Twenty years
later be was sent by the Education Department to make special
inquiries on certain specified points, e.g. (fee education, the
status and training of teachers, and compulsory attendance
at schools. The result of this investigation appeared as 1
parliamentary paper, Special Report on certain points connected
with Elementary Education in Germany, Sutherland ami Franc*,
in 1886. He also contributed the chapter on " Schools " (1S37-
1887) to the second volume of Mr Humphry Ward's Reign oj
Queen Victoria. Part of his official writings may be studied ie
Reports for Elementary Schools (1852-^882), edited by Sr F.
Sandford in 1889.
All these reports form substantial contributions to the lnstaty
and literature of education in the Victorian age. They have
been quoted often, and have exercised marked influence est sabs*
quent changes and controversies. One great purpose vnderhes
themalL It is to bring home to the English people aeon victioo
that education ought to be a national concern, that it should not
be left entirely to local, or private, or irresponsible initiatm.
that the watchful jealousy so long shown by liberals, and
especially by Nonconformists, in regard Jo state action was »
grave practical mistake, and that in an enlightened democracy,
animated by a progressive spirit and noble and generous ideafe,
it was the part of wisdom to invoke the collective power of the
state to give effect to those ideals* To this theme he constantly
recurred in his essays, articles and official reports. u Pom
unum est necessarium. One thing is needful;- organise yoar
secondary education."
In 1883 a pension of £250 was conferred on Arnold in rcoog-
nition of his literary merits. In the same year he went to the
United States on a lecturing tour, and again in 1886, his subjects
being " Emerson " and the " Principles and Value of Numbers."
The success of these lectures, though they were admirable m
matter and form, was marred by the lecturer's lack of earpencsce
in delivery. It is sufficient, further, to say that Culture ami
Anarchy: an Essay in Political and Social Criticism, appeared
in 1869; St Paul and Protestantism, with an Introduction am
Puritanism and the Church of England (1870); Friendship's
Garland: being the Conversations, Letters and Opinions of Ike
late Arminius Baron von ThundcMen-Tronchh (1871)-, Lilerotmrt
and Dogma: an Essay towards a Better Apprehension of the
Bible (1873); God and the Bible: a Review of Objections to
Literature and Dogma (1875); Last Essays on Church ami
Religion (1877); hfixed Essays (1870);' Irish Essays and Others
(1882); Discourses in America (1885). Such essays as the fir*t
of these, embodying as they did Arnold's views of theological
and polemical subjects, attracted much attention at the tin*
of their publication, owing to the state .of the intellectual atmo-
sphere at the moment; but it is doubtful, perhaps, whether
they will be greatly considered in the near future. Many
severe things have been said, and will be said, concerning the
inadequacy of poets like Coleridge and Wordsworth »h-n
confronting subjects of a theological or philosophical kind.
Wordsworth's High Church Pantheism and Coleridge's dis-
quisitions on the Logos seem farther removed from the specula-
tions of to-day than do the dreams of Lucretius. But these t« o
great writers lived before the days of modern science. ArnoM.
living only a few years later, came at a transition period wh*a
the winds of tyrannous knowledge had blown off the protecting
roof that had covered the centuries before, but when time and
much labour were needed to build another roof of new materu-s
—a period when it -was impossible for the poet to enjoy either
the quietism of High Church Pantheism in which Wordsworth
had basked, or the sheltering protection of German metaphysics
under which Coleridge had preached— a period, nevertheless,
when the wonderful revelations of science were still too raw,
too cold and hard, to satisfy the yearnings of the poetic soul.
Objectionable as Arnold's rationalizing criticism was to con-
temporary orthodoxy, and questionable as was his equipment ia
point of theological learning, his spirituality of outlook and ethical
purpose were not to be denied. Yet it is not Arnold's views
that have become current coin so much as his literary phrases
—his craving for " culture " and " sweetness and light." his con-
tempt for " the .dissidence of Dissent and the Protestantism
ARNOLD, MATTHEW
637
of the Protestant religion," his " stream of tendency not our-
selves making for righteousness," his classification of " Philistines
and barbarians " — and so forth. His death at Liverpool, of heart
failureon the 1 5th of April 1888, was sudden and quite unexpected.
Arnold was a prominent figure in that great galaxy of Victorian
poets who were working simultaneously— Tennyson, Browning,
Rossetti, William Morris and Swinburne— poets between whom
there was at least this connecting link, that the quest of all of them
was the old-fashioned poetical quest of the beautiful. Beauty
was their watchword, as it had been the watchword of their
immediate predecessors— Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley
and Byron. That this group of early 19th-century poets might
be divided into two — those whose primary quest was physical
beauty, and those whose primary quest was moral beauty— is
no doubt true. Still, in so far as beauty was their quest they
were all akin. And so with the Victorian group to which Arnold
belonged. As to the position which he takes among them
opinions must necessarily vary. On the whole, his place in the
rup will be below all the others. The question as to whether
was primarily a poet or a prosatcur has been often asked.
If we were to try to answer that question here, we should have
to examine his poetry in detail— we should have to inquire
^whether his primary impulse of expression was to seize upon
the innate suggestive power of words, or whether his primary
impulse was to rely upon the logical power of the sentence. In
nobility of temper, in clearness of statement, and especially in
descriptive power, he is beyond praise. But intellect, judgment,
culture and study of great poets may do much towards enabling
a prose-writer to write what must needs be called good poetry.
What they cannot enable him to do is to produce those magical
effects which poets of the rarer kind can achieve by seizing that
mysterious, suggestive power of words which is far beyond all
mere statement. Notwithstanding the exquisite work that
Arnold has left behind him, some critics have come- to the con-
clusion that his primary impulse in expression was that of the
poetically-minded prosottur rather than that of the born poet.
And this has been said by some who nevertheless deeply admire
poems like " The Scholar Gypsy," "Thyrsis," " The Forsaken
Merman, " " Dover Beach," " Heme's Grave," " Rugby Chapel,"
" The Grande Chartreuse," " Sohrab and Rustum," " The Sick
King in Bokhara," " Tristram and Iseult," &c. It would seem
that a man may show all the endowments of a poet save one,
and that one the most essential — the instinctive mastery over
metrical effects.
In all literary expression there are two kinds of emphasis,
the emphasis of sound and the emphasis of sense. Indeed the
difference between those who have and those who have not the
true rhythmic Instinct is that, while the former have the innate
faculty of making the emphasis of sound and the emphasis of
sense meet and strengthen each other, the latter are without that
faculty. But so imperfect is the human mind that it can rarely
apprehend or grasp simultaneously these two kinds of emphasis.
While to the born prosateur the emphasis of sense comes first,
and refuses to be more than partially conditioned by the emphasis
of sound, to the born poet the emphasis of sound comes first,
and sometimes will, even as in the case of Shelley, revolt against
the tyranny of the emphasis of sense. Perhaps the very -origin
of the old quantitative metres was the desire to make these two
kinds of emphasis meet in the same syllable. In manipulating
their quantitative metrical system the Greeks had facilities for
bringing one kind of emphasis into harmony with the other
such as are. unknown to writers in accentuated metres. This
accounts for the measureless superiority of Greek poetry in verbal
melody as well as in general harmonic scheme to all the poetry of
the modern world. In writers so diverse in many ways as Homer,
iEschylus, Sophocles, Pindar, Sappho, the harmony between the
emphasis of sound and the emphasis of sense is so complete that
each of these kinds of emphasis seems always begetting, yet
always born of the other. When in Europe the quantitative
measures were superseded by the accentuated measures a
reminiscence was naturally and inevitably left behind of the
old system; and the result has been, in the English language at
least, that no really great line can be written in which the em-
phasis of accent, the emphasis of quantity and the emphasis of
sense do not meet on the same syllable. Whenever this junction
does not take place the weaker line, or lines, are always introduced,
not for makeshift purposes, but for variety, as in the finest lines
of Milton and Wordsworth. Wordsworth no doubt seems to
have had a theory that the accent of certain words, such as
*' without," " within," &c, could be disturbed in an iambic
line; but in his best work he does not act upon his theory, and
endeavours most successfully to make the emphasis of accent,
of quantity and of sense meet. It might not be well for a poem
to contain an entire sequence of such perfect lines as
" I thought of Chatterton, the marvellous boy,"
or
" Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart,"
for then the metricist's art would declare itself too loudly and
weaken the imaginative strength of the picture. Bui such lines
should no doubt form the basis of the poem, and weaker lines-
lines in which there is no such combination of the three kinds of
emphasis— should be sparingly used, and never used for make-
shift purposes. Now, neither by instinct nor by critical study
was Arnold ever able to apprehend this law of prosody. If he
does write a line of the first order, metrically speaking, he seems
to do so by accident. Such weak lines as these are constantly
occurring—
" The poet, to whose mighty heart
Heaven doth a quicker pulse impart.
Subdues that energy to scan
Not his own course, but that of man."
Much has been said about what is called the " Greek temper "
of Matthew Arnold's muse. A good deal depends upon what
it meant by the Hellenic spirit. But if the Greek temper ex-
presses itself, as is generally supposed, in the sweet acceptance
and melodious utterance of the beauty of the world as it is,
accepting that beauty without inquiring as to what it means
and as to whither it goes, it is difficult to see where in Arnold's
poetry this temper declares itself. Surely it is not in Empabcles
on Etna, and surely it is not in Ma opt. If there is a poem of his
in which one would expect to find the joyous acceptance of life
apart from questionings about the civilization in which the poet
finds himself environed (its hopes, its fears, its aspirations and
its failures) — such questionings, in short, as were for ever
vexing Arnold's soul— it would be in " The Scholar Gypsy,"
a poem in which the poet tries to throw himself into the mood
of a " Romany Rye." The great attraction of the gypsies to
Englishmen of a certain temperament is that they alone seem to
feel the joyous acceptance of life which is supposed to be specially
Greek. Hence it would have been but reasonable to look,
if anywhere, for the expression of Arnold's Greek temper in a
poem which sets out to describe the feelings of the student who,
according to Glanville's story, left Oxford to wander over
England with the Romanies. But instead of this we got the old
fretting about the unsatisfactoriness of modern civilization.
Glanville's Oxford student, whose story is glanced at now and
again in the poem, flits about in the scenery like a cloud-
shadow on the grass; but the way in which Arnold contrives
to avoid giving us the faintest idea either dramatic or pic-
torial of the student about whom he talks so much, and the
gypsies with whom the student lived, is one of the most singular
feats in poetry. The reflections which come to a young Oxonian
lying on the grass and longing to escape life's fitful fever without
shuffling off this mortal coil, are, no doubt, beautiful reflections
beautifully expressed, but the temper they show is the very
opposite of the Greek. To say this is not in the least to disparage
Arnold. M A man is more like the age in which he lives," says
the Chinese aphorism, " than he is like his own father and mother,"
and Arnold's polemical writings alone are sufficient to show that
the waters of life he drank were from fountains distilled, seven
times distilled, at the topmost slope of 10th-century civilization.
Mr George Meredith's " Old Chartist" exhibits far more of the
temper of acceptance than does any poem by Matthew Arnold.
His most famous critical dictum is that poetry is a " c***"~^~
«3»
ARNOLD, SAMUEL— ARNOLD, THOMAS
of life." What he seems to have meant is that poetry is the
crowning fruit of a criticism of life; that just as the poet's
metrical effects are and must be the result of a thousand semi-
conscious generalizations upon the laws of cause and effect in
metric art, so the beautiful things he says about life and the beauti-
ful pictures he paints of life are the result of his generalizations
upon life as he passes through it, and consequently that the value
of his poetry consists in the beauty and the truth of his generaliza-
tions. But this is saying no more than is said in the line—
" Rien n'est beau que le vrai; le vrai seul est aimable "—
or in the still more famous lines —
" ' Beauty is truth, truth beauty,'— that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye oeed to know."
To suppose that Arnold confounded the poet with the writer
of pensies would be absurd. Yet having decided that poetry
consists of generalizations on human life, in reading poetry he
kept on the watch for those generalizations, and at last seemed
to think that the less and not the more they are hidden behind
the dramatic action, and the more unmistakably they are in-
truded as generalizations, the better. For instance, in one of
his essays he quotes those lines from the " Chanson de Roland "
of Turoldus, where Roland, mortally wounded, lays himself
down under a pine-tree with his face turned towards Spain and
the enemy, and begins to " call many things to remembrance;
all the lands which his valour conquered, and pleasant France,
and the men of his lineage, and Charlemagne, his liege lord, who
nourished him " —
" De plusurs choses a remembrer li prut,
De tantes teres cume li bers cunquist,
De dulce France, des h times de sun ligu,
De Carlemagne sun seignor ki rnurrit."
" That," says Arnold, " is primitive work, I repeat, with an
undeniable poetic quality of its own. It deserves such praise,
and such praise is sufficient for it." Then he contrasts it with a
famous passage in Homer — that same passage which is quoted
in the article Poetry, for the very opposite purpose to that of
Arnold's, quoted indeed to show how the epic poet, leaving the
dramatic action to act as chorus, weakens the axarn of the
picture— the passage in the Iliad (iii. 243-244) where the poet,
after Helen's pathetic mention of her brother's comments on
the causes of their absence, " criticizes life " and generalizes
upon the impotence of human intelligence, the impotence even
of human love, to pierce the darkness in which the web of human
fate is woven. He appends Dr Haw trey's translation:—
"ill 4&ro' rein *' jin *&nx** 4vetfooi •(«
i» Aauoaluopt «Wi, *&b 4w warpiii yaiv.
" So said she; they long since in Earth's soft arms were reposing
There, in their own dear land, their fatherland, Lacedaemon.
" We are here," says Arnold, " in another world, another
order of poetry altogether; here is rightly due such supreme
praise as that which M. Vitel gives to the Chanson de Roland.
If our words are to have any meaning, if our judgments are to
have any solidity, we must not heap that supreme praise upon
poetry of an order immeasurably inferior." He docs not see
that the two passages cannot properly be compared at all. In
the one case the poet gives us a dramatic picture; in the other,
a comment on a dramatic picture.
Perhaps, indeed, the place Arnold held and still holds as a
critic is due more to his exquisite felicity in expressing his views
than to the penetration of his criticism. Nothing can exceed
the easy grace of his prose at the best. It is conversational and
yet absolutely exact in the structure of the sentences; and in
spite of every vagary, his distinguishing note is urbanity. Keen-
edged as his satire could be, his writing for the most part is
as urbane as Addison's own. His influence on contemporary
criticism and contemporary ideals was considerable, and gener-
ally wholesome. His insistence on the necessity of looking at
" the thing in itself," and the need for acquainting oneself with
" the best that has been thought and said in the world," gave a
new stimulus alike to originality and industry in criticism;
and in his own selection of subjects — such as Joubert, or the de
Gudrin* — he opened a new world to a larger class of the better
sort of readers, exercising in this respect an awakening influence
in his own time akin to that of Waller Pater a few years after-
wards. The comparison with Pater might indeed be presto-
further, and yet too far. Both were essentially products oJ
Oxford. But Arnold, whose description of that " home of lost
causes, and forsaken beliefs, and unpopular names, and 1m
possible loyalties/' is in itself almost a poem, had a classical
austerity in his style that savoured more intimately of Oxford
tradition, and an ethical earnestness even in his mosi flippax. 1
moments which kept him notably aloof from the more scd*ucu 9
school of aesthetics.
The first collected edition of Arnold's poems was published i->
1869 in two volumes, the first consisting of Narrative and EJtc ~
Poems, and the second of Dramatic and Lyric Poems. Other edit \ - ?
appeared in 1877, 1881; a library edition (t vols., 18*5); a <><
volume reprint of the poems printed in the library edit ion wits- **-*
or two additions (1890). Publications by Matthew Arnold n *»
mentioned in the foregoing article include: England mnd the /-V :-*
Question (1859), a pamphlet; A French Eton; or. Middle Os-.
Education and the State (1864); Higher Schools and Universities r»
Germany (1874), a partial reprint from Schools and Universities ««
the Continent (1868); A Bible Reading for Schools; The C^c
Prophecy of Israel's Restoration, an arrangement of Isaiah. cK*.
xl.-lxvi. (1872), republished with additions and varying titles «-<
1875 ar, d 1883; an edition of the Six Chief Lives from Jmkum*'*
Lives of the Poets (1878) ; editions of the Poems of Wordsworth (1879'
and the Poetry of Byron ( 1 881 ). for the Golden Treasury Series, wit ►
prefatory essavs reprinted in the second aeries of Essays in Cnticu m .
an edition of Letters, Speeches and Tracts on Irish Affairs by Edmsnji
Burke (1881); and many contributions to periodical literatim
The Letters of Matthew ArnoUti8A&-ita8) were collected and arranyrd
by George W. E. Russell in 1895. reprinted 1001. Matthew Arnoufi
Note Books, with a Preface by the Hon. Mrs Wodehouse, appeared if
1902. A complete and uniform edition of The Works of ilaakc*
Arnold (15 vols., 1904-1905) includes the letters as edited by Mr
Russell. Vol. Hi. contains a complete bibliography of his works,
many of the early editions of whicn are very valuable, by Mr T. b
Smart, who published a separate bibliography in 1892. A valuable
note on the rather complicated subject 01 Arnold's bibliograph) »
given by Mr H. Buxton Forman in Arnold's Poems, Namiive.
Elegiac and Lyric (Temple Classics. 1900).
It was Arnold's expressed desire that his biography should not be
written, and before his letters were published they underwent
considerable editing at the hands of his family. There are. ho«\ t r.
monographs on Matthew Arnold (1899) in Modern English Wrt'en
by Prof. Saintsbury, and by Mr H. w. Paul (1902). in theEnglr-S
Men of Letters Series. These two works are supplemented bv Mr
G. W. E. Russell, who, as the editor of Arnold's letters, is in a setm
the official biographer, in Matthew Arnold (1904, Literary Livr*
Series). There arc also studies of Arnold in Mr J. M. Robert *oi >
Modern Humanists (1891). and in W. H. Hudson's Studies in Imterpn
tahon (1896). in Sir J. G. Fitch's Thomas and Matthew Arnold (itH>; <
and a review of some of the works above mentioned in the Quarterly
for January 1905 by T. H. Warren. (T. W.-D.; J. G. F >
ARNOLD, SAMUEL <i 740-1802), English composer, was born
at London on the 10th of August 1740. He received a thorough
musical education at the Chapel Royal, and when little more
than twenty years of age was appointed composer at Covcnt
Garden theatre. Here, in 1765, he produced his popular opera.
The Maid of the Mill, many of the songs in which were selected
from the works of Italian composers. In 1776 he transferred
his services to the Haymarket theatre. In 1783 he was made
composer to George III. Between 1765 and 1802 he wrote as
many as forty-three operas, after-pieces and pantomimes, oi
which the best were The Maid of the Mill, Rosamond. Inkle end
Yarico, The Battle of Hexham, The Mountaineers. His oratorios
included The Cure of Saul (1767), Abimelech (1768). The Resur-
rection (1773), The Prodigal Son (1777) and Elisha (1795). *■
1 783 he became organist to the Chapel Royal. In 1 786 he began
an edition of Handel's works, which extended to 40 volumes,
but was never completed In 1793 he became organist of West
minster Abbey, where he was buried after his death on the 22nd
of October 1802. Arnold is chiefly remembered now for the
publication of his Cathedral Musk, being a collection in score of
the most valuable and useful compositions for that service by the
several English masters of the last 200 years (1700).
ARNOLD. THOMAS (1705-184*). English clergyman and
headmaster of Rugby school, was born at West Cowcs, in the
Isle of Wight, on the 13th of June 1795. He was the son of
William and Martha Arnold, the former of whom occupied the
ARNOTT— ARNOULD-PLESSY
&39 :
situation of collector of customs at Cowes. His father died
suddenly of spasm in the heart in 1801, and his early education
was confided by his mother to her sister, Miss Delafield. From
her tuition he passed to that of Dr Griffiths, al Warminster,
in Wiltshire, in 1803; and in 1807 he was removed to Winchester,
where he remained until 181 1, having entered as a commoner,
and afterwards become a scholar of the college. In after life
he retained a lively feeling of interest in Winchester school,
and remembered with admiration and profit the regulative tact
oi Dr Goddard, and the preceptorial ability of Dr Gabell, who
were successively head-masters during his stay there.
From Winchester he removed to Oxford in 181 1, where he
became a scholar at Corpus Cbristi College; in 1815 he was
elected fellow of Oriel College; and there he continued to reside
until 1819. This interval was diligently devoted to the pursuit
of classical and historical studies, to preparing himself for
ordination, and to searching investigations, under the stimulus
of continual discussion with a band of talented and congenial
associates, of the profoundest questions in theology, ecclesiastical
polity and social philosophy. The authors he most carefully
studied at this period were Thucydidcs and Aristotle, and for
their writings he formed an attachment which remained to the
close of his life, and exerted a powerful influence upon his mode
of thought and opinions, as well as upon his literary occupations
in subsequent years. Herodotus also came in for a considerable
share of his regard, but more, apparently, for recreation than
for work. Accustomed freely and fearlessly to investigate
whatever came before him, and swayed by a scrupulous dread
of insincerity, he was doomed to long and anxious hesitation
concerning some of the fundamental points of theology before
arriving at a firm conviction of the truth of Christianity. Once
satisfied, however, his faith remained clear and firm; and
thenceforward his life became that of a supremely religious man.
To the name of Christ he was prepared to "surrender his
whole soul," and to render before it "obedience, reverence
without measure, intense humility, most unreserved adoration "
(Sermons, vol. iv. p. 210). He did not often talk about religion;
he had not much of the accredited phraseology of piety even when
he discoursed on spiritual topics; but more than most men he
was directed by religious principle and feeling in all his conduct.
He left Oxford in 1810 and settled at Laleham, near Staines,
where he took pupils for the university. His spare time was
devoted to the prosecution of studies in philology and history,
more particularly to the study of Thucydidcs, and of the new
light which had been cast upon Roman history and upon histori-
cal method in general by the researches of Niebuhr. He was
also occasionally engaged in preaching, and it was whilst here
that he published the first volume of his sermons. Shortly after
he settled at Laleham, he married Mary, youngest daughter of
the Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fledborough, Nottinghamshire.
After nine years spent at Laleham be was induced to offer himself
as a candidate for the vacant head-mastership of Rugby; and
though he entered somewhat late upon the contest, and though
none of the electors was personally known to him, he was elected
in December 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in
April and November of the same year he look his degrees of
B.D. and D.D., and in August entered on his new office.
In one of the testimonials which accompanied his application
to the trustees of Rugby, the writer stated it as his convic-
tion that " if Mr Arnold were elected, he would change the
face of education all through the public schools of England."
This somewhat hazardous pledge was nobly redeemed. Under
Arnold's superintendence the school became not merely a place
where a certain amount of classical or general learning was to
be obtained, but a sphere of intellectual, moral and religious
discipline, where healthy characters were formed, and men were
trained for the duties, and struggles and responsibilities of life
His energies were chiefly devoted to the business of the school;
but he found time also for much literary work, as well as for an
extensive correspondence. Five volumes of sermons, an edition
of Thucydidcs, with English notes and dissertations, a History
of Rome in three vols. 8vo, beside numerous articles in reviews,
journals, newspapers and encyclopaedias, are extant to attest
the untiring activity of his mind, and his patient diligence daring
this period. His interest also in public matters was incessant,
especially ecclesiastical questions, and such as bore upon the
social welfare and moral improvement of the masses.
In 1841, after fourteen years at Rugby, Dr Arnold was
appointed by Lord Melbourne, then prime minister, to the chair
of modern history at Oxford. On the 2nd of December 1841
he delivered his inaugural lecture. Seven other lectures were
delivered during the first three weeks of the Lent term of 1843.
When the midsummer vacation arrived, he was preparing to
set out with bis family to Fox How in Westmoreland, where he
had purchased some property and built a house. But he was
suddenly attacked by angina pectoris, and died on Sunday,
the 1 2th of June 184 2. His remains were interred on the follow-
ing Friday in the chancel of Rugby chapel, immediately under
the communion table.
The great peculiarity and charm of Dr Arnold's nature seemed
to lie in the supremacy of the moral and the spiritual element
over his whole being. He was not a notable scholar, and he had
not much of what is usually called tact in his dealings either
with the juvenile or the adult mind. What gave him his power,
and secured for him so deeply the respect and veneration of his
pupils and acquaintances, was the intensely religious character
of his whole life. He seemed ever to act from a severe and lofty
estimate of duty. To be just, honest and truthful, he ever held
to be the first aim of his being.
His Ltfe was written by Dean Stanley (1845).
ARNOTT, NEIL (1788-1874), Scottish physician, was born at
Arbroath on the 15th of May 1788. He studied medicine first
at Aberdeen, and subsequently in London under Sir Everard
Home (1750-1832), through whom he obtained, while yet in his
nineteenth year, the appointment of full surgeon to an East
Indiaman. After making two voyages to China he settled in
181 1 to practise in London, and speedily acquired high reputation
in his profession. Within a few years he was made physician
to the French and Spanish embassies, and in 1837 he became
a physician extraordinary to the queen. From his earliest youth
Arnott had an intense love of natural philosophy, and to this ■
was added an inventiveness which served him in good stead in
his profession and yielded the "Arnott water-bed," the " Arnott
ventilator," the "Arnott stove," &c. He was the author of
several works bearing on physical science or its applications,
the most important being his Elements of Physics (1827), which
went through six editions in his lifetime. In 1838 he published a
treatise on Warming and Ventilating, and, in 1855, one on the
Smokeless Fireplace. He was a strong advocate of scientific,
as opposed to purely classical, education; and he manifested
his interest in natural philosophy by the gift of £2000 to each
of the four universities of Scotland and to the university of
London, to promote its study in the experimental and practical
form. He died in London on the 2nd of March 1874.
ARNOULD-PLESSY. JEANNE SYLVANIB (1819-1897),
French actress, was born in Metz on the 7th of September
1819, the daughter of a local actor named Plessy. She was
a pupil of Samson at the Conservatoire in 1829, and made her
dibut as Emma at the Comedie Franchise in 1834 in Alexandre
Duval's La Fille d'honncur. She had an immense success, and
Mile Mars, to whom the public already compared her, took
her up. Until 1845 she had prominent parts in all the plays,
new and old, at the Theatre Francais, when suddenly at the
height of her success, she left Paris and went to London, marry-
ing the dramatic author, J. F. Arnould (d. 1854), a man much
older than herself. The Comedie Franchise, after having tried in
vain to bring her back, brought a suit against her, and obtained
heavy damages. In the meantime Madame Arnould- Plessy
accepted an engagement at the French theatre at St Petersburg,
where she played for nine years. In 1855 she returned to Paris
and was re-admitted to the Comedie Francaise, as pensionnaire
with an engagement for eight years. This second part of her
career was even more brilliant than the first. She revived some
of her old rdles, but began to abandon the j tunes premieres for
640
ARNSBERG— AROIDEAE
the " lead," in which she had a success unequalled since the
retirement of Mile Mars. Her later triumphs were especially
associated with new plays by £mile Augier, Le Fits dt Ciboyer
and Matire Guerin. Her last appearance was in Edouard Cadol's
La Grand-maman; she retired in 1876, and died in 1897.
ARNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, romantically situated on an eminence almost
surrounded by the river Ruhr, 44 m. S.E. of MUnster and 58 m.
E.N.E. of Dusseldorf by rail. Pop. (1000) 8400. It is the seat
of the provincial authorities, and has three churches, a court of
appeal, a Roman Catholic gymnasium, which was formerly
the Benedictine abbey of Wcddinghausen, a library, a normal
school and a chamber of commerce. Weaving, brewing and
distilling are carried on, and there are manufactories of white
lead, shot and paper, works for the production of railway plant,
and saw-mills. Near the town are the ruins of the castle of the
counts of Arnsberg, the last of whom, Gottfried, sold his count-
ship, in 1368, to the archbishop of Cologne. The countship was
incorporated by the archbishops in their duchy of Westphalia,
which in 1802 was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt and in 1815 to
Prussia. The town, which had received its first charter in 1237
and later joined the Hanseatic League, became the capital of the
duchy.
ARN3TADT, a town in the principality of Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen, Germany, on the river Gera, xx m. S. of Erfurt,
with which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1900) 14,413. There
are five churches, four Protestant and one Catholic. The
Evangelical Liebfrauenkirche, a Romanesque building (mainly
12th-century), has two octagonal towers and a ioth-ccntirry
porch. The palace contains collections of pictures and porcelain ,
and attached to it is a magnificent tower, all that remains of
the castle built in 1560. The town hall dates from 1561. The
industries of Amstadt include iron and other metal founding,
the manufacture of leather, cloth, tobacco, weighing-machines,
paper, playing-cards, chairs, gloves, shoes, iron safes, and beer,
and market-gardening and trade in grain and wood are carried
on.- There are copper-mines in the neighbourhood, as well as
tepid saline springs, the waters of which are used for bathing,
and are much frequented in summer. Amstadt dates back to
the 8th century. It was bought in 1306 by the counts of
Schwarzburg, who lived here till 17 16.
ARNSWALDB, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
in a marshy district between four lakes, 20 m. S.W. of Slargard
and on the main line between that place and Posen. Besides
the Gothic church there are no noteworthy pubb'c buildings. Its
industries include iron founding, machinery, and manufactures
of cloth, matches and starch. Pop. (xooo) 8665.
ARNTJLF (c. 850-890), Roman emperor, illegitimate son of
Carloman, king of Bavaria and Italy, was made margrave of
Carinthia about 876, and on his father's death in 880 his dignity
and possessions were confirmed by the new king of the east
Franks, Louis III. The failure of legitimate male issue of the
later Carolingians gave Arnulf a more important position than
otherwise he would have occupied; but be did homage to the
emperor Charles the Fat in 882, and spent the next few years in
constant warfare with the Slavs and the Northmen. In 887,
however, Arnulf identified himself with the disgust felt by the
Bavarians and others at the incapacity of Charles the Fat.
Gathering a large army, he marched to Tribur; Charles abdicated
and the Germans recognized Arnulf as their king, a proceeding
which L. von Ranke describes as " the first independent action
of the German secular world." Arnulf s real authority did not
extend far beyond the confines of Bavaria, and he contented
himself with a nominal recognition of his supremacy by the kings
who sprang up in various parts of the Empire. Having made
peace with the Moravians, he gained a great and splendid
victory over the Northmen near Lou vain in October 891, and in
spite of some opposition succeeded in establishing his illegitimate
son, Zwcnlibold, as king of the district afterwards called Lorraine.
Invited by Pope Formosus to deliver him from the power of
Guido III., duke of Spolcto, who had been crowned emperor,
Arnulf went to Italy in 894, but after storming Bergamo and
receiving the homage of some of the nobles at Pa via, he was
compelled by desertions from his army to return. The restoration
of peace with the Moravians and the death of Guido prepared
the way for a more successful expedition in 895 when Rome waj
stormed by his troops; and Arnulf was crowned emperor by
Formosus in February 896. He then set out to establish ha
authority in Spoleto, but on the way was seised with paralysis.
He returned to Bavaria, where he died on the 8th of December
809, and was buried at Regensburg. He left, by his wife Ou, 1
son Louis surnamed the Child. Arnulf possessed the qualities cf
a soldier, and was a loyal supporter of the church.
See " Annates Fuldenses " in the Me num tnta Germanic* historic
Scriptores, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826); E. Dummkr.
Gesckickte des ostfr&nktschen Rcicks (Leipzig, 1 887-1 888) ; M. I. L. de
Gagern, Arnulfi imperatoris vita (Bonn, 1837); E. DummWr, L-i
"\ Wei
rate ......
wip des Kindts (Berlin, 1 890); E. Muhlbacher. Die Jbgcsfes da
Kaiserreichs tinier den Karoltngern (Innsbruck. 1881).
AROIDEAE (Arum family), a large and wide-spread botanial
order of Monocotyledons containing about xooo species in 105
genera. It is generally distributed in temperate and tropical
regions, but especially developed in warm countries. The
common British representative of the order, Arum macvlatum
f*l
Arum macula turn. Cuckoo-pint,
x. Leaves and inflorescence. succession (from below) female
2. Underground root-stock. flowers, male flowers, and sterile
3. Lower part of spathe cut open, flower* forming a ring of ham
4. Spike of fruits. Showing in borne on the spadix.
(cuckoo-pint, lords and ladies, or wake robin), gives a meagre
idea of its development. The plants are generally herbaceous,
often, however, reaching a gigantic . siae, but are sometimes
shrubby, as in Pothos, a genus of shrubby climbing plants,
chiefly Malayan. Monstera is a tropical American genus of
climbing shrubs, with large often much-perforated leaves; the
fruiting spikes of a Mexican species, U. dtliciosa % are eaten.
The roots of the climbing species are of interest in their adaptation
AROLSEN— ARQUEBUS
641
to die mode of life of the plant. For instance, some species of
PkUodendron have a growth like that of ivy, with feeding roots
penetrating the soil and clasping roots which fix the plant to its
support In other species of the genus the seed germinates on a
branch, and the seedling produces clasping roots, and roots which
grow downwards hanging like stout cords, and ultimately reaching
the ground. The leaves, which show great variety in site and
form, are generally broad and net-veined, but in sweet-flag
{Acorns Calamus) are long and narrow with parallel veins. In
Arum the blade is simple, as also in the so-called arum-lily
(Richordui), a South African species common in Britain as a
greenhouse plant, and in Caladium, a tropical South American
genus, and Alocasia (tropical Asia), species of which are favourite
warm-greenhouse plants on account of their variegated leaves.
In other genera the leaves are much divided and sometimes very
large; those of Draconiium (tropical America) may be 15 ft. high,
with a long stem-like stalk and a much-branched spreading
blade. The East Indian genus AmorpkophaUus has a similar
habit. A good series of tropical aroids is to be seen in the aroid
house at Kew. The so-called water cabbage (Pistia Slratiotes)
is a floating plant widely distributed in the tropics, and consisting
of rosettes of broadish leaves several inches across and a tuft of
roots hanging in the water.
The small flowers are densely crowded on thick fleshy spikes,
which are associated with, and often more or less enveloped by,
a large leaf (bract), the so-called spathe, which, as in cuckoo-pint,
where it is green in colour, Richardia, where it is white, creamy
or yellow, Anlhurium, where it is a brilliant scarlet, is often the
most striking feature of the plant The details of the structure
of the flower show a wide variation; the flowers are often
extremely simple, sometimes as in Arum, reduced to a single
stamen or pistil The fruit is a berry— the scarlet berries of the
cuckoo-pint are familiar objects in the hedges in late summer.
The plants generally contain an acrid poisonous juke. The
underground stems (rhizomes or tubers) are rich in starch;
from that of Arum maculatum Portland arrowroot was formerly
extensively prepared by pounding with water and then straining;
the starch was deposited from the strained liquid.
The order is represented in Britain by Arum maculatum, a low
herbaceous plant common in woods and hedgerows in England,
but probably not wild in Scotland. It grows from a whitish
root-stock which sends up in the spring a few long-stalked,
arrow-shaped leaves of a polished green, often marked with dark
blotches. These are followed by the inflorescence, a fleshy spadix
bearing in the lower part numerous closely crowded simple uni-
sexual flowers and continued above into a purplish or yellowish
appendage; the spadix is enveloped by a leafy spathe, con-
stricted in the lower part to form a chamber, in which are the
flowers. The mouth of this chamber is protected by a ring of
hairs pointing downwards, which allow the entrance but prevent
the escape of small flies; after fertilization of the pistils the hairs
wither. The insects visit the plant in large numbers, attracted
by the foetid smell, and act as carriers of the pollen from one
spathe to another. As the fruit ripens the spathe withers, and
the brilliant red berries are exposed.
The sweet-flag Aeorus Calamus (q.v.), which occurs apparently
wild in England in ditches, ponds, &c, is supposed to have been
introduced.
AR0L8EN, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
WakJeck, 15 m. N.W. of Cassel, with which it is connected by
rail via Warburg. Pop. 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating
country at an elevation of 900 ft above the sea. The Evangelical
parish church contains some fine statues by Christian Rauch,
and the palace (built 1710-1720), in addition to a valuable
library of 30,000 vols., a collection of coins and pictures, among
the latter several by Angelica Kauffmann. Arolsen is the
birthplace of the sculptor C. Rauch and of the painters Wilhelm
and Friedrich Kaulbaeh.
AROK A, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Novara,
on the W. bank of Lake Maggiore, 3 m. from its S. extremity,
«3 m. N. of Novara, and 42 m. N.W. of Milan by rail. Pop.
(1901) 4700. It is a railway centre of some importance on the
Simplon line, and is also the southern terminus of the steamers
which ply on Lake Maggiore. The church of S. Maria contains
a fine altar-piece by Gaudenaio Ferrari. On a hill to the north
of the town stands a colossal bronze statue of S. Carlo Borromeo
(born here in 1 538), erected in 1697. The pedestal, of red granite,
is 48 ft high, and the statue 70 ft high; the latter is hollow, and
can be ascended from within.
ARPEGGIO (from Ital. arptggiare, to play upon the harp), in
music, the notes of a chord, played in rapid succession as on a
harp, and not together.
ARPI (Gr. 'A/nropcinra), an ancient city of Apulia, 20 m. W.
of the sea coast, and 5 m. N. of the modern Foggia. The
legend attributes its foundation to Djomedes, and the figure of
a horse, which appears on its coins, shows the importance of
horse-breeding- in early times in the district Its territory
extended to the sea, and Strabo says that from the extent of
the dty walls one could gather that it had once been one of the
greatest cities of Italy. As a protection against the Sanmites
Arpi became an ally of Rome, and remained faithful until after
the battle of Cannae, but Fabius captured it in 913 B.C., and it
never recovered its former importance. It lay on a by-road
from Luceria to Sipontum. No Roman inscriptions have,
indeed, been found here, and remains of antiquity are scanty.
Foggia is its medieval representative. (T. As.)
ARPINO (anc Arpinmm), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 1475 ft above sea-level; 12 m. by rail
N.W. of Roccasecca, a station on the railway from Naples to
Rome. Pop. (1001) 10,607. Arpino occupies the lower part
of the site of the ancient Volscian town of Arptnum, which was
finally taken from the Samnites by the Romans in 305 B.C.
It became a chitas sine suffragio, but received full privileges
(civilas cum suffragio) in 188 B.C. with Formiae and Fundi; it
was governed as a praefeetura until the Social War, and then
became a municipium. The andent polygonal walls, which are
still. finely preserved, are among the best in Italy. They are
built of blocks of pudding-stone, originally well jointed, but now
much weathered. They stand free in places to a height of 1 1 ft,
and are about 7 ft wide at the top. A single line of wall, with
medieval round towers at intervals, runs on the north side from
the present town to Civitavecchia (2055 ft), on the site of the
ancient citadel. Here is the Porta dell' Arco, a gate of the old
wall, with an aperture 15 ft high, formed by the gradual inclina-
tion of the two sides towards one another. Below Arpino,
in the valley of the Liris, between the two arms of its tributary
the Fibrenus, and ) m. north of Isola del Liri, lies the church of
S. Domenico, which marks the site of the villa in which Cicero
was born and frequently resided. Near it is an ancient bridge,
of a road which crossed the Liris to Cereatae (modern Casamari).
The painter Giuseppe Cesari (1560-1640), more often known as
the Cavaliere d* Arpino, was also born here.
See O. E. Schmidt, Arpinum, tine topograpkisck-kistorischt Skim*
(Meissen, 1900). (T. As.)
ARQUA PETRARCA, a village of Venetia, Italy, in the pro-
vince of Padua, 3 m. to the S.W. of Battaglia. Pop. (1001)
1573. It is chiefly famous as the place where Petrarch lived
his last few years and died in 1374. His house still exists, and
his tomb, a sarcophagus supported by four short columns of red
marble, stands in front of the church. Near Arqui, on the
banks of the small Lago della Costa, is the site of a prehistoric lake
village, excavations in which have produced interesting results.
See A. Moschetti and F. Cordenone in BotUttine id Mute* Cwico di
Padova, iv. (1901), 102 seq.
ARQUBBUS (also called harquebus, hackbut, &c), a firearm
of the 1 6th century, the immediate predecessor of the musket
The word itself is certainly to be derived from the German
HakenbUhse (mod. HakenbUckst, cf . Eng. hackbut and Mackbush),
"hook gun." The "hook" is often supposed to refer to
the bent shape of the butt, which differentiated it from the
straight-stocked hand gun, but it has also been suggested
that the original arquebus had a metal hook near the muzzle,
which was used to grip the wall (or other fixed object) so as to
steady the aim and take up the force of recoil, that from this
642
ARQUES-LA-BATAILLE— ARRAN
the name HakenbUkse spread till it became the generic name
for small arms, and thai the original form of the weapon then took
the name of arquebus & croc. The French form arquebus* and
Italian arcobugio, arckibugio, often and wrongly supposed to
indicate the hackbut's affinity with the crossbow (" hollow bow "
or " mouthed bow "), are popular corruptions, the Italian being
apparently the earlier of the two and supplanting the first and
purest French form kaquebuL Previous to the French wars in
Italy, hand-gun men and even arbalisters seem to have been
called arquebusiers, but in the course of these wars the arquebus
or hackbut came into prominence as a distinct type of weapon.
The Spanish arquebusiers, who used it with the greatest effect
in the Italian wars, notably at Bicocca (1522) and Pa via (1525),
are the originators of modern infantry fire action. Filippo
Stroxxi made many improvements in the arquebus about 1530,
and his weapons were effective up to four and five hundred paces.
He also standardised the calibres of the arquebuses of the French
army, and from this characteristic feature of the improved
weapon arose the English term " ca liver." In the latter part
of the 16th century (c. 1570) the arquebus began to be displaced
by the musket.
ARQUE8-LA-BATAILLE, a village of France, in the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, 4 m. S.E. of Dieppe by the Western
railway. Pop. (1006) 1250. Arques is situated near the con-
fluence of the rivers Varenne and Bethunc; the forest of Arques
stretches to the north-east. The interest of the place centres in
the castle dominating the town, which was built in the nth
century by William of Arques; his nephew, William the Con-
queror, regarding it as a menace to his own power, besieged and
occupied it. After frequently changing hands, it came into the
possession of the English, who were expelled in 1449 after an
occupation of thirty years. In x 589 its cannon decided the battle
of Arques in favour of Henry IV. Since 1869 the castle has
been state property. The first line of fortification was the work
of Francis I.; the second line and the donjon date back to the
nth century. The church of Arques, a building of the 16th
century, preserves a fine stone rood screen, statuary, stained
glass and other relics of the Renaissance period.
ARRACK, Rack or Rak, a generic name applied to a variety
of spirituous liquors distilled in the Far East .According to
some authorities the word is derived from the Arabic arak
(perspiration), but according to others (see Morewood's History
of Inebriating Liquors, 1834, p. 140) it is derived from the areca-
nut\ a material from which a variety of arrack was long manu-
factured, and is of Indian origin. The liquor to which this or
a similar name is applied is (or was, since the introduction of
European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually
causing the native spirit industries on the old lines to decay)
manufactured in India, Ceylon, Siam, Java, Batavia, China.
Corea, &c, and its manufacture still constitutes a considerable
industry. The term arrack aa designating a distilled liquor
does not, however, appear to have been confined to the Far East,
as, in Timkowski's Travels, it is stated that a spirit distilled from
koumiss (q.v.) by the Tatars, Mongols and presumably the
Caucasian races generally, is called arrack, araka or ariki. In
Ceylon arrack is distilled chiefly from palm toddy, which is the
fermented juice drawn from the unexpanded flower-spathes of
various palms, such as the Palmyra palm {Borassusfiabelliformis)
and the cocoa palm (Coco* nucifera). At the beginning of the
19th century the arrack industry of Ceylon was of considerable
dimensions, whole woods being set apart for no other purpose
than that of procuring toddy, and the distillation of the spirit
took place at every village round the coast The land rents
in 1831 included a sum of £35,573 on the cocoa-nut trees, and
the duties on the manufacture and retail of the spirit amounted
to over £30,000. On the Indian continent arrack is made from
palm toddy, rice and the refuse of the sugar refineries, but mainly
from the flowers of the muohwa or mahua tree (Bassia lotifolia).
The mahua flowers are very rich in sugar, and may, according to
H. H. Mann, contain as much as 58 % of fermentable sugar,
calculated on the total solids. Even at the present day the
process of manufacture is very primitive, the fermentation as a
rule being carried on in so concentrated a liquid that <
fermentation rarely takes place. According to Mann, the total
sugar in the liquor ready for fermentation may reach 20 %.
The ferment employed (it is so impure that it can scarcely be
called yeast) is obtained from a previous fermentation, and,
as the latter is never vigorous, it is not surprising that the re-
sulting spirit contains, compared with the more scientifically
prepared European spirits, a very high proportion of by-products
(acid, fusel oil, &c). The injurious nature of these native spirits
has long been known and has been frequently set down to the
admixture of drugs, such aa hemp (ganfa), but a recent investiga-
tion of this question appears to show that this is not generally
the case. The chemical constitution of these liquors alone
affords sufficient proof of their inferior and probably injurious
character.
See H. H. Mann, The AnoIyU (1904).
ARRAH, a town of British India, headquarters of Shahahad
district, in the Patna division of Bengal, situated on a navigable
canal connecting the river Sone with the Ganges. It is a station
on the East Indian railway, 368 m. from Calcutta. In 100 1 the
population was 40,170. Arran is famous for an incident in the
Mutiny, when a dosen Englishmen, with 50 Sikhs, defended an
ordinary house against 2000 Sepoys and a multitude of armed
insurgents, perhaps four times that number. A British regiment .
despatched to their assistance from Dinapur, was disastrously
repulsed; but they were ultimately relieved, after eight days'
continuous fighting, by a small force under Major (afterwards
Sir Vincent) Eyre.
ARRAIGNMENT (from Lat. ad, to, and ralionare, to reason,
call to account), a law term, properly denoting the calling of a
person to answer in form of law upon an indictment After a
true bill has been found against a prisoner by the grand jury,
he is called by name to the bar, the indictment is read over to
him, and he is asked whether be be guilty or not of the offence
charged. This is the arraignment Formerly, it was usual to
require the prisoner to hold up his hand, in order to identify
him the more completely, but this practice is now obsolete, as
well as that of asking him how he will be tried. His plea in
answer to the charge is then entered, or a plea of not guilty is
entered for him if he stands mute of malice and refuses to plead.
If a person is mute by the visitation of God (i.e. deaf and dumb),
it will be no bar to an arraignment if intelligence can be conveyed
to him by signs or symbols. If he pleads guilty, sentence may be
passed forthwith; if he pleads not guilty, he is then given in
charge to a jury of twelve men to inquire into the truth of the
indictment He may also plead in abatement, or to the jurisdic-
tion, or demur on a point of law. Several defendants, except
those entitled to the privilege of peerage, charged on the same
indictment, are arraigned together.
In Scots law the term for arraignment is calling the iieL
The Clerk oj Arraigns is a subordinate officer attached to
assise courts and to the Old Bailey. He is appointed by the dcrk
of assise (see Assize) and acts as his deputy. He assists at the
arraignment of prisoners, and puts the formal questions to the
jury when delivering their verdict
ARRAN, EARLS OF. The extinct Scottish title of the earls
of Arran (not to be confused with the modern Irish carls of
Arran — from the Arran or Aran Islands, Gal way — a title created
in 1 762) was borne by some famous characters in Scottish history.
Except the first earl, Thomas Boyd (see Akxav), and James
Stewart, all the holders of this title were members of the Hamilton
family.
James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran of the new creation
(c. 1475-1529), son of James, 1st Lord Hamilton, and of Mary
Stewart, daughter of James II. of Scotland, was born about
1475, and succeeded in 1479 to his father's titles and estates.
In 1489 he was made sheriff of Lanark, was appointed a privy
councillor to James IV., and in 1503 negotiated in England the
marriage between the king and Margaret Tudor. Hamilton ex-
cellcd in the knightly exercises of the day, and the same year on
the nth of August, after distinguishing himself in a famous
tournament, be was created earl and justiciary of Arran. In
ARRAN
643
1504 as lieutenant-general of the realm he was employed in
reducing the Hebrides, and about the same time in an expedition
with 10,000 men in aid of John, king of Denmark. In 1507 he
was sent ambassador to France, and on his return through Eng-
land was seized and imprisoned by Henry VII. After the acces-
sion of Henry VIII., Arran, in 1500, signed the treaty of peace
between the two countries, and later, when hostilities began,
was given command of a great fleet equipped for the aid of
France in 15x3. The expedition proved a failure, Arran wasting
time by a useless attack on Carrickfergus, lingering for months
on the Scottish coast, and returning with a mere remnant of his
fleet, the larger ships having probably been purchased by the
French government. During his absence the battle of Flodden
had been lost, and Arran found his rival Angus, who enjoyed
Henry's support, married to the queen dowager and in control of
the government Arran naturally turned to the French party
and supported the regency of the duke of Albany. Later, how-
ever, becoming impatient of the latter's monopoly of power, he
entered into various plots against him, and on Albany's departure
in 15x7 he was chosen president of the council of regency and
provost of Edinburgh. The same year he led an expedition to
the border to punish the murderers of the French knight La
Bastie. In September, however, after a temporary absence with
the young king, the gates of Edinburgh were shut against him
by the Douglases, and on the 30th of April 1520 the fierce fight
of " Cleanse the Causeway " took place in the streets between the
two factions, in which the Hamilton* were worsted. The quarrel,
however, between Angus and his wife, the queen-mother, with
whom Arran now allied himself, gave the latter another oppor-
tunity of regaining power, which he held from 1521, after
Albany's return to France, till 1534, when he was forced to
include Angus in the government. In 1 526, on the refusal of the
latter to give up his control of the king on the expiry of his term
of office, Arran took up arms, but retreated before Angus's
forces, and having made terms with him, supported him in his
dose custody of the king, in September defeating the earl of
Lennox, who was marching to Edinburgh to liberate James.
On the proscription of Angus and the Douglases, Arran joined
the king at Stirling. He died in 1520. His eldest son James
succeeded him.
James Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran and duke of Chatel-
herault (c. 1515-1575), accompanied James V. in 1536 to France,
and on the latter's death in 1542 was, in consequence of his
position as next successor to the throne after the infant Mary,
proclaimed protector of the realm and heir-presumptive of the
crown, in 1 543. He was a zealous supporter of the reformation,
authorized the translation and reading of the Scriptures in the
vulgar tongue, and at first supported the English policy in
opposition to Cardinal Beaton, whom he arrested on the 27th
of January 1543, arranging the treaty with England and the~
marriage of Mary with Prince Edward in July, and being offered
by Henry the hand of the princess Elizabeth for his son. But on
the 3rd of September he suddenly joined the French party, met
Beaton at Stirling, and abjured his religion for Roman Catholi-
cism. On the 13th of January 1544, with Angus, Lennox and
others, he signed a bond repudiating the English alliance. In
1544 an attempt was made to transfer the regency from him to
Mary of Lorraine, but Arran fortified Edinburgh and her forces
retired; in March 1545 a truce was arranged by which each had
a share in the government. Meanwhile, immediately on the
repudiation of the treaty, war had broken out with England,
and Arran was unable either to maintain order within the realm
or defend it from outside aggression, the Scots being defeated
at Pinkie on the xoth of September 1547. He reluctantly agreed
in Jury 1 548 to the marriage of the dauphin with Mary, whom he
had designed for his son, to the appeal for French aid, and to the
removal of Mary for security to France, and on the 5th of
February 1540 was created duke of Chatelherault in Poitou, his
eldest son James being henceforth commonly styled earl of
Arran. In June 1 548 he had also been made a knight of the order
of St Michael in France. On the 1 2th of April 1 554 he abdicated
in favour of the queen-mother, whose government he supported
till after the capture of Edinburgh in October 1550 by the lords
of the congregation, when he declared himself on their side and
took the Covenant The same month he was one of the council
of the Protestant lords, joined them in suspending Mary of
Lorraine from the regency, and was made provisionally one of the
governors of the kingdom. In order to discredit him with the
English government a letter was forged by his enemies, in which
Arran declared his allegiance to Francis II., but the plot was
exposed. On the 27th of February 1560 he agreed to the treaty
of Berwick with Elizabeth, which placed Scotland under her pro-
tection. The death the same year of Francis II. renewed his
hopes of a union between his son and Mary, but disappointment
drove him into an attitude of hostility to the court. In 1562 he
was accused by his son, probably already insane, of plots against
Mary's person, and he was obliged to give up Dumbarton Castle.
Lennox claimed precedence over Arran in the succession to the
throne, on the plea of the latter's supposed illegitimacy, and his
restoration to favour in 1564, together with the project of Mary's
marriage with Darnley, still further embittered Arran; he refused
to appear at court, was declared a traitor, and fled to England,
where on his consent to go into exile for five years he received a
pardon from Mary. In 1566 he went to France, where be made
vain attempts to regain his confiscated duchy. After the murder
of Darnley in 1567 he was nominated by Mary on her abdication
one of the regents, and he returned to Scotland in 1569 as a
strong supporter of her cause. In March in an assembly of
nobles called by Murray, he acknowledged James as king, but
on the 5th of April he was arrested for not fulfilling the compact,
and continued in confinement till April 1570. After Murray's
assassination in January 1570, the regency in July was given to
Lennox, and in June 1571 Arran assembled a parliament, when
it was declared that Mary's abdication was obtained by fear, and
the king's coronation was annulled. On the 28th of August he
was declared a traitor and " forfeited," but he continued to
support Mary's hopeless cause and to appeal for help to France
and Spain, in spite of the pillage of his houses and estates, till
February 1573, when he acknowledged James's authority and
laid down his arms. He died on the 22nd of January x 575. He
was by general consent a weak, fickle man, whose birth alone
called him to high office. He married Margaret, daughter of
James Douglas, 3rd earl of Morton, and had, besides several
daughters, four sons: James, who succeeded him as 3rd earl of
Arran, John, xst marquess of Hamilton, David, and Claud, Lord
Paisley, ancestor of the dukes of Abercorn.
James Hamilton, 3rd earl (c. 1 537-1600), was styled earl of
Arran after the creation of his father as duke of Chatelherault in
1540; the latter title did not descend to him, having been
resumed by the French crown. His father's ambition destined
him for the hand of Mary queen of Scots, and his union with the
princess Elizabeth was proposed by Henry VIII. as the price of
his father's adherence to the English interest. He was early
involved in the political troubles in which Scotland was then
immersed. In 1 546 he was seized as a hostage at St Andrews by
the murderers of Cardinal Beaton and released in 1547. In 1550
he went to France, was given the command of the Scots guards,
and in 1557 distinguished himself in the defence of St Quentin.
He became a strong adherent of the reformed doctrine. His
arrest was ordered by Henry II. in 1 559, Mary (probably in conse-
quence of his projected union with Elisabeth which would have
raised the Hamilton* higher than the Stuarts) declaring her wish
that he should be " used as an arrant traitor." He, however,
escaped to Geneva and then to England, and had an interview
with Elizabeth in August. He returned to Scotland in September,
where he supported his father's adherence to the lords of the
Congregation against Mary of Lorraine, upheld the alliance with
Elizabeth, and became one of the leaders of the Protestant party
in the subsequent fighting, in particular organizing, together
with Lord James Stuart (afterwards earl of Murray), in 1560, a
stubborn resistance to the French at Dysart, and saving Fife.
In November 1559 he had declined Both well's challenge to single
combat. Subsequently he signed the treaty of Berwick, became
one of the lords of the Congregation, and was appointed a visitor
644
ARRAN
for the destruction of the religious houses. The same year
proposals were again made for his marriage with Elizabeth,
which were rejected by the latter in 1561; and subsequently
after the death of Francis II. (in December 1560), he became,
with the strong support of the Protestants and Hamiltons, a
suitor for Mary, also without success. He was chosen a member
of her council on her arrival in Scotland in 1561, but took up
a hostile attitude to the court in consequence of the practice of
the Roman Catholic religion. He now showed marked signs of
insanity, and was confined in Edinburgh Castle, where he re-
mained till May 1566. He had then lost the power of speech,
and from 1568 he lived in retirement with his mother at Craig-
nethan Castle, while his estates were administered by his brother
John, afterwards 1st marquess of Hamilton. In x 579, at the time
of the fresh prosecution of the Hamiltons, when the helpless
Arran was also included in the attainder of his brothers and his
titles forfeited, the castle was besieged on the pretence of deliver-
ing him from unlawful confinement, and Arran and his mother
were brought to Linlithgow, while the charge of his estates was
taken over by the government. In 1580 James Stewart (see
below) was appointed his guardian, and in 1581 acquired the
earldom; but his title and estates were restored after Stewart's
disgrace in 1586, when the forfeiture was repealed. Arran died
unmarried in March 1609, the title devolving on his nephew
James, and marquess of Hamilton.
James Stewart (d. 1595), the rival earl of Arran above
referred to, was the son of Andrew Stewart, and Lord Ochiltree.
He served in his youth with the Dutch forces in Holland against
the Spanish, and returned to Scotland in 1579. He immediately
became a favourite of the young king, and in 1580 was made
gentleman of the bedchamber and tutor of his cousin, the 3rd
earl of Arran. The same year he was the principal accuser of the
earl of Morton, and in 1581 was rewarded for having accom-
plished the latter's destruction by being appointed a member of
the privy council, and by the grant the same year, to the prejudice
of his ward, of the earldom of Arran and the Hamilton estates, on
the pretence that the children of his grandmother's father, the
1st earl of Arran, by his third wife, from whom sprang the succeed-
ing earls of Arran, were illegitimate. He claimed the position of
second person in the kingdom as nearest to the king by descent
The same year he married Elizabeth, daughter of John Stewart,
earl of Atholl, and wife of the earl of March, after both had been
compelled to undergo the discipline of the kirk on account of
previous illicit intercourse. He became the rival of Lennox for
the chief power in the kingdom, but both were deprived of office
by the raid of Ruthven on the a and of August 158a, and Arran
was imprisoned till September under the charge of the earl of
Cowrie. In 1583, however, he assembled a force of 12,000 men
against the new government; the Protestant lords escaped over
the border, and Arran, returning to power, was made governor
of Stirling Castle and in 1584 lord chancellor. The same year
Gowrie was captured through Arran's treachery and executed
after the failure of the plot of the Protestant lords against
the latter's government. He now obtained the governorship
of Edinburgh Castle and was made provost of the city and
lieutenant-general of the king's forces. Arran induced the
English government to refrain from aiding the banished lords,
and further secured his power by the forfeitures of his opponents.
His tyranny and insolence, however, stirred up a multitude of
enemies and caused his rapid fall from power. His agent in
England, Patrick, Master of Gray, was secretly conspiring
against him at Elizabeth's court. On account of the murder of
Lord Russell on the border in July 1585, of which he was accused
by Elizabeth, he was imprisoned at the castle of St Andrews, and
subsequently the banished lords with Elizabeth's support entered
Scotland, seized the government and proclaimed Arran a traitor.
He fled in November, and from this time his movements are
furtive and uncertain. In 1586 he was ordered to leave the
country, but it is doubtful whether he ever quitted Scotland.
He contrived secretly to maintain friendly communications with
James, and in 159a returned to Edinburgh, and endeavoured
unsuccessfully to get reinstated in the court and kirk. Sub-
sequently he is reported as making a voyage to Spain, probably
in connexion with James's intrigues with that country. His
unscrupulous and adventurous career was finally terminated
towards the close of 1 595 by his assassination near Symontowm in
Lanarkshire at the hands of Sir James Douglas (nephew of his
victim the earl of Morton), who carried his head in triumph on
the point of a spear through the country, wjiile his body was left
a prey to the dogs and swine. He had three sons, the eldest of
whom became Lord Ochiltree.
ARRAN, the largest island of the county of Bute, Scotland, at
the mouth of the Firth of Clyde. Its greatest length, from the
Cock of Arran to Bennan Head, is about 20 m., and the greatest
breadth— from Drumadoon Point to King's Cross Point — is urn.
Its area is 105,814 acres or 165 sq. m. In 1891 its population was
4824, in 1001,4819 (or 29 persons to the sq. m.). In 1001 there
were 1900 persons who spoke English and Gaelic and nine Gaelic
only. There is daily winter communication with Brodick and
Lamlash by steamer from Ardrossan, and in summer by many
steamers which call not only at these piers, but at Corrie, Whiting
Bay and Loch Ranza.
The chief mountains are in the north. The highest is GoatftD
(2866 ft., the name said to be a corruption of the Gaelic Geadk
Bkein, " mountain of the winds "). Others are Caistel Abhail
(2735 ft., " peaks of the castles "), Bcinn Tarsuinn (2706 ft ).
Cir Mhor (2618 ft.) and Bcinn Nuis (2597 ft.)- In the south
Tighvein (1497 ft.) and Cnoc Dubh (1385 ft.) are the most
important. Owing to the mountainous character of the island,
glens are numerous. Glen Rosa and Glen Sannox are remarkable
for their wild beauty, and among others arc Iorsa, Catacol.
Chalmadale, Cloy, Shant, Shurig, Tuic, Clachan, Monamore.
Ashdale (with two cascades) and Scorrodale. Excepting Loch
Tanna, the inland lakes are small. Loch Ranza, an arm of the
sea, is one of the most beautiful in Scotland. The streams, or
" waters " as they are called, are nearly all hill burns, affording
good fishing.
The oldest rocks, consisting of slate, mica-schists and grits,
which have been correlated with the metamorphic scries of the
eastern Highlands, form an incomplete ring round the granite in
the north of the island and occupy the whole of the west coast
from Loch Ranza south to Dougrie. On the east side in North
Glen Sannox Burn, they are associated with cherts, grits and dark
schists with pillowy lavas, tuffs and agglomerates which, on
lithological grounds, have been regarded as probably of the same
age as the Arenig cherts and volcanic rocks in the south of
Scotland. The Lower Old Red Sandstone strata are separated
from the foregoing series by a fault and forma curving belt
extending from Corioch on the cast coast south by Brodick
Castle to Dougrie on the west shore. Consisting of red sandstones,
mudstones and conglomerates, they are inclined at high angles
usually away from the granite massif and the encircling meta-
morphic rocks. They are associated with a thin band of lava
visible on the west side of the island near Auchencar and traceable
inland to Garbh Thorr. The Upper Old Red Sandstone, com-
posed of red sandstone and conglomerates, is only sparingly
developed. The strata occur on the east shore between the
Fallen Rocks and Corrie, and they appear along a narrow strip
to the east and south of the lower division of the system, between
Sannox Bay and Dougrie. On the north side of North Glen
Sannox they rest unconformably on the Lower Old Red rocks.
Contemporaneous lavas, highly decomposed, are intercalated
with this division on the north side of North Glen Sannox where
the band is highly faulted. The Carboniferous rocks of Arran
include representatives of the Calciferous Sandstone, the three
subdivisions of the Carboniferous Limestone series, and to a
small extent the Coal Measures, and are confined to the north
part of the island. They appear on the east coast between the
Fallen Rocks and the Cock of Arran, where they form a strip
about a quarter of a mile broad, bounded on the west by a fault.
Here there is an ascending sequence from the Calciferous Sand-
stone, through the Carboniferous Limestone with thin coals
formerly worked, to the Coal Measures, the strata being inclined
at high angles to the north. On the south side of a weu-maraed
ARRANT— ARRAS
645
antkUne ia the Upper Old Red Sandstone at North Saanos, the
Carboniferous strata reappear on the coast with a south dip
showing a similar ascending sequence for about half a mile. The
lower limestones are well seen at Corrie, but the thin coals are not
there represented. From Corrie they can be traced southwards
and inland to near the head of Ben Lister Glen. The small
development of Upper Carboniferous strata, visible on the shore
south of Corrie and in Ben Lister Glen, consists of sandstones,
red and mottled clays and purple shales, which yield plant-
remains of Upper Carboniferous fades. These may represent
partly the Millstone Grit and partly the Coal Measures. Con-
temporaneous volcanic rocks, belonging to three stages of the
Carboniferous formation, occur in Arran. The lowest group is
on the horizon of the Calciferous Sandstone series, being visible
at Corrie where it underlies the Corrie limestone, and ia traceable
southwards beyond Brodick. The second is represented by a
thin lava, associated with the Upper Limestone group of the
Carboniferous Limestone series, and the highest is found in Ben
Lister Glen intercalated with the Upper Carboniferous strata,
and may be the equivalent of the volcanic series which, in
Ayrshire, occupies the position of the Millstone Grit. The
Triassic rocks are arranged in two groups, a lower, composed of
conglomerates and sandstones, and an upper one consisting of
red and mottled shales and marls with thin sandstones and
nodular limestones. In the extreme north at the Cock of Arran,
there is a small development of these beds; they also occupy the
whole of the east coast south of Corrie, and they spread over the
south part of the island south of a line between Brodick Bay and
Machrie Bay on the west At Corrie and the Cock of Arran they
rest on Upper Carboniferous strata; in Ben Lister Glen, on the
lower limestone group of the Carboniferous Limestone series;
and on the west coast they repose on the Old Red Sandstone.
There is, therefore, a clear discordance between the Trias and all
older strata in Arran. The former extension of Rhaetic, Liassic
and Cretaceous formations in the island is indicated by the
presence of fragments of these strata in a large volcanic vent on
the plateau, on the south side of the road leading from Brodick
to Shiskine. The fossils from the Rhaetic beds belong to the
Avicula contorta zone, those from the Lias to the Ammonites
angulatus zone, while the blocks of limestone with chert contain
Inoeeramvs, Cretaceous foraminifera and other organisms. The
materials yielding these fossils are embedded in a course volcanic
agglomerate which gives rise to crags and is pierced by acid and
basic igneous rocks. One of the striking features in the geology
of Arran is the remarkable series of intrusive igneous rocks of
Tertiary age which occupy nearly one-half of the area and form
the wildest and grandest scenery in the island. Of these the
most important is the great oval mass of granite in the North,
composed of two varieties; one, coarse-grained and older, forms
the outside rim, while the fine-grained and newer type occurs in
the interior. Another granite area appears on the south side of
the road between Brodick and Shiskine, where it is associated with
granophyre and quartz-diorite and traverses the volcanic vent of
post-Cretaceous or Tertiary age already described. In the south
of the island there are sills and dykes of fclsite, quartz-porphyry,
rhyolite, trachyte and pitchstone. The fclsite sheets are well
r epre sen ted in Holy Island. It is worthy of note that the dykes
and sheets of felsite are seldom pierced by the basalt dykes and
are probably about the most recent of the intrusive rocks. The
best example of the basic sills forms the Clauchland Hills and
runs out to sea at Clauchland Point. Finally the basic dykes of
dolerite, basalt and augite-andesite are abundant and traverse
the various sedimentary formations and the granite.
The chief crops are oats and potatoes. Cattle and sheep are
raised in considerable numbers. The game, which is abundant,
consisting of blackcock and grouse, is strictly preserved. A few
red deer still occur in the wilder hilly district. The fisheries are
of some value, Loch Ranza being an important station.
Standing stones, cairns and other memorials of a remote
antiquity occur near Tormore, on Machrie Bay, Lamlash, and
other places. The Norse raiders found a home in Arran for a
long period until the defeat of Haakon V. at Largs (1263) com*
celled them to retire. The chief name in the island's history is
that of Robert Bruce, who found shelter in the King's Caves on
the western coast. One was reputed to be his kitchen, another
his cellar, a third his stable, while the hill above was styled the
King's HilL From a point still known as King's Cross he crossed
over to Carrick, in answer to the signal which warned him that
the moment for the supreme effort for his country was come.
In Glen Cloy the ruins of a fort bear the name of Brace's Castle,
in which his men lay concealed, and on the southern arm of Loch
Ranza stands a picturesque ruined castle which is said to have
been his hunting-seat. Kildonan Castle, near the south-eastern-
most point, is a fine ruin of the 14th century, once a royal strong-
hold. The island gave the title of earl to Thomas Boyd, who
married the elder sister of James III., a step so unpopular with
his peers that he had to fly the country, and the title soon after-
wards passed to the Hamfltons. Brodick Castle, the ancestral
seat of the dukes of Hamilton, Is a splendid mansion on the
northern shore of Brodick Bay. *■
Brodick is the chief village in Arran, but most of the dwelling-
houses have been built at Invercloy, close to the pier. Three
m. south (by road) is Lamlash, on a fine bay so completely
sheltered by Holy Island as to form an excellent harbour for
ships of all sizes. Four m. to the north lies the village of
Corrie which takes its name from a rugged hollow in the hill of
Am Binnein (2x7a ft.)which overshadows it. Daniel Macmillan
(1813-1857), the founder of the publishing firm of Macmillan &
Co., was a native of Corrie.
About a mile and a half east of Lamlash village lies Holy
Island, which forms a natural breakwater to the bay. It is 1 f m.
long, nearly f m. wide, and its finely-marked basaltic cone rises
to a height of 1030 ft. The island takes its name from the fact
that St Molios, a disciple of St Columba, founded a church near
the north-western point In the saint's cave on the shore may
be seen the rocky shelf on which he made his bed, but his re-
mains were interred in the hamlet of Clachan, some 2 m. from
Blackwaterfoot Off the south-eastern coast, J m. from Port
Dcarg, lies the pear-shaped isle of Pladda, which serves as the
telegraph station from which the arrival of vessels in the Clyde
is notified to Glasgow and Greenock.
ARRANT (a variant of " errant," from Lat. errare, to wander),
a word at first used in its original meaning of wandering, as in
" knight-errant," thus an arrant or itinerant preacher, an arrant
thief, one outlawed and wandering at large; the meaning easily
passed to that of self-declared, notorious, and by the middle of
the 16th century was confined, as an intensive adjective, to
words of opprobrium and abuse, an arrant coward meaning thus
a self -declared, downright coward.
ARRAS, a city of northern France, chief town of the
department of Pas-dc-Calais, 38 m. N.N.E. of Amiens on the
Northern railway between that city and Lille. Pop (1006)
20,738. Arras is situated in a fertile plain on the right and
southern bank of the Scarpe, at its junction with the Crinchon
which skirts the town on the south and east. Of the fortifica-
tions erected by Vauban in the 17th century, only a gateway
and the partially dismantled citadel, nicknamed la Belle Inutile,
are left. The most interesting quarter lies in the cast of the town,
where the lofty houses which border the spacious squares known
as the Grande and the Petite Place are in the Flemish style.
They are built with their upper storeys projecting over the foot-
way and supported on columns so as to form arcades; beneath
these are deep cellars extending under the squares themselves.
The celebrated hotel de vflle of the 16th century overlooks the
Petite Place; its belfry, which contains a fine peal of bells,
rises to a height of 240 ft. The decoration is in the richest
Gothic style, and is especially admirable in the case of the
windows. Of the numerous ecclesiastical buildings the cathedral,
a church of the 18th century possessing some good pictures, is
the most important. It occupies the site of the church of the
abbey of St Vaast, the buildings of which adjoin it and contain
the bishop's palace, the ecclesiastical seminary, a museum of
antiquities, paintings and sculptures, and a rich library.
Arras is the seat of a prefect and of a bishop. It has tribunals
6 4 6
ARRAY— ARREST
of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a
branch of the Bank of France, a communal college, training
colleges, and a school of military engineering. Its industrial
establishments include oil-works, dye-works and breweries, and
manufactories of hosiery, railings and other iron-work, and of
oil-cake. For the tapestry manufacture formerly flourishing
at Arras see Tapestry. It has a very important market for
cereals and oleaginous grains. The trade of the town is facilitated
by the canalization of the Scarpe, the basin of which forms
the port.
Before the opening of the Christian era Arras was known as
Nemetacum, or Ntmctocenna, and was the chief town of the
Atrebates, from which the word Arras is derived. Passing under
the rule of the Romans, it became a place of some importance,
and traces of the Roman occupation have been found. In 407
it was destroyed by the Vandals, and having been partially
rebuilt, came into the hands of the Franks. Christianity was
introduced by St Vedast (Vaast), who founded a bishopric at
Arras about 50a This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but
brought back to its original scat about 1 100. As the chief town
of the province of Artois, Arras passed to Baldwin I., count of
Flanders, in 863, and about 880 was ravaged by the Normans.
During this troubled period it retained some vestiges of iu
former trade, and the woollen manufacture was established here
at an early date. Early in the 12th century a commune was
established here, but the earliest known charter only dates from
about 1 180; owing to the importance of Arras, this soon became
a model for many neighbouring communes. At this time the
dty appears to have been divided into two parts, one dependent
upon the bishop, and the other upon the count. When Philip
Augustus, king of France, married Isabella, niece of Philip,
count of Flanders, Arras came under the rule of the French king,
who confirmed its privileges in x 104. As part of Artois it came
in 1237 to Robert, son of Louis VIII., king of France, and in
1384 to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who promised to
respect iu privileges. Anxious to recover the dty for France,
Louis XI. placed a garrison therein after the death of Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, in 2477. Thu m driven out by
the inhabitants, and Louis then stormed Arras, razed the walls,
deported the dtizens, whose places were taken by Frenchmen,
and changed the name to Franchise. The successor of Louis,
Charles VIII., restored the dty to its former name and position,
and as part of the inheritance of Mary, daughter and heiress of
Charles the Bold, it was contended for by the French king, and
his rival, the German king Maximilian I. The peace of Senlis
in 1403 gave Arras to Maximilian, and in spite of attacks by the
French, it remained under the rule of the Habsburgs until 1640.
Taken in this year by the French, this capture was ratified by
the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, and henceforward it remained
part of France. It suffered severely during the French Revo-
lution, especially from Joseph Lebon, who, like the brothers
Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre, was a native of the town.
Owing to its position and importance, Arras has been the scene
of various treaties. In 14 14 the peace between the Armagnacs
and the Burgundians was made here, and in 1435 * congress
met here to make peace between the English and their Bur-
gundian allies on the one side, and the French on the other, and
after the English representatives had withdrawn, a treaty was
signed on the 30th of September between France and Burgundy.
In 1482 Louis XI. made a treaty here with the estates and
towns of Flanders about the inheritance of Mary of Burgundy,
wife of the German king Maximilian L
See E. Lecesne. Histoire d'Arras jusqu'en 1789 (Arras, 1 880);
Arras sous la Revolution (Arras. 1882- 1883).
ARRAY (from the 0. Fr. areyer, Med. LaL arrcdare, to get
ready), an orderly arrangement, particularly the drawing up of
an army in position of battle. From the 13th century onwards
In England " Commissions of Array " issued from the king for
the levy of military forces (see Muitxa). In English law the
term is used for the setting in order, name by name, of the panel
of a Jury, which may be challenged as a whole, " to the array,"
or individually, " to the polls."
ARREH0T0K008, ARROI0T0RY (from Gr. I***, male,
and roxot, from tUtup, to beget), biological terms proposed by
Leuckart and Eduard von Siebold to denote those partheoogenetic
females which produce male young, while " thelytokous " and
" thelytoky " would denote their producing female young.
ARREST (Fr. arresUr, art far, to stop or stay), the restraint
of a man's person, for the purpose of compelling him to be
obedient to the law. It is denned to be the execution of the
command of some court of record or officer of justice.
Arrests in England are either in rivil or in criminal cases.
I. In Civil Cases. — The arrest must be by virtue of a p ie vcpt
or order out of some court, and must be effected by corporal
seizing or touching the defendant's body, or as directed by the
writ, capias et aUackias, take and catch hold of. And if the
defendant make his escape it is a rtscams, or rescue, and attach-
ment may be had against him, and the bailifl may then justify
the breaking open of the house in which he is, to carry him away.
Arrests an mesne process (see Pkocxss), before judgment
obtained, were abolished by the Debtors Act 1869, a. 6; an
exception, however, is made in cases in which the plaintiff proves,
at any time before final judgment, by evidence on oath to the
satisfaction of a judge of one of the superior courts, that he has
a good cause of action to the amount of £50, that the defendant
is about to quit the country, and that his absence will materially
prejudice the plaintiff in prosecuting his action. In such cases
an order for arrest may be obtained till security to the amount
of the claim be found.
Formerly a judgment creditor might arrest his debtor under a
writ of capias ad satisfaciendum, but since 1869 imprisonment
for debt has been abolished in England, except in certain cases,
and in these the period of detention must not exceed one year.
The following persons are privileged from arrest, via., 1st,
members of the royal family and the ordinary servants of the
king or queen regnant, chaplains, lords of the bedchamber, fee.
Tins privilege does not extend to servants of a consort queen or
dowager. 2nd, peers of the realm, peeresses by birth, creation or
marriage, Scottish and Irish peers and peeresses. 3rd, members
of the House of Commons during the session of parliament,
and for a convenient time (forty days) before and after it.
Members of Convocation appear to have the same privilege.
4th, foreign ambassadors and their " domestics and domestic
servants." Temporary privilege from arrest in dvil process is
enjoyed by barristers travelling on circuit, by parties, witnesses
or attorneys connected with a cause, and by dergymen whilst
performing divine service.
The arrest of any privileged person is irregular ab initio, and
the party may be discharged on motion. The only exception
is as to indictable crimes, such as treason, felony and breach of
the peace.
There are no longer any places where persons are privileged
from arrest, such as the Mint, Savoy, Whitefriars, &c, on the
ground of their being ancient palaces.
Except in cases of treason, felony or breach of the peace,
an arrest cannot be made on a Sunday, and if made it is void
(Sunday Observance Act 1677); but it may be made in the night
as well as in the day.
II. In Criminal Cases. — All persons whatsoever are, without
distinction, equally liable to this arrest, and any man may arrest
without warrant or precept, and outer doors may be broken
open for that purpose. The arrest may be made,— 1st, by
warrant; 2nd, by an officer without warrant; 3rd, by a private
person without warrant; or, 4th, by a hue and cry.
1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace
on information or complaint in writing and upon oath, and they
must be indorsed when it is intended they should be executed
in another county by a magistrate of that county (sec Indictable
Offences Act 1848). A warrant issued by a metropolitan police
magistrate can be executed anywhere by a metropolitan police
officer. Warrants are also granted in cases of treason or other
offence affecting the government by the privy council, or one of
the secretaries of state, and also by the chief or other justice
of the court of king's bench (bench-warrant) in cases of felony,
ARRESTMENT— ARRETIUM
647
misdemeanour or indictment found, or criminal information
granted in that court Every warrant ought to specify the offence
charged, the authority under which the arrest is to be made, the
person who is to execute it and the person who is to be arrested.
A warrant remains in force till executed or discharged by order
of a court. An officer may break open doors in order to execute
a warrant in cases of treason, felony or indictable offences,
provided that, on demand, admittance cannot otherwise be
obtained. (See Warrant.)
a. The officers who may arrest without warrant are, — justices
of the peace, for felony or breach of the peace committed in their
presence; the sheriff and the coroner in their county, for felony;
constables, for treason, felony or breach of the peace committed
in their view, — and within the metropolitan police district they
have even larger powers (Metropolitan Police Acts 2820-1895).
3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed
in his presence, under penalty of fine and imprisonment. By
the Prevention of Offences Act 1851, a private person is allowed
to arrest any one whom he finds committing an indictable offence
by night, and under the Malicious Damage Act x86i, any person
committing an offence against that act may be arrested without
warrant by the owner of the property damaged, or his servants,
or persons authorized by him. So, too, by the Coinage Offences
Act 186 1, s. 31, any person may arrest any one whom he shall
find committing any offence relating to the coin, or other offence
against that act.
A person arrested without warrant must not be detained in
private custody but must be taken with all convenient speed
to a police station or justice and there charged (Summary
Jurisdiction Act 1879).
4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private
persons are concerned in pursuing felons, or such as have danger-
ously wounded others. By the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881,
provision was made for the arrest in the United Kingdom of
persons committing treason, and felony in any of the British
colonies and vice versa; as to the arrest of fugitives in foreign
countries see Extradition.
The remedy for a wrongful arrest is by an action for false
imprisonment.
In Scotland the law of arrest in criminal procedure has a
general constitutional analogy with that of England, though the
practice differs with the varying character of the judicatories.
Colloquially the word arrest is used in compulsory procedure
for the recovery of debt; but the technical term applicable in
that department is caption, and the law on the subject is generic-
ally different from that of England. There never was a practice
in Scottish law corresponding with the English arrest in mesne
process; but by old custom a warrant for caption could be
obtained where a creditor made oath that he had reason to
believe his debtor meditated flight from the country, and the
writ so issued is called a warrant against a person in meditationt
fugae. Imprisonment of old followed on ecclesiastical cursing,
and by fiction of law in later times it was not the creditor's
remedy, but the punishment of a refractory person denounced
rebel for disobedience to the injunctions of the law requiring
fulfilment of his obligation. The system was reformed and
stripped of its cumbrous fictions by an act of the year 1837.
Although the proceedings against the person could only follow
on completed process, yet, by a peculiarity of the Scottish law,
documents executed with certain formalities, and by special
statute bills and promissory notes, can be registered in the
records of a court for execution against the person as if they
were judgments of the court.
The general principles as to the law of arrest in most European
countries correspond more or less exactly to those prevailing in
England.
An arrest of a skip, which is the method of enforcing the
admiralty process in rem, founded either on a maritime lien
or on a claim against the ship, is dealt with under Admiralty
Jurisdiction.
See also article Attachment.
Arrest of Judgment is the assigning just reason why judgment
should not pass, notwithstanding verdict ©ven, either in civil
or in criminal ca»es, and from intrinsic causes arising on the
face of the record.
United States.— The law of arrest assimilates to that existing
in England. Actual manual touching is not necessary (Pike v.
Hanson, 9 N.H. 491; Bill v. Taylor, 50 Mich. 549); words of
arrest by the officer, not protested against and no resistance
offered, are sufficient (Emery v. Ckeslcy', 18 N.H. 198; Coodell v.
Tower, 1904, 58 Am. Rep. 790). Words of arrest, staying over
night at prisoner's house, going with him before the magistrate
next day constitute arrest (Courtery v. Dosier, 20 Ga. 369).
Restraining a person in his own house is arrest.
In civil cases in most of the states arrest for debt is abolished,
except in cases of fraud or wilful injury to persons or property
by constitutional provision or by statute. One arrested under
process of a federal court cannot be arrested under that of a
state court for the same cause. There is no provision in the
United States constitution as to imprisonment for debt, but
congress has enacted (in Rev. Stat., s. 090) that all the provisions
of the law of any state applicable to such imprisonment shall
apply to the process of federal courts in that state. A woman
can be arrested in New York for wilful injury to person, character
or property, and in certain other cases (Code, s. 553). The
president, federal officials, governors of states, members of con-
gress and of state legislatures (during the session), marines,
soldiers and sailors on duty, voters while going to and from
the polls, judges, court officials. (1904, 100 N.W. 591), coroners
and jurors while attending upon their public duties, lawyers,
parties and witnesses while going to, attending or returning
from court, and generally married women without separate
property, are exempt from arrest.
In criminal cases a bench-warrant in New York may be served
in any county without being backed by a magistrate (Code
Crim. Proc., s. 304). In Nebraska one found violating the law
may be arrested and detained until a legal warrant can be issued
(Crim. Code, s. 283). A bail may lawfully recapture his principal
(1905) 121 Georgia Rep. 504. Foreign ambassadors and ministers
and their servants are exempt from arrest. Exemption from
arrest is a privilege, not of the court, as in England, but of the
person, and can be waived (Pctrie v. Fitzgerald, 1 Daly 401).
ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, the process by which a creditor
detains the goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third
parties till the debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into
two kinds: (1) Arrestment in security, used when proceedings
ar* commencing, or in other circumstances where a claim may
become, but is not yet, enforceable; and (2) Arrestment in
execution, following on the decree of a court, or on a registered
document, under a clause or statutory power of registration,
according to the custom of Scotland. By the process of arrest-
ment the property covered is merely retained in place; to realise
it for the satisfaction of the creditor's claim a further proceeding
called " furthcoming " is necessary. By old practice, alimentary
funds, i.e. those necessary for subsistence, were not liable to
arrestment. By the Wages Arrestment Limitation (Scotland)
Act 1870, the wages of all labourers, farm-servants, manu-
facturers, artificers and work-people are not arrestable except
(1) in so far as they exceed 20s. per week; but the expense of the
arrestment is not to be charged against the debtor unless the sum
recovered exceed the amount of the said expense; or (2) under
decrees for alimentary allowances and payments, or for rates
and taxes imposed by law.
ARRETIUM (mod. Arezxo), an ancient city of Etruria, in the
upper valley of the Arno, situated on the Via Cassia, 50 m. S.E.
of Florentia. The site of the original city is not quite certain;
some writers place it on the isolated hill called Poggio di S.
Cornelio, 2} m. to the S.E., where remains of a fortified enceinte
still exist (cf. F. Noack in Rdmische Mitteilungen, 1897, p. 186);
while others maintain, and probably rightly, that it occupied the
hill at the summit of the modern town, where the medieval
citadel (forteaa) was erected, and which was enclosed by an
ancient wall. Numerous Etruscan tombs have been discovered
within the lower portion of the area of the modern town, which
648
ARRHENIUS— ARRIAN
appears to correspond in site with the Roman (C.I.L. ri. p.
1082; G. Gamurrini in N otitic degli scavi, 1883, 262; 1887,
437). Vitruvius (ii. 8. 9) and Pliny {Nat. Hist. xxxv. 173) speak
of the strength of its walls of bricks, but these have naturally
disappeared. Many remains of Roman buildings have been
discovered within the modern town, and the amphitheatre is
still visible in the southern angle. Arretium appears as one of
the cities which aided the Tarquins after their expulsion. It
was an opponent of Rome at the end of the 4th and beginning of
the 3rd century B.C., but soon sought for help against the attacks
of the Gauls, against whom it was almost a frontier fortress. It
was an important Roman base during the Hannibalic wars
(though at one time it threatened defection — Livy xxvii. 21-24),
and in 205 B.C. was able to furnish Scipio with a considerable
quantity of arms and provisions (Livy xxviii. 45). In 187 B.C.
the high road was extended as far as Bononia. Arretium took
the part of Marius against Sulla, and the latter settled some of
his veterans there as colonists. Caesar, or Octavian, added
others, so that there are three classes, Arretini vctcres, Fidentiores,
and lulienses. A considerable contingent from Arretium joined
Catiline and in 49 B.C. Caesar occupied it. C. Maecenas 1 was
perhaps a native of Arretium. Its fertility was famous in an dent
times, and still more the red pottery made of the local clay, with
its imitation of chased silver. The reliefs upon it arc sometimes
of considerable beauty, and large quantities of it, and the sites of
several of the kilns, have been discovered in and near Arretium.
It was also considerably exported. See Corp. Inscrip. Lat. xi.
(Berlin, 1901) p. 1081, and Notiziedegli scavi, passim (especially,
1884, 369, for the discovery of a fine group of the moulds
from which these vases were made). The museum contains a
very fine collection of these and a good collection of medieval
majolica. (T. As.)
ARRHENIUS, SVANTB AUGUST (1859- ), Swedish
physicist and chemist, was born on the 19th of February 1859,
at Schloss Wijk, near Upsala. He studied at Upsala from 1876
to 1881 and at Stockholm from 1881 to 1884, then returning to
Upsala as privat-docent in physical chemistry. He spent two
years from 1886 to 1888 in travelling, and visited Riga Poly-
technic and the universities of WUrzburg, Graz, Amsterdam and
Leipzig. In 1891 he was appointed lecturer in physics at
Stockholm and four years later became full professor. Arrhcnius
is specially associated with the development of the theory of
electrolytic dissociation, and his great paper on the subject,
Reckerches sur la conductibiliU galtaniquc des ilectrolyles — (1)
conductibiliU galvanique des solutions aqueuses extrtmement
dilutes, (2) tktoric ckimique des electrolytes, was presented to the
Stockholm Academy of Sciences in 1883. He was subsequently
continuously engaged in extending the applications of the
doctrine of electrolytic conduction in relation not only to the
problems of chemical action but also, on the supposition that
in certain conditions the air conducts clectrolytically, to the
phenomena of atmospheric electricity. In 1900 he published a
LSrobok i teoretik clektrokemi, which was translated into German
and English, and his Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik appeared
in 1903. In 1904 he delivered at the university of California a
course of lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the
application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of
the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published
in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry. In his Worlds in the
Making (1908), an English translation of Das Werden der Wtlten
(1907), he combated the generally accepted doctrine that the
universe is tending to what Clausius termed Wdrmctod through
exhaustion of all sources of heat and motion, and suggested that
by virtue of a mechanism which maintains its available energy it
is self-renovating, energy being " degraded " in bodies which are
In the solar state, but " elevated " or raised to a higher level in
bodies which are in the nebular state. He further put forward
the conception that life is universally diffused, constantly
'The name Cilniut was apparently never borne by Maecenas
himself, though he is to described, e.g. by Tacitus, Ann. vi. 11, cf.
Macrob. ii 4. 12- The Cilnii with whom Maecenas was connected
were a noble Etruscan family.
emitted from all habitable worlds in the form of spores which
traverse space for years or ages, the majority being ultimately
destroyed by the heat of some blazing star, but some few finding
a resting-place on bodies which have reached the habitable stage.
ARRIA, in Roman history, the heroic wife of Caecina Paetus.
When her husband was implicated in the conspiracy of
Scribonianus against the emperor Claudius (aj>. 42), and
condemned to death, she resolved not to survive him. She
accordingly stabbed herself with a dagger, which she then
handed to him with the words, " Paetus, it does not hurt "
(Pacte, non dolet; see Pliny, Epp. iii. 16; Martial L 14; Dio
Cassius Ix. 16). Her daughter, also called Arria, was the wife of
Thrasea Paetus. When he was condemned to death by Nero,
she would have imitated her mother's example, but was dis-
suaded by her husband, who entreated her to live for the sake
of their children. She was sent into banishment (Tadtus, A ttncls,
xvi. 34).
ARRIAN (Flavtus Ar wants), of Nicomedia in Bithynia,
Greek historian and philosopher, was born about aj>. 06. and
lived during the reigns of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcos
Aurelius. In recognition of his abilities, he received the citizen-
ship of both Athens and Rome. He was greatly esteemed by
Hadrian, who appointed him governor (hiatus) of Cappadocia
(131-137), in which capacity he distinguished himself in a cam-
paign against the Alani. This is the only instance before the 3rd
century in which a first-rate Roman military command was given
to a Greek. Arrian spent a considerable portion of his time at
Athens, where he was archon 147-148. With his retirement
or recall from Cappadocia his official career came to an end.
In his declining years, he retired to his native place, wheie
he devoted himself to literary work. He died about 180. His
biography, by Dio Cassius, is lost.
When young, Arrian was the pupil and friend of Epictetus,
who had probably withdrawn to Nicopolis, when Domitian
expelled all philosophers from Rome. He took verbatim notes
of his teacher's lectures, which he subsequently published under
the title of The Dissertations (Atarpc/fai), in eight books, of
which the first four are extant and constitute the chief authority
for Stoic ethics, and The Encheiridion (i.e. Manual) of Epictelus,
a handbook of moral philosophy, for many years a favourite
instruction book with both Christians and pagans. It »as
adapted for Christian use by St Nilus of Constantinople f?th
ccntury)i and Simplicius (about 550) wrote a commentary on it
which we still possess.
The most important of Arrian 's original works is his A nabasis cf
Alexander, in seven books, containing the history of Alexander
the Great from his accession to his death. Arrian 's chief
authorities were, as he tells us, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and
Ptolemy, son of Lagus (afterwards king of Egypt), who both
accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. In spite of a too
indulgent view of his hero's defects, and some over-credulity,
Arrian 's is the most complete and trustworthy account of
Alexander that we possess.
Other extant works of Arrian are: Indicts, a description of
India in the Ionic dialect, including the voyage of Nearchus,
intended as a supplement to the Anabasis; Acies Contra Alar.cs,
a fragment of importance for the knowledge of Roman military
affairs; Periplus of the Euxine, an official account written
(131) for the emperor Hadrian; Tactica, attributed by some
to Aclianus, who wrote in the reign of Trajan; Cynegetitus,
a treatise on the chase, supplementing Xenophon's work on the
same subject; the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, attributed to
him, is by a later compiler. Amongst his lost works may be
mentioned: TA per' 'A\i£av6por, a history of the period
succeeding Alexander, of which an epitome is preserved in
Photius; histories of Bithynia, the Alani and the Parthian
wars under Trajan; the lives of Timolcon of Syracuse, D:on
of Syracuse and a famous brigand named Timolcon. Arrian's
style is simple, lucid and manly; but his language, though pure,
presents some peculiarities. He was called " Xenophon the
younger " from his imitation of that writer, and be even speaks
of himself as Xenophon.
ARRIS— ARROWROOT
649
Complete works ed. F. Dubner (1846) ; At
with notes, C. W. Kriiger (1835), C. Sinteni*
Scripia Minora, R. Hcrcher and A. Eberl
i., containing the Anabasis (Teubner serie
lations: Anabasis, Rooke (1812); A nab
Chinnock (1893); Voyage of Nearehus wit
W. Vincent (1807). J. W. M'Crindle (Cal
•the Euxine, W. Falconer (1805); Cynegeti
See also E. Bolla, Arriano d\ Nicomedia
Pauly-Wissowa's ReaUncyclopadie der da.
sckaft (1896); H. F. Pelham, " Arrian as L
English Historical Review, October 1896; ,
ancient, " Authorities."
ARRIS (Fr. areste, or arete), in architecture, the sharp edge
or angle in which two sides or surfaces meet.
ARR0NDI8SEMENT (from arrondir, to make round), an
administrative subdivision of a department in France. Dating
nominally from 1800, the arrondissement was really a re-creation
of the " district " of 1790. It comprises within itself the canton
and the commune. It differs from the department and from
the commune in being merely an administrative division and
not a complete legal personality with power to acquire and
possess. The purposes for which it exists are, again, unlike
those of the department and the commune, comparatively
limited. It is the electoral district for the chamber of deputies,
each arrondissement returning one member; if the population
is in excess of 100,000 it is divided into two or more constituencies.
It is also a judicial district having a court of first instance. It
is under the control of a sub-prefect. There are 362 arrondisse-
ments in the 87 departments. Each arrondissement has a council,
with as many members as there are cantons, whose function is
to subdivide among the communes their quota of the direct
taxes charged to the arrondissement by the general council of
the department. (See France.) Somewhat different from the
arrondissements of the department are the arrondissements
(ao in number) into which Paris is divided. They bear a certain
resemblance to the sub-municipalities created in London, by the
London Government Act 1899, and each forms a local administra-
tive unit (see Paris).
France is also subdivided, for purposes of defence, into five
jKorifsmc divisions, termed arrondissements. Institutedoriginally
under the Consulate, they were suppressed in 1815, but re-
established again in 1826. They are under the direction of
maritime prefects, who, by a decree of 1875, must be vice-admirals
in the navy.
ARROWROOT. A large proportion of the edible starches
obtained from the rhizomes or root-stocks of various plants are
known in commerce under the name of arrowroot. Properly the
name should be restricted to the starch yielded by two or three
species of Mar ante (nat. ord. Marantaceae), the chief of which is
Fie. t. Fio. 2.
A r rowroot Plant (Maranta arundinacea).— Fig. I, stem, leaves
and flowers; fig. 2, tubers.
M. arundinacta; and when genuine or West Indian arrowroot
is spoken of, it is understood that this is the variety meant.
Maranta arundinacta is probably a native of Guiana and western
Brazil, but it has long been cultivated in the West Indian Islands,
and has now spread to most tropical countries. The plant is a
herbaceous perennial with a creeping root-stock which gives off
fleshy cylindrical branches or tubers, covered with pale brown
or white scales and afterwards ringed with their scars. It is at
the period when these tubers are gorged with starch, immediately
before the season of rest, that it is ripe for use. In addition to
about 25% of starch, the tubers contain a proportion of woody
tissue, vegetable albumen and various salts. The arrowroot
may be separated on a small scale in the same manner as potato-
starch is frequently prepared, that is, by peeling the root and
grating it in water, when the starch falls to the bottom. The
liquor is then drained off, and the starch purified by repeated
washings till it is ready for drying. On a large scale the manu-
facture of arrowroot is conducted with specially arranged
machinery. The rhizomes when dug up are washed free of
earthy impurities and afterwards skinned. Subsequently,
according to Pereira's Materia Medico, " the carefully skinned
tubers are washed, then ground in a mill, and the pulp washed
in tinned-copper cylindrical washing-machines. The fecula
(dim. of Lat. faex, dregs, or sediment) is subsequently dried in
drying-houses. In order to obtain the fecula free from impurity,
pure water must be used, and great care and attention paid in
every step of the process. The skinning or peeling of the tubers
must be performed with great nicety, as the cuticle contains a
resinous-matter -which imparts colour and a disagreeable flavour
to the starch. German-silver palettes are used for skinning the
deposited fecula, and shovels of the same metal for packing the
dried fecula. The drying is effected in pans, covered with white
gauze to exclude dust and insects."
Arrowroot is distinguished by the granules agglomerating
Into small balls, by slightly crepitating when rubbed between
the fingers, and by yielding with boiling water a fine, transparent,
inodorous and pleasant-tasting jelly. In microscopic structure
the granules present an ovoid form, marked with concentric lines
very similar to potato-starch, but readily distinguished by
having a " hilura " marking at the thick extremity of the granule,
while in potato-starch the same appearance occurs at the thin
end (compare figs. 3 and 4 below). In addition to the West
Indian supplies, arrowroot is found in the commerce of Brazil,
the East Indies, Australia, Cape Colony and Natal.
The name " arrowroot " is derived from the use by the Mexican
Indians of the juice of the fresh root as an application to wounds
produced by poisoned arrows. Sir Hans Sloane refers to it in
his Catalogue of Jamaica
Plants (1606), and it is said
to have been introduced
into England by William
Houston about X732. It is
grown as a stove-plant in
botanic gardens. The
slender, much - branched
stem is 5 or 6 ft. high, and
bears numerous leaves with
long, narrow sheaths and
large spreading ovate blades,
and a few short-stalked
white flowers.
Tous~lcs-mois, or Tulema
arrowroot, also from the
West Indies, is obtained Starch Granules magnified,
from several species of Fig . 3. Potato. Fig. 4, Arrowroot.
Canna y a genus allied to Fig. 5. Tousles- Fig. 6. Manihot.
Maranta, and cultivated in "">**•
the same manner. The granules of tous-Us-mois are readily
distinguishable by their very large size (fig. 5). East Indian
arrowroot is obtained from the root-stocks of several species
of the genus Curcuma (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), chiefly
C. angustifolia, a native of central India. Brazilian arrow-
root is the starch of the cassava plant, a species of Manihot
(fig. 6), which when agglutinated on hot plates forms the tapioca
of commerce. The cassava is cultivated in the East Indian
Archipelago as well as in South America. Tacca, or OlokeuY
«8p
Fig. 6.
650
ARROWSMITH— ARSENAL
arrowroot, is the produce of Tacca pinnalifida, the pia plant of
the South Sea Islands. Portland arrowroot was formerly pre*
pared on the Isle of Portland from the tubers of the common
cuckoo-pint, Arum maculaium. Various other species of arum
yield valuable food-starches in hot countries. Under the name
of British arrowroot the farina of potatoes is sometimes sold,
and the French excel in the preparation of imitations of the more
costly starches from this source. The chief use, however, of potato-
farina as an edible starch is for adulterating other and more
costly preparations This falsification can readily be detected
by microscopic examination, and the accompanying drawings
exhibit the appearance under the microscope of the principal
starches we have described. Although these starches agree in
chemical composition, their value as articles of diet varies
considerably, owing to different degrees of digestibility and
pleasantness of taste. Arrowroot contains about 8a % of starch,
and about 1% of proteid and mineral matter. Farina, or
British arrowroot, at about one-twelfth the price, is just as useful
and pleasant a food.
ARROWSMTH, the name of an English family of geographers.
The first of them, Aaron Arrowsmith (1750-1823), migrated to
London from Winston in Durham when about twenty years of
age, and was employed by John Cary, the engraver. In 1 790 he
made himself famous by his large chart of the world on Mercator's
projection. Four years later he published another large map
of the world on the globular projection, with a companion
volume of explanation. The maps of North America (1706)
and Scotland (1807) are the most celebrated of his many later
productions. He left two sons, Aaron and Samuel, the elder of
whom was the compiler of the Eton Comparative Atlas, of a
Biblical atlas, and of various manuals of geography. They
carried on the business in company with John Arrowsmith
(1 790-1 873) , nephew of the elder Aaron. In x 834 John published
his London Atlas, the best set of maps then in existence. He
followed up the atlas with a long series of elaborate and carefully
executed maps, those of Australia, America, Africa and India
being especially valuable. In 1863 he received the gold medal
of the Royal Geographical Society, of which body he was one of
the founders.
ARROYO (O. Sp. arrogio, Lat. arroginm, a rivulet or stream),
the channel of a stream cut in loose earth, found often at the
head of a gully, where the water flows only at certain seasons of
the year.
ARSACES. a Persian name, which occurs on a Persian seal,
where it is written in cuneiform characters. The most famous
Arsaces was the chief of the Parni, one of the nomadic Scythian
or Dahan tribes in the desert east of the Caspian Sea. A later
tradition, preserved by Arrian, derives Arsaces I. and Tiridates
from the Achaemenian king ArtaxerxesII., but this has evidently
no historical value. Arsaces, seeking refuge before the Bactrian
king Diodotes, invaded Parthia, then a province of the Sdeucid
empire, about 250 B.C. (Strabo xi. p. sis, ef. Arrian p. 1, Mailer,
in Photius, Cod. 58, and Syncellus p. 284). After two years
(according to Arrian) he was killed, and his brother Tiridates, who
succeeded him and maintained himself for a short time in Parthia,
during the dissolution of the Selcucid empire by the attacks of
Ptolemy III. (247 ff.), was defeated and expelled by Seleucus II.
(about 238). But when this king was forced, by the rebellion of
his brother, Antiochus Hierax, to return to the west, Tiridates
came back and defeated the Macedonians (Strabo xi. pp. 513,
515; Justin xli 4; Appian, Syr. 65; Isidorus of Charax xx). He
was the real founder of the Parthian empire, which was of very
limited extent until the final decay of the Seleudd empire,
occasioned by the Roman intrigues after the death of Antiochus
IV.Epiphanes (165 B.C.), enabled Mithradates I. and his successors
to conquer Media and Babylonia. Tiridates adopted the name of
his brother Arsaces, and after him aH the other Parthian kings
(who by the historians are generally called by their proper
names), amounting to the number of about thirty, officially wear
only the name Arsaces. With very few exceptions only the
name APS A KHZ (with various epithets) occurs on the coins of
the Parthian kings, and the obverse generally shows the seated
figure of the founder of the dynasty, holding in his hand a strung
bow. The Arsacidian empire was overthrown in aj>. j*6 by
Ardashir (Artaxerxes), the founder of the Sassanid empire, whose
conquests began about a.d. 3x2. The name Arsaces of Persia is
also borne by some kings of Armenia, who were of Parthian
origin. (See Persia and Parthia.) (Ed. M.)
ARS-AN-DER-MOSEU a town of Germany, in the imperial
province Alsace-Lorraine, 5 m. S. of Metz on the railway to
Noveant It has a handsome Roman Catholic church and
extensive foundries. In the vicinity are the remains of a Roman
aqueduct, which formerly spanned the valley. Pop. 5000.
ARSCHOT, PHIUPPB DB CROY, Duke or (1526-159$)*
governor-general of Flanders, was born at Valenciennes, and
inherited the estates of the ancient and wealthy family of Croy.
Becoming a soldier, he was made a knight of the order of the
Golden Fleece by Philip II., king of Spain, and was afterwards
employed in diplomatic work. He took part in the troubles in
the Netherlands, and in 1563 refused to join William the Silent
and others in their efforts to remove Cardinal Granvella from his
post. This attitude, together with Arschot's devotion to the
Roman Catholic Church, which he expressed by showing his
delight at the massacre of St Bartholomew, led Philip of Spain to
regard him with still greater favour, which, however, was with-
drawn in consequence of Arschot's ambiguous conduct when
welcoming the new governor, Don John of Austria, to the
Netherlands in 1576. In spite, however, of his being generally
distrusted by the inhabitants of the Netherlands, he was ap-
pointed governor of the dtadel of Antwerp when the Spanish
troops withdrew in 1577. After a period of vacillation he
deserted Don John towards the end of that year. Jealous of the
prince of Orange, he was then the head of the party which
induced the archduke Matthias (afterwards emperor) to under-
take the sovereignty of the Netherlands, and soon afterwards was
appointed governor of Flanders by the state council. A strong
party, including the burghers of Ghent, distrusted the new
governor; and Arschot, who was taken prisoner during a riot at
Ghent, was only released on promising to resign his office. He
then sought to regain the favour of Philip of Spain, and having
been pardoned by the king in 1580 again shared in the govern-
ment of the Netherlands; but he refused to serve under the
Count of Fuentes when he became governor-general in 1504, and
retired to Venice, where he died on the nth of December 1505.
See J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic.
ARSENAL, an establishment for the construction, repair,
teceipt, storage and issue of warlike stores; details as to ntaUrid
will be found under Ammunition, Ordnance, ftc. The word
" arsenal " appears in various forms in Romanic languages (from
which it has been adopted into Teutonic), i.e. Italian arxonale,
Spanish arsenal, &c; Italian also has anana and darsena, and
Spanish a longer form atarazanal. The word is of Arabic origin,
being a corruption of daras-sind*ak, house of trade or manu-
facture, dor, house, al, the, and sina % ak, trade, manufacture,
sana % a, to make. Such guesses as arx navalis, naval citadel, erx
senatUs (i.e. of Venice, etc.), are now entirely rejected.
A first-class arsenal, which can renew the matiriel and equip-
ment of a large army, embraces a gun factory, carriage factory,
laboratory and small-arms ammunition factory, small-arms
factory, harness, saddlery and tent factories, and a powder
factory; in addition it must possess great store-houses. In a
second-class arsenal the factories would be replaced by workshops.
The situation of an arsenal should be governed by strategical
considerations, If of the first class, it should be situated al
the base of operations and supply, secure from attack, not too
near a frontier, and placed so as to draw in readily the resources
of the country. The importance of a large arsenal is such
that its defences would be on the scale of those of a large
fortress. The usual subdivision of branches in a great arsenal
is into A, Storekeeping; B, Construction; C, Administration.
Under A we should have the following departments and
stores:— Departments of issue and receipt, pattern room,
armoury department, ordnance or park, harness, saddlery
and accoutrements, camp equipment, tools and instruments,
ARSENIC
651
engineer store, magazines, raw material store, timber yard,
breaking-vp store, unserviceable store. Under B— Gun
factory, carriage factory, laboratory, small-arms factory,
harness and tent factory, powder factory, &c In a second*
class arsenal there would be workshops instead of these
factories. C— Under the head of administration would be
classed the chief director of the arsenal, officials military and
civil, non-commissioned officers and military artificers, civilian
foremen, workmen and labourers, with the clerks and writers
necessary for the office work of the establishments. In the
manufacturing branches* are required skill, and efficient and
economical work, both executive and administrative; in the
storekeeping part, good arrangement, great care, thorough
knowledge of all warlike stores, both in their active and passive
state, and scrupulous exactness in the custody, issue and receipt
of stores. For fuller details the reader is referred to papers by
Sir E. Collen, R.A., in vol. viii., and Lieut. C. E. Grover, R.E.,
in vol. vi. Proceedings of R. Artittery Institution. In England
the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, manufactures and stores the
requirements of the army and navy (see Woolwich).
ARWIIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75*0), a chemical element,
known to the ancients in the form of its sulphides. Aristotle
gave them the name cxw&apajcii, and Theophrastus mentions
them under the name apotn*09. The oxide known as white
arsenic is mentioned by the Greek alchemist Olympfodorus,
who obtained it by roasting arsenic sulphide. These substances
were all known to the later alchemists, who used minerals con-
taining arsenic in order to give a white colour to copper. Albertus
Magnus was the first to state that arsenic contained a metal-like
substance, although later writers considered it to be a bastard
or semi-metal, and frequently called it arsenicum rex. In 1733
G. Brandt showed that white arsenic was the calx of this element,
and after the downfall of the phlogiston theory the views con-
cerning the composition of white arsenic were identical with
those which are now held, namely that it is an oxide of the
element
Arsenic is found in the uncombined condition in various
localities, but more generally in combination with other metals
and sulphur, In the form of more or less complex sulphides.
Native arsenic is usually found aa granular or curvilaminar
masses, with a reniform or botryoidal surface. These masses
are of a dull grey colour, owing to surface tarnish; only on fresh
fractures is the colour tin-white with metallic lustre. The hard-
ness is 3-5 and the specific gravity 5*o3-5*73- Crystals of arsenic
belong to the rhombohedral system, and have a perfect cleavage
parallel to the basal plane; natural crystals are, however, of
rare occurrence, and are usually adcular in, habit Native
arsenic occurs usually in metalliferous veins in association with
ores of antimony, silver, &c; the silver mines of Freiberg in
Saxony, St Andreasberg in the Hare, and Chafiardllo in Chile
being well-known localities. Attractive globular aggregates of
wdl-devdoped radiating crystals have been found at Akatani,
a village in the province Echizen, in Japan.
Arsenic is a constituent of the minerals arsenical Iron, arsenical
pyrites or mispickel, tin-white cobalt or smaltite, arsenical nickel,
realgar, orpiment, pharmacolite and cobalt bloom, whilst it is
also met with in small quantities in nearly all specimens of iron
pyrites. The ordinary commercial arsenic is either the naturally
occurring form, which is, however, more or less contaminated
with other metals, or is the product obtained by heating arsenical
pyrites, out of contact with air, in earthenware retorts which
are fitted with a roll of sheet iron at the mouth, and an earthen-
ware receiver. By this method of distillation the arsenic sub-
limes into the receiver, leaving a residue of iron sulphide in the
retort For further purification, it may be sublimed, after having
been previously mixed with a little powdered charcoal, or it may
be mixed with a small quantity of iodine and heated. It can
also be obtained by the reduction of white arsenic (arsenious
oxide) with carbon. An dectro-metallurgical process for the
extraction of arsenic from its sulphides has also been proposed
(German Patent, 67,973). These compounds are brought into
•olution by means of polysulphides of the alkali metals and the
resultant liquor run into the cathode compartment of a bath,
which is divided by diaphragms into a series of anode and cathode
chambers; the anode divisions being closed and gas-tight, and
containing carbon or platinum electrodes. The arsenic solution
is decomposed at the cathode, and the element precipitated
there.
Arsenic possesses a steel-grey colour, and a decided metallic
lustre; it crystallises on sublimation and slow condensation in
rhombohedra, iaomorphous with those of antimony and tellurium.
It is very brittle. Its specific gravity is given variously from
5*395 to 5-959; its specific heat is 0-083, and to coefficient of
linear expansion 0*00000559 (at 40 C). It is volatile at tempera-
tures above 100* C and rapidly vaporizes at a dull red heat It
liquefies when heated under' pressure, and its melting point lies
between 446 C. and 457° C. The vapour of arsenic is of a golden
yellow colour, and has a garlic odour. The vapour density is io*6
(air-i) at 564° C, corresponding to a tetratomic molecule Aa«;
at a white heat the vapour density shows a considerable lowering
in value, due to the dissociation of the complex molecule.
By condensing arsenic vapour in a glass tube, in a current of an
indifferent gas, such as hydrogen, amorphous arsenic is obtained,
the deposit on the portion of the tube nearest to the source of
heat being crystalline, that farther along (at a temperature of
about aio° C.) being a black amorphous solid, while still farther
along the tube a grey deposit is formed. These two latter forms
possess a specific gravity of 4-710 (14° C.) [A. Bettendorff,
Annalen, 1867, 144, p. no], and by heating at about 358V360 C.
pass over into the crystalline variety. Arsenic burns on heating
in a current of oxygen, with a pale lavender-coloured flame,
forming the trioxide. It is easily oxidized by heating with
concentrated nitric acid to arsenic add, and with concentrated
sulphuric add to arsenic trioxide; dilute nitric add only oxidizes
it to arsenious add. It burns in an atmosphere of chlorine
forming the trichloride; it also combines directly with bromine
and sulphur on heating, while on fusion with alkalis it forms
Arsenic and most of its soluble compounds are very poisonous,
and consequently the methods used for the detection of arsenic
are very important For full accounts of methods used in de-
tecting minute traces of arsenic in foods, &c* see " Report to
Commission to Manchester Brewers' Central Association," the
Analyst, 1000, 96, p. 8; " Report of Conjoint Committee of
Society of Chemical Industry and Society of Public Analysts,"
the Analyst, 1902, 97, p. 48; T. E. Thorpe, Journal of the Chemical
Society, 1903, 83, p. 774; O. Hehner and others, Journal of Society
of Chemical Industry, xooa, ax, p. 94; also Adtjltexation.
Arsenic and arsenical compounds generally can be detected by (a)
Rtinsck'z test: A piece of clean copper is dipped in a solution of an
arsenious compound which has been previously acidified with owe
hydrochloric add. A grey film is produced on the surface ox the
copper, probably due to the formation of a copper arsenide. The
reaction proceeds better on beating the solution. On removing,
washing and gently drying the metal a *•----•--•-■-
I and heating it in a
s glass
of the
tube,
a white crystalline sublimate is formed on the cool part of the tube;
under the same conditions antimony does not produce a crystalline
sublimate.
(6) Fleitmonu's test and Marsh's lest depend on the fact that arsenic
and its compounds, when present in a solution in which hydrogen
is bring generated, are converted into arseniuretted hydrogen,
which can be readily detected either by tea action on silver nitrate
solution or by its deco m pos i tion on heating. In Fldtmann's test,
the solution containing the arsenious compound is mixed with pure
potassium hydroxide solution and a piece of pure zinc or aluminium
foil dropped in and the whole then heated. A piece of bibulous
paper, moistened with silver nitrate, is held over the mouth of the
tube, and if arsenic be present, a grey or black deposit is seen on
the paper, due to the silver nitrate being reduced by the arseniuretted
hydrogen. Antimony gives no reaction under these conditions, so
that the method can be used to detect arsenic in the presence of
antimony, but the test is not so delkate as either Reinsch's or
Marsh's method.
In the Marsh test the solution containing the arsenious compounds
Ss mixed with pure hydrochloric add and placed m an apparatus in
which hydrogen is generated from pure zinc and pure sulphuric acid.
The arseniuretted hydrogen produced b passed through a tube
containing lead acetate paper and soda-lime, and finally through
a narrow glass tube, constricted at various points, and heated by
a very small flame. As the arseniuretted hydrogen pa*
652
ARSENIC
the heated portion it it decomposed mod ft Black deposit formed.
Instead of beating the tube, the gai may be ignited at the mouth of
the tube and a cold surface of porcelain or platinum placed in the
flame, when a black deposit is formed on the surface. This may be
distinguished from the similar antimony deposit by its ready solu-
bility in a solution of sodium hypochlorite. A blank experiment
should always be carried out in testing for small quantities of
arsenic, to ensure that the materials used are quite free from traces
of arsenic. It is to be noted that the presence of nitric acid interferes
with the Marsh test; and also that if the arsenic is present as an
arsenic compound it must be reduced to the arsenious condition by
the action of sulphurous acid. Arsenic compounds can be detected
in the dry way by heating in a tube with a mixture of sodium car-
bonate and charcoal when a deposit of black amorphous arsenic is
produced on the cool part of the tube, or by conversion of the
compound into the trioxide and heating with dry sodium acetate
when the offensive odour of the extremely poisonous cacodyl oxide
is produced. In the wet way, arsenious oxide and arsenites, acidified
with hydrochloric acid " "' te of arsenic trisulphide
on the addition of sul| is precipitate is soluble
in solutions of the al nonium carbonate and
yellow ammonium sul iditions arsenates only
give a precipitate on 1
Arsenic is usually e form of magnesium
pyroarsenate or as an e pyroarsenate method
it is necessary that th he arsenic condition, if
necessary this can be th nitric acid ; the acid
solution is then mixed re " and made strongly
alkaline by the additi then allowed to stand
twenty-four hours, £.»,..,.«., ~—..~. „.».. Jilute ammonia, dried,
ignited to constant weight and weighed, the filter paper being
incinerated separately after moistening with nitric acid. From the
weight of magnesium pyroarsenate obtained the weight of arsenic
can be calculated.
In the sulphide method, the arsenic should be in the arsenious
form. Sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through the liquid until
it is thoroughly saturated, the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen is
expelled from the solution by a brisk stream of carbon dioxide, and
the precipitate is filtered on a Gooch crucible and washed with water
containing a little sulphuretted hydrogen and dried at 100° C;
it is then well washed with small quantities of pure carbon disulphide
to remove any free sulphur, again dried and weighed. Arsenic can
also be estimated by volumetric methods; for this purpose it muse
be in the arsenious condition, and the method of estimation consists
in converting it into the arsenic condition by means of a standard
solution of iodine, in the presence of a cold saturated solution of
sodium bicarbonate.
The atomic weight of arsenic has been determined by many
different chemists. J. Bcrzelius, in 1818, by heating arsenious
oxide with excess of sulphur obtained the value 74*3; J. Pelouze
(Comptes renins, 1845, 30, p. 1047) titrated arsenic chloride with
silver solution and obtained 75-0; and F. Kessler (Pogg. Ann.
1 861, 113, p. 134) by converting arsenic trisulphide in hydrochloric
acid solution into arsenic pcntasulphide also obtained 75-0.
Compounds. — Arsenic forms two hydrides: — The dikydride,
AstHi, is a brown velvety powder formed when sodium or
potassium arsenide is decomposed by water. It is a somewhat
unstable substance, decomposing on being heated, with liberation
of hydrogen. Arsenic trihydride (arsine or arseniuretted hydrogen),
AsHa, is formed by decomposing zinc arsenide with dilute sulphuric
nth;
lutio
1 product of the action of organic matter on many arsenic
acid; by the action of nascent hydrogen on arsenious compounds,
and by the electrolysis of solutions of arsenious and arsenic acids;
it is also a *
compounds. It is a colourless gas of unpleasant smell, excessively
poisonous, very slightly soluble in water. It easily burns, forming
arsenious oxide if the combustion proceeds in an excess of air, or
arsenic if the supply of air is limited ; it is also decomposed into its
constituent elements when heated. It liquefies at -40°C.and becomes
solid at- 1 i8-o° C. (K. Olszewski). Metals such as tin, potassium
and sodium, when heated in the gas, form arsenides, with liberation
of hydrogen; and solutions of gold and silver salts are reduced
by the gas with precipitation of metallic gold and silver. Chlorine,
bromine and iodine decompose arsine readily, the action being most
violent in the case of chlorine.
Arsenic tribromide, AsBr», is formed by the direct union of arsenic
and bromine, and subsequent distillation from the excess of arsenic;
it forms colourless deliquescent prisms which melt at 2o"-25° C,
and boil at 220° C. Water decomposes it, a small quantity of water
leading to the formation of the oxybromide, AsOBr, whilst a large
excess of water gives arsenious oxide, As«0«.
Arsenic certainly forms two, or possibly three iodides. The dUiodide,
Asil* or Asli, which is prepared by beating one part of arsenic with
two parts of iodine, in a sealed tube to 230° C, forms dark cherry-
red prisms, which are easily oxidised, and are readily decomposed by
water. The tri-iodide, Asl* prepared by subliming arsenic and iodine
together in a retort, by leading arsine into an alcoholic iodine
solution, or by boiling powdered arsenic and iodine with water,
filtering and evaporating, forms brick-red hexagonal tables, of
specific gravity 4*39. soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene, and in a
large excess of water; in the presence of a small quantity of water,
it is decomposed with formation of hydriodic add and an insoluble
basic salt of the composition 4AaOI-3A*«<V24HiO. It combines
with alkaline iodides to form very unstable compounds. The pewio-
iodide, Asl», appears to be formed when a mixture of one part of
arsenic and seven parts of iodine is heated to loo" C, but on dis-
solving the resulting product in carbon bisulphide and cryafa lining
from this solvent, only the tri-iodide is obtained.
Arsenic trichloride, AsCli, is prepared by distilling white arsenic
with concentrated sulphuric acid and common salt, or by the direct
union of arsenic with chlorine, or from the action of pboepborns
pentachloride on white arsenic. It is a colourless oily heavy liquid
of specific gravity 2*205 (°° C.), which, when pure and free from
chlorine, solidifies at — i8°C, and boils at 132 *C. It is very poisonous
and decomposes in moist air with evolution of white fumes. With a
little water it forms arsenic oxychloride, AsOCl, and with excess of
water it is completely decomposed into hydrochloric acid and white
arsenic. It combines directly with ammonia to form a solid com-
pound variously given as AsCli'3NHi,or2AsClj-7NHi.orAsClV4NH».
Arsenic trifluoride, AsFi, is prepared by distilling white arsenic with
fluorspar and sulphuric acid, or by heating arsenic tribromide with
ammonium fluoride; it is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 2-73,
boiling at 63° C; it fumes in air, and in contact with the skm
produces painful wounds.. It is decomposed by water into arsenious
and hydrofluoric acids, and absorbs ammonia forming the compound
2AsFi-5NHj. By the action of gaseous ammonia on arsenious haJides
at —30° C. to —40° C, arsenamide, As(NHi)«, is formed. Water de-
composes it into arsenious oxide and ammonia, and when heated
to 6o° it loses ammonia and forms arsenintide, As»(NH)a (C Hugot,
Compt. rend. 1904, 139. p. 54). For AsFt, see Ber.. 1906, 39, p. 67.
Two oxides of arsenic arc definitely known to exist, namely the
trioxide (white arsenic), As«0«, and the pentoxide, AsgOt, while the
existence of a suboxide, AsjO(?). has also been mooted. Arsenic
trioxide has been known from the earliest time?, and was called
HHUenrauch (furnace-smoke) by Basil Valentine. It occurs naturally
in the mineral claudctite, and can be artificially prepared by burning
arsenic in air or oxygen. It is obtained commercially by roasting
arsenical pyrites in either a Brunton's or Oxland's rotatory calciaer,
the crude product being collected in suitable condensing chambers,
and afterwards refined by rcsublimation, usually in revcrberatory
furnaces, the foreign matter being deposited in a long flue leading to
the condensing chambers. White arsenic exists in two crystalline
forms (octahedral and prismatic) and one amorphous form; the
octahedral form is produced by the rapid cooling of arsenic
vapour, or by cooling a warm saturated solution in water, or by
crystallization from hydrochloric acid, and also by the gradual
transition of the amorphous variety, this last phenomenon being
attended by the evolution of heat. Its specific gravity is 3-7; it is
only slightly soluble in cold water, but is more soluble in hot water,
the solution reacting faintly acid. The prismatic variety of the oxide
can be obtained by crystallization from a saturated boiling solution
in potassium hydroxide, or by the crystallization of a solution of stiver
arsenate in nitric acid. Its specific gravity is 4- 15. In the amorphous
condition it can be obtained by condensing the vapour of the oxide
at as high a temperature as possible, when a vitreous mass is pro-
duced, which melts at 200° C, has a specific gravity of 3-65^-3-798,
and is more soluble in water than the crystalline variety.
Arsenious oxide is very poisonous. It acts as a reducing agent ; it
is not convertible into the pentoxide by the direct action of oxygen;
and its solution' is reduced by many metals (e.g. zinc, tin and
cadmium) with precipitation of arsenic and formation of arseniuretted
hydrogen. The solution of arsenious oxide in water reacts acid
towards litmus and contains tribasic arsenious acid, although oa
evaporation of the solution the trioxide is obtained and not the free
acid. The salts of the acid are, however, very stable, and are known
as arsenites. Of these salts several series are known, namely the
ortho-arsenites. which are derivatives of the acid HiAsOa, the meta-
arsenites, derivatives of HAsO», and the pyro-arsenites. derivatives
of H4AS1O1. The arsenites of the alkali metals are soluble in water,
those of the other metals are insoluble in water, but are readily soluble
in adds. A neutral solution of an arsenite gives a yellow precipitate
of silver arsenite, AgaAsO*. with silver nitrate solution, and a
yellowish-green precipitate (Schccle's green) of cupric hydrogen
arsenite, CuHAsOa, with copper sulphate solution. By the action of
oxidizing agents such as nitric acid, iodine solution, «c., arsenious
acid is readily converted into arsenic acid, in the latter case the re-,
action proceeding according to the equation H»AsO|+I,+HtO-
HiAsO«+2HI. Arsenic pentoxide, As»0», is most easily «^yN'i'y*<
by oxidation of a solution of arsenious acid with nitric acid; the
solution on concentration deposits the compound 2H|AsOi-HiO
(below 15* C). which on being heated to a dark red heat loses its
water of crystallization and leaves a white vitreous mass of the
pentoxide. This substance dissolves slowly in water, forming
arsenic add; by heating to redness it decomposes into arsenic and
oxygen. It deliquesces in moist air. and is easily reduced to arsenic
by heating with carbon.
Arsenic acid. H|AsO«. is prepared as shown above, the compound
2H|AsOiHiO on being heated to ioo° C. parting with its water of
crystallization and leaving a residue of the add, which crystallizes
in needles. On heating to 180° C. it loses water and yields pyro-
1 arsenic acid, H«AatOr. which at 200" C. loses more water and leaves
ARSENIC
653
• crystalline man of nteta-rfrsemc add. HAsO*. Theje latter two
acids are only liable in the solid state; they dissolve readily in
Water with evolution of heat and immediate transformation into
the ortho-arsenic acid. The salts of arsenic acid, termed arsenates,
are isomorphous with the phosphates, and in general character and
reactions resemble the phosphates very closely; thus both series
of salts give similar precipitates with "magnesia mixture" and
with ammonium molybdate solution, but they can be distinguished
by their behaviour with silver nitrate solution, arsenates giving a
reddish-brown precipitate.whilst phosphates give a yellow precipitate.
There are three known compounds of arsenic and sulphur, namely,
realgar As^S* orpiment A*jS« t and arsenic pentasulphide As»S»,
Realgar occurs native in orange prisms of specific gravity 3*5 ; it
is prepared artificially by fusing together arsenic and sulpnur, but
the resulting products vary somewhat in composition; it is readily
fusible and sublimes unchanged, and burns on heating in a current
of oxygen, forming arsenic trioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Orpiment (auri pigmentum) occurs native in pale yellow rhombic
prisms, and can be obtained in the amorphous form by passing a
current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through a solution of arscnious
oxide or an arsenite, previously acidified with dilute hydrochloric
add. It melts easily and volatilizes. It burns on heating in air,
and is soluble in solutions of alkaline hydroxides and carbonates,
forming thioarsenites, As£,-t4KHO-K,HAsO,+K 3 HAsS l +H,0.
On addifying the solution so obtained with hydrochloric acid, the
whole of the arsenic is repredpitated as trisulphide, K,HAsO,+
K,HAsSa+*HCl-4KCI +3H l O+As>S*. Arsenic pentasulphide, As,S»,
can be prepared by fusing the trisulphide with the requisite amount
of sulphur: it is a yellow easily-fusible solid, which in absence
of air can be sublimed unchanged ; it is soluble in solutions of the
caustic alkalis, forming thioarsenates, which can also be obtained
by the action of alkali polysulphides on orpiment. The thioarsenites
and thioarsenates of the alkali metals are easily soluble in water,
and are readily decomposed by the action of mineral acids. Arsenic
compounds containing selenium arid sulphur are known, such as
arsenic aeleno-sulphide, AsSeSs, and arsenic thio-sdenide, AsSSci.
Arsenic phosphide, AsP, results when phosphine is passed into arsenic
trichloride, being precipitated as a red- brown powder.
Many organic arsenic compounds are known, analogous to those
of nitrogen and phosphorus, but apparently the primary and
secondary arsines, AsHiCH,.and AsH(CHj) t , do not exist, although
the corresponding chlorine derivatives, AsClfCHi, methyl arsine
chloride, and AsCl(CHa)i, dimethyl arsine chloride, are known.
The tertiary arsine*, such as As(CH»)i, triraethyl arsine, and the
quaternary arsonium iodides and hydroxides, (CHa)«AsI and
(CHt)4As*0H t tetramethy! arsonium iodide and hydroxide, have
been- obtained. The arsinea and arsine chlorides are liquids of over-
powering smdl, and in some cases exert an extrerady irritating action
on the mucous membrane. They do .not possess basic properties;
the halogen in the chlorine compounds is readily replaced by oxygen,
and the oxides produced behave like basic oxides. The chlorides
AsOrCH. and AsCl(CH,), as well as As(CHi), are capable of com-
bining with two atoms of chlorine, the arsenic atom apparently
changing from the tri- to the penta-valent condition, and the corre-
sponding oxygen compounds can also be oxidized to compounds
containing one oxygen atom or two hydroxy 1 groups more, forming
acids or oxides. The compounds of the type AsX*. e.g. AsCU-CH,,
AsCJt(CH«)i, on heating break down, with separation of methyl
chloride and formation of compounds of the type AsXa; the break-
ing down taking place more readily the fewer the number of methyl
groups In the compound. The dimethyl arsine (or cacodyl) com-
pounds have been most studied. On distillation of equal parts of
dry potassium acetate and arsenious oxide, a colourless liquid of
unbearable smdl passes over, which is spontaneously inflammable
and excessively poisonous. It is sometimes called Cadet's fuming
liquid, and its composition was determined by R. Bunsen, who
gave it the name cacodyl oxide (nucAtof, stinking) ; its formation
may be shown thus:
As7*+8CH,CQ,K-2{pi,) 1 As],0+*K,CO,+4aV
The uquid is spontaneously inflammable owing to the presence of
free cacodyl, As,(CH,)<, which is also obtained by heating the oxide
with sine clippings in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide; it is a liquid
of overpowering odour, and boils at 170°C. Cacodyl oxide boils at
150* C. f and on exposure to air takes up oxygen and water and
passes over into the crystalline cacodylic acid, thus:
[(CH,),As]aO+HtO+0, -2(CH,),As00H.
Pharmacology.— 01 arsenic and its compounds, arsenious add
(dose tV~tV gr.) and its preparation liquor arsenicalis, Fowler's
solution (dose 2-8 1TD, are in very common use. The iodide of
arsenic (dose fa- \ gr.) is one of the ingredients of Donovan's
solution (see Mexcuky); and iron arsenate (dose t V ' $ gr. in a
pall), a mixture of ferrous and ferric arsenates with some iron
oxide, is of great use in certain cases. Sodium arsenate (:tVtV
gr.) is somewhat less commonly prescribed, though all the com-
pounds of this metal have great value in experienced hands.
Externally, arsenious add is a powerful caustic when applied
to raw surfaces, though it has no action on the unbroken skin.
Internally, unless the dose be extremely small, all preparations
are severe gastro-intestinal irritants. This effect is the same
however the drug be administered, as, even after subcutaneous
injection, the arsenic is excreted into the stomach after absorp-
tion, and thus sets up gastritis in its passage through the mucous
membrane. In minute doses it is a gastric stimulant, promoting
the flow of gastric juice. It is quickly absorbed into the blood,
where Hs presence can be demonstrated especially in the white
blood corpuscles. In certain forms of anaemia it increases the
number of the red corpusdes and also their haemoglobin content.
None of these known effects of arsenic is sufficient to account for
the profound change that a course of the drug will often produce
in the condition of a patient. It has some power of affecting the
general metabolism, but no wholly satisfactory explanation is
forthcoming. According to Binz and Schultz its power is due
to the fact that it is an oxygen-carrier, arsenious add withdrawing
oxygen from the protoplasm to form arsenic acid, which subse-
quently yields up its oxygen again. It is thus vaguely called an
alterative, since the patient recovers under its use. It is elimin-
ated chiefly by the urine, and to a less extent by the alimentary
canal, sweat, saliva, bile, milk, tears, hair, &c, but it is also
stored up in the body mainly in the liver and kidneys.
Therapeutics. — Externally arsenious acid has been much used
by 1 quack doctors to destroy morbid growths, &c, a paste or
solution being applied, strong enough to kill the mass of tissue
and make it slough out quickly. But many aeddents have
resulted from the arsenic bang absorbed, and the patient thereby
poisoned. Internally it is useful in certain forms of dyspepsia,
but as some patients are quite unable to tolerate the drug, it must
always be administered .in very small doses at first, the quantity
being slowly increased as tolerance is shown. Children as a rule
bear it better than adults. It should never be given on an
empty stomach, but always after a full meal. Certain cases of
anaemia which do not yield to iron are often much improved by
arsenic, though in other apparently similar ones it appears to be
valueless. It is the routine treatment for pernicious anaemia
and Hodgkin's disease, though here again the drug may be of
no avail. For the neuralgia and anaemia following malaria, for
rheumatoid arthritis, for chorea and also asthma and hay fever,
it is constantly prescribed with excellent results. Certain skin
diseases, as psoriasis, pemphigus and occasionally chronic
eczema, are much benefited by its use, though occasionally a
too prolonged course will produce the very lesion for whjch under
other circumstances it is a cure. A recent method of using
the drug is in the form of sodium cacodylate by subcutaneous
injection, and this preparation is said to be free from the cumu-
lative effects sometimes arising after the prolonged use of the
other forms. Other organic derivatives employed are sodium
metharscnite and sodium anilarsenate or atoxyl; hypodermic
injections of the latter have been used in the treatment of
sleeping sickness. Occasionally, as among the Styrians, indi-
viduals acquire the habit of arsenic-eating, which is said to
increase their weight, strength and appetite, and dears their
complexion. The probable explanation is that an antitoxin is
developed within them.
Toxicology and Forensic Medicine.— the commonest source of
arsenical poisoning is the arsenious add or white arsenic, which
In one form is white and opaque, like flour, for which it has been
mistaken with fatal results. Also, as it has little taste and no
colour it is easily mixed with food for homicidal purposes.
When combined with potash or soda it is used to saturate fly-
papers, and strong solutions can be obtained by soaking these in
water; this fact has also been used with criminal intent. Copper
arsenite (or Scheele's green) used to be much employed as a
pigment for wall-papers and fabrics, and toxic effects have'
resulted from their use. Metallic arsenic is probably not
poisonous, but as it usually becomes oxidized in the alimentary
canal, the usual symptoms of arsenical poisoning follow its use.
In acute poisoning the interval between the reception of the
poison and the onset of symptoms ranges from ten minutes, or
even less, If a strong solution be taken on an empty stomach to
65+
ARSENIUS— ARSES
twelve or more hours if the drug be taken in solid form and the
stomach be full of food. The usual period, however, is from
half an hour to an hour. In a typical case a sensation of heat
developing into a burning pain is felt in the throat and stomach.
This is soon followed by uncontrollable vomiting, and a little
later by severe purging, the stools being first of all faecal but
later assuming a rice water appearance and often containing
blood. The patient suffers from intense thirst, which cannot be
relieved, as drinking is immediately followed by rejection of the
swallowed fluid. There is profound collapse, the features are
sunken, the skin moist and cyanosed. The pulse is feeble and
irregular, and respiration is difficult. The pain in the stomach
is persistent, and cramps in the calves of the legs add to the
torture. Death may be preceded by coma, but consciousness is
often maintained to the end. The similarity of the symptoms
to those of cholera is very marked, but if the suspicion arises it
can soon be cleared up by examining any of the secretions for
arsenic. More rarely the poison seems to centre itself on the nerve
centres, and gastrointestinal symptoms may be almost or quite
absent. In such cases the acute collapse occurs in company with
both superficial and deep anaesthesia of the limbs, and is soon
followed by coma terminating in death. In criminal poisoning
repeated doses are usually given; so that such cases may not be
typical, but will present some of the aspects of acute and some of
chronic arsenical poisoning. As regards treatment, the stomach
must be washed out with warm water by means of a soft rubber
tube, an emetic being also administered. Then, if available,
freshly precipitated ferric hydrate must be given, which can be
prepared by adding a solution of ammonia to one of iron per-
chloride. The precipitate is strained off, and the patient can
swallow it suspended in water. While this is being obtained,
magnesia, castor oil or olive oil can be given; or failing all these,
copious draughts of water. The collapse must be treated with hot
blankets and bottles, and subcutaneous injections of brandy, ether
or strychnine. The pain can be lessened by injections of morphia.
Arsenic may be gradually obsorbed into the system in very
small quantities over a prolonged period, the symptoms of
chronic poisoning resulting. The commonest sources used to be
wall-papers, fabrics, artificial flowers and toys: also certain
trades, as in the manufacture of arsenical sheep-dipping. But
at the present time cases arising from these causes occur very
rarely. In 1000 an outbreak of "peripheral neuritis" with
various skin affections occurred in Lancashire, which was traced
to beer made from glucose and invert sugar, in the preparation of
which sulphuric acid contaminated with arsenic was said to
have been used. But the nature of the disease in this case was
decidedly obscure. The symptoms so closely resembled those of
beri-bcri that it has also been suggested that the illness was the
same, and was caused by the manufacture of the glucose from
mouldy rice (sec Beri-Bew), though no proof of this was possible.
The earliest symptoms are slight gastric disorders, loss of appetite
and general malaise, followed later by colicky pains, irritation
of eyelids and skin eruptions. But sooner or later peripheral
neuritis develops, usually beginning with sensory disturbances,
tingling, numbness, formication and occasionally cutaneous
anaesthesia. Later the affected muscles become exquisitely
tender, and then atrophy, while the knee-jerk or other reflex is
lost. Pigmentation of the skin may occur in the later stages,
Recovery is very slow, and in fatal cases death usually results
from heart failure.
After acute poisoning, the stomach at a post-mortem presents
signs of intense inflammation, parts or the whole of its mucous
membrane being of a colour varying from dark red to bright
vermilion and often corrugated. Submucous haemorrhages are
usually present, but perforation is rare. The rest of the ali-
mentary canal exhibits inflammatory changes in a somewhat
lesser degree. After chronic poisoning a widely spread fatty
degeneration is present Arsenic is found in almost every part of
the body, but is retained in largest amount by the liver, secondly
by the kidneys. After death from chronic poisoning it is found
present even in the brain and spongy bone. The detection of
arsenic in criminal cases is effected cither by Reinsch's test or
by Marsh's test, the urine being the secretion analysed when
available. But Reinsch's test cannot be used satisfactorily for a
quantitative determination, nor can it be used in the presence of
chlorates or nitrates. And Marsh's test is vtry unmanageable
with organic liquids on account of the uncontrollable frothing
that takes place. But in such cases the organic matter can be
first destroyed by one of the various methods, usually the moist
method devised by Fresenius being chosen.
ARSENIUS (c. 354-450), an anchorite, said to have been born
of a nobk Roman family, who achieved a high reputation for his
knowledge of Greek and Roman literature. He was appointed
by Theodosius the Great, tutor of the young princes Arcadius
and Honorius, but at the age of forty he retired to Egypt, where
for forty years he lived in monastic seclusion at Scetis in the
Tbebais, under the spiritual guidance of St John the Dwarf.
He is said to have gained the admiration of his fellows by the
extreme rigour of his asceticism. The remainder of his life he
spent at Canopus, and Trot* near Memphis, where he died at the
age of ninety-five. Of his writings two collections of admonitory
maxims are extant: the first, Ai&urxaXfa ml vupafrevir, coo*
taming instructions for monks, is published with a Latin version
by Fr. Combefis in Auctarium bibUoth. pair, novissim, (Paris,
167 a), pp. 301 f.; the second is a collection of forty-four wise
sayings put together by his friends under the title of * Avoetfhrpara
(see Cotelerius, Eccl. grace, monum., 1677, i. pp. 353-373). In
the Roman Catholic Church his festival is on the 10th of July,
in the Orthodox Eastern Church on the 8th of May. His
biography by Simeon Metaphrastes is largely fiction.
ARSENIUS AUTORIANUS (13th century), patriarch of Con*
stantinople, lived about the middle of the 13th century. He
received his education in Nicaea at a monastery of which he
later became the abbot, though not in orders. Subsequently he
gave himself up to a life of solitary asceticism in a Bithynian
monastery, and is said, probably wrongly, to have remained
some time in a monastery on Mount A thos. From this seclusion
he was in a.d. 1255 called by Theodore II. Lascaris to the
position of patriarch at Nicaea, and four years later, on that
emperor's death, became joint guardian of his son John. His
fellow-guardian Georgios Mouxalon was immediately murdered
by Michael Palaeologus, who assumed the position of tutor.
Arsenius then took refuge in the monastery of Paschasius,
retaining his office of patriarch but refusing to discharge its
duties. Nicephorus of Ephesus was appointed in his stead. In
x 261 Michael, having recovered Constantinople, induced Arsenius
again to undertake the office of patriarch, but soon incurred his
severe censure by ordering the young .prince John to be blinded.
Arsenius went so far as to excommunicate the emperor, who,
having vainly sought for pardon, took refuge in false accusations
against Arsenius and caused him to be banished to Proconnesus,
where some years afterwards (according to Fabricius in 1264;
others say in 1 273) he died. Throughout these years he declined
to remove the sentence of excommunication which he had passed
upon Michael, and after his death, when the new patriarch
Josephus gave absolution to the emperor, the quarrel was carried
on between the " Arterites" and the " J<*epnists. n The
"Arscnian schism' 1 lasted till 13x5, when reconciliation was
effected by the patriarch Niphon (see Gibbon, Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury, 1898, voL vi. 467 foil.).
Arsenius is said to have prepared from the decisions of the
councils and the works of the Fathers a summary of divine laws
under the title Synopsis Canonum. This was published (Greek
original and Latin version) by G. Voel and H. Justel in Btidio-
theca Jm. Canon. Vet. (Paris, 1661), 749 folL Some held that
the Synopsis was the work of another Arsenius, a monk of Athoa
(see L. Petit in Vacant's Diet, thiol, eaikol. L eel 1094); the
ascription depends on whether the patriarch Arsenius did or did
not sojourn at Mount Athoa.
See Georyitis Pachvmeret il 15. Hi. passim* iv. I«i6; Niccphorua
Grcgoras hi. 1. iv. ij for the will of Artenius sea Cotelerius,
MQnununta % ii. 168.
ARSES, Persian king, youngest son of Artaxenes in.; was
raised to the throne in 338 bx. by Bagoas («.».), who had
ARSINOE— ARSON
655
murdered his father and all his brothers. But when the young
king tried to make himself independent, Bagoas killed him too,
with all his children, in the third year of his reign (336) (Diod.
27.5; Strabo 15. 736; Tragus, Prol. x., Alexander's despatch
to Darius III.; Arrian ii. 14. 5, and the chronographers). In
Plutarch, Defort. Alex. ii. 3. 5, he is called Oarses; in Johannes
Antioch. p. 38, Arsamor, in the canon of Ptolemy, Aroga
(by Ellas of Nisibis, PirQx); in a chronological tablet from
Babylon (Brit. Mus. Sp. ii. 71, Zeitsckrift fitr AssyriUope, viii.
176, x. 64) he is abbreviated into At*. See Persia: Ancient
History. (Ed. M.)
ARSINOfi, the name of four Egyptian princesses of the
Ptolemaic dynasty. The name was introduced into the Ptolemaic
dynasty by the mother of Ptolemy I. This Arsinoe* was originally
a mistress of Philip II. of Macedon, who presented her to a
Macedonian soldier Loqus shortly before Ptolemy was born. It
was, therefore, assumed by the Macedonians that the Ptolemaic
house was really descended from Philip (see Ptolemies).
x. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of
Ptolemy II. PhOadelphus (285*247 B.C.). Accused of conspiring
against her husband, who perhaps already contemplated marriage
with his sister, also named ArsinoS, she was banished to Coptos,
in Upper Egypt. Her son Ptolemy was afterwards king under
the title of Euergetes. It is supposed by some (e.g. Niebuhr,
KUine Sckriften; cf. Ehrlichs, De Callimacki hymnis) that she is
to be identified with the Arsinoe who became wife of Magas,
king of Cyrene, and that she married him after her exile to
Coptos. But this hypothesis is apparently without foundation.
Magas before his death had betrothed his daughter Berenice to
the son of his brother Ptolemy II. Philadelphia, but Amino*,
disliking the projected alliance, induced Demetrius the Fair,
son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, to accept the throne of Cyrene as
husband of Berenice. She herself, however, fell in love with
the young prince, and Berenice in revenge formed a con-
spiracy, and, having slain Demetrius, married Ptolemy's son
(see Berenice, 3).
2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about
3x6 B.C., she married Lysimachus, king of Thrace, who made
over to her the territories of his divorced wife, Amastris. To
secure the succession for her own children she brought about
the murder of her stepson Agathocles. Lysandra, the wife of
Agathodes, took refuge with Seleucus, king of Syria, who made
war upon Lysimachus and defeated him (381). After her
husband's death Arsinoe" fled to Ephcsus and afterwards to
Cassandreia in Macedonia. Seleucus, who had seized Lysima-
chus's kingdom, was murdered in 281 by Ptolemy Ceraunus
(half-brother of Arsinoe"), who thus became master of Thrace
and Macedonia. To obtain possession of Cassandreia, he offered
his hand in marriage to Arsinoe, and being admitted into the
town, killed her two younger sons and banished her to Samo-
thrace. Escaping to Egypt, she became the wife of her full
brother Ptolemy II., the first instance of the practice (afterwards
common) of the Greek kings of Egypt marrying their sisters.
She was a woman of a masterful character and won great influence.
Her husband, though she bore him no children, was devoted to
her and paid her all possible honour after her death in 271.
He gave her name to a number of cities, and also to a district
(nome) of Egypt. 1 It is related that he ordered the architect
Dinocbares to build a temple in her honour in Alexandria; in
order that her statue, made of iron, might appear to be suspended
in the air, the roof was to consist of an arch of loadstones (Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 42). Coins were also struck, showing her
crowned and veiled on the obverse, with a double cornucopia on
the reverse. She was worshipped as a goddess under the title of
Gfd 4*\a6€\4xrt, and she and hex husband as Owl A6tX0ot
(Justin xxiv. 2, 3; Pausanias i. 7).
See von Prott, Rhein. Mus. lili. (1898), pp. 460 f.
3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of
Ptolemy IV. Philopator.. She seems to be erroneously called
1 The appendix to pt. ii. of the Tebtunis scries of papyri (Grenfell,
Hunt and Goodspecd, 1907) contains a lengthy account of the topo-
graphy of the Arsinoite nome.
Eurydice by Justin (xxx. 2), and Cleopatra by Livy (xxvii. 4).
Her presence greatly encouraged the troops at the battle of
Raphia (217), in which Antiochus the Great was defeated. Her
husband put her to death to please his mistress Agathocleia,
a Samian dancer (between 210 and 205). She was worshipped
as 6cd ^tXor&rop; she and her husband as Qtol ^tXor&ropci
(Polybius v. 83, 84, xv. 25-33).
4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy Xm. Auletes, and sister
of the famous Cleopatra. During the siege of Alexandria by
Julius Caesar (48) she was recognized as queen by the inhabitants,
her brother, the young Ptolemy, being then held captive by
Caesar. Caesar took her with him to Rome as a precaution.
After Caesar's triumph she was allowed to return to Alexandria.
After the battle of Phflippi she was put to death at Miletus
(or in the temple of Artemis at Ephesus) by order of Mark
Antony, at the request qf her sister Cleopatra (Dio Cassius
xlii. 39; Caesar, Bell. civ. ill. 1x2; Appian, Bell. civ. v. 9).
Authorities.— For general authorities see article Ptolemies.
The article " Arsfnoe' " in Pauly-Wissowa's Rtalencydopidi* contains
a full list of those who bore the name, and also of the numerous towns
which were called after the various princesses.
AR8IN0ITHERIUM (so called from the Egyptian queen
ArsinoC), a gigantic horned mammal from the Middle Eocene
beds of the Fayum, Egypt, representing a sub-order of Ungulata,
called Barypoda. The skull is remarkable for carrying a huge
pair of horn-cores above the muzzle, which seem to be the en-
larged nasal bones, and a rudimentary pair farther back; the
front horn-cores, like the rest of the skull, consist of a mere shell
of bone, and were probably clothed in life with horny sheaths.
The teeth form a continuous even series, the small canines being
crowded between the incisors and premolars; the' crowns of the
cheek-series are tall (hypsodont), with a distinctive pattern of
their own. Although the brain is relatively larger, the bones of
the limbs, especially the short, five-toed feet, approximate to
those of the Amblypoda and Proboscidea; but in the articula-
tion of the 'astragalus with both the navicular and cuboid
Artinotiheriatm is nearer the former than the latter group.
It is probable, however, that these resemblances are mainly
*dtte to parallelism in development, and are in all three cases
adaptations necessary to support the enormous weight of the
body. On the other hand, the marked resemblance of the
structure of the tarsus is probably indicative of descent from
nearly allied condylarthrous ancestors (see Phenacodus). No
importance can be attached to the presence of horns as an
indication of affinity between Arsinoitherium and the Ambly-
poda; and there are important differences in the structure of
the skulls of the two, notably in the external auditory meatus,
the occiput, the premaxillae,' the palatal foramina and the lower
jaw.
From the Proboscidea ArsinoUhcrinm differs broadly in skull
structure, in the form of the cheek-teeth, and in the persistence
of the complete dental series of forty-four without gaps or
enlargement of particular teeth. Whether there is any relation-
ship with the Hyracoidea cannot be determined until we are
acquainted with the forerunners of Arsinoilkerivm, which is
evidently a highly specialized type.
It may be added that as the name Barypoda has been used
at an earlier date for another group of animals, the alternative
title Embrithopoda has been suggested in case the former should
be considered barred.
See C. W. Andrews, Descriptive Catalogue qftk* Tertiary Verlebrata
of the Fayum, British Museum (1906). (R. L.*)
ARSON (from Lat. ardcre, to burn), a crime which has been
described as the malicious and voluntary burning of the house of
another (3 Co. Inst. 66). At common law in England it is an
offence of the degree of felony. In the Roman civil law arson
was punishable by death. It appears early in the history of
English law, being known in ancient laws by the term of bocrnet.
It is mentioned by Cnut as one of the bootless crimes, and under
the Saxon laws was punishable by death. The sentence of death
for arson was, says Stephen {Commentaries, iv. 89), in the reign
of Edward I. executed by a kind of lex talionis, for the incendiaries
were burnt to death; a punishment which was inflicted also under
656
ARSONVAL— ARSUF
the Gothic institutions. Death continued to be the penalty at
least down to the reign of King John, according to a reported
case (Gloucester Pleas, pi. 2 16), but in course of time the penalty
became that of other common-law felonies, death by the gallows.
It is one of the earliest crimes in which the mens rea, or criminal
intent, was taken special notice of. Bracton deals at length with
the mala conscicnlia, which he says is necessary for this crime,
and contrasts it with negligcntia (f. 146 b), while in many early
indictments malice aforethought (malitia praecogilata) appears.
Arson was deprived of " benefit of clergy " under the Tudors,
while an act of 8 Henry VI. c. 6 (1429) made the wilful burning
of houses, under particular circumstances, high treason, but acts
of 1 Ed. VI. c. 12 (t$47) and 1 Mary (1*53) reduced it to an
ordinary felony. The English law concerning arson was con-
solidated by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, which was repealed and re-
enacted by the Malicious Damage Act 1861.
The common-law offence of arson (which has been greatly en-
larged by the act of 1861) required some part of the house to be
actually burnt; neither a bare intention nor even an actual
attempt by putting fire in or towards it will constitute the
offence, if no part was actually burnt, but the burning of any
part, however trifling, is sufficient, and the offence is complete
even if the fire is put out or goes out of itself. The burning
must be malicious and wilful, otherwise it is only a trespass.
If a man by wilfully setting fire to his own house burn the house
of his neighbour also, it will be a felony, even though the primary
intention of the party was to burn his own house only. The
word house, in the definition of the offence at common law,
extends not only to dwelling-houses, " but to all out-houses
which are parcel thereof, though not adjoining thereto." Barns
with corn and hay in them, though distant from a house, are
within the definition.
The different varieties of the offence are specified in the
Malicious Damage Act 1861. The following crimes are thereby
made felonies: (1) setting fire to any church, chapel, meeting-
house or other place of divine worship; (2) setting fire to a
dwelling-house, any person being therein; (3) setting fire to a
bouse, out-house, manufactory, farm-building, &c, with intent
to impose and defraud any person; (4) setting fire to building*
appertaining to any railway, port, dock or harbour; or (5)
setting fire to any public building. In these cases the act pro-
vides that the person convicted shall be liable, at the discretion
of the court, to be kept in penal servitude for life, or for any
term not less than three years (altered to five years by the Penal
Servitude Acts Amendment Act 1864), or to be imprisoned for
any time not exceeding two years, with or without hard labour,
and, if a male under sixteen years of age, with or without whip-
ping. Setting fire to other buildings, and setting fire to goods
in buildings under such circumstances that, if the building were
thereby set fire to, the offence would amount to felony, are
subject to the punishments last enumerated, with this exception
that the period of penal servitude is limited to fourteen years.
The attempt to set fire- to any building, or any matter or thing
not enumerated above, is punishable as a felony. Russell says
{Crimes, p. 1781) that the term building is no doubt very in-
definite, but it was used in 9 & 10 Vict. c. 35, a. 2; and it was
thought much better to adopt this term and leave it to be inter-
preted as each case might arise, than to attempt to define; as
any such attempt would probably have failed in producing any
expression more certain than the term " building " itself. In
R. v. Manning, 1872 (L.R. 1 C.C.R. 338), it was held that an
unfinished house was a building within the meaning of the act.
The setting fire to crops of hay, grass, corn, &c, is punishable
by penal servitude for any period not exceeding fourteen years,
but setting fire to stacks of the same, or any cultivated vegetable
produce, or to peat, coals, &c, is regarded as a more serious
offence, and the penal servitude may be for life. For the
attempt to commit the last two offences penal servitude is limited
to seven years. Setting fire to mines of coal, anthracite or other
mineral fuel is visited with the full measure of penalty, and in
the ca&e of an attempt the penal servitude is limited to fourteen
years. By the Dockyards, &c., Protection Act 1772 it is a felony
punishable by death wilfully and maliciously to set fire to any
of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war, or any of His Majesty's
arsenals, magazines, dockyards, rope-yards, victualling offices
or buildings therein, or any timber, material, stores or ammuni-
tion of war therein or in any part of His Majesty's dominions.
If the person guilty of the offence is a person subject to naval
discipline, he is triable by court-martial, and if found guilty, a
sentence of capital punishment may be passed. The Malicious
Damage Act 1S61, s. 43, also includes as a felony the setting
fire to any ship or vessel, with intent to prejudice any owner
or part owner of the vessel, or of any goods on the same, or any
person who has underwritten any policy of insurance on the vessel,
or upon any goods on board the same.
In Scotland the offence equivalent to arson in England is
known by the more expressive name of fire-raising. The crime
was punishable capitally by old consuetudinary law, but it is
now no longer capital, and may be tried in the sheriff court
(50 & 51 Vict. c. 35, s. 56). Formerly the public prosecutor had
the privilege of declining to demand capital punishment, and he
invariably did so. Wilful fire-raising, which is the most heinous
form of the crime, requires the raising of fire, without any lawful
object, but with the deliberate intention of destroying certain
premises or things, whether directly by the application of fire
thereto, or indirectly by its application to something contained
in or forming part of or communicating with them; also the
intention to destroy premises or things of a certain description
(much as mentioned above); and such premises or things must
be the property of another than the accused. Wicked, culpable
and reckless fire-raising differs Xrora wilful fire-raising in that the
fire is raised without the deliberate intention of destroying premises
or things, but while the accused was engaged in some unlawful
act, or while he was in such a state of passion, excitement or
recklessness as not to care what results might follow from his acts.
United Stales. — The same general principles apply to this crime
in American law, In some states by statute the intent to injure
or defraud must be shown, e.g. when the property is insured.
In New York one who wilfully burns property (including a
vessel or its cargo) with intent to defraud or prejudice the
insurer thereof, though the offence of arson » not committed,
is punishable by imprisonment for not more than five years
(N.Y. Pen. Code, ss. 575, 578). There must be an intent to
destroy the building (ibid. s. 490; California Code, s. 447). An
agreement to commit arson is conspiracy {ibid. s. 172). Killing a
person in committing the crime of arson is murder in the first
degree {ibid. s. 183); this is so in California, even where the crime
is merely an attempt to commit arson (Cal. Pen. Code, a. x£?).
Explosion of a house by gunpowder or dynamite is arson (Texas
Pen. Code, art. 761), but a charge of arson by " burning " will
not be sustained by proof of exploding by dynamite, even
though part of the building is burnt by the explosion (Lenders v.
Slate [Tcx.L 47 S.VV. 1008).
Histor ,
on Cnnus.
ARSONVAL, a village of France in the department of Aube,
lies on the right bank of the Aube, about 30 m. east of Troves*
It has a church dating from the 12th century. Pop. 434.
ARSOT, the name of a forest in France, in the immediate
neighbourhood of BelforL It has an area of about 1500 acres,
is almost encircled by a small stream, the Eloie, and is about
2400 ft. above the sea. On the east it is continued by the forest
of Denncy, which contains the fortress of Roppe, dominating the
road from Colmar into France.
ARSUF, a town on the coast of Palestine, 12 m. N.N.E. of
Jaffa, famous as the scene of a victory of the crusaders under
Richard I. of England over the army of Saladin. After the
capture of Acre on the 12th of July 1191, the army of the
crusaders, under Richard Cccur-de-Lion and the duke of
Burgundy, opened their campaign for the recovery of Jerusalem
by marching southward towards Jaffa, from which place it t»as
intended to move direct upon the holy city. The inarch was
ARSURE— ART
657
along the seashore, and* the forces of Saladin being in the
vicinity, the army moved in such & formation as to be able to
give battle at any moment. Richard thus moved slowly but in
such compact order as to arouse the admiration even of the
enemy. The right column of baggage and supplies, guarded by
infantry, was nearest the sea, the various corps of heavy cavalry,
one behind the other, formed the central column, and on the
exposed left flank was the infantry, well closed up, and " level
and firm as a wall/' according to the testimony of Saracen authors.
The columns were united into a narrow rectangle by the advanced
and rear guards. The whole march was a running fight between
untiring horse-archers and steady infantry. Only once did the
column open out, and the-opportunity was swiftly seized by the
Saracens, yet so rapid was the rally of the crusaders that little
damage was done (August 2$). The latter maintained for many
days an absolutely passive defence, and could not be tempted to
fight; Richard and his knights made occasional charges, but
quickly withdrew, and on the 7th of September this irregular
skirmishing, in which the crusaders had scarcely suffered at all*
culminated in the battle of Arsuf. Saladin had by now decided
that the only hope of success lay in compelling the rear of the
Christians' column to halt — and thus opening a gap, should the
van be still on the move. Richard, on the other hand, had
prepared for action by closing up still more, and as the crusaders
were now formed a simple left turn brought them into two lines
of battle, infantry in first line, cavalry in second line. Near
Arsuf the road entered a defile between the sea and a wooded
range of hills; and from the latter the whole Moslem army
suddenly burst forth. The weight of the attack fell upon the
rear of Richard's column, as Saladin desired. The column
slowly continued Us march, suffering heavily in horses, but
otherwise unharmed. The first assault thus made no impression,
but a fierce hand-to-hand combat followed, in which the Hospit-
allers, who formed the rear of the Christian army, were hard
pressed. Their grand master, like many other subordinates in
history, repeatedly begged to be allowed to charge, but Richard,
who on this occasion showed the highest gift of generalship, that
of feeling the pulse of the fight, waited for the favourable
moment. Almost as he gave the signal for the whole line to
charge, the sorely pressed Hospitallers rode out upon the enemy
on their own initiative. At once the whole of the cavalry
followed suit. The head (or right wing) and centre were not
closely engaged, and their fleeter opponents had time to ride off,
but the rear of the column carried all before it in its impetuous
onset, and cut down the Saracens in great numbers. A second
charge, followed by a third, dispersed the enemy in all directions.
The total loss of the Saracens was more than tenfold that of
the Christians, who lost but seven hundred men. The army
arrived at Jaffa on the 10th of September.
See Oman, Hist, of the Art of War, u. 303-317.
ARSURB, a village of France in the department of Jura, has
some stone quarries and extensive layers of peat in its neighbour-
hood, tts church has a choir dating from the nth century.
Pop. 370.
ARSURES, a village of France in the department of Jura,
situated on a small stream, the Lurine. It is surrounded by
vineyards, from which excellent wine is produced. Pop. 233.
ART, a word in ita most extended and most popular sense
meaning everything which we distinguish from Nature. Art and
Nature are the two most comprehensive genera of which the
human mind has formed the conception. Under the genus
Nature, or the genus Art, we include all the phenomena of the
universe. But as our conception of Nature is indeterminate and
variable, so in some degree is our conception of Art. Nor does
such ambiguity arise only because some modes of thought refer a
greater number of the phenomena of the universe to the genus
Nature, and others a greater number to the genus Art. It arises
also because we do not strictly limit the one genus by the other.
The range of the phenomena to which we point, when we say Art,
is never very exactly determined by the range of the other
phenomena which at the same time we tacitly refer to the order of
Nature. Everybody understands the general meaning of a phrase
like Chaucer's " Nature ne Art ne fcoude him not amende," or
Pope's '■ Blest with each grace of nature.and of art." In such
phrases we intend to designate familiarly as Nature all which
exists independently of our study, forethought and exertion — in
other words, those phenomena in ourselves or the world which we
do not originate but find; and we intend to designate familiarly
as Art all which we do not find but originate— or, in other
words, the phenomena, which we add by study, forethought
and exertion to those existing independently of us. But we do
not use these designations consistently. Sometimes we draw an
arbitrary line in the action of individuals and societies, and say,
Here Nature ends and Art begins— such a law, such a practice,
such an industry even, is natural, an.d such another is artificial;
calling those natural which happen spontaneously and without
much reflection, and the others artificial. But this line different
observers draw at different places. Sometimes we adopt views
which waive the distinction altogether. One auch view is that
wherein all phenomena are regarded as equally natural, and the -
idea of Nature is extended so as to include "all the powers
existing in either the outer or the inner world, and everything
which exists by means of those powers." In this view Art
becomes a part of Nature. It is illustrated in the familiar
passage of Shakespeare, where Polixenea reminds Perdita that
" Nature is made better by no mean.
But nature makes that mean. so. over that art
Which, you say, adds to nature, ts an art
That nature makes." . . .
" This is an art
Wtych does mend nature, change it rather, but
The art itself is nature."
A posthumous essay of John Stuart Mill contains a full philo-
sophical exposition and defence of this mode of regarding the
relations of Nature and Art. Defining Nature as above, and again
as a " collective name for all facts, actual and possible," that
writer proceeds to say that such a definition
" is evidently inapplicable to some of the modes in which the word
is familiarly employed. For example, it entirely conflicts with the
common form of speech by which Nature is oppoied to Art, and
natural to artificial. For in the sense of the word Nature which has
thus been defined, and a which is the true scientific sense. Art is as
much Nature as anything else; and everything which is artificial is
natural — Art has no independent powers of its own: Art is but
the employment of the powers of Nature for an end. Phenomena
produced by human agency, no lass than those which, as far as we
are concerned, are spontaneous, depend on the properties of the
elementary forces, or of the elemdntary substances and their com-
pounds. The united powers of the whole human race could not
create a new property of matter in general, or of any one of its species.
We can only take advantage for our purposes of the properties we
find. A ship floats by the same laws of specific gravity and equi-
librium as a tree uprooted by the wind and blown into the water;
The corn which men raise for food grows and produces its grain by
the same laws of vegetation by which the wild rose and the mountain
str awb erry bring forth their flowers and fruit. A house stands and
holds together by the natural properties, the weight and cohesion
of the materials which compose it. A steam engine works by the
natural expansive force of steam, exerting a pressure upon one
part of a system of arrangements, which pressure, by the mechanical
properties of the lever, is transferred from that to another part,
where it raises the weight or. removes the obstacle brought into con-
nexion with it. In these and all other artificial operations the
office of man is, as has often been remarked, a very limited one; it
consists of moving things into certain places. We move objects,
and by doing this, bring some things intocontact which were separate,
or separate others which were in contact; and by this simple change
of place, natural forces previously dormant are called into action,
and produce the desired effect. Even the volition which designs,
the intelligence which contrives, and the muscular force which
executes these movements, are themselves powers of Nature."
Another mode of thought, in some sort complementary to
the last, is baaed on the analogy which the operations of forces
external to a man bear to the operations of man himself. Study,
forethought and exertion are assigned to Nature, and her
operations are called operations of Art. This view was familiar
to ancient systems of philosophy, and especially to that of
the Stoics. According to the report of Cicero, Nature as con-
ceived by Zeno was a fire, and at the same time a voluntary agent
having the power or art of creating things with regularity and
design (" naturam esse ignem artificiosum ad gignendum pro*
gredientem via"). To this fire not merely creative fofc" — J
6 5 8
ART
systematic action were ascribed, but actual personality. Nature
was " non artificiosa solum, sed plane artifex." " That which
in the works of human art is done by hands, is done with much
greater art by Nature, that is, by a fire which exercises an art
and is the teacher of other arts." This conception of Nature
as an all-generating fire, and at the same time as a personal
artist both teaching and including in her own activity all the
human arts, on the one hand may be said, with Polixenes and
J. S. Mill, to merge Art in Nature; but on the other hand it
finds the essence of Nature in the resemblance of her operations
to those of Art " It is the proprium of art," according to the
same system, " to create and beget," and the reasoning proceeds
— Nature creates and begets, therefore Nature is an artist or
Dcmiurgus. A kindred view is set forth by Sir Thomas Browne
in the Religio Medici, when he declares that "all things are
artificial; for Nature is the Art of God."
But these modes of thought, according to which, on the one
hand, the processes of Art are included among processes of
Nature, or on the other the processes of Nature among the pro-
cesses of Art, are exceptional In ordinary use the two concep-
tions, each of them somewhat vague and inexact, are antithetical.
Their antithesis was what Dr Johnson had chiefly in his mind
when he defined Art as " the power of doing something which
is not taught by Nature or by instinct" But this definition
is insufficient, because the abstract word Art, whether used
of all arts at once or of one at a time, is a name not only for the
power of doing something, but for the exercise of the power;
and not only for the exercise of the power, but for the rules
according to which it is exercised; and not only for the rules,
but for the result Painting, for instance, is an art, and the word
connotes not only the power to paint, but the act of painting;
and not only the act, but the laws for performing the act rightly;
and not only all these, but the material consequences of the
act or the thing painted. So of agriculture, navigation and
the rest Exception might also be taken to Dr Johnson's defini-
tion on the ground that it excludes all actions of instinct from
the genus Art, whereas usage has in more languages than one
given the name of Art to several of those ingenuities in the lower
animals which popular theory at the same time declares to be
instinctive. Dante, for instance, speaks of boughs shaken by the
wind, but not so violently as to make the birds forgo their Art —
" Non pero dal lor ester dritto sparte
Tanto, chc jri' augctletti per le clme
Lasciasser <P operar ogni lor arte.'*
And Fontenelle, speaking in the language not of poetry but
of science:—" Most animals— as, for instance, bees, spiders
and beavers — have a kind of art peculiar to themselves; but
each race of animals has no more than one art, and this one
has had no first inventor among the race. Man, on the other
hand, has an infinity of different arts which were not born with
his race, and of which the glory is his own." Dr Johnson might
reply that those properties of variety and of originality or in-
dividual invention, which Fontenelle himself alleges in the
ingenuities of man but not in those of the lower animals, are
sufficient to make a generic difference, and to establish the
impropriety of calling a honeycomb or a spider's web a work
of Art It is not our purpose to trespass on ground so debateable
as that of the nature of consciousness in the lower animals.
Enough that when we use the term Art of any action, it is because
we are thinking of properties in the action from which we infer,
whether justly or not, that the agent voluntarily and designedly
puts forth skill for known ends and by regular and uniform
methods. If, then, we were called upon to frame a general
definition of Art, giving the word its widest and most compre-
hensive meaning, it would run thus: — Every regulated operation
or dexterity by which organited beings pursue ends which they know
beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such
operation or dexterity.
Here it will be well to consider very briefly the natural history
of the name which has been given to this very comprehensive
conception by the principal branches of civilized mankind.
Our own word Art the English language has taken, as all the
Romance languages of modern Europe have taken theirs, directly
from the Latin. The Latin ars, according to the prevailing
opinion of philologists, proceeds from a root AR, of which the
primitive signification was to put or fit things together, and
which is to be found in a large family of Greek words. The
Greek rkxyn, the name both for arts in the particular and art
in the abstract, is by its root related both to rfcr-rur and
rU-rov, and thus contains the allied ideas of making and beget-
ting. The proprium of art in the logic of the Stoics, " to create
and beget," was strictly in accordance with this etymology.
The Teutonic Kunst is formed from kbnnen, and kbnnen is
developed from a primitive Ich kann. In kann philology is
inclined to recognize a preterite form of a lost verb, of which
we find the traces in Kin-d, a child; and the form lch kann
thus meaning originally " I begot," contains the germ of the two
several developments, — kbnnen, " to be master," " to be able/'
and kennen, " to know." We thus see that the chief Indo-
European languages have with one consent extended a name for
the most elementary exercise of a constructive or productive
power, till that name has covered the whole range of the skilled
and deliberate operations of sentient beings.
In proportion as men left out of sight the idea of creation, ot
constructing or producing, " artificiosum esse ad gignendum,"
which is the primitive half of this extended notion, and attended
only to the idea of skill, of proceeding by regular and disciplined
methods, "progredi via," which is the superadded half, the
whole notion Art, and the name for it, might become subject to
a process of thought which, if analysed, would be like this: —
What is done by regular and disciplined methods is Art; facts
are observed and classified, and a systematic view of the order
of the universe obtained, by regular and disciplined methods;
the observing and classifying of facts, and obtaining a systematic
view of the order of the universe, is therefore Art. To a partial
extent this did unconsciously take place. Science, of which the
essence is only in knowledge and theory, came to be spoken of as
Art, of which the essence is all in practice and production.
Cicero, notwithstanding his citation of the Stoical dictum that
practice and production were of the essence of Art, elsewhere
divides Art into two kinds— one by which things are only
contemplated in the mind, another by which something is pro-
duced and done. ("Quumque artium aliud eiusmodi ait, ut
tantummodo rem cernat; aliud, ut moliatur aliquid et faciat"
—Acad. ii. 7.) Of the former kind his instance is geometry; of
the latter the art of playing on the lyre. Now geometry, under*
standing by geometry an acquisition of the mind, that is, a
collected body of observations and deductions concerning the
properties of space and magnitude* ts a science and not an art;
although there is an art of the geometer, which is the skill by
which he solves any given problem in his science, and the rules
of that skill, and his exertion in putting it forth. And so every
science has its instrumental art or practical discipline; and in
as far as the word Art is used only of the practical discipline or
dexterity of the geometer, the astronomer, the logician, the
grammarian, or other person whose business it is to collect and
classify facts for contemplation, in so far the usage is just The
same justification may be extended to another usage, whereby
Jn Latin, and some of its derivative languages, the name Art came
to be transferred in a concrete sense to the body of rules, the
written code or manual, which lays down the discipline and
regulates the dexterity ; as art grammatica, ars logic*, an rhetor u. a
and the rest But when the word is stretched so as to mean the
sciences, as theoretical acquisitions of the mind, that meaning is
illegitimate. Whether or not Cicero, in the pasaage above quoted,
had in his mind the science of geometry as a collected body of
observations and deductions, it is certain that the Ciceronian
phrase of the liberal arts, the ingenuous aria, both in Latin and
its derivatives or translations in modern speech, has been used
currently to denote the sciences themselves, and not merely
the disciplines instrumental to them. The tritium and the
quodrivium ( grammar, logic and rhetoric—geometry, astronomy,
music and arithmetic) have been habitually called arts, when
some of them have been named in that sense in which they mean
ART
659
not arts but sciences, " only contemplating things in the mind."
Hence the nomenclature, history and practical organization,
especially in Britain, of one great division of university studies:
the division of " arts," with its " faculty/' its examinations, and
its degrees.
In the German language the words for Art and Science have in
general been loosely interchanged. The etymology of the word
for Art secured a long continuance for this ambiguity. Kunst
was employed indiscriminately in both the senses of the primitive
Ick Jtann, to signify what I know, or Science, and what I can do,
or Art. It was not till the end of the 17th century that a separate
word for Science, the modern Wistenschaft, came into use.
On the other hand, the Greek word T*x*9t with its distinct
suggestion of the root signification to make or get, acted probably
as a safeguard against this tendency. The distinction between
rix^Vf Art or practice, and tnariitt* , knowledge or Science, is
observed, though not systematically, in Greek philosophy. But
for our present purpose, that of making clear the true relation
between the one conception and the other, further quotation is
rendered superfluous by the discussion the subject has received
at the hands of the modern writer already quoted. Between Art,
of which we practise the rules, and Science, of which we entertain
the doctrines, J. S. Mill establishes the difference in the simplest
shape, by pointing out that one grammatical mood is proper for
the conclusions of Science, and another for those of Art. Science
enunciates her conclusions in the indicative mood, whereas
" the imperative is the characteristic of Art, as distinguished
from Science." And as Art utters her conclusions in her own
form, so she supplies the substance of her own major premise.
" Every art has one first principle, or general major premise, not
borrowed from science, that which enunciates the object aimed at,
and affirms it to be a desirable object. The builder s art assumes
that it is desirable to have buildings; architecture (as one of the
6ne arts) that it is desirable to have them beautiful and imposing.
The hygienic and medical arts assume, the one that the preservation
of health, the other that the cure of disease, are fitting and desirable
ends. These are not propositions of science. Propositjonsof science
assert a matter of fact — an existence, a co-existence, a succession,
or a resemblance. The propositions now spoken of do not assert
that anything is, but enjoin or recommend that something should
be. They are a class by themselves. A proposition of which the
predicate is expressed by the words ought or should be is genericaUy
different from one which is expressed by is or will be."
And the logical relation of Art and Science, in other words,
the manner of framing the intermediate member between the
general major premise of Art and its imperative conclusion, is
thus defined: —
u The Art f!n any given easel proposes to itself an end to be
attained, defines the end, and hands it over to the Science. The
Science receives it, considers it as a phenomenon or effect to be
studied, and having investigated its causes and conditions, sends
it back to Art witn a theorem of the causes and combinations by
which it could be produced. Art then examines these combinations
of circumstances, and according as any of them are or are not in
human power, pronounces the end attainable or not. The only one
of the premises, therefore, which Art supplies, is the original major
premise, which asserts that the attainment of the given end is
desirable. Science, then, lends to Art the proposition (obtained by
• series of inductions or deductions) that the performance of certain
actions will attain the end. From these premises Art concludes that
the performance of these actions is desirable, and finding it also
practicable, converts the theorem into a rule or precept. . . . The
ground*, then, of every rule of Art are to be found in the theorems
of Science. An Art, or a body of Art, consists of the rules, together
with as much of the speculative propositions as comprises the justifi-
cation of these rules. The complete Art of any matter includes a
selection of such a portion from the Science as is necessary to show
on what conditions the effects, which the Art aims at producing:.
depend. And Art in general consists of the truths of Science arranged
in the most convenient order for practice, instead of the order which
is most convenient for thought. Science groups and arranges its
truths so as to enable us to take in at one view as much as possible
of the general order of the universe. Art, though it must assume the
same general laws, follows them only into such of their detailed
consequences as have led to the formation of rules of conduct, and
brings together from parts of the field of Science most remote from
one another, the truths relating to the production of the different and
heterogeneous causes necessary to each effect which .the exigencies
of practical life require to be produced."— (Mill's Lofk, vol. ii. pp.
$42-549).
The whole discussion nay be summed up thus. Science
consists in knowing, Art consists in doing. What I most do in
order to know, is Art subservient to Science: what I must know
in order to do, is Science subservient to Art.
Art, then, is denned by two broad distinctions: first, its
popular distinction from Nature; and next, its practical and
theoretic distinction from Science. Both of these distinctions
are observed in the terms of our definition given above. Within
the proper limits of this definition, the conception of Art, and
the use of the word for it, have undergone sundry variations.
These variations correspond to certain vicissitudes or develop-
ments in the order of historical facts and in society. The
requirements of society, stimulating the ingenuity of its individual
members, have led to the invention of- arts and groups of arts,
constantly progressing, with the progress of civilisation, in
number, in complexity, and in resource. The religious imagina-
tion of early societies, who find themselves in possession of such
an art or group of arts, forgets the history of the invention, and
assigns it to the inspiration or special grace of some god or hero.
So the Greeks assigned the arts of agriculture to Triptolemus,
those of spinning and navigation to Athena, and of music to
Apollo. At one stage of civilization one art or group of arts Is
held in higher esteem, another at another. In societies, like most
of those of the ancient world, where slaves were employed in
domestic service, and upon the handicrafts supplying the
immediate utilities of life— food, shelter and clothing— these
constituted a group of servile arts. The arts of husbandry or
agriculture, on the other hand, have alternately been regarded
as servile and as honourable according as their exercise has been
in the hands of a subject class, as under feudal institutions, or,
as under the Roman republic, of free cultivators. Under feudal
institutions, or in a society in a state of permanent war, the allied
arts of war and of government have been held the only honourable
class. In commercial states, like the republics of Italy, the arts
of gain, or of production (other than agricultural) and distribution,
have made good their title to equal estimation and greater power
beside the art of captains. But among peaceful arts, industries
or trades, some have always been held to be of higher and others
of lower rank; the higher rank being assigned to those that
required larger operations, higher training, or more thoughtful
conduct, and yielded ampler returns — the lower rank to those
which called for simple manual exercise, especially if such
exercise was of a disagreeable or degrading kind. In the cities
of Italy, where both commerce and manufactures were for the
first time organized on a considerable scale, the name arte, Art,
was retained to designate the gilds or corporations by which the
several industries were exercised; and, according to the nature
of the industry, the art was classed as higher or lower (maggiore
and minore).
The arts of which we have hitherto spoken have arisen from
positive requirements, and supply what are strictly utilities, in
societies; not excluding the art of war, at least so far as concerns
one-half of war, the defensive half. But war continued to be
an honourable pursuit, because it was a pursuit associated
with birth, power and wealth, as well as with the virtue of
courage, in cases where it had no longer the plea of utility, but
was purely aggressive or predatory; and the arts of the chase
have stood in this respect in an analogous position to those
of war.
There are other arts which have not had their origin in positive
practical needs, but have been practised from the first for
pleasure or amusement The most primitive human beings of
whom we have any knowledge, the cave-dwellers of the palaeo-
lithic period, had not only the useful art of chipping stones into
spear-heads, knife-heads and arrow-heads, and making shafts
or handles of these implements out of bone; they had also the
ornamental art of scratching upon the bone handle the outlines
of the animals they saw^-mammoth, rhinoceros or reindeer— -or
of carving such a handle into a rude resemblance of one of these
animals. Here we have a skill exercised, in the first case, for pure
fancy or pleasure, and in the second, for adding an elemen* Aff
fancy or pleasure to an element of utility. Here, therefore
66o
ARTA— ARTABANUS
germ of all those arts which produce imitations of natural objects
for purposes of entertainment or delight, as painting, sculpture,
and their subordinates; and of all those which fashion useful
objects in one way rather than another because the one way gives
pleasure and the other does not, as architecture and the subordi-
nate decorative arts of furniture, pottery and the rest. Arts that
work in a kindred way with different materials are those of
dancing and music. Dancing works with the physical movements
of human beings. Music works with sound. Between that
imitative and plastic group, and the group of these which only
produce motion or sound and pass away, there is the inter-
mediate group of eloquence and the drama, which deal with the
expression of human feeling in spoken words and acted gestures.
There is also the comprehensive art of poetry, which works with
the material of written words, and cm ideally represent the
whole material of human life and experience. Of all these arts
the end is not use but pleasure, or pleasure before use, or at least
pleasure and use conjointly. In modern language, there has
grown up a usage which has put them into a class by themselves
under the name of the Fine Arts, as distinguished from the
Useful or Mechanical Arts. (See Aesthetics and Fine Akts.)
Nay more, to them alone is often appropriated the use of the
generic word Art, as if they and they only were the arts jrar'4{ox4"-
And further yet, custom has reduced the number which the
class-word b meant to include. When Art and the works of Art
•re now currently spoken of in this sense, not even music or
poetry is frequently denoted, but only architecture, sculpture
and painting by themselves, or with their subordinate and
decorative branches. In correspondence with this usage,
another usage has removed from the class of arts, and put into a
contrasted class of manufactures, a large number of industries
and their products, to which the generic term Art, according
to our definition, properly applies. The definition covers the
mechanical arts, which can be efficiently exercised by mere
trained habit, rote or calculation, just as well as the fine arts,
which have to be exercised by a higher order of powers. But
the word Art, becoming appropriated to the fine arts, has been
treated as if it necessarily carried along with it, and as if works
to be called works of art must necessarily possess, the attributes
of free individual skill and invention, expressing themselves in
ever new combinations of pleasurable contrivance, and seeking
perfection not as a means towards some ulterior practical end
but as an ideal end in itself. (S. C.)
ARTA (Nardo, i.e. h "Apia, or Zarto, i.e. eft "Apro), a town of
Greece, in the province of Arta, 59 m. N.N.W. of Mcsolonghi.
Pop. about 7000. It is built on the site of the ancient Ambracia
(q.v.), its present designation being derived from a corruption
of the name of the river Arachthus (Arta) on which it stands.
This enters the Gulf of Arta some distance south of the town.
The river forms the frontier between Greece and Turkey, and is
crossed by a picturesque bridge, which is neutral ground. There
are a few remains of old cydopean walls. The town contains
also a Byzantine castle, built on the lofty site of the ancient
citadel; a palace belonging to the Greek metropolitan; a number
of mosques, synagogues and churches, the most remarkable
being the church of the Virgin of Consolation, founded in 819.
The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869.
Manufacture of woollens, cottons, Russia leather and em-
broidery is carried on, and there is trade in cattle, wine, tobacco,
hemp, hides and grain. Much of the neighbouring plain is very
fertile, and the town is surrounded with gardens and orchards,
in which orange, lemon and citron come to great perfection.
In 1083 Arta was taken by Bohemund of Tarentum; in 1449
by the Turks; in 1688 by the Venetians. In 1797 it was held
by the French, but in the following year, 1798, Ali Pasha of
Iannina captured it. During the Greek War of Independence
ft suffered severely, and was the scene of several conflicts, in
which the ultimate success was with the Turks. An insurrec-
tion in 1854 was at once repressed. It was ceded to Greece
In 1881. In the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the Greeks
•••*«ed some temporary successes at Art* during April and
ARTA, GULF OF (anc. Sinus Ambr actus), an inlet of the
Ionian Sea, 25 m. long and 10 broad, most of the northern shores
of which belong to Turkey, the southern and eastern to Greece.
Its only important affluent, besides the Arta, is the Luro (anc.
Charadra), also from the north. The gulf abounds with mullets,
soles and eels. Around its shores are numerous ruins of ancient
cities: Actium at the entrance, where the famous battle was
fought in 31 B.C.; Nicopolis, Argos, Limnaea and Olpae,
and several flourishing towns, such as Preveza, Arta (anc
Ambracia), Karavasara or Rarbasaras, and Vonitza.
The river Amta (anc. Arachthus or Aratikus, in Livy xxxviiL
3, Aretko) is the chief river of Epirus, and is said to have beta
navigable in ancient times as far as Ambracia. Below this town
it flows through a marshy plain, consisting mainly of its own
alluvium; its upper course is through the territory of the
Molossians; its total length is about 80 m.
ARTABANUS, the name of a number of Persian princes,
soldiers and administrators. The most important are the
following: —
1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the
trusted adviser of his nephew Xerxes. Herodotus makes him a
principal figure in epic dialogues: he warns Darius not to attack
the Scythians (iv. 83; cf. also iv. 143), and predicts to Xerxes
his defeat by the Greeks (vii. 10 ff., 46 ff.); Xerxes sent him home
to govern the empire during the campaign (vii. 52, 53).
2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, Pers. 20), whom he murdered
in 465 B.C. According to Aristotle, Pol. v. 1311 b, he had previ-
ously killed Xerxes' son Darius, and was afraid that the father
would avenge him; according to Ctesias, Pers. 29, Justin iii. 1,
Diod. xi. 69, he killed Xerxes first and then pretended that
Darius had murdered him, and instigated his brother Artaxerxes
to avenge the parricide. At all events, during the first months
of the reign of Artaxerxes I., he was the ruling power in the state
(therefore the chronographers wrongly reckon him as kii»g.
with a reign of seven months), until Artaxerxes, having learned
the truth about the murder of his father and his brother,
overwhelmed and killed Artabanus and his sons in open fight.
3. A satrap of Baclria, who revolted against Artaxerxes L,
but was defeated in two battles (Ctes. Pers. 31).
The name was borne also by four Parthian kings. The Parthian
king Arsaccs, who was attacked by Antiochus III. in 209, has btca
called Artabanus by some modern authors without any reason.
4. Artabanus I., successor of his nephew Phraatcs II. about
127 B.C., perished in a battle against the Tochari, a Mongolia!
tribe, which had invaded the cast of Iran (Justin xli. 2). He is
perhaps identical with the Artabanus mentioned in Trogus,
Prol. xlii.
5. Artabanus II. c. a.d. 10-40, son of an Arsaeid princess
(Tac. Ann. vi. 48), lived in the East among the Dalian noirui^
He was raised to the throne by those Parthian grandees who
would not acknowledge Vonones I., whom Augustus had sent
from Rome (where he lived as hostage) as successor of his father
Phraatcs IV. The war between the two pretenders was long
and doubtful; on a coin Vonones mentions a victory over
Artabanus. At last Artabanus defeated his rival completely
and occupied Ctesiphon; Vonones fled to Armenia, where he
was acknowledged as king, under the protection of the Romans.
But when Artabanus invaded Armenia, Vonones fled to S>ria,
and the emperor Tiberius thought it prudent to support him no
longer. Germanicus, whom he sent to the East, concluded a
treaty with Artabanus, in which he was recognized as king and
friend of the Romans. Armenia was given (aj>. 18) to Zcno,
the son of the king of Pontus (Tac Ann. ii. 3 f., 58; Joseph.
Ant. 18. 24).
Artabanus II., like all Parthian princes, was much troubled
by the opposition of the grandees, He is said to have been very
cruel in consequence of his education among the Dahan bar-
barians (Tac. Ann. vi. 41). To strengthen his power he killed all
the Arsaeid princes whom he could reach (Tac. Ann. vi. 31).
Rebellions of the subject nations may have occurred also. We
learn that he intervened in the Greek city Seleuda in favour of
the oligarchs (Tac. Ann. vi. 48), and that two Jewish T
ART AND PART— ARTAXERXES
661
maintained themselves for years in Ncerda in the swamps of
Babylonia, and were acknowledged as dynasts by Artabanus
(Jos. Ant. 18. 9). In a.d. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia,
and to establish his son Arsaces as king there. A war with Rome
seemed inevitable. But that party among the Parthian magnates
which was hostile to Artabanus applied to Tiberius for a king of
the race of Phraates. Tiberius sent Phraates's grandson, Tin-
dates III., and ordered L. ViteUius (the father of the emperor)
to restore the Roman authority in the East. By very dexterous
military and diplomatic operations ViteUius succeeded com-
pletely. Artabanus was deserted by his followers and fled to
the East Tiridates, who was proclaimed king, could no longer
maintain himself, because he appeared to be a vassal of the
Romans; Artabanus returned from Hyrcania with a strong
army of Scythian (Dahan) auxiliaries, and was again acknow-
ledged by the Parthians. Tiridates left Seleucia and fled to
Syria. But Artabanus was not strong enough for a war with
Rome; he therefore concluded a treaty with ViteUius, in which
he gave up all further pretensions (a.d. 37). A short time after-
wards Artabanus was deposed again, and a- certain Cinnamus
was proclaimed king. Artabanus took refuge with his vassal, the
king Izates of Adiabene; and Izates by negotiations and the
promise of a complete pardon induced the Parthians to restore
Artabanus once more to the throne (Jos. Ant. 20. 3). Shortly
afterwards Artabanus died, and was succeeded by his son,
Vardanes, whose reign was still more turbulent than that of his
father.
6. Artabanus III. reigned a short time in a.d. 80 (on * coin
of this year he calls himself Arsaces Artabanus) and the following
years, and supported a pretender who rose in Asia Minor under
the name of Nero (Zonaras xi. 18), but could not maintain himself
against Pacorus II.
7. Artabanus IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of
Vologaeses IV., who died a.d. 200. He rebelled against his
brother Vologaeses V. (Dio Cass. vii. 12), and soon obtained the
upper hand, although Vologaeses V. maintained himself in a
part of Babylonia tUl about a.d. 2*2. The emperor Caracalla,
wishing to make use of this civil war for a conquest of the
East in imitation of his idol, Alexander the Great, attacked the
Parthians in 216. He crossed the Tigris, destroyed the towns
and spoiled the tombs of Arbela; but when Artabanus advanced
at the head of an army, he retired to Carrhae. There he was
murdered by Macrinus in April 2x7. Macrinus was defeated at
Nisibis and concluded a peace with Artabanus, in which he gave
up all the Roman conquests, restored the booty, and paid a
heavy contribution to the Parthians (Dio Cass. Ixxviii. 26 f.). But
at the same time, the Persian dynast Ardashir (q.v.) had already
begun his conquests in Persia and Carmania. When Artabanus
tried to subdue him his troops were defeated. The war lasted
several years} at last Artabanus himself was vanquished and
killed (a.d. 226), and the rule of the Arsacids came to an end.
See further Persia: History, § ancient, and works there quoted.
(Ed. M.)
ART AND PART, a term used in Scots law to denote the
aiding or abetting in the perpetration of a crime, — the being an
accessory before or at the perpetration of the crime. There is no
such offence recognized in Scotland as that of being an accessory
after the fact.
ARTAPHBRJIE8, more correctly Artafhbsnbs, brother of
Darius Hystaspis, and satrap of Sardis. It was he who received
the embassy from Athens sent probably by Cleisthenes (q.v.) in
507 B.C., and subsequently warned the Athenians to receive back
the "tyrant" Hippias. Subsequently he took an important
part in suppressing the Ionian revolt (see Ionia, Aristagoras,
HiSTXAxus),and after the war compelled the cities to make agree-
ments by which all differences were to be settled by reference. He
also measured out their territories in parasangs and assessed their
tributes accordingly (Herod, vi. 42). In 492 he was superseded
in his satrapy by Mardonius (Herodotus v. 25, 30-32, 35, &c;
Diod. Sic. x. 25). His son, of the same name, was appointed
(400), together with Datis, to take command of the expedition
sent by Darius to punish Athens and Eretria for their share in the
Ionian revolt After the defeat of Marathon he returned to Asia.
In the expedition of Xerxes, ten years later, he was in command
of the Lydiana and Mysians (Herod, vi. 94, 1x9; vii. 74;
Aesch. Persat, 21).
Aeschylus in his list of Persian kings (Persae, 775 ff.), which is
quite unhistorical, mentions two kings with. the name Arta-
phrenes, who may have been developed out of these two Persian
commanders. (Ed. M.)
ARTAXERXES, a name representing Pers. Artakhskatra,
" he whose empire is well-fitted " or "perfected", Heb. Artakh-
shosla, Bab. Artokskatsu, Susian Irtakshashsha (and variants),
Gr. 'Apro(ip£i7t, 'Apro£ep£ip, and in an inscription of Tralles
(Dittenberger, Sylloge, 573) 'Apra^Wjjs; Herodotus (vi. 98)
gives the translation ftiyas iprjun, and considers the name as
a compound of Xerxes, showing thereby that he knew nothing
of the Persian language; the later Persian form is Ardashir,
which occurs in the form Artaxias (Artaxes) as the name of some
kings of Armenia. It was borne by three kings of the Achae-
menian dynasty of ancient Persia; though, so long as its
meaning was understood, it can have been adopted by the kings
only after their accession to the throne*
1. Artaxerxes I., surnamed Macrochcir, Longimanus, "Long-
hand," because his right hand was longer than his left (Plut.
Arlax.i.). He was the younger son of Xerxes, and was raised to
the throne in 465 by the vizier Artabanus, the murderer of his
father. After a few months he became aware of the crimes
of the vizier, and slew him and his sons in a hand-to-hand fight in
the palace. His reign was, on the whole, peaceful; the empire
had reached a period of stagnation. Plutarch (Artax. i.) says
that he was famous for his mild and magnanimous character,
Nepos (de Reg. I.) that he was exceedingly beautiful and valiant.
From the authentic report of his cup-bearer Nehemiah we see
that he was a kind, good-natured, but rather weak monarch,
and he was undoubtedly much under the baneful influence of
his mother Amestris (for whose mischievous character cf. Herod,
ix. 109 ff.) and his sister and wife Amytis. The peacefulncss of
his rule was interrupted by several insurrections. At the very
beginning the satrap Artabanus raised a rebellion in Bactria, but
was defeated in two battles. More dangerous was the rebellion of
Egypt under Inarus (In arts), which was put down by Mcgabyzus
only after a long struggle against the Egyptians and the
Athenians (460-454). Out of it sprang the rebellion of Megabyzus,
who was greatly exasperated because, though he had persuaded
Inarus to surrender by promising that his life would be spared,
Artaxerxes, yielding to the entreaties of his wife Amytis, who
wanted to take revenge on Inarus for the death of her brother
Achaemenes, the satrap of Egypt, had surrendered him to her for
execution.
In spite of his weakness, Artaxerxes I. was not unsuccessful in
his polity. In 448 the war with Athens was terminated by the
treaty concluded by Callias (but see Callias and Cimon), by
which the Athenians left Cyprus and Egypt to the Persians,
while Persia gave up nothing of her rights, but promised not to
make use of them against the Greek cities on the Asiatic coast,
which had gained their liberty (Ed. Meyer, Forsckungen zur alt.
Gesch. ii. 71 ff.). In the Samian and the Peloponnesian wars,
Artaxerxes remained neutral, in spite of the attempts made by
both Sparta and Athens to gain his alliance.
During the reign of Artaxerxes I. the Jewish religion was
definitely established and sanctioned by law in Jerusalem, on the
basis of a firman granted by the king to the Babylonian priest
Ezra in his seventh year, 458 B.C., and the appointment of his
cup-bearer Nehemiah as governor of Judaea in his twentieth
year, 445 B.C. The attempts which have been made to deny the
authenticity of those parts of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah
which contain an account of these two men, taken from their own
memoirs, or to place them in the reign of Artaxerxes II., are not
convincing (cf. Ed. Meyer, Die Entstchung des Judcntums, 1896;
see further Jews, §§ 19, 21, 22; Ezra and Nehemiah).
Artaxerxes I. died in December 4351 °r January 424 (Thuc. iv.
50) . To his reign must belong the famous quadrilingual alaba c *~*
vases from Egypt (on which his name is written in P
662
ARTAXERXES
Susian and Babylonian cuneiform characters and in hiero-
glyphics}, for Artaxerzes II. and III. did not possess Egypt. A
great many tablets, dated from his reign, have been found in
Nippur (published by H. von Hilprccht and Clay, The Babylonian
Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, series A, vol. ix.),
and a few others at other places in Babylonia. Inscriptions of the
king himself are not extant; his grandson mentions his buildings
in Susa. For the suggested identification of Artaxerxes I. with
the Biblical Ahasuerus, see Ahasuerus.
2. Artaxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, the eldest son of
Darius II., whom he succeeded in the spring of 404, According
to Ctesias (Pers. 57; Plut Artax. i.) he was formerly called
Arsaces or Arsikas, whereas Dinon (PluL Artax. L) calls him
Oarses. This is corroborated by a Babylonian tablet with
observations of the moon (Brit. Mus. Sp. ii. 749; Zeitsch. J.
AssyriologU, vii. 223), which is dated from the 26th year of
"Arshu, who is Artakshatsu," i.e. 379 B.C. (cp. Ed. Meyer,
Porschungenzur alien GeschichLc, ii. 466 ft.). When Artaxerxes II.
mounted the throne, the power of Athens had been broken by
Lysander, and the Greek towns in Asia were again subjects
of the Persian empire. But his whole reign is a time of con-
tinuous decay; the original force of the Persians had been
exhausted in luxury and intrigues, and the king, though personally
brave and good-natured, was quite dependent upon his favourites
and his harem, and especially upon his mother Parysatis. In the
beginning of his reign falls the rebellion of his brother Cyrus, who
was secretly favoured by Parysatis and by Sparta. Although
Cyrus was defeated at Cunaxa, this rebellion was disastrous
inasmuch as it opened to the Greeks the way into the interior
of the empire, and demonstrated that no oriental force was
able to withstand a band of well-trained Greek soldiers. Sub-
sequently Greek mercenaries became indispensable not only
to the king but also to the satraps, who thereby gained the
means for attempting successful rebellions, into which they were
provoked by the weakness of the king, and by the continuous
intrigues between the Persian magnates. The reign is, therefore,
a continuous succession of rebellions. Egypt soon revolted
anew and could not be subdued again. When in 399 war broke
out between Sparta and Persia, the Persian troops in Asia Minor
were quite unable to resist the Spartan armies. The active and
energetic Persian general Pharnabazus succeeded in creating
a fleet by the help of Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, and
the Athenian commander Conon, and destroyed the Spartan
fleet at Cnidus (August 394)- This victory enabled the Greek
allies of Persia (Thebes, Athens, Argos, Corinth) to carry on the
Corinthian war against Sparta, and the Spartans had to give
up the war in Asia Minor. But it soon became evident that the
only gainers by the war were the Athenians, who in 389, under
Thrasybulus, tried to found their old empire anew (see Delian
League). At the same time Evagoras attempted to conquer
the whole of Cyprus, and was soon in open rebellion. The
consequence was that, when in 388 the Spartan admiral Antal-
cidas (q.v.) came to Susa, the king was induced to conclude a
peace with Sparta by which Asia fell to him and European
Greece to Sparta. After the peace, Evagoras was attacked.
He lost his conquests, but had to be recognized as independent
king of Salamis (380 B.C.). Two expeditions against Egypt
(385-383 and 374"372) ended in complete failure. At the same
period there were continuous rebellions in Asia Minor; Pisidia,
Paphlagonia, Bithynia and Lycia, threw off the Persian
yoke and Hecatomnus, the satrap of Caria, obtained an almost
independent position. Similar wars were going on against the
mountain tribes of Armenia and Iran, especially against the
Cadusians on the Caspian Sea. In this war Artaxerxes is said
to have distinguished himself personally (380 B.C.), but got into
such difficulties in the wild country that he was glad when
Tiribazus succeeded in concluding a peace with the Cadusian
chieftains.
By the peace of Antalcidas the Persian supremacy was pro-
claimed over Greece; and in the following wars all parties,
Spartans, Athenians, Thcbans, Argives continually applied
♦0 Persia for a decision in their favour. After the battle of
Leuctra, when the power of Thebes was founded by Epannnondas,
Pelopidas went to Susa (367) and restored the old alliance
between Persia and Thebes. The Persian supremacy, however,
was not based upon the power of the empire, but only cm the
discord of the Greeks. Shortly after the edict by which the
king had proclaimed his alliance with Thebes, and the conditions
of the general peace which he was going to impose upon Greece.
his weakness became evident, for since 366 all the satraps of Asa
Minor (Da tames, Ariobaraanes, Mausolus, Orontes, Artabaxus)
were in rebellion again, in close alliance with Athens, Sparu
and Egypt The king could do little against them; even
Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, who had remained faithful,
was forced for some time to unite himself with the rebels. But
every one of the allies mistrusted all the others; and the sole
object of every satrap was to improve his condition and his
personal power, and to make a favourable peace with the king,
for which his neighbours and former allies had to pay the costs.
The rebellion was at last put down by a series of treacheries
and perfidious negotiations, Some of the rebels retained their
provinces; others were punished, as opportunity offered.
Mithradates betrayed his own father Ariobaraanes, who was
crucified, and murdered Datames, to whom he bad introduced
himself as a faithful ally. When the long reign of Artaxerxes It
came to its close in the autumn of 359 the authority of the
empire had been restored almost everywhere.
Artaxerxes himself had done very little to obtain this result
In fact, in the last years of his reign he had sunk into a perfect
dotage. All his time was spent in the pleasures of bis harem,
the intrigues of which were further complicated by his falling in
love with and marrying his own daughter A tossa (according to the
Persian religion a marriage between the nearest relations is no
incest). At the same time, his sons were quarrelling about th*
succession; one of them, Ochus, induced the father by a series
of intrigues to condemn to death three of his older brothers,
who stood in his way. Shortly afterwards, Artaxerxes LL ditd.
In this reign an important innovation took place in the Persian
religion. Berossus (in Clemens Alex. ProtrtfL i. 5. 65) tdls
us that the Persians knew of no images of the gods until
Artaxerxes II. erected images of Anaitis in Babylon, Susa,
Ecbatana, Persepolis, Bactra, Damascus, Sardis. This statcmeat
is proved correct by the inscriptions; all the former kings name
only Auramazda (Ahuramaada), but Artaxerxes XI. in his build-
ing inscriptions from Susa and Ecbatana invokes Ahuramasda,
Anahita and Mithra. These two gods belonged to the eld popular
religion of the Iranians, but had until then been neglected b>
the true Zoroastrians; now they were introduced into the
official worship much in the way in which the cult of the saints
came into the Christian religion. About the history of Artaxerxes
II. we are comparatively well informed from Greek sources;
for the earlier part of his reign from Ctesias and Xenophon
(Anabasis), for the later times from Dinon of Ephesus, the
historian of the Persians (from whom the account of Justin is
derived), from Ephorus (whose account is quoted by Diodorus)
and others. Upon these sources is based the biography of the
king by Plutarch.
3. Auxaxerxes III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son
of Artaxerxes II., when he succeeded his father in ,359. The
chronographcrs generally retain the name Ochus, and in the
Babylonian inscriptions he is called "Umasu, who is called
Artakshatsu." The same form of the name (probably pro*
nounced Uvasu) occurs in the Syrian version of the canon of
Ptolemy by Elias of Nisibis (Amos).
Artaxerxes III. was a cruel but an energetic ruler. To secure
his throne he put to death almost all his relatives, but he sup-
pressed the rebellions also. In 356 he ordered all the satraps to
dismiss their mercenaries, Most of them obeyed; Artabaxus of
Phrygia, who tried to resist and was supported by his brothers-
in-law, Mentor and Memnon of Rhodes, was defeated and
fled to Philip of Macedon. Athena* whose general Chares had
supported Artabaaus, was by the threatening messages of the
king forced to conclude peace, and to acknowledge the independ-
ence of its rebellions allies (355 B.C.). Then the king attempted
ARTEDI— ARTEMIS
663
to subjugate Egypt, but two expeditions were unsuccessful,
and, in consequence, Sidon and the other Phoenician towns, and
the princes of Cyprus, rebelled against Persia and defeated the
Persian generals. After great preparations the king came in
person, but again the attack on Egypt was repelled by the Greek
generals of Nectanebus (346) . One or two years later Artaxerxes,
at the head of a great army, began the siege of Sidon. The
Sidonlan king Tennes considered resistance hopeless, and
betrayed the town to the Persian king, assisted by Mentor, who
had been sent with Greek troops from Egypt to defend the town.
Artaxerxes repressed the rebellion with great cruelty and
destroyed the town. The traitor Tennes was put to death, but
Mentor rose high fn the favour of the king, and entered into a
close alliance with the eunuch Bagoas, the king's favourite and
vizier. They succeeded in subjecting the other rebels, and, after
a hard fight at Pehisram, and many intrigues, conquered Egypt
(343)i Nectanebus fled to Ethiopia. Artaxerxes used his
victory with great cruelty; he plundered the Egyptian temples
and is said to have killed the Apis. After his return to Susa,
Bagoas ruled the court and the upper satrapies, while Mentor
restored the authority of the empire everywhere in the west.
He deposed or killed many Greek dynasts, among them the
famous Hermias of Atarneus, the protector of Aristotle, who had
friendly relations with Philip (34* B.C.). When Philip attacked
Pcrintnus and Byzantium (340), Artaxerxes sent them support,
by which they were enabled to withstand the Macedonians;
Philip's antagonists in Greece, Demosthenes and his party,
hoped to get subsidies from the king, but were disappointed.
In 338 Artaxerxes III., with his older sons, was killed by
Bagoas, who raised his youngest son Arses to the throne.
Artaxerxes III. is said never to nave entered the country of
Persia proper, because, being a great miser, he would not pay the
present of a gold piece for every Persian woman, which it was
usual to give on such occasions (Pint. Alex. 69). But wc have a
building inscription from Fersepolis, which contains his name
and genealogy, and invocations of Ahuramazda and Mithra.
For the relation* of Artaxerxes I.— HI. with the Jews see Jews,
liio-2 1. For bibliographical references see PsasiA : A ncient History.
The name Artaxerxes was adopted by Bessus when he proclaimed
himself king after the assassination of Darius III. It was borne by
several dynasts of Persts, when it formed an independent kingdom in
the time of the Parthian empire (oa their coins they call themselves
Artakhshathr; one of them is mentioned by Lucian, Macrobii, 15),
and by three kings of the Sassanid dynasty, who are better known
under the modern form Ardashir (?.v). (Ed. M.1
ARTEDI, PETER (1705-173$). Swedish naturalist, was born
in the province of Angermania, in Sweden, on the 32nd of
February 170s. Intending to become a clergyman, he went, in
1724, to study theology at Upsala, but he turned his attention to
medicine and natural history, especially ichthyology, upon the
study of which he exercised great influence (see Ichthyology).
In 1728 his countryman Linnaeus arrived in Upsala, and a last-
ing friendship was formed between the two. In 1732 both
left Upsala, Artedi for England, and Linnaeus for Lapland;
but before parting they reciprocally bequeathed to each other
their manuscripts and books in the event of death. He
was accidentally drowned on the 27th of September' 1735 at
Amsterdam, where he was engaged in cataloguing the collections
of Albert Seba, a wealthy Dutchman, who had formed what was
perhaps the richest museum of his time. According to agree*
ment, his manuscripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and his
BiMiotkcca Ichikyotogica and Philosophic Ichthyologico, together
with a life of the author, were published at Leiden in the year
1738.
ARTEGA, a tribe of African u Arabs," said to be descendants
of a sheik of that name who came from Hadramut in pre-
Islamic days, settling near Tokar. The name is said to be
"patrician," and the Artega may be regarded as the most
ancient stock in the Suakin district. They are now an inferior
mixed race. They were all followers of the mahdi and khalifa in
the Sudan wars (1883-1808).
Sec A nglo-Etypt /an5mfo*,cditedbyCountGIeichcn(London.i905).
ARTEL (Russ. for " gang "). the name for the co-operative
associations in Russia. Originally, the artels were true examples
of productive co-operation, bodies of working-men associating
together for the purpose of jointly undertaking some piece of
work, and dividing the profits. This original form of artel still
survives among the fishermen of Archangel. Artels have come,
however, to be tittle more than trade gilds, with mutual respon-
sibility. (For details see Russia.)
ARTEMIDORUS. (1) A geographer " of Ephesus " who flour-
ished about 100 B.C. After studying at Alexandria, he travelled
extensively and published the results of his investigations
in a large work on general geography (Td yeorypajxtijutrn) in
eleven books, much used by Strabo and others. The original
work is lost, but we possess many small fragments and larger
fragments of an abridgment made by Marcianus of Hcraclcia
(5th century), which contains the periphis of the Euxine and
accounts of Bithynia and Paphlagoma. (See Muller, Gcogropfii
Groeci Mittores; Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography;
Stiehle, " Der Geograph Artcmidoros von Ephesos," In Pkilo*
lotus, xi., 1856). (2) A soothsayer and interpreter of dreams,
who flourished in the and century A.D., during the reigns of
Hadrian and the Antonincs. He called himself Daldianus from
his' mother's birthplace, Daldis in Lydia, in order to make its
name known to the world. His '0»«t/»*ptru<i, or interpretation
of dreams, was said to have been written by command of Apollo
Daldianus, whose initiated votary he was. It is in four books,
with an appendix containing a collection of prophetic dreams
which had been realised. The first three books, addressed to
Cassius Maximus, a Phoenician rhetorician (perhaps identical
with Maximus of Tyre), treat of dreams and divination generally;
the fourth — with a reply to his critics— and the appendix are
dedicated to his son, also named Artemidorus and an interpreter
of dreams. Artemidorus boasts of the trouble expended on his
work; he had read all the authorities on dreams, travelled
extensively, and conversed with all who had studied the subject.
The work is valuable as affording an insight into ancient super-
stitions. According to Suidas, Art cmtdorus also wrote on augurs
and cheiromancy, but all trace of these works is lost. (Editions:
Reiff, 1805, Hercher, 1864; translation and notes, Krauss, 1881;
English translation by Wood, 1644, and later editions.)
ARTEMIS, one of the principal goddesses In Greek mythology,
the counterpart of the Roman Diana. The suggested ety-
mologies of the name (see O. Gruppe, Gricchische Afytkologie,
ii. p. 1 267, note 2), as in the case of most of the Olympian deities,
are unsatisfactory, and throw no light upon her significance and
characteristics. The Homeric and later conception of Artemis,
though by no means the original one, may be noticed first. She
is the daughter of Zeusand Lcto, twin-sister and counterpart of
Apollo. She is said to have been born a day before him (on the
6th of the month) and tradition assigns them different birth-
places— Delos to Apollo, Ortygia to Artemis. But Ortygia
(" home of quails ") applies still to Delos, and may well have
been a synonym for that island. In its original sense it does not
apply either to the island of Ortygia at Syracuse, or to Ortygia
near Ephesus, which also claimed the honour of having been the
birthplace of the goddess. Artemis is the goddess of chastity, an
aspect of her character which gradually assumed more and more
importance — the protectress of young men and maidens, who
defies and contemns the power of Aphrodite. Her resemblance
to her brother is shown in many ways. Like him, armed with
bow and arrows, she deals death to mortals, sometimes gently
and suddenly, especially to women, but also as a punishment
for offences against herself or morality. With him she takes
part in the combat with Python and with Tityus, in the slaughter
of the children of Niobe, while alone she executes vengeance on
Orion. Although Apollo has nothing to do with the earlier cult
of Artemis, nor Artemis with that of Delphi, their association
was a comparatively early one, and probably originated in Delos.
Here the connexion of Artemis with the Hyperborean legend
(see Apolio) is shown in the names of the maidens (Opis,
Hccaerge) who were supposed to have brought offerings from the
north to Delos, where they were buried. Both Opts (or Oupis)
and Hccaerge are names of Artemis, the latter being the feminine
of Hecaergos, an epithet of Apollo. Like her brother, she is not
664
ARTEMIS
only a goddess who deals death, but she is also a healing and a
purifying divinity, oi>\ia (" the healer," cf. Apollo Oulios), Afoj,
Xuoia (" purifier,") and aurupa, " she who saves from all evils "
(cf. Apollo axorpoaruos). Her connexion with the prophetic art
is doubtful, although mention is made of an Artemis Sibylla.
To her association with Apollo are certainly to be referred the
names Delphinia and Pythia, and the titles referring to state and
family life — jrpooranjpta, irarptwm, jSoi/Xaia. It probably
accounts for her appearance as a goddess of seafarers, the
bestowcr of fair weather and prosperous voyages. At Phigalia
in Arcadia, Eurynome, represented as half woman and half fish,
was probably another form of Artemis. To the same association
may be traced her slight connexion with music, song and dance.
It is in the Arcadian and Athenian rites and legends, hdwever,
which arc certainly earlier than Homer, that the original con-
ception of the goddess is to be found. These tend to show that
Artemis was first and foremost a nature godde&s, whose cult
shows numerous traces of totcmism. As a goddess of fertilizing
moisture, lakes, rivers, springs, and marshy lowlands are brought
into close connexion with her. Thus she is Xi/iitUa, ttexowa
Xi/inp (" lady of the lake ") ,i\tla (" of marshes "), vorapxa (" of
rivers," especially of the Cladaus and Alpheus, whence her name
'A Attala). Her influence is very active in promoting the
increase of the fruits of the field, hence she is specially a goddess
of agriculture. She drives away the mice (cf. Apollo Smintheus)
and slays the Aloidac, the corn spirits; she is the friend of the
reapers, and requires her share of the first fruits. Her character
as a harvest goddess is clearly shown in the legend of the Caly-
donian boar, sent by her to ravage the fields out of resentment
at not having received a harvest offering from Oeneus (see
Meleager). As eri/iuAict and ertxXi/Sanos ("presiding over
the mill and the oven ") she extends her protection over the
further development of the grain for the use of man.
Artemis was naturally also a goddess of trees and vegetation.
Near Orchomenus her wooden image stood in a large cedar-tree
—an indication that her worship was originally that of the tree
itself (xtopcam, " the cedar goddess"); at Caryae there was
an image of Artemis aapvarts (" the nut-tree goddess "). Two
curious epithets in this connexion deserve notice: Avyofieff/ta
("bound with withies"), derived from the legend that the
image of Artemis Orthia was found in a thicket of withies,
which twined round it and kept it upright (Afrvo* is the agnus
caslus, and points to Artemis in her relation to women); and
&v*yxpnkvn (" the suspended "), probably a reference to the
custom of hanging the mask or Image of a vegetation-divinity
on a tree to obtain fertility (Farnell, Cults of tke Creek States, ii.
p. 429; cf. the "swing" festival (oldya) of the Greeks, and the
cscilla of the Romans).
The functions of the goddess extended from the vegetable to
the animal world, to the inhabitants of the woods and mountains.
This is clearly expressed in the cult of Artemis Laphria (possibly
connected with AA^upa, " spoils "), at whose festivals all kinds of
animals, both wild and tame, as well as fruits, were thrown
together on a huge wood fire. Her general name in this con-
nexion was ayporkpa (" roaming the wilds," not necessarily
" goddess of the chase," an aspect less familiar in the older
religion), to whom five hundred goats were offered every year
by the Athenians as a thanksgiving in commemoration of the
victory at Marathon. Numerous animals were sacred to her,
and at Syracuse all kinds of wild beasts, including a lioness,
were carried in procession in her honour. It has been observed
that she is rather the patroness of the wild beasts of the field
than of the more agricultural or domestic animals (Farnell,
Culls, ii. p. 431), although the epithet iifttpaaia (" the tamer,"
according to others, the " gentle " goddess of healing) seems to
refer to her connexion with the latter. The bear was especially
associated with her in Arcadia, and in her worship as Artemis
Brauronia at Brauron in Attica. According to the legend,
Callisto, an Arcadjan nymph, became by Zeus the mother of
Areas, .the eponymous hero of the Arcadians. Zeus, to conceal
the amour, changed Callisto into a she-bear; Hera, however,
^vered it, and persuaded Artemis to slay Caulsto, who was
placed amongst the stars as ftprrot (" the bear "). Then is bo
doubt that Callisto is identical with Artemis; her name is aa
obvious variation of koAAIotij, a frequent epithet of the goddess,
to whom a temple was erected on the bill where Callisto was
supposed to be buried. It is suggested by M. Kraus in Classicd
Review, February 1008, that Aphaea, the cult-name of Artemis
at Aegina, is of Semitic origin and means " beautiful. '* Closely
connected with this legend is the worship of Artemis Brauroaia.
The accounts of its institution, which differ in detail, agree that
it was intended to appease the wrath of the goddess at the killing
of a bear. A number of young girls, between five and ten years
of age, wearing a bear-skin (afterwards a saffron-coloured robe}
danced a bear-dance, called ojMcrcia, the girls themselves being
called ft/Ncrot. In one account, a maiden was ordered to be
sacrificed to the bear Artemis, but a certain man who had a goat
called it his daughter and offered it up in secret, just as at
Munychium a fawn dressed up as a girl was sacrificed to the
goddess. In place of the goat or fawn a bear might have beca
expected, but the choice may have been influenced by the animal
totem of the tribe into whose hands the ritual fell. The whole is
a reminiscence of earlier times, when the goddess herself was a
bear, to whom human sacrifice was offered. Callisto was origin-
ally a bear-goddess worshipped in Arcadia, identified vita
Artemis, when nothing remained of the original animal-worship
but name and ritual. The worship of Callisto being merged ia
that of the greater divinity, she became the handmaid and
companion of Artemis. A stone figure of a* bear found on the
Acropolis seems to point to the worship of Artemis Brauroaia.
Her death at the hands of the latter was explained by the wrath
of the goddess— in her later aspect as goddess of chastity-**
Callisto's amour with Zeus (see A. l>ng, Myth, Ritual emi
Religion, ii.; Farnell, Cults, ii. p. 437). The custom of Bogging
youths at the altar of Artemis Orthia 1 at Limnaeum in lacooia.
and the legend of Iphigeneia {q.v.) t herself another form of
Artemis, connected with Artemis Taurica of the Tauric Cher-
sonese, are usually supposed to point to early human sacrifice
(but see Farnell). Various explanations have been given of the
epithet opfla: (1) that it refers to the primitive type of the
"erect *' wooden idol; (2) that it means " she who safely reus
children after birth,", or "heals the sick " (cf. tpBm applied to
Asclepius); (3) that it has a phallic significance (SchVciber ia
Reseller's Lexikon). Scholars differ as .to whether Artemis
Taurica is identical with Artemis Tauropolos, worshipped chiefly
at Samos with a milder ritual, but it is more probable that
rovpoToAot simply means " protectress of bulls."
The protecting influence of Artemis was extended, Use that
of Apollo, to the highest animal, man. She was especially con-
cerned in the bringing up of the young. Boys were brought by
their nurses to the temple of Artemis nopvOaila (««o*porp#*>
and there consecrated to her; at the Apaturia, on the day
called KovptCnis, boys cut off and dedicated their hair to hex
Girls as well as boys were under her protection. Her function as
a goddess of marriage is less certain, and the cult-titles adduced
in support of it are hardly convincing; such are fr'pta
interpreted as " she who leads home the bride," atteo&P*'
" bearer of light," that is, of torches at the marriage procession.
On the other hand, her connexion with childbirth is ckariy
shown: in many places she is even called Eilithyia, who ia the
earlier poets was regarded as distinct from her. In one venioa
of the story of her birth she is said to have been born a day bcion
Apollo, in order to assist Leto at his birth; women in childbirth
invoked her aid, and after delivery offered up their clothes or
a lock of hair. As already noticed, in Homer Artemis appears
as a goddess of death; closely akin to this is the conception
of her as a goddess of war. As such she is n*n#poi (" brin ^
of victory"); the title xoAoiKi is possibly connected *ith
» The rite of the temple of Artemis Orthia was excavated ! bvjjj
British School of Archaeology at Athens (see Annual, 1906)- '*!
flogging (Uatiftlyunt) ia explained by R. C. Bosanquet as a »«
institution of decadent Sparta, an exaggeration of an old ntuw
practice of whipping away boys who tried to steal cheeses iron"*
altar (tee The Year's Work in Classical Studies, ed. W, H. D. ft" 1 **
1907).
ARTEMISIA
665
mXtdf ("sword-sheath"); and Aa^pU (*ee above) may refer to
Che spoils of war as well as the chase.
The idea of Artemis as a virgin goddess, the " queen and
huntress, chaste and fair," which obtained great prominence in
early times, and seems inconsistent with her association with
childbirth, is generally explained as due to her connexion with
Apollo, but it is suggested by Farnell that vopftrot originally
meant " unmarried," and that " "Apre/nt iropfffoof may have been
originally the goddess of a people who had not yet the advanced
Hellenic institutions of settled marriage . . . and wfeen society
developed the later family system the goddess remained celibate,
though not opposed to childbirth."
Another view of the original character of Artemis, which has
found much support in modern times, is that she was a moon-
goddess. But there is no trace of Artemis as such in the epic
period, and the Homeric hymn knows nothing of her identifica-
tion with Selene. The attribute of the torch will apply equally
well to the goddess of the chase, and epithets such as <t*w<k6pot,
atXaff&poi, alBorla, although applicable, are by no means
convincing. The idea dates from the 5th century, and was due
to her connexion with Hecate and Apollo. When the latter
came to be identified by philosophical speculation with the sun-
god Helios, it was natural that his sister and counterpart should
be identified with the moon-goddess Selene. But she is nowhere
recognized in cult as such (see Gruppe, Grieckiscke Mytkologie,
ii. p. 1297, note »).
It has been mentioned that Cailisto, Iphigeneia, Eilithyia, are
only Artemis under different names; to these may be added
Adrasteia, Atalanta, Helen, Leto and others (see Wernicke in
Pauly-Wtssowa's RcaUneydoptdie).
Again, various non-Hellenic divinities were identified with
Artemis, and their cult gradually amalgamated with hers. The
most important of these was Artemis of Ephesus, whose seat
was in the marshy valley of the Caystrus. Like the Greek
Artemis, she was essentially a nature goalless, the great foster-
mother of the vegetable and animal kingdom. A number of
officials were engaged in the performance of her temple service.
Her eunuch priests, n*yb&\)$Oi (a name which points to a Persian
origin), were under the control of a high priest called Essen
(according to others, there was a body of priests called Essenes).
There were also three classes of priestesses, Mellierae, Hierae,
Paricrae; there is no evidence that they were called Melissae
(" bees '0, although the bee is a frequent symbol on the coins of
the city. Her chief festival, Ephesia or Artemisia, was held in
the spring, at which games and various contests took place after
the Greek fashion, although the ritual continued to be of a
modified oriental, orgiastic type. This goddess is closely con-
nected with the Amazons (q.v.), who are said to have built her
temple and set up her image in the trunk of a tree. The Greeks
of Ephesus identified her with their own Artemis, and claimed
that her birthplace Ortygia was near Ephesus, not in Delos.
She has much in common with the oriental prototype of Aphro-
dite, and the Cappadocian goddess Ma, another form of Cybele.
The usual figure of the Ephesian Artemis, which was said in the
first instance to have fatten from heaven, is in the form of a female
with many breasts, the symbol of productivity or a token of her
(unction as the all-nourishing mother. From the waist to the
feet her image resembles a pillar, narrowing downwards and
sculptured all round with rows of animals (lions, rams and bulls).
Mention may also be made of the following non-Hellenic
representatives of Artemis. Leucophryne (or Leucophrys),
whose worship was brought by emigrants from Magnesia in
Thcssaly to Magnesia on the Maeander, was a nature god-
dess, and her representation on coins exactly resembles that of
the Ephesian Artemis. Her cult, however, from the little that
u known of it appears to have been more Hellenic. There was an
altar and temple of Artemis Pergaea at Perga in Pamphylia,
where a yearly festival was held in her honour. As in the case of ,
Cybele, mendicant priests were attached to her service. Similar
figures were Artemis ColoenC, worshipped at Lake Colo€ near
Sardis; Artemis Cordax, celebrated in wanton dances on Mount
Sipylus; the Persian Artemis, identical with Anaitis Bendis,
wis a Thradan goddess of war and the chase, whose cult was
introduced into Attica in the middle of the 5th century B.C. by
Thradan metics. At her festival called Bendidea, hdd at the
Pdraeus, there was a procession of Thradans who were settled in
the district, and a torch-race on horseback. (For Britomartis
see separate article.)
Among the chief attributes of Artemis are: the hind, specially
regarded as ber sacred animal; the bear, the boar and the goat;
the zebu (Artemis Leucophrys); the lion, one of her oldest
animal symbols; bow and arrows, as goddess of the chase and
death; a mural crown, as the protectress of dries; the torch,
originally an attribute of the goddess of the chase or marriage,
but, like the crescent (originally an attribute of the Asiatic
nature goddesses), transferred to Artemis, when she came to be
regarded as a moon-goddess. The Greek Artemis was usually
represented as a huntress with bow and quiver, or torch to her
hand, in face very like Apollo, her drapery flowing to her feet, or,
more frequently, girt high for speed. She is accompanied often
by a deer or a dog. Perhaps the finest existing statue of her is
the Diana of Versailles from Hadrian's Villa (now in the Louvre),
in which she wears a short tunic drawn in at the waist and sandals
on her feet; her hair is bound up into a knot at the back of her
head, with a band over the forehead. With her left hand she
holds a stag, while drawing an arrow from the quiver on her
shoulder with the right. Another famous statue is one from
Gabii, in which she is finishing her toilet and fastening the
chlamys over her tunic. In older times her figure is fuller and
stronger, and the clothing more complete; certain statues
discovered at Delos, imitated from wooden models ((oova), are
supposed to represent Artemis; they are described as stiff and
rigid, the limbs as it were glued to the body without life or
movement, garments closely fitting, the folds of which fall in
symmetrical parallel lines. As a goddess of the moon she wears a
long robe, carries a torch, and her head is surmounted by a
crescent. On the coins of Arcadia, Aetolia, Crete and Sicily, are
to be seen varied and beautiful representations of her head as
conceived by the Greek artists in the best times.
Authorities.— Article* in Pauly-Wissowa's ReaUncydopddU ;
oscher's Uxikon der Mythoiogu, and Daremberg and Sealio's
_ ictionnaire des antiouiUs (s.v. Diana, with well-arranged biblio-
graphy) ; L. Preller, Grieckiscke MylholotU (4th ed. by C Robert) ;
L. R. Farnell. The Culls of the Creek Stales, ii. (1896); Q. Gruppe,
Grieckiscke Afylkotogie und Rdifitts-GeschickU, ii~(ioo6); A. ClaSs.
De Diane* aiuiqnissima apmd Graecos natmra (Brestau, 1880). In
the article GaEEK Art, fig. 11 (a gold ornament from Camirus)
represents the Oriental goddess identified by the Greeks with
Artemis.
For the Roman goddess identified with Artemis see Diana.
(J. H. F.)
ARTEMISIA, daughter of Lygdamis, was queen of Hali-
camassus and Cos about 480 B.C. Being a dependent of Persia,
she took part in person in the expedition of Xerxes against the
Greeks, and fitted out five ships, with which she distinguished
herself in the sea-fight near Salamis (480). When closely
pursued by the Athenians she escaped by the stratagem of
attacking one of the Persian vessels, whereupon the Athenians
concluded that she was an ally, and gave up the pursuit (Herod,
vii. 00, Viii. 68). After the battle Xerxes declared that the
men had fought like women, and the women like men. By her
advice he did not risk another battle, but at once retired from
Greece. She is said to have loved a young man named Darda n us,
of Abydos, and, enraged at his neglect of her, to have put out his
eyes while he was asleep. The gods, as a punishment for this,
ordered her, by an oracle, to take the famous but rather mythical
lover's leap from the Leucadian promontory (Photius, Cod. 153a).
ARTEMISIA, the sister and wife of Mausolus (or Maussollus),
king of Caria, was sole ruler from about 353 to 350 B.C. She has
immortalized herself by the honours paid to the memory of her
husband. She built for him, in Halicamassus, a very magnificent
tomb, called the Mausoleum, which was one of the seven wonders
of the world, and from which the name mausoleum was afterwards
given to all tombs remarkable for their grandeur. She appointed
panegyrics to be composed in his honour, and offered valuable
prizes for the best oratorical and tragic compositions. S l
666
ARTEMON— ARTERIES
erected a monument,* trophy, in Rhodes, to commemorite her
conquest of that island. When the Rhodiani regained their
freedom they built round this trophy so as to render it inacces-
sible, whence it was known aa the AbaUm. There are statues
of Mausolus and Artemisia in the British Museum.
Vitravius ii. 8; Oiodorus Siculus xvi. 36; Cicero, Tusc iii. 31;
Vai. Max. iv 6.
ARTBMON (0. c. a.d. 330), a prominent Christian teacher
at Rome, who held Adoptianist (see Adoftxanism), or humani-
tarian views, of the same type aa his elder contemporaries the
Theodotians, though perhaps asserting more definitely than they
the superiority of Christ to the prophets in respect of His super-
natural birth and sinlessness. He was excommunicated by
Zephyrinus, despite his remarkable claim that all that bishop's
predecessors in the see of Rome had held the humanitarian
position. (See also Monarchxanzsh.)
ARTENA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, situated
at the N.N.W. extremity of the Volsdan Mountains; it is 36 m.
S.E. by rail, and 24 m. direct from Rome. Pop. (ioox) 5016.
On the mountain above it (2073 ft.) are the fine remains of the
fortifications of a dty built in a very primitive style, in cydopean
blocks of local limestone; within the walls are traces of build-
ings, and a massive terrace which supported some edifice of
importance. The name of this city is quite uncertain; Ecetra
is a possible suggestion. The modern village, which was called
Monte Fortino until 1870, owes its present name to an un-
warrantable identification of the site with the ancient Volsdan
Artena, destroyed in 404 B.C. Another Artena, which be-
longed (o the district of Caere, and lay between it and Veii, was
destroyed in the period of the kings.and its site is quite unknown.
See T. Ashby and G. J. Pfeiffer in Supplementary Papers of the
America* School in Rome, L 67 acq.
ARTBUB (Gr. oprnpla, probably from eSauo, to raise,
but popularly connected by the andents with at}*, air), in
anatomy, the elastic tubes which carry the blood away from
the heart to the tissues. As, after death, they are always found
empty, the older anatomists believed that they contained air,
and to this belief they owe the name, which was originally given
to the windpipe (trachea}. Two great trunks, the aorta and
pulmonary artery, leave the heart and divide again and again
until they become minute vessels to which the name of arterioles
is given. The larger trunks are fairly constant in position and
receive definite names, but as the smaller branches are reached
there is an increasing inconstancy in their position, and anato-
mists, are still undedded as to the normal, •> most frequent,
arrangement of many of the smaller arteries. From a common-
sense point of view it is probably of greater importance to
realize how variable the distribution of small arteries is than
to remember the names of twigs which are of neither surgical
nor morphological importance. Arteries adapt themselves
more quickly than most other structures to any mechanical
obstruction, and many of the differences between the arterial
systems of Man and other animals are due to the assumption
of the erect position. Many arteries are tortuous, especially
when they supply movable parts such as the face or scalp, but
when one or two sharp bends are found they are generally due
to the artery going out of its way to give off a constant and
important branch* Small arteries unite or anastomose with
others near them very freely, so that when even a large artery
is obliterated a collateral circulation is carried on by the rapid
increase in sixe of the communications between the branches
coming off above and below the point of obstruction. Some
branches, however, such as those going to the basal ganglia of
the brain and to the spleen, are known as "end' arteries," and
these do not anastomose with their neighbours at all; thus,
if one is blocked, arterial blood is cut off from its area of supply.
As a rule, there is little arterial anastomosis across the middle
line of the body near the surface, though the scalp, lips and
thyroid body are exceptions.
The distribution of the pulmonary artery is considered in con*
nexion with the anatomy of the lungs fsec Respiratory System)
That of the aorta will now be briefly described. "
The Aorta lies in the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and
arises from the base of the left veatride of the heart. It as ce adi
forward, upward, and to the right as far as the level of A m
the second right costal cartilage, then runs backward, and
to the left to reach the left tide of the body of the 4th thoracic
vertebra, and then descend* almost vertically. It thus form the
arch of the aorta, which arches over the root of the left lung, and
which has attached to its concave surface a fibrous cord, known as
the obliterated ductus arteriosus, which connects it with the kit
branch of the pulmonary artery The aorta continues its course
downward in close relation to the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae,
then passes through an opening in the diaphragm (ff.t-.), eaters the
abdomen, and descends in front of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae
as low as the 4th, where it usually divides into two terminal branches,
the common iliac arteries. Above and behind the angle of bifurca-
tion, however, a long slender artery, called the middle sacral, is
prolonged downward in front of the sacrum to the end of the coccyx.
It will be convenient to describe the distribution of the arteries
under the following headings >— (1) Branches for the head, neck
and upper limbs; (a) branch** for the viscera of the thorax and
abdomen: (3) branches for the walls of the thorax and ah rtomra ;
(4) branches for the pelvis and lower limbs.
The branches for the head, neck and upper limbs arise as three
large arteries from the transverse part of the aorta; they are named
innominate, left common carotid and left subclavian. The innominate
artery is the largest and passes upward and to the right, to the root
of the neck, where ir divides into the right common carotid and the
right subclavian. The carotid arteries supply the two sides of the
head and neck; the subclavian arteries the two upper
The common carotid artery runs up the neck by the aide of
the windpipe, and on a level with the upper border of the £—--**
thyroid cartilage divides into the internal and external . V .--
carotid arteries. ~ "
The internal carotid artery ascends through the carotid canal ia
the temporal bone into the cranial cavity. It gives off an ophthalmic
branch to the eyeball and other contents of the orbit, and thea
divides into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The mid<£e
cerebral artery extends outward into the Sylvian fissure of the brain,
and supplies the island of Rdl. the orbital part, and the ovter face of
the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporo-spheaoidal lobe;
it also gives a choroid branch to the choroid plexus of the velua
interpositum. The anterior cerebral artery supplies the inner fare
of the hemisphere from the anterior end of the frontal lobe as far
back as the internal parieto-ocdpital fissure. At the base of the
brain not only do the two internal carotids anastomose with each
other through the anterior communicating artery, whjch passes
between then* anterior cerebral branches, but the internal carotid en
each side anastomose* with the posterior cerebral branch of. the
basilar, by a posterior communicating artery. In this manner a
vascular circle, the cirde of Willis, is formed, which permits of
freedom of the artetial circulation by the anastomoses bermrra
arteries not only on the same side, but on opposite side* of t*«e
mesial plane. The vertebral and internal carotid arteries. wfciiB
are the arteries of supply for the brain, are distinguished by 1> ire
at some depth from the surface in their course to the organ, by hu\ re
curves or twists in their course, and by the absence of Urge collateral
branches.
The external carotid artery ascends through the upper part of the
side of the neck, and behind the lower jaw into the parotid gland
where it divides into the internal maxillary and superficial temp.. -a1
branches. This artery gives off the following branches . — (a) Supmc*
thyroid to the larynx and thyroid body; (b) Lingual to the temp*
and sublingual gland ; (c) Facial to the face, palate, tonsil and sub-
maxillary gland; (d) Occipital to the sterno-mastoid muscle and back
of the scarp; (0) Posterior auricular to the back of the ear and the
adjacent part of the scalp; (/) Superficial temporal to the scalp is
front of the ear. and by its transverse facial branch to the back part
of the face, (g) Internal maxillary, giving muscular branches to the
muscles of mastication, meningeal branches to the dura mater.
dental branches to the teeth, and other branches to the nose, palate
and tympanum; (a) Ascending pharyngeal, which gives branches to
tbepharynx, palate, tonsils ancf dura mater.
The subclavian artery is the commencement of the great arterial
trunk for the upper limb. It pasaes across the root of the neck and
behind the clavicle, where it enters the armpit, and
becomes the axillary artery; by that name it extends
as far as the posterior fold of the axilla, where it enters ~vr™
the upper arm, takes the name of brachial, and courses aa ^
far as the bend of the elbow; here it bifurcates into the radial an J
ulnar arteries. From the subclavian part of the trunk the following
branches arise: — (a) Vertebral, which enters the foramen at the rr*>t
of the transverse process of the 6th cervical vertebra, ascends tbroug h
the corresponding foramina in the vertebrae above, lies in a groo\*
on the arch of the atlas, and enters the skull through the foramra
magnum, where it joins its fellow to form the basilar artery . it
E'rta off muscular branches to the deep muscles of the neck, sptmet
-ancbes to the spinal cord, meningeal branches to the dura mater,
and an inferior cerebellar branch to the under surface of the cere-
bellum. The basilar artery, formed by the junction of the r»o
vcrtebrals. extends from the lower to the upper border of the pens
Varolii; it gives off transverse branches to the pons, au dit ory branches
ARTERIES
66 7
to the internal ear, inferior cerebellar branches to the under surface
of the cerebellum, whilst it breaks up into four terminal branches,
viz. two superior cerebellar to the upper surface of the cerebellum,
and two posterior cerebral which supply the tentorial and mesial
aspects ofthe temporo-sphenoidal lobes, the occipital lobes, and the
posterior convolutions of the parieullobes. (b) Thyroid axis, which
immediately divides into the inferior thyroid, the supra-scapular,
and the transient cervical branches; the inferior thyroid supplies the
thyroid body, and gives off an ascending cervical branch to the
muscles of the neck ; the suprascapular supplies the muscles on the
dorsum scapulae; the transverse cervical supplies the trapezius and
the muscles attached to the vertebral border of the scapula (c)
Internal mammary supplies the anterior surface of the walls of the
chest and abdomen, and the upper surface of the diaphragm, (d)
Superior intercostal supplies the first intercostal space, and by its
deep cervical branch the deep muscles of the back of the neck.
The axillary artery supplies thoracic branches to the wall of the
chest, the pectoral muscles, and the fat and glands of the axilla:
an acromio-thoracic to the parts about the acromion; anterior and
posterior circumflex branches to the shoulder joint and deltoid
muscle; a subscapular branch to the muscles of the posterior fold
of the axilla.
The brachial artery supplies muscular branches to the muscles of
the upper arm; a nutrient branch to the humerus; superior and
inferior profunda branches and an anastomotic to the muscles of the
upper arm and the region of the elbow joint.
The ulnar artery extends down the ulnar side of the front of the
fore-arm to the palm of the hand, where it curves outward toward
the thumb, and anastomoses with the superficial volar or other
branch of the radial artery to form the superficial palmar arch. In
the fore-arm the ulnar gives off the interosseous arteries, which supply
the muscles of the fore-arm and give nutrient branches to the bones;
two recurrent branches to the region of the elbow; carpal branches
to the wrist joint': in the hand it gives a deep branch to the deep
muscles of the hand, and from the superficial arch arise digital
branches to the sides of the little, ring, and middle fingers, and the
ulnar border of the index finger.
The radial artery extends down the radial side of the front of the
fore-arm, turns round the outer side of the wrist to the back of the
hand, passes between the 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones to the palm.
where it joins the deep branch of the ulnar, and forms the deep
palmar arch. In the fore-arm it gives off a recurrent branch to the
elbow joint; carpal branches to the wrist joint; and muscular
branches, one of which, named superficial volar, supplies the muscle
of the thumb and joins the ulnar artery : in the hand it gives off a
branch to the thumb, and one to the radial side of the index, in-
terosseous branches to the interosseous muscles, perforating branches
to the back of the hand, and recurrent branches to the. wrist.
The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the thorax
are the coronary, the oesophageal, the bronchial and the pericardiac.
The coronary arteries, two in number, are the first branches
of the aorta, and arise opposite the anterior and left
posterior segments of the semilunar valve, from the wall of
the aorta, where it dilates into the sinuses of Valsalva. They supply
the tissue of the heart.
The oesophageal, bronchial and pericardiac branches are sufficiently
described by their names.
The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the abdomen
arise either singly or in pairs. The single arteries are the coeliac
axis, the superior mesenteric, and the inferior mesenteric, which
arise from the front of the aorta; the pairs are the capsular, the two
renal, and the two spermatic or ovarian, which arise from its sides.
The single arteries supply viscera which are cither completely or
almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and the veins corre-
sponding to them are the roots of the vena portae. The pairs of
arteries supply viscera developed behind the peritoneum, and the
veins corresponding to them are rootlets of the inferior vena cava.
The coeliac axis is a thick, short artery, which almost immediately
divides into the gastric, hepatic and splenic branches. The gastric
gives off oesophageal branches and then runs along the lesser
curvature of the stomach. The hepatic artery ends in the substance
of the liver; but gives off a cystic branch to the gall bladder, a
pyloric branch to the stomach, a gastro-duodenal branch, which divides
into a superior pancreatico-duodenal for the pancreas and duodenum,
and a right gastroepiploic for the stomach and omentum. The splenic
artery ends in the substance of the spleen ; but gives off pancreatic
branches to the pancreas, vasa brevia to the left end of the stomach,
and a left gastroepiploic to the stomach and omentum.
The superior mesenteric artery gives off an inferior pancreatico-
duodenal branch to the pancreas and duodenum; about twelve
intestinal branches to the small intestines, which form in the -sub-
stance of the mesentery a series of arches before they end in the
wall of the intestines; an ileocolic branch to the end of the ileum,
the caecum, and beginning of the colon; a right colic branch to the
ascending colon; and a middle colic branch to the transverse colon.
The inferior mesenteric artery gives off a left colic branch to the
descending colon, a sigmoid branch to the iliac and pelvic colon,
and ends in the superior haemorrhoidal artery, which supplies the
rectum. The arteries which supply the coats of the alimentary
tube from the oesophagus to the rectum anastomose freely with
1 ne renai arteries pass one to eacn xianey, in which th
most part end, but in the substance of the organ they giv
perforating branches, which pierce the capsule of the kidne
distributed in the surrounding fat. Additional renal ai
each other in the wall of the tube, or in its mesenteric attachment;
and the anastomoses are usually by the formation of arches or loops
between adjacent branches.
The capsular arteries, small in size, run outward from the aorta to
end in the supra-renal capsules.
The renal arteries pass one to each kidney, in which they for the
__ . __j w ... ; _ . L L r ^ ., ive off small
iney, and are
ing fat. Additional renal arteries are
fairly common.
The spermatic arteries are two long slender arteries, which descend,
one in each spermatic cord, into the scrotum to supply the testicle.
The corresponding ovarian arteries in the female do not leave the
abdomen.
The branches of the aorta which supply the walls of Parietal
the thorax, abdomen and pelvis, are the intercostal, the tranche*.
lumbar, the phrenic, and the middle sacral.
The intercostal arteries arise from the back of the thoracic
aorta, and arc usually nine pairs. They run round the sides
of the vertebral bodies as far as the commencement of the inter-
costal spaces, where each divides
into a dorsal and a Proper intercostal
branch; the dorsal branch passes to
the back of the thorax to supply the
deep muscles of the mine; the proper
intercostal branch (AB.) runs outward
in the intercostal space to supply J
its muscles, and the lower pairs of
intercostals also give branches to
the diaphragm and wall of the ab-
domen. Below the last rib a subcostal
artery runs.
The lumbar arteries arise from the
back of the abdominal aorta, and
are usually four pain. They run
round the sides of the lumbar verte-
brae, and divide into a dorsal branch
which supplies the deep muscles ol
the back of the loins, and an abdominal
branch which runs outward to supply
the wall of the abdomen. The dis-
Fic. i. — Diagram of a pair
of intercostal arteries:
Ao, The aorta transversely,
divided, giving off at
.each side an inter*.
costal artery.
PB, The posterior or dorsal
branch.
AB, The anterior or proper.
intercostal branch.
IM, A transverse section
through the internal
mammary artery.
tribution of the lumbar and inter-
costal arteries exhibits a trans-
versely segmented arrangement of
the vascular system, like the trans-
versely segmented arrangement of
the bones, muscles and nerves met
with in these localities, but more especially in the thoracic region.
The phrenic arteries, two in number pass to supply the under
surface of the diaphragm.
The middle sacral artery, as it runs down the front of the sacrum,
gives branches to the back of the pelvic wall.
Injections made by Sir W. Turner have shown that, both in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities, slender anastomosing communica-
tions exist between the visceral and parietal branches.
The arteries to the pelvis and hind limbs begin at the bifurcation
of the aorta into the two common iliac*.
The common iliac artery, after a short course, divides into the
internal and external iliac arteries. The internal iliac enters the pelvis
and divides into branches for the supply of the pelvic walls M-#j
and viscera, including the organs of generation, and for the **"?
great muscles of the buttock. The external iliac descends * r * t$
behind Poupart's ligament into the thigh, where it takes the name of
femoral artery. The femoral descends along the front and inner
surface of the thigh, gives off a profunda or deep branch, which, by its
circumflex and perforating branches, supplies the numerous muscles
of the thigh; most of these extend to the back of the limb to carry
blood to the muscles situated there The femoral artery then runs
to the back of the limb in the ham, where it is called popliteal artery.
The popliteal divides into two branches, of which one, called anterior
tibial, passes between the bones to the front of the leg, and then
downward to the upper surface of the foot; the other, posterior
tibial, continues down the back of the leg to the sole of the foot,
and divides into the internal and external plantar arteries; branches
proceed from the external plantar artery to the sides of the toes,
and constitute the digital arteries. From the large arterial trunks
in the leg many branches proceed, to carry blood to the different
structures in the limb.
The wall of an artery consists of several coats (sec fig. a). The
outermost is the tunica advent itia, composed of connective tissue;
immediately internal to this is the yellow elastic coat; «
within this again .the muscular coal, formed of involuntary o/
muscular tissue, the contractile fibre-cells of which are ar|iffa<L
for the most part arranged transversely to the long axis
of the artery; in the larger arteries the elastic coat is much thicker
than the muscular, but in the smaller the muscular coat is relatively
strong; the vaso-motor nerves terminate in the muscular coat. In
the first part of the aorta, pulmonary artery and arteries of the retina
there is no muscular coat. Internal to the muscular coat is
the elastic fenestrated coat, formed of a smooth elastic membrane
668
ARTERIES
perforated by small aperture*. Most internal of all is a layer of
endothelial cells, which form the free surface over which the blood
tows. The arteries are not nourished by the blood which, flows
through them, but by minute vessels, vasa vasorum, distributed in
their external, elastic and muscular coats.
Fig 2. — Diagram of the structure of an artery. A. tunica adven-
titia. E, elastic coat. M, muscular coat, F, fenestrated coat. En.
endothelium continuous with the endothelial wall of C, the capillaries.
Embryology
The earliest appearance of the blood vessels is dealt with under
Vascular System. Here will be briefly described the fate of the
main vessel which carries the blood away from the truncus arteriosus
of the developing heart (q.v.). This ventral aorta, if traced forward,
soon divides into two lateral pans, the explanation being that there
were originally two vessels, side by side, which fused to form the
heart, but continued sepa-
rate anteriorly. The two
K parts run for a little
distance toward the head
>*. of the embryo, ventral
to the alimentary canal,
and then turn toward the
dorsum, passing one on
a i either side of that tube to
form the first aortic arch.
Having reached the dor-
sum they turn backward
toward the tail end and
form the dorsal aorta*,
here, according to A. H
Young (Studies in A na-
tomy, Owens College. 1891
and 1900) they again turn
toward the ventral side
and become, after a tran-
sitional stage, the hypo-
gastric, placental, allantoic
or umbilical arteries. This
Fig 3-Diagram of the Embryonic a " thori L y doe MK* hd * vt t
Arterial Arches. I. 2, 3, 4. 5. 6. point that th f ""^ ?**?
to the six arches. (The black partV are '• rt f r y <* .*• adu,t »• tbc
obliterated in the adukhuxnanwbject.)'^^ ron ii nua ^ on ?' lhe
., . , , A , , _ ' ' single median dorsal aorta
Y a Y Cn i?5 *!£*• wto which the two parallel
A.Ao. Arch Of Aorta. donal vessels just men-
D.Ar. Ductus Arteriosus. tfooed soon J coal™.
In Innominate Artery. though until recently it
R.I.C.-L.I.C Right and Left Internal h« alwavs been so re-
HP. IW^ mL^h f** 6 "*' the anterior loop
ncTt S b- L .^'i f. t k.i between the ventral anS
R.S.-L.S. Rjght and Left Subclavian dorsaI aortac aIready dc _
. scribed as the first aortic
maxillary or first visceral
arch of the soft parts
(sec fig. 3, /) Later, four
other Well-marked aortic
arches grow behind this
the more caudal vis-
P.A. Posterior Auricular Artery.
Oph. Ophthalmic Artery.
D.Ao. Dorsal Aorta.
P.T Pulmonary trunk.
R.P.A.-L.P.A. Right and Left Pul-
R C C I rT^JaftTn'Jl W* r« mm «n CCfal afChM ' *°, tHat thCfC
R.C.C.-L.C.C. Right and Uft Common are a i t0 g e ther five arterial
EC F^i d r2£Ef3U~v arches on each side of
E.C. ^eirol Carotid Artery. the pharvnXf through
Oc. OcapitalArterv. which the blood can pis
I.M. Internal Maxilfary Artery. from the ventral to the
dorsal aorta. Of these arches the first soon disappears, but
is probably partly represented in the adult by the internal
maxillary artery, one branch of which, the infraorbital, is enclosed
in the upper jaw, while another, the inferior dental, is sur-
rounded by the lower jaw. Possibly the ophthalmic artery also
belongs to this arch. The second arch also disappears, but the
posterior auricula* and occipihl arteries probably spring from
it, and at an early period it passed through the str — " **"
transitory stapedial artery. The third arch forms the t
it, and at an early period it passed through the scapes aa the
transitory stapedial artery. The third arch forms the beginning oi
the internal carotid. The fourth arch becomes the area of the adult
aorta, between the origins of the left carotid <and left subclavian,
on the left side, and the first part of the right subclavian artery 00
the right. The apparent fifth arch on the left aide (fie. 3, 6*) remains
all through foetal life aa the ductus arteriosus, and, as the hangs
develop, the pulmonary arteries are derived from it. J. E, V. Boas
and W. Zimmermann have shown that this arch is in reality the sixth.
1 and that there is a very transitory true fifth arch in front of it (fig.
3, 6). The part of the ventral aorta from which this last arch rises
is a single median vessel due to the same fusion of the two primitive*
ventral aortae which precedes the formation of the heart* but a
spiral septum has appeared in it which divides it in such a way that
while the anterior or cephalic arches communicate with the left ven-
tricle of the heart, the last one com-
municates with the right (see Hkart^.
The fate of the ventrafand dorsal longi-
tudinal vessels must now be followed.
The fused part of the two ventral aortae,
just in front of the heart, forms the
ascending part of the adult aortic arch,
and where this trunk divides between the
fifth and fourth arches (strictly speaking,
the sixth and fifth), the right one forms
the innominate (fig. 3, In.) and the left
one a very short part of the transverse
arch of the aorta until the fourth arch
comes off (see fig. 4). From this point to
the origin of the third arch is common l *•
carotid, and after that, to the head,
external carotid on each side. The dorsal
hi --'- ■*—-' ! on the head side of
th e third arch form the
tn etween the third and
fo ire obliterated, while ■
or f this, until the point
of on the dorsal side of
th tcry forms the upper
pa Lorta while the right
en Below this point the -..„ ^ , .
the uJ aortae arcformed u Fic - 4-*-Diagrainof the
by the two primitwe dorsal aortae which Human Aorta and its
have fused to form a single median vessel. J™ 1 ****- »* .• =>"P**-
As the limbs are developed, vessels bud baai Temporal Artery.
out in them. The subclavian tor the arm comes from the fourth aortk
arch on each side, while in the leg the main artery is a branch of
the caudal arch which is curving ventrarward to form the umbilical
artery From the convexity of this arch the internal iliac and
sciatic at first carry the blood to the limb, as they do permanent hr
in reptiles, but later the external iliac and femoral become developed,
and. as they are on the conCave side of the bend of the hip, while the
sciatic is on the convex, they have a mechanical advantage and
become the permanent main channel.
F01 further details see O. Hertwig, Handbuch der tergfeuhrnde*
und expermenteUen Entwtckelungslehre der Wirbelhere (Jena, 1905).
Comparative Anatomy
In the Acrania the lancelet (Amphioxus) shows certain arrange-
ments of its arteries which are suggestive of the embryonic stages
of the higher vertebrates and Man. There is a median ventral aorta
below the pharynx, from which branchial arteries run up on each side
between the branchial clefts, where the blood is aerated, to join two
dorsal aortae which run back side by side until the hind end of the
pharynx is reached, here they fuse to form a median vessel from
which branches are distributed to the straight intestine There is
no heart, but the ventral aorta is contractile, and the blood is driven
forward in it and backward tn the dorsal aortae. The branchial
arteries are very numerous, and cannot be homologized closely
with the five (originally six) pairs of aortic arches in Man.
In the fish the ventral aorta gives rise to five afferent branchial
arteries carrying the blood to the gills, though these may not all
come off as independent trunks from the aorta. From the gills
the afferent branch ials carry the blood to the median dorsal aorta.
As pectoral and pelvic fins arc now developed, subclavian and iliac
arteries are found rising from the dorsal aorta, though the aorta
itself is continued directly backward as the caudal artery into the
tail. In the Dipnoi cr mud fish, in which the swim bladder is con-
verted into a functional lung, the hindmost afferent branchial an cry.
corresponding to the fifth (strictly speaking the sixth) aortic arch of
the human embryo, gives off on each side a pulmonary artery to that
structure.
The arrangement of the branchial aortic arches in the tailed
Amphibia (Urodela), and in the tadpole stage of the tailless forms
(Anura), makes it probable that the generalised vertebrate has fix
(if not more) pairs of these instead of the five which are evident
in the human embryo. Four pairs of arches are present, the first of
which is the carotid and corresponds to the third of Man: the
second is the true aortic arch on each side; the third undergoes
ARTERN— ARTEVELDE
669
{ngnt one Deins oonteratea. out several caaa nave
in Man in which both arches have jpersisted, a* they
►tiles (H. Leboucq, Ann. Set. Med. Gand, 1894. p. 7).
ve also been found of a right aortic arch, as in birds.
great reduction or disappears when the gills atrophy, and is very
transitory in the Mammalia (fig. 3, 5), while the fourth is the one
from which the pulmonary artery is developed when the lungs
appear, and corresponds to the nominal fifth, though really the
sixth arch, of the higher forms (rig. 3, 6). The dorsal part of this
sixth arch remains as a pervious vessel in the Urodeta, joining the
pulmonary arch to the dorsal aorta. In the ventral part of the carotid
arch the vessel breaks up into a plexus, for a short distance forming
the so-called carotid gland, which has an important effect upon the
adult circulation of the Amphibia. In the Reptilia the great arteries
are arranged on the same plan as in the adult Amphibia, but the
carotid arch retains its dorsal communication with the systematic
aortic arch on each side, and this communication is known as the
duct of Botalli (fig. 3. D.B.). In this class, as in the Amphibia,
one great artery, the coeliaco-mesenteric, usually supplies the liver,
Steen, stomach and anterior part of the intestines; this is a point
some interest when it is noticed how very close together the coeliac
axis and superior mesenteric arteries rise from the abdominal aorta
in Man.
In the Birds the right fourth arch alone remains as the aorta,
the dorsal part of the left corresponding arch being obliterated.
From the arch of the aorta rise two symmetrical innominates, each
of which divides later into a carotid and subclavian. The blood
Kith from the aorta to the hind limb in the Amphibia, Reptilia and
vca, is a dorsal one, and passes through the internal iliac and sciatic
to the back of the thigh, and so to the popliteal space; the external
iliac is, if it is developed at all, only a small branch to the pelvis.
In the Mammalia the fourth left arch becomes the aorta, the
corresponding right one beinq obliterated, but several cases have
been recorded in T" *
do in the reptiles
Examples have al
while a very common human abnormality is that in which the dorsal
part of the fourth right arch persists, and from it the right subclavian
artery arises (see fig. 3).
The commonest arrangement of the great branches of the aortic
arch in Mammals is that in which the innominate and left carotid
arise by a single short trunk, while the left subclavian comes off
later; this is also Man's commonest abnormality. Sometimes,
especially among the Ungulate, all the branches may rise from one
common trunk; at other times two innominate arteries may be
present; this is commonest in the Cheiroptera, lnsectivoni and
Cetacea. It is extremely rare to find all four large arteries rising
independently from the aorta, though it has been seen in the Koala
(F. G. Parsons, " Mammalian Aortic Arch," Jourrt. of Anal. vol.
xxxvi p. 389). The human arrangement of the common iliacs is not
constant among mammals, for in some the external and internal
iliacs rise independently from the aorta, and this is probably the
more primitive arrangement. The middle sacral artery has already
been referred to. A. H. Young and A. Robinson believe, on embryo-
logical grounds, that this artery in mammals is not homologous
with the caudal artery of the fish, and is not the direct continuation
of the aorta; it is an artery which usually gives off two or more
collateral branches, and sometimes, as in the Ornithorynchus and
some edentates, breaks up into a network of branches which reunite
and so form what is known as a rete mirabile. % These retia mirabilia
are often found in other parts of the mammalian body, though their
function is still not satisfactorily explained. The way In which the
blood is carried to the foot in the pronograde mammals differs from
that of Man; a large branch called the internal saphenous comes
off the common femoral in the lower third of the thigh, and this runs
down the inner side of the leg to the foot. This arrangement is
quite convenient as long as the knee is flexed, but when it comes to
be extended, as in the erect posture, the artery is greatly stretched,
and it is much easier for the blood to pass to the foot through the
anterior and posterior tibials. A vestige of this saphenous artery,
however, remains in Man as the anastomotica magna.
The literature of the Comparative Anatomy of the Arteries up to
1002 will be found in R. Wicdersheim's Vertfeichende Analomie der
Wi rb e lHe rt (Jena. 1902). The morphology of the Iliac Arteries is
oVacrihfd by G. Levi, Arckivio Italiano dt AnaL ad EmbriaL, vol. I.
09W). (F. G. P.)
ABTSRH, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the
Unstrut, at the influx of the Helme, at the junction of railways
to Erfurt, Naumburg and Sangerhausen, 8 m. S. of the last
named. Pop. 5000. It has an Evangelical church, an agricul-
tural college and some manufactures of machinery, sugar and
boots. Its brine springs, known as early as the 15th century,
are still frequ ented .
ARTESIAN WELLS, the name properly applied to water-
springs rising above the surface of the ground by natural hydro-
static pressure, on boring a small hole down through a series
of strata to a water-carrying bed enclosed between two im-
pervious layers; the name is, however, sometimes loosely
applied to any deep well, even when the water is obtained by
pumping. In Europe this mode of well-boring was first practised
in the French province of Axtois, whence the name of Artesian
is derived. At Aire, in that province, there is a well from which
the water has continued steadily to flow to a height of 1 1 feet
above the ground for more than a century; and there is, within
the old Carthusian convent at Lillers, another which dates from
the 1 2th century, and which still flows. But unmistakable
traces of much more ancient bored springs appear in Lombardy,
in Asia Minor, in Persia, in China, in Egypt, in Algeria, and even
in the great desert of Sahara. (See Well.)
ARTEVELDE, JACOB VAN (c. 1 290-1345), Flemish statesman,
was born at Ghent about 1290. He sprang from one of the
wealthy commercial families of this great industrial city, his
father's name being probably William van Artevelde. His
brother John, a rich cloth merchant, took a leading part in public
affairs during the first decades of the 14th century. Jacob,
who according to tradition was a brewer by trade, spent three
years in amassing quietly a large fortune. He was twice married ,
the second time to Catherine de Coster, whose family was of
considerable influence in Ghent. Not till 1337, when the out-
break of hostilities between France and England threatened
to injure seriously the industrial welfare of his native town,
did Jacob van Artevelde make his first appearance as a political
leader. As the Flemish cities depended upon England for the
supply of the wool for their staple industry of weaving, he boldly
came forward, as a tribune of the people, and at a great meeting
at the monastery of BUoke unfolded his scheme of an alliance
of the Flemish towns with those of Brabant, Holland and
Hainaut, to maintain an armed neutrality in the dynastic struggle
between Edward III. and Philip VI. of France. His efforts were
successful. Bruges, Ypres and other towns formed a league
with Ghent, in which town Artevelde, with the title of captain-
general, henceforth until his death exercised almost dictatorial
authority. His first step was to conclude a c o mmercial treaty
with England. The efforts of the count of Flanders to overthrow
the power of Artevelde by force of arms completely failed, and
he was compelled at Bruges to sign a treaty (Juno 21, 1338)
sanctioning the federation of the three towns, Ghent, Bruges and
Ypres, henceforth known as the " Three members of Flanders."
This was the first of a scries of treaties, made during the year
1330-1340, which gradually brought into the federation all the
towns and provinces of the Netherlands. The policy of neutrality,
however, proved impracticable, and the Flemish towns, under the
leadership of Artevelde, openly took the side of the English king,
with whom a close alliance was concluded. Artevelde now
reached the height of his power, concluding alliances with kings,
and publicly associating with, them on equal terms. Under his
able administration trade flourished, and Ghent rose rapidly in
wealth and importance. His well-nigh despotic rule awoke at last
among his compatriots jealousy and resentment. The proposal
of Artevelde to disown the sovereignty of Louis, count of Flanders,
and to recognize in its place that of Edward, prince of Wales
(the Black Prince) , gave rise to violent dissatisfaction. A popular
insurrection broke out in Ghent, and Artevelde fell into the
hands of the crowd and was murdered on the 24th of July 134$.
The great services that he rendered to Ghent and to his
country have in later times been recognised. A statue was
erected in his native town on the Marche du Vendredi, and was
unveiled by Leopold I., king of the Belgians, on the 13th of
September 1863.
See J. Hutten, James end Philip son Artevelde (London, 1882);
W. J. Ashley, James and Philip raw Artevelde (London. 1883); P.
Namcche, Les van Artevelde el lent ipoque (Louvain, 1887); L.
Vanderkindere, Le Steele des Arteveldes (Brussels, 1879).
ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN (c. 1340-1382), youngest son of
the above, and godson of Queen Philippa of England, who held
him in her arms at his baptism, lived in retirement until 1381.
The Ghenters had in that year risen in revolt against the oppres-
sion of the count of Flanders, and Philip, now forty years of age,
and without any military or political experience, was offered the
supreme command. His name awakened general enthusiasm.
At first his efforts were attended by considerable success. He
defeated Louis de Male, count of Flanders, before Bruges,
entered that city in triumph, and was soon master of all Flanders.
670
ART GALLERIES
But France took up the cause of the Flemish count, and a
splendid French army was led across the frontier by the young
king Charles VI. in person. Artevelde advanced to meet the
enemy at the head of a burgher army of some 50,000 Flemings.
The armies met at Roosebeke near Courtrai, with the result that
the Flemings were routed with terrible loss, Philip himself being
among the slain. This happened on the 27th of November 1382.
The brief but stirring career of this popular leader is admirably
treated in Sir Henry Taylor's drama, Philtp van Artevelde.
ART GALLERIES. An art gallery (by which, as distinguished
from more general Museums of Art, q.v., is here meant one
specially for pictures) epitomizes so many phases of human
thought and imagination that it connotes much more than a mere
collection of paintings. In its technical and aesthetic aspect the
gallery shows the treatment of colour, form and composition.
In its historical aspect we find the true portraits of great men of
the past; we can observe their habits of life, their manners, their
dress, the architecture of their times, and the
religious worship of the period in which they lived.
Regarded collectively, the art of a country epito-
mizes the whole development of the people that
produced it. Most important of all is the emotional
aspect of painting, which must enter less or more
into every picture worthy of notice. To take
examples from the British National Gallery:
pathos in its most intense degree will be found
in Franda's "Pieti"; dignity in Velasquez'
portrait of Admiral Pareja; homeliness in Van
Eyck's portrait of Jan Arnolfini and his wife; the
interpretation of the varying moods of nature in
According to this theory, though imperfectly realized owing to
the paucity of examples, the philosophic influence of art giflcriri
is becoming more widely extended; and in its further develop-
ment will be found an ever-growing source of interest, instruction
and scholarship to the community. The most suitable method
of describing art galleries is to classify them by their types and
contents rather than by the various countries to which they
belong. Thus the great representative galleries of the world
which possess works of every school are grouped together,
followed by state galleries which are not remarkable for more
than one school of national art. Municipal galleries are divided
into those which have general collections, and those which are
notable for special collections. Churches which have good paint*
ings, together with those which are now secularized, are treated
separately; while the collections in the Vatican and private
houses are described together. The remaining galleries, such as
the Salon or the Royal Academy, are periodical or commercial
XXI
xn
4
XL
FlG. I.— Plan of the National Gallery, London.
North Vestibule, Early Italian Schools:
I. Tuscan School (15th and 16th cen-
turies).
II. Sienese School, &c
III. Tuscan School.
IV. Lombard School.
V. Ferrarese and Bolognesc Schools.
VI. Umbrian School, &c.
VII. Venetian and Brescian Schools.
VIII. Paduan and Early Venetian Schools.
IX. Later Venetian School.
X. Flemish School.
XI. Early Dutch and Flemish Schools.
XII. Dutch and Flemish Schools.
XIII. Flemish School.
XIV. Spanish School.
XV. German Schools.
XVI. French School.
XVII. French School.
XVI II. British School.
XIX. Old British SchooL
XX. British School.
XXI. British School.
XXII. Turner Collection.
Octagonal Hall: Miscellaneous.
East Vestibule: British SchooL
West Vestibule: Italian SchooL
the work of Turner or Hobbema; nothing can be more devotional
than the canvases of Bellini or his Umbrian contemporaries. So
also the ruling sentiments of mankind — mysticism, drama and
imagination— are the keynotes of other great conceptions of the
artist. All this may be at the command of those who visit the
art gallery; but without patience, care and study the higher
meaning will be lost to the spectator. The picture which " tells
its own story " is often the least didactic, for it has no inner or
deeper lesson to reveal; it gives no stimulus or training to the
eye, quick as that organ may be—segnius irritant animos— to
translate sight into thought. In brief, the painter asks that his
{to may be shared as much as possible by the man who looks
at the painting— the art above all others in which it is most
needful to share the master's spirit if his work is to be fully
appreciated. So, too, the art gallery, recalling the gentler
associations of the past amidst surroundings of harmonious
beauty and its attendant sense of comfort, is essentially a place
of rest for the mind and eye. In the more famous galleries where
the wealth of paintings allows a grouping of pictures according
to their respective schools, one may choose the country, the
•~ M * K »he style or even the emotion best suited to one's taste.
in character, and are important in the development of modern
art.
The collections most worthy of attention are the state galleries
representative of international schools. Among these the British
National Gallery holds a high place. The collection —
was founded in 1824 by the acquisition of the Anger-
stein pictures. Its accessions are mainly governed
by the parliamentary grant of £5000 to £10,000 a
year, a sum which has occasionally been enlarged to
permit special purchases. Thus, in 1871, the Peel collection of
seventy-seven pictures was bought for £75,000, and in 1885 the
Ansidei Madonna (Raphael) and VanDyck's portrait of Charles L
were bought, the one for £70,000 and the other for £17,500. In
1800 the government gave £25,000 to meet a gift of £30/300 made
by three gentlemen toacquire three portraits by Moroni, Velasquez
and Holbein. The most important private gifts were the Vernon
gift in 1847, the Turner bequest in 1856 and the Wynne- Ellis
legacy in 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society
of private subscribers, has also been responsible for important
additions to the gallery, notably the Venus of Velazquez (1007).
The gallery contains very few poor works and all schools are well
ART GALLERIES
671
represented, with the sole exception of the French school. This,
however, can be amply studied at Hertford House (Wallace
Collection), which, besides Dutch, Spanish and British pictures of
the highest value, contains twenty examples of Greuze, fifteen by
Pater, nineteen by Boucher, eleven by Watteau and fifteen by
Meissonicr. The national gallery of pictures at Berlin (Kaiser
Friedrich Museum), like the British National Gallery, is remark-
able for its variety of schools and painters, and for the select type
of pictures shown. During the last twenty-five years of the 19th
century, the development of this collection was even more strik-
ing than that of the English gallery. Italian and Dutch examples
are specially numerous, though every school but the British (here
It avoids the undue multiplication of canvases, and the over-
crowding so noticeable in many Italian galleries where first-rate
pictures hang too high to be examined. Thus the Viennese
gallery, besides the intrinsic value of its pictures (Albert Dilrer's
chief work is there), is admirably adapted for study. The best
gallery in Russia (St Petersburg, Hermitage) was made entirely
by royal efforts, having been founded by Peter the Great, and
much enlarged by the empress Catherine. It contains the
collections of Crozat, Briibl and Walpole. There are about
1800 works, the schools of Flanders and Italy being of signal
merit; and there are at least thirty-five genuine examples by
Rembrandt. The French collection (Louvre Palace, Paris) is one
I.
H.
as elsewhere) is really well sten. The purchase grant is consider-
able, and is well applied. Two other German capitals have collec-
tions of international importance— Dresden and Munich. The
former Is famous for the Sistine Madonna by Raphael, a work of
such supreme excellence that there is a tendency to overlook
other Italian pictures of celebrity by Titian, Giorgione and
Correggio. Munich (Old Pinakothek) has examples of all the best
masters, the South German school being particularly noticeable.
The arrangement is good, and the methods of exhibition make
this one of the most pleasant galleries on the continent. Vienna
has the Imperial Gallery, a collection which in point of number
cannot be considered large, as there are not more than 1700
pictures. This, however, is in itself a safeguard, like the wise
provision in a statute of 1856 for enabling the English authorities
to dispose of pictures " unfit for the collection, or not required."
of the most important of all. In 1S80 it was undoubtedly the
first gallery in Europe, but its supremacy has since been menaced
by other establishments where acquisitions are made more
frequently and with greater care, and where the system of
classification is such that the value of the pictures is enhanced
rather than diminished by their display. In 1900 it was partly
rearranged with great effect The feature of the Louvre is the
Salon Carrl, a room in which the supposed finest canvases in the
collection are kept together, pictures of world-wide fame, repre-
senting all schools. It Is now generally accepted that this system
of selection not only lowers the standard of individual schools
elsewhere by withdrawing their best pictures, but does not add
to the aesthetic or educational value of the masterpieces them-
selves. In Florence the Tribuna room of the Uffixi gallery is a
similar case in point. Probably the two most widely >
672
ART GALLERIES
pictures in the Louvre are Watteau's second " Embarquement
pour Cythfcre," and the " Monna Lisa/' a portrait by Leonardo da
Vinci, but each school has many unique examples. The original
drawings should be noted, being of equal importance to the col-
lection preserved at the British Museum. The last collection to
be mentioned under this heading is that known as the Royal
Galleries in Florence, housed in the Pitti and Uffizi palaces. In
some ways this collection does not represent general painting
sufficiently to justify its inclusion with the galleries of Berlin,
Paris and London. On the other hand, the great number of
Italian pictures of vital importance to the history of international
art makes this one of the finest existing collections. The two
great palaces, dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, are
joined together and contain the Medici pictures. They form the
largest gallery in the world, and though many of the rooms are
small and badly lighted, and although many paintings have
suffered from thoughtless restoration, they have a charm and
attraction which certainly make them the most popular galleries
in Europe. The Pitti has ten Raphaels and excellent examples of
Andrea del Sarto, Giorgionc and Perugino. The Uffizi is more
representative of non-Italian schools, but is best known for its
works by Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and
Sodoma, the schools of Tuscany and Umbria forming the bulk of
both collections. Admission to the galleries is by payment, and
the small income derived from this source is devoted to main-
taining and enlarging the collections.
As to the ground plans of the National Gallery, London (fig. x),
and of the Imperial Gallery at Vienna (fig. 2), it will be observed
that while the former has the advantage of uniform top-light,
the galleries at Vienna possess the most ample facilities for
minute classification, small rooms or " cabinets " opening from
each large room. Special rooms are also provided for drawings
and water-colours, while special ranges of rooms are used by
copyists and those responsible for the repair and preservation of
the pictures.
Though not so comprehensive as the great collections just
described, the state galleries showing national schools of painting
«*-«- and little else are of striking interest In England
tot the National Gallery of British Art (known as the
Tate Gallery) contains British pictures. The corre-
sponding collection of modern French art is at Paris
(Luxembourg Palace), Berlin, Rome, Dresden, Vienna and
Madrid having analogous galleries. The Victoria and Albert
Museum has also numerous British pictures, especially in water-
colour, and the National Portrait Gallery, founded in 1856, and
since 1896 housed in its permanent home, is instructive in
this connexion, though many of its pictures are the work of
foreign artists. The national collections at Dublin and Edin-
burgh may be mentioned here, though most schools are repre-
sented. Brussels and Antwerp are remarkable for fine examples
of Flemish art — Matsys, Memlinc and Van Eyck of the primitive
schools, Rubens and Van Dyck of the later period. The collec-
tions at Amsterdam (Ryks Museum) and the Hague(Mauritshuis)
are a revelation to those who have only studied Rembrandt,
Franz Hals, Van der Heist, and other Dutch portrait painters
outside Holland; and in the former gallery especially, the
pictures arc arranged in a manner showing them to the best
advantage. The Museo del Prado is even more noteworthy, for
the fifty examples of Velasquez (outrivalling the Italian pictures,
important as they are) make a visit to Madrid imperative to
those who wish to realize the achievements of Spanish art.
Christiania, Stockholm and Copenhagen have large collections of
Scandinavian art, and the cities of Budapest and Basel have
galleries of some importance. In Italy the state maintains
twelve collections, mainly devoted to pictorial art. Of these the
best are situated at Bologna, Lucca, Parma, Venice, Modena,
Turin and Milan. In each case the local school of painting is
fully represented. In Rome the Corsini and Borghese Galleries,
the latter being the most catholic in the city, contain superb
examples, some of them accepted masterpieces of Italian art;
there are also good foreign pictures, but their number is limited.
xademia at Florence should also be noted as the most
important state gallery of early Italian art. The central Italian
Renaissance can be more adequately studied here than in the
Pitti. The " Primavera " of Botticelli, and the " Last Judg-
ment " by Fra Angelico are perhaps the best-known works,
The large statue of David by Michelangelo is also in this gallery,
which, on the whole, is one of the most remarkable in Italy.
Speaking broadly, these national galleries scattered throughout
the country are not well arranged or classified; and though some
are kept in fine old buildings, beautiful in themselves, the lighting
is often indifferent, and it is with difficulty that the pictures can be
seen. In nearly every case admission fees are charged every day,
festivals and Sundays excepted ; few pictures are bought, acquisi-
tions being chiefly made by removing pictures from churches.
Many towns own collections of well-merited repute. In Italy
such galleries arc common, and among them may be noted
Siena, with Sodoma and his school; Venice with
Tintoretto (Doge's Palace); Genoa, with the great
palaces Balbi and Rosso; Vicenza (Montagna and
school), Ferrara (Dosso and school), Bergamo and
Milan (north Italian schools). Other civic collections of Italian
art arc maintained at Verona, Pisa, Rome, Perugia and Padua,
In Holland, Haarlem, Leiden, Rotterdam and the Hague have
galleries supplemental to those of the state, and are remarkable
in showing the brilliance of artists like Grabber, de Bray and
Ravesteyn, who are usually ignored. Birmingham and Man-
chester have good examples of modern British art. Moscow
(Tretiakoff collection) has modem Russian pictures, and con-
temporary German and French work will be found is all
the galleries of these twjo countries included in the municipal
group. Collections of French work are found at Amiens, Rouen,
Nancy, Tours, Le Mans and Angers, but large as these civic
collections are, sometimes containing six and eight hundred
canvases, few of their pictures are really good, many being the
enormous patriotic canvases marked " Don de l'ftat," which do
not confer distinction on the galleries. Cologne has the central
collection of the early Rhenish school; Nuremberg is remarkable
for early German work (Wohlgemut, &c). Stuttgart, Cassd
(Dutch) and Hamburg (with a considerable number of British
pictures) arc also noteworthy, together with Brunswick. Hanover,
Augsburg, Darmstadt and DUsseldorf, where German and Dutch
art preponderate. Seville is famous for twenty-five examples of
Murillo, and there are old Spanish paintings at Valencia, Cordova
and Cadiz.
In Great Britain the best of the municipal galleries of general
schools are at Liverpool (early Flemish and British), and at
Glasgow (Scottish painters, Rembrandt, Van der timm***
Goes and Venetian schools). In France there are !■■»*»
very large galleries at Tours, Montpcllier, Lyons ?*f* *
(Perugino, Rubens), Dijon and Grenoble (Italian),
Valenciennes (Watteau and school), while Rennes, LSDe and
Marseilles have first-rate collections. Nantes, Orleans, Besancon,
Cherbourg and Caen have also many paintings, French for
the most part, but with occasional foreign pictures of real
importance, presented by the state during the Napoleonic con-
quests, and not returned on the declaration of peace as were
the works of art amassed in Paris. Some of the American
collections have in recent years made a great advance in their
acquisition of good pictures. At Boston (Museum of Fine
Arts) all schools are represented, so too at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York, which is strong in Italian and Dutch
works. Modern French and Flemish art is a feature of the
Academy at Philadelphia, at the Lenox Library (New York),
and at Chicago, where there are good examples of Millet, Con-
stable and Rembrandt. The Corcoran bequest at Washington
is of minor importance. The best civic collection in Germany
of this cbss is the Stadel Institute at Frankfort (Van Eyck,
Christus, early Flemish and Italian).
As the great bulk of religious painting was executed for
church decoration, there are still numberless churches which
may be considered pictu re galleries. Thus at Antwerp
cathedral the Rubens paintings are remarkable; at
Ghent, Van Eyck; at Bruges (hospital of St John), Memlinc ;
ARTHRITIS— ARTHROPODA
673
at Pis*, the Campo Santo (early Tuacan schools); at Sant'
Apollinare, Ravenna, primitive Italo-Byzantine mosaics; at
Siena, Pinturichio. Examples could be multiplied indefinitely
—in Italy alone there are 80,000 churches and chapels, in all of
which pictorial art has been employed. In Italy, besides the
church " galleries " still used for religious services, there are
some which have been secularized and are now used as museums,
e.g. Certosa at Pavia, and San Vitale at Ravenna (mosaics); at
Florence, the Scalzo (Andrea del Sarto); San Marco (Fra
Angelico) ; the Riccardi and Pazzi chapels (Goxxoli and Perugjno) ;
at Milan, in the Santa Maria delle Grazie, the " Last Supper,"
by Leonardo, and at Padua, the famous Arena chapel (Giotto).
The Vatican galleries, though best known for their statuary,
have fine examples of painting, chiefly of the Italian school;
Prtr*t» the most famous easel picture is Raphael's " Trans-
figuration," but the Stanze, apartments entirely
decorated by painting, are even more famous. In
England three royal palaces are open to the public-
Hampton Court (Mantcgna), Windsor (Van Dyck, Zuccarelli),
and Kensington (portraits). At Buckingham Palace the Dutch
pictures are admirable, and Queen Victoria lent the cele-
brated Raphael cartoons to the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Semi-private collections belong to Dulwich College (Velasquez
and Watteau), Oxford University (Italian drawings), the Soane
Museum (Hogarth and English school), and the Royal Academy
(Leonardo). Among private collections the most important are
the Harrach, and Prince Liechtenstein (Vienna), J. Pierpont
Morgan (including miniatures), Mrs J. Gardner of Boston
(Italian), Prince Corsini (Florence). In Great Britain there are
immense riches in private houses, though many collections have
been dispersed. The most noteworthy (1000) belong to the
dukes of Devonshire and Westminster, Lord EUesmere, Captain
Holford (including the masterpiece of Cuyp), Ludwig Mond,
Lord Lansdowne, Miss Rothschild. The finest private col-
lection is at Panshanger formerly the seat of Lord Cowper,
the gallery of Van Dyck's work being quite the best in the
world.
Many galleries are devoted to periodical exhibitions in London ;
the Royal Academy is the leading agency of this character,
having held exhibitions since 1769. Its loan exhibi-
tions of Old Masters are most important. Similar
enterprises are the New Gallery, opened in 1888, the
Grafton Gallery, and others. There are also old-
established societies of etchers, water-colourists, &c. A feature
common to these exhibitions is that the public always pays for
admission, though they differ from the commercial exhibitions,
becoming more common every year, in which the work of a single
school or painter is shown for profit. But the annual exhibitions
at the Guildhall, under the auspices of the corporation, are free.
The great periodical exhibition of French art is known as the
Salon, and for some years it has had a rival in the Champ de
Mars exhibition. These two societies are now respectively
housed in the Grand Palais and Petit Palais, in the Champs
Elysecs, which were erected in connexion with the Paris Exhibi-
tion of 1000, but with the ultimate object of being devoted to the
service of the two Salons. Berlin, Rome, Vienna and other
Continental towns have regular exhibitions of original work.
The best history of art galleries is found in their official and other
catalogues, ace article Museums. See also L. Viardot, Les Musics
«i««. &c. (3 vols., Paris, 184a, 1843, 1844); Annr ' ~
official, of National Portrait Gallery, National Galleries
Ireland and Scotland; Civil Service Estimates, class
bee also the series edited by Lafencstre and E. RL
U Louvre, La Belgique, Le Holland*, Florence, Belgiqui
Kente des musics de France, . . . d'AUemagne, . . .
. . . (TEspagTU, . . . tfltalie, . . . de Belgique, de H
Russte (Pans. 1862-1872); E. Michel, les Musics
(Pans, 1886); Kate Thompson, Public Picture GaUeri
U880): C. L. East lake. Notes on Foreign Picture Ga
Konald Cower, Pocket Guide to Art Galleries {public an
felnum and Holland (1875); and many works, albt
"ton, issued mainly for the sake of the illustrations. 1
ARTHRITIS (from Gr. 6p$pov, a joint), inflammi he
joints, ^ various forms of what are generally called gout and
rheumatism («.».).
ts,
id.
al.
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of
ARTHROPODA, a name, denoting the possession by certain
animals of jointed limbs, now applied to one of the three sub-phyla
into which one of the great phyla (or primary branches) of
coelomocoelous animals— the Appendiculata — is divided; the
other two being respectively the Chaetopoda and the Rotifera.
The word " Arthropoda " was first used in classification by
Siebold and Stannius (Lekrbuch der vergltich. Anatomic, Berlin,
1845) as that of a primary division of animals, the others recog-
nized in that treatise being Protozoa, Zoophyta, Vermes,
Mollusca and Vertebrata. The names Condylopoda and Gnatho-
poda have been subsequently proposed for the same group.
The word refers to the jointing of the chitinized exo-skeleton
of the limbs or lateral appendages of the animals included,
which are, roughly speaking, the Crustacea, Arachnida, Hexapoda
(so-called " true insects "), Centipedes and Millipedes. This
primary group was set up to indicate the residuum of Cuvier's
Articuiata when his class Annilides (the modern Chaetopoda) was
removed from that embrotuhemtni. At the same time C. T. E.
von Siebold and H. Stannius renovated the group Vermes
of Linnaeus, and placed in it the Chaetopods and the parasitic
worms of Cuvier, besides the Rotifers and Turbellarian worms. 1
The result of the knowledge gained in the last quarter of the
19th century has been to discredit altogether the group Vermes
(see Worm), thus set up and so largely accepted by German
writers even at the present day. We have, in fact, returned
very nearly to Cuvier's conception of a great division or branch,
which he called Articuiata, including the Arthropoda and the
Chaetopoda (Annelides of Lamarck, a name adopted by Cuvier),
and differing from it only by the inclusion of the Rotifera. The
name Articuiata, introduced by Cuvier, has not been retained
by subsequent writers. The same, or nearly the same, assemblage
of animals has been called Entomozoaria by de Blainville
(1822), Arthrozoa by Burmeister (1843), Entomozoa or
Annellata by H. Milne-Edwards (1855), and Annulosa by
Alexander M'Leay (1810), who was followed by Huxley (1856).
The character pointed to by all these terms is that of a ring-like
segmentation of the body. This, however, is not the character
to which we now ascribe the chief weight as evidence of the
genetic affinity and monophyletic (uni-ancestral) origin of the
Chaetopods, Rotifers and Arthropods. It is the existence in
each ring of the body of a pair of hollow lateral appendages or
par a podia, moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-
spaces, which is the leading fact indicating the affinities of
these great sub-phyla, and uniting them as blood-relations. The
^Thegroup Arthropoda itself.thusconstjtuted.wasprecisely identical
in its area with the Insecta of Linnaeus, the Entoma of Aristotle. But
the word " Insect " had become limited since the days of Linnaeus
to the Hexapod Pterygote forms, to the exclusion of his Aptera.
Lamarck's penetrating genius is chiefly responsible for the shrinkage
of the word Insecta, since it was he who, forty years after LinnacuTs
death, set up and named the two great classes Crustacea and Arach-
nida (included by Linnaeus nnder Insecta as the order " Aptera "), -
assigning to them equal rank with the remaining Insecta of Linnaeus,
for which he proposed the very appropriate class-name " Hexapoda.
Lamarck, however, appears not to have insisted on this name Hexa-
poda, and so the class of Pterygote Hcxapods came to retain the
group-name Insecta, which is, historically or etymologicaHy, no more
appropriate to them than it is to the classes Crustacea and Arachnida.
The tendency to retain the original name of an old and comprehensive
group for one of the' fragments into which such group becomes divided
By the advance of knowledge — instead of keeping the name for its
logical use as a comprehensive term, including the new divisions, each
duly provided with a new name — is most curiously illustrated in the
history of the word physiology. Cicero says, " Physiologia naturae
ratio, and such was the meaning of the name Physiologus, given to
a cyclopaedia of what was known and imagined about earth, sea, sky,
birds, beasts and fishes, which for a thousand years was the authori-
tative source of information on these matters, and was translated
into every European tongue. With the revival of learning, however,
first one and then another special study became recognized —
anatomy, botany, zoology, mineralogy, until at last the great
comprehensive term physiology was bereft of all its once-included
subject-matter, excepting the study of vital processes pursued by
the more learned members of the medical profession. Professional
tradition and an astute perception on their part of the omniscience
suggested by the terms, have left the medical men in English-
speaking lands in undisturbed but illogical possession of the words
physiology, physic and physician.
67+
ARTHROPODA
parapodia (fig. 8) of the marine branchiate worms are the same
uungs genetically as the " legs " of Crustacea and Insects (figs.
10 and n). Hence the term Appendiculata was introduced by
Lankester (preface to the English edition of Gegenbaur's Com-
parative Anatomy, 1878 ) to indicate the group. The relation-
ships of the Arthropoda thus stated are shown in the subjoined
table:—
! Sub-phylum 1. Rotifera.
" 2. Chaetopoda.
3. Arthropoda.
The Rotifera are characterized by the retention of what
appears in Molluscs and Chaetopods as an embryonic organ,
the velum or ciliated prae-oral girdle, as a locomotor and food-
seizing apparatus, and by the reduction of the muscular parapodia
to a rudimentary or non-existent condition in all present surviving
forms except Pedalion. In many important respects they are
degenerate — reduced both in size and elaboration of structure.
The Chaetopoda are characterized by the possession of horny
epidermic chactae embedded in the integument and moved
by muscles. Probably the chaetae preceded the development
of parapodia, and by their concentration and that of the muscular
bundles connected with them at the sides of each segment, led
directly to the evolution of the parapodia. The parapodia of
Chaetopoda are never coated with dense chitin, and are, therefore,
never converted into jaws; the primitive " head-lobe " or
prostomium persists, and frequently carries eyes and sensory
tentacles. Further, in all members of the sub-phylum Chaeto-
poda the relative position of the prostomium, mouth and peri-
stomium or first ring of the body, retains its primitive character.
We do not find in Chaetopoda that parapodia, belonging to
primitively post-oral rings or body-segments (called " somites,"
as proposed by H. Milne-Edwards), pass in front of the mouth
by adaptational shifting of the oral aperture. (See, however, 8.)
The Arthropoda might be better called the " Gnathopoda,"
since their distinctive character is, that one or more pairs of
appendages behind the mouth are densely chitinized and turned
(fellow to fellow on opposite sides) towards one another so as
to act as jaws. This is facilitated by an important general
change in the position of the parapodia; their basal attachments
are all more ventral in position than in the Chaetopoda, and tend
to approach from the two sides towards the mid-ventral line.
Very usually (but not in the Onychophora «= Peripatus) all the
parapodia are plated with chitin secreted by the epidermis,
and divided into a series of joints—giving the " arthropodous "
or hinged character.
There are other remarkable and distinctive features of structure
which hold the Arthropoda together, and render it impossible to
conceive of them as having a poly phy let ic origin, that is to say,
as having originated separately by two or three distinct lines of
descent from lower animals; and, on the contrary, establish the
view that they have been developed from a single line of primitive
Gnathopods which arose by modification of parapodiate annulate
worms hot very unlike some of the existing Chaetopods. These
additional features are the following— ( 1) All existing Arthropoda
have an ostiate heart and have undergone " phlebocdcsis," that
is to say, the peripheral portions of the blood-vascular system
are not fine tubes as they are in the Chaetopoda and as they were
in the hypothetical ancestors of Arthropoda, but arc swollen so
as to obliterate to a large extent the coelom, whilst the separate
veins entering the dorsal vessel or heart have coalesced, leaving
valvate ostia (see fig. 1) by which the blood passes from a
pericardial blood-sinus formed by the fused veins into the dorsal
vessel or heart (see Lankester's Zoology, part ii., introductory
chapter, 1000). The only exception to this is in the case of
minute degenerate forms where the heart has disappeared
altogether. The rigidity of the integument caused by the depo-
sition of dense chitin upon it is intimately connected with the
physiological activity and form of all the internal organs, and
is undoubtedly correlated with the total disappearance of the
circular muscular layer of the body-wall present in Chaetopods.
(a) In all existing Arthropoda the region in front of the mouth is
no longer formed by the primitive prostomium or head-lobe, but
one or more segments, originally post-oral, with their appendages
have passed in front of the mouth (prosthomeres). At the same
time the prostomium and its appendages cease to be recognizable
as distinct elements of the head. The brain no longer consists
solely of the ncrve-ganglion-mass proper to the prostomial lobe,
as in Chaetopoda, but is a composite (syncerebrum) produced by
the fusion of this and the nerve-ganglion-masses proper to the
prosthomeres or segments which pass forwards, whilst their
parapodia (» appendages) become converted into eye-stalks,
and antennae, or more rarely grasping organs. (3) As in Chaeto-
poda, coelomic funnels (coelomoducts) may occur right and left
JL.
After LaakeHer, Q. J. Itic. Sei. rot . r*xiv, 1S93.
Fig. i. — Diagram to show the gradual formation of the Arthropod
pericardial blood-sinus and " ostiate " heart by the swelling up
(phlcboedcsis) of the veins entering the dorsal vessel or heart of a
Chaetopod-like ancestor. The figure on the left represents the con-
dition in a Chaetopod, that on the right the condition in an Arthropod,
the other two are hypothetical intermediate forms.
at pairs in each ring-like segment or somite of the body, and
some of these are in all cases retained as gonoducts and often as
renal excretory organs (green glands, coxal glands of Arachnida,
not crural glands, which are epidermal in origin); but true
nephridia, genetically identical with the nephridia of earthworms,
do not occur (on the subject of coelom, coelomoducts and
nephridia, see the introductory chapter of part ii. of Lankester 's
Treatise on Zoology).
Tabular Statement of the Grades, Classes and Sub-classes of Ike
Arthropoda. — It will be convenient now to give in the dearest
form a statement of the larger subdivisions of the Arthropoda
which it seems necessary to recognize at the present day. The
justification of the arrangement adopted will form the substance
of the rest of the present article. The orders included in the
various classes are not discussed here, but are treated of under the
following titles:— Peripatus (Onychophora), Centipede and
Millipede (Myriapoda), Hexapoda (Insecta), Akachxida and
Crustacea.
Sub-Phylum ARTHROPODA (of the Phylum Appendiculata).
Grade A. Hyparthropoda (hypothetical forms connecting ancestors
of Chaetopoda with those of Arthropoda).
Grade B. Protarthropoda.
Class Onychophora.
Ex.— Peripatus.
Grade C. Euarthropoda.
Class 1. Diplopoda.
Ex. — Julus.
Class 2. Arachnida.
Grade a. Anomomeristica.
Ex.— Phacops.
Grade b. Nomomcristica.
(a) Pantopoda.
Ex. — Pycnogonum.
(6) Euarachnida.
Ex.— Limulus, Scorpio, Mygale, Aeons.
Class 3. Crustacea.
Grade a. Entornostraca.
Ex.— A t>us, Branchipus, Cyclops, Balanus.
Grade b. Malacostraca.
Ex.— Nebalio, Astacus, Oniscus, Gammons.
Class 4. Chilopoda.
E x . — Scolopendra.
Class 5. Hexapoda (syn. Insecta Pterygota).
Ex.— Locuita, Phryzanea. Papilio, Apis, tiusca, Cimtx,
Lucanus, Machilis.
Incertae sedis — Tardigrada, Fentastomidae (degenerate forms).
The Segmentation of Ike Body of Arthropoda. — The body of the
Arthropoda is more or less clearly divided into a series of rings.
ARTHROPODA
675
segments, or somites which on be shown to be repetitions one of
another, possessing identical parts and organs which may be larger
or smaller, modified in shape or altogether suppressed in one somite
as compared with another. A similar constitution of the body is
more clearly seen in the Chaetopod worms. In the Vertebrata also
a repetition of units of structure (myotomes, vertebrae, &c>—
which is essentially of the same nature as the repetition in Arthropods
and Chaetopods, but in many respects subject to peculiar develop-
ments — is observed. The name metamerism " has been given to
this structural phenomenon because the " meres," or repeated units,
follow one another in line. Each such " mere " is often called a
" metamere." A satisfactory consideration of the structure of the
Arthropods demands a knowledge of what may be called the laws of
metamerism, and reference should be made to the article under that'
head.
Tht Theory of the Arthropod Head.— The Arthropod head is a
tagma or group of somites which differ in number and in their relative
position in regard to the mouth, in different
classes. In a simple Chaetopod (fig. 2) the
bead consists of the first somite only; that
somite is perforated by the mouth, and is
Erovided with a prostomium or prae-oral
►be. The prostomium is essentially a part
or outgrowth of the first somite, ana cannot
be regarded as itself a somite. It gives rise
to a nerve-ganglion mass, the prostomial
ganglion. In the marine Chaetopods (the
Polychacta) (fig. 3), we find the same
essential structure, but the prostomium may
give rise to two or more tactile tentacles,
• Oondrtch. O J Mter an( * to t,ie ve »' cu ^ ar eyes. The somites have
aSTwI. j£ p. «i 7 . well-marked parapodia, and the second and
p IO 2 Diagram tnir< *» *• we " as tfte *■*■*• ma V P ve rise to
of the' head and ad- tentac,e8 which are directed forward, and
iacent region of anOli- tnus contribute to form " the head." But
eochaetChaetoood **** moutn remains as an inpushing of the
Pr The prostoimum waH ** tne first *>"••**•
m * The mouth " The Arthropoda are all distinguished from
A.' The prostomial the Chaetopoda by the fact that the head
ganglton-msff or cons *» t8 °f one or more somites which lie in
archi-cerebrum f r0n * °l *** moutii ( n °w called prosthomercs),
I r II. Ill, coelom of as we» as of one or more somites behind it
the first, second (opwthomeres). The first of the post-oral
and third somites, *>"»*« invariably has its parapodia modi-
fied so as to form a pair of hemignaths
(mandibles). About 1870 the question arose for discussion
whether the somites in front of the mouth are to be considered
as derived from the prostomium of a Chaetopod-like ancestor.
Milne-Edwards and Huxley had satisfied themselves with discussing
and establishing, according to the data at their command, the
number of somites in the Arthropod head, but had not considered
the question of the nature of the prae-oral somites. Lankestcr (2)
was the first to suggest that (as is actually the fact in the Nauplius
larva of the Crustacea) the prae-oral somites or prosthomercs and
their appendages were ancestrally post-
oral, but have become prae-oral " by
adaptation*] shifting of the oral aperture. '
This has proved to be a sound hypothesis
and is now accepted as the basis upon
which the Arthropod head must be inter-
m prcted (see Korschclt and Heider (3)).
j "^ Further, the roorphologists of the 'fifties
appear, with few exceptions, to have ac-
^ cepted a preliminary scheme with regard
to the Arthropod head and Arthropod
£v segmentation generally, which was mis-
fit leading and caused them to adopt forced
conclusions and interpretations. It was
FiO. 3.— Diagram of conceived by Huxley, among others, that
the head and adjacent * ne same number of cephalic somites
region of a Polychaet would be found to be characteristic of all
Chaetopod. Letters as the diverse classes of Arthropoda, and that
in fig. I, with the addi- the somites, not only of the head but of
tion of T, prostomial the various regions of the body, could
tentacle; Pa. parapo- b* closely compared in their numerical
dium. (From Goodrich.) ««q«cnce in classes so distinct as the
Hexapods, Crustaceans and Arachnids.
The view which ft now appears necessary to take is, on the con-
trary, this— viz. that all the Arthropoda are to be traced to a
common ancestor resembling a Chaetopod worm, but differing from
It in having lost its chaetae and in having a prosthomere in front of
the month (instead of prostomium only) and a pair of hemignaths
(mandibles) on the parapodia of the buccal somite. From this
ancestor Arthropods with heads of varying degrees of complexity
have been developed characteristic of the different classes, whilst
the parapodia and somites of the body have become variously
modified and grouped in these different classes. The resemblances
which the members of one class often present to the members of
another class in regard to the form of the limb-branches (rami) of
the parapodia, and the formation of tagmata (regions), are not
hastily to be ascribed to common inheritance, but we must consider
whether they are not due to homoplasy — that is, to the moulding of
natural selection acting in the different classes upon fairly similar
elements under like exigencies.
The structure of the head in Arthropods presents three profoundly
separated grades of structure dependent upon the number of pros-
thomeres which have been assimilated by the prae-oral region. The
classes presenting these distinct plans of head-structure* cannot be
closely associated in any scheme
of classification professing to be
natural. Peripatus, the type-genus \
of the class Onychophora, stands at
the base of the series with only a #„
single prosthomere (fig. 4). In Peri-
patus the prostomium of the Chae-
topod-like ancestor is atrophied , but _.
it is possible that two processes on
the front of the head (FP) represent
in the embryo the dwindled prosto- **
mial tentacles. The single prostho-
mere carries the retractile tentacles
as its " parapodia." The second
somite is the buccal somite (II,
fig. 4); its parapodia have horny
jaws on their ends, like the daws Fig 4. — Diagram of the head
on the following legs (fig. o), and and adjacent region of Peri-
The pains. Monoprosthomerous.
Mouth.
Coelom of the first somite
which carries the anten-
nae and is in front of the
mouth.
Coelom of the second
somite which carries the
mandibles (hence deu-
act as hemignaths (mat
study of sections of the embryo m,
establishes these facts beyond doubt. I,
It also shows us that the neuro-
meres, no less than the embryonic
coelomic cavities, point to the exist-
ence of one, and only one, prostho- II,
mere in Peripatus, of which the
" protocerebrum," P, is the neuro-
mere, whilst the deuterocerebrum. terognathous).
D, is the neuromere of the second III and IV, Coelom of the third
or buccal somite. A brief indication and fourth somites,
of these facts is given by saying PP, Rudimentary frontal pro-
that the Onychophora are deuter- cesses perhaps repre-
ognathous — that is to say, that senting the prostomial
the buccal somite carrying the nuuv tentacles of Polychaeta.
dibular hemignaths is the second of A nt t Antenna or tactile ten-
the whole series. tacle.
What has become of the nerve- AM, Mandible,
ganglion of the prostomial lobe of Op, Oral papilla,
the Chaetopod in Peripatus is not P, Protocerebrum or fore-
clearly ascertained, nor is its fate most cerebral mass be-
indicated by the study of the em- longing to the first
.bryonic head of other Arthropods so somite.
far. Probably it is fused with the D, Deuterocerebrum, consist
protocerebrum, and may also be
concerned in the history of the very
peculiar paired eyes of Peripatus,
which are like those of Chaetopods in
structure — viz. vesicles with an intra-
vesicular lens, whereas the eyes of all
other Arthropodshaveessentiallyan-
other structure, being " cups " of the
epidermis, in which a knob-like or
rod-like thickening of the cuticle is
fitted as refractive medium.
In Diplopoda (Juius, &c) the
results of embryological study point
to a composition of the front part
of the head exactly similar to that
which we find in Onychophora.
They are deuterognathous.
The Arachnida present the first
Heret
ing of ganglion cells be-
longing to the second or
mandibular somite.
(After Goodrich.)
Fig. 5. — Diagram of the
nda<'*
head andadjacent region of an
stage of progress. Here embryology
shows that there are two prostho- 1- — - - --- - -„ --- .
meres (fig. 5), and that the gnatho- Arachnid. Diprosthomerous
bases of the chelae which act as the "» p* adult condition, though
first pair of hemignaths are carried embryologically the append-
by the third somite. The Arachnida ares of somite II and the
are therefore tritognathous. The Bomtxt itself are, as here
two prosthomeres are indicated by <-»wn, not actually in front ot
their coelomic cavities in the embryo t? c mouth.
(I and II. fig. 5), and by two neuro- £• Lateral eye,
meres, the protocerebrum and the £*■ «7* e ^ ra *
dcuterocerebrum. The appendages **» Mouth,
of the first prosthomere are not £• Protocerebrum.
present as tentacles, as in Peripatus P^.^" t t ero ff re J? ru t m - , .
and Diplopods, but are possibly I. " n ]• lv « Coelom of the
represented by the eyes or possibly frrt, second, third and
altogether aborted. The appendages ,ourth •°. n " t . cs - . N
of the second prosthomere are the (Alter Uoodnch.)
well-known cheliccrae of the Arach-
nids, rarely, if ever, antenniform, but modified as " retrovcrt*"or
clasp-knife fangs in spiders.
676
ARTHROPODA
The Crustacea (fig. 6) and the Hexapoda (fig. 7) agree in having
three somites in front of the mouth, and it is probable, though not
ascertained, that the Chilopoda (Scolopendra, &c.) arc in the same
case. The three prosthomeres or prac-oral somites of Crustacea
due to the sinking back of the mouth one somite farther than in
Arachnida are not clearly indicated by coelomic cavities in the
embryo, but their existence is clearly established by the development
and position of the appendages and by the neuromercs.
The eyes in some Crustacea are mounted on articulated stalks,
and from the fact that they can after injury be replaced by antenna-
like appendages it is inferred that they represent the parapodia of
the most anterior prosthomere. Th£ second prosthomere carries
the first pair of antennae and the third the second pair of antennae.
Sometimes the pair of appendages has not a merely tactile jointed
ramus, but is converted into a claw or clasper. Three neuromercs —
a proto-, deutero-, and trito-cerebrum — corresponding to those three
prosthomeres are sharply marked in the embryo. The fourth somite
is that in which the mouth now opens, and which accordingly has its
appendages converted into hemignathous mandibles. The Crustacea
are tetartognathous.
The history of the development of the head has been carefully
worked out in the Hexapod insects. As in Crustacea and Arachnida,
Fie. 6.— Diagram of the Fie. 7.— Diagram of the head of
head of a Crustacean. Tri- a Hexapod insect,
prosthomerous. tt Eye.
FP, Frontal processes (ob- ant t Antenna.
served in Cirrhiped md, Mandible.
nauplius-larvac) prob- m* 1 , First maxilla.
ably representing the mx», Second maxilla.
prostomial tentacles m, Mouthy
of Chactopods. I, Region of the first or eye-
e 2 *#*• . bearing prosthomere.
Anfi, First pair of antennae. n t Coclom of the second antenna-
AnP, Second I pair of an- bearing prosthomere.
Z* sl*Rn£' and lt 2SS lfI « Coe,om of th « third P rosth °-
oairToV maiiluT mere devoid <* »PP««*»B«-
m Mouth * IV, V, and VI, Codom of the fourth,
I,' II, and III. The three „ fifth and sixth somites.
prosthomeres. P. Protocercbrum belonging to the
IV, V, VI, The three somitea nrat prosthomere.
following the mouth. D, Deuterocerebrum belonging to
P, Protocerebrum. the second prosthomere.
D, Deuterocerebrum. T, Tritocercbrum belonging to the
T, Tritocercbrum. third prosthomere.
(After Goodrich.) (After Goodrich.)
a first prosthomere is indicated by the paired eyes and the proto-
cerebrum; the second prosthomere has a well-marked coelomic
cavity, carries the antennae, and has the deuterocerebrum for its
oeuromere. The third prosthomere is represented by a well-marked
pair of coelomic cavities and the tritocerebrum (III, fig. 7), but has
no appendages. They appear to have aborted. The existence of
this third prosthomere corresponding to the third prosthomere of
the Crustacea is a strong argument for the derivation of the Hexa-
poda, and with them the Chilopoda, from some offshoot of the
Crustacean stem or class. The buccal somite, with its mandibles, is
in Hexapoda, as in Crustacea, the fourth : they are tetartognathous.
The adhesion of a greater or less number ol somites to the buccal
somite posteriorly (opisthomeres) is a matter of importance, but of
minor importance, in the theory and history of the Arthropod head.
In Peripatus no such adhesion or fusion occurs. In Diplopoda two
opisthomeres— that is to say, one in addition to the buccal somite —
are united by a fusion of their terga with the terga of the pros-
thomeres. Their appendages are respectively the mandibles and
the gnathochilarium.
In Arachnida the highest forms exhibit a fusion of the tergites
of five post-oral somites to form one continuous carapace united
with the terga of the two prosthomeres. The five pairs of appendages
of the po»t-oral somites of the head or prosoma thus constituted all
primitively carry gnathobasic projections on their coxal joints,
which act as hemignaths: in the more specialized forms the man-
dibular gnathobases cease to develop.
In Crustacea the fourth of mandibular somite never has less than
the two following somitea associated with it by the adaptation of
their appendages as jaws, and the ankylosis of their terga with that
of the prosthomeres. But in higher Crustacea the cephauc " tag ma "
is extended, and more somites are added to the fusion, and their
appendages adapted as jaws of a kind.
The Hexapoda are not known to us in their earlier or more primi-
tive manifestations; we only know them as possessed of a definite
number of somites arranged in definite numbers in three great.
tagmata. The head shows two jaw-bearing somites beside* the
mandibular somite (V, VI, in fig. 7) — thus six in all (as in some
Crustacea), including prosthomeres, all ankylosed by their terga to
form a cephalic shield. There is, however, good ctnbryoiogical
evidence in some Hexapod* of the existence of a seventh somite,
the supra-lingual, occurring between the somite of the mandibks
and the somite of the first maxillae (4). This segment is indicated
embryologically by its paired coelomic cavities. It is practicall> an
excalated somite, having no existence in the adult, ft is probatA
not a mere coincidence that the Hexapod, with its two rudimentary
somites devoid of appendages, is thus found to possess twenty-one
somites, including that which carries the anus, and that this is aUo
the number present in the Malacostracous Crustacea.
The Segmental Lateral Appendages or Limbs of Artktopoda. — It
has taken some time to obtain any general acceptance of the \ trw
that the parapodia of the Chaetopoda and the limbs of Arthropoda
are genetically identi-
nr.U
nrl*
«£/*
/Ul'
Uppermost.
cal structures; yet if
we compare the para-
podium of Tomopteris
or of Phyllodoce with
one of the foliaceous
limbs of Branchipus or
Apus, the correspond-
ences of the two are
striking. An erroneous
view of the funda-
mental morphology of
the Crustacean limb,
and consequently of
that of other Arthro-
poda, came into favour
owing to the accept-
ance of the highly
modified limbs of
Astacus as typical.
Protopodite, endo-
podite. exopoditc, and
cpipodite were con- Fie. 8.— Diagram of the somite-appendage
sidered to be the or parapodium of a Polychaet Chaetopod.
morphological units of The chaetae are omitted,
the crustacean limb. j^ x The ax ja.
Lankcster (5) has nr . c , Neuropodial cirrhus.
shownfand his views nr ji t Br « t tfeuropodial lobes or endites.
have been accepted by nU , Notopodial cirrhus.
Professors horechclt «/i». «iJ«, Kotopodial lobes or exites,
and Heider in their T he parapodium is represented with its
treatise : on Embryology) neura , ^ ^n^ rortacc
that the limb of the (Oriirinal)
lowest Crustacea, such
as Apus, consists of a corm or axis which may be jointed, and gives rise
to outgrowths, cither leaf-like or filiform, on its inner and outer
margins (endites and exitcs). Such a corro (see figs. loand 11). wit hit*
outgrowths, may be compared to the simple parapodia of Chaetopoda
with cirrhi and branchial lobe (fig. 8). It is by the specialization of
two " endites " that the endopodite and exopoditc of higher Crustacea
are formed, whilst a nabclliform exite is the homogen or genetic
equivalent of the cpipodite (sec Lankcster, " Observations and
Reflections on Apus Cancriformis," Q. J. Micr. Sci.). The reduction
of the outgrowth-bearing " corm " of the parapodium of either a
Chaetopod or an Arthropod to a simple cylindrical stump, devoid
of outgrowths, is brought about when mechanical conditions fa\uur
such a shape. We see it in certain Chactopods {e.g. Hesione) and in
the Arthropod Peripatus (fig. 0). The conversion of the Arthropods
limb into a jaw. as a rule, is effected by the development of an cr-!ite
near its base into a hard, chitinized, and often toothed gnathot.ue
(sec figs. 10 and 11, en r ). It is not true that all the biting prore>*c»
of the Arthropod limb are thus produced— for instance, the jaws of
Peripatus are formed by the axis or conn itself, whilst the poison-
t'aws of Chilopods, as also their maxillae, appear to be formed rather
>y the apex or terminal region of the ramus of the limb; but the
opposing jaws (-hemignaths) of Crustacea, Arachnida and Hexa-
poda are gnathobases, and not the axis or corm. The endopodite
(corresponding to the fifth enditc of the limb of Apus. see fig. 10)
becomes in Crustacea the ' walking leg " of the mid-region of the
body; it becomes the palp or jointed process of anterior segments.
A second ramus, the " exopodite," often is also retained in the form
of a palp or feeler. In Apus, as the figure shows, there are four ol
thew " antenna-like " palps or filaments on the first thoracic Umh
A common modification of the chief ramus of the Arthropod para-
podium is the chela or nipper formed by the elongation ofthe
penultimate joint of the ramus, so that the last joint "~
ARTHROPODA
677
at, for instance, in the lobster** daw. Such chelate rami or limb-
branchesare independently developed in Crustacea and in Arachnida,
mud are carried by somites of the body which do not correspond in
position in the two groups. The
ranfge of modification of which the
rami or limb-branches of the limbs
of Arthropoda are capable is very
large, ana in allied orders or even
families or genera we often find
what is certainly the palp of the
same appendage (as determined by
numerical position of the segments)
— inonecaseantenniform, inanother
chelate, in another pediform, and in
another reduced to a mere stump or
absent altogether. Very probably
the power which the appendage of
a given segment has of assuming the
perfected form and proportions
previously attained by the append-
age of another segment must be
classed as an instance of " homoe-
osis," not only where such a change
isobviously due to abnormal develop-
ment or injury, but also where it
constitutes a difference permanently
established between allied orders or
smaller groups, or between the two
The most extreme disguise as-
sumed by the Arthropod parapodium
or appendage is that of becoming
a mere stalk supporting an eye — a
fact which did not obtain general
credence until the experiments of
Herbst in 1895, who found, on cut-
ting off the eye-stalk of Palaemon,
that a jointed antenna-like append-
age was regenerated in its place.
Since the eye-stalks of Podopnthal-
Fig. 0.— Three somhe-ap-
endages or parapodia of
pendages <
Teripatus.
A, A walking leg; p 1 to p*,
the characteristic pads " ; /,
the foot; cP, cl* t the two
daws.
B, An oral papilla, one of
the second pair of post-oral
appendages.
C, One of the first post-oral
pair of appendages or man-
dibles; a 1 , cP, the greatly
mate Crustacea represent append-
ages, we are forced to the conclusion
that the sessile eyes of other
Crustacea, and of other Arthropoda
generally, indicate the position of
appendages which have atrophied. 1
From what has been said, it is
apparent that we cannot, in attempt-
dibles; c/ 1 , cP, the greatly ing to discover the affinities and
enlarged claws. (Compare A.) divergences of the various forms of
The appendages are rejpre- Arthropoda, attach a very high
tented with the neural or phylogenetic value to thecoincidence
ventral surface uppermost or divergence in form of the ap-
OriginaL pendages belonging to the somites
compared with, one another.
The principal forms assumed by the Arthropod parapodium and
Its rami may be thus enumerated: —
(1) Axial conn well developed, unsegmented or with two to four
M segments} lateral
9n mn* mw** _ endites and exites
(rami) numerous
and of various
lengths (certain
limbs of lower
Crustacea).
(2) Conn, with
short unseg-
mented rami,
forming a flat-
tened foliaceous
appendage, adap-
swinv
After Ltnkcster. Q. J. Mie. Sci. vol. zxl.. xBx.
Fic. 10.— The second thoracic (fifth post-oral) JJ^J 1
appendage of the left side of A pus cancriformis, m i ng „<£ rcspira-
placed with its ventral or neural surface upper- tion (trunk-limbs
most to compare with figs. 8 and 9.
1, 2, The two segments of the axis.
«w l . The gnathobase.
sis 1 to «*•, The five following " endites.'
fi. The flabellum or anterior exite.
br, The bract or posterior exite.
tion (trunk-limbs
of Phyllopods).
(3) Corra alone
developed ; with
no endites or
exites, but pro-
vided with ter-
minal chitinous
daws (ordinary leg of Penpatus), with terminal jaw teeth (jaw of
Peripatus), or with blunt extremity (oral papilla 01 same) (see fig. 9).
1 H. Milne-Edwards, who was followed by Huxley, long ago formu-
lated the conclusion that the eye-stalks of Crustacea are modified
appendages, basing his argument on a specimen of Palinurus (figured
in Bateson's book (1), in which the eye-stalk of one side is replaced
by an antenniform palp. Hofer (6) in 1894 described a similar case
in Aatacua,
(4) Three of the rami of the primitive limb (endites 5 and 6.
and exite 1) specially developed as endopodite, exopodite, and
epipodite— the first two often as firm and strongly chitinized,
segmented, leg-like structures; the original axis or conn reduced to
a basal piece, with or without a distinct gnathobase (endite 1)—
typical tri-ramose limb of higher Crustacea.
(5) One ramus (the endopodite) alone developed — the original
axis or conn serving as its basal joint with or without gnathobase.
This h> the usual uni-ramose limb found in the various classes of
Arthropoda. It varies as to the presence or absence of the jaw-
process and as to the stoutness of the segments of the ramus, their
number (frequently six, plus the basal corm), and the modification
of the free end. This may be filiform or brush-like or lamellate
when it is an antenna or palp; a simple spike (walking leg of
Crustacea, of other aquatic forms, and of Chilopods and DipTopods) ;
the terminal joint flattened (swimming leg of Crustacea and Giganto-
straca) ; the terminal joint provided with two or with three recurved
claws (walking leg of many terrestrial fprms— e.g. Hexapoda and
Arachnida);' the penultimate joint with a process equal in length
to the last joint, so as to form a nipping organ (chelae of Crustaceans
and Arachnids) ; the last joint reflected and movable on the pen-
ultimate, as the blade of a clasp-knife on its handle (the retrovert,
Fio. 11.— The first thoracic
(fourth post-oral) appendage of
A pus cancriformis (right side).
Ax 1 tb Ax*, the four segments of
the axis with muscular
bands.
En 1 , Gnathobase.
En* to En*, The elongated jointed
endites (rami).
En*, The rudimentary sixth en-
dite (exopodite of higher
Crustacea).
The flabellum which becomes
the epipodite of lusher
forms.
The bract devoid of muscles
and respiratory in function.
toothed so as to act as a biting jaw in the Hcxapod Mantis, the
Crustacean Squiila and others) ; with the last joint produced into a
needle-like stabbing process in spiders.
(6) Two rami developed (usually, but perhaps not always, the
equivalents of the endopodite and exopodite) supported on the
somewhat elongated corm (basal segment). This is the typical
" bi-ramose limb " often found in Crustacea. The rami may be
flattened for swimming, when it U " a bi-ramose swimmeret, or
both or only one may be filiform and finery annulate; this is the
form often presented by the antennae of Crustacea, and rarely by
prae-oral appendages in other Arthropods.
(7) The endopodidc ramus is greatly enlarged and flattened,
without or with only one jointing, the corm (basal segment) is
evanescent; often the plate-like endopodites of a pair of such
appendages unite in the middle line with one another or by the
intermediary of a sternal up-growth and form a single broad plate.
These are the plate-like swimmerets and opercula of Gigantostraca
and Limulus among Arachnids and of Isopod Crustaceans. They
may have rudimentary exopodites* and may or may not have
brapchial filaments or lamellae developed on their posterior faces.
The simplest form to which they may be reduced is seen in the
geniul operculum of the scorpion.
(8) The gnathobase becomes greatly enlarged and not sepa-
rated by a joint from the corm; it acts as a hemignath or half
jaw working against its fellow of the opposite side. The endo-
podite may be retained as a small segmented palp at the side of
the gnathobase or disappear (mandible of Crustacea, Chilopoda
and Hexapoda).
(9) The corm becomes the seat of a development of a 1
visual organ, the Arthropod eye (as opposed to the Chaeto
Its jointing (segmentation) may be retained, but its rami disappear
(Podophthalmous Crustacea). Usually it becomes atrophied . leaving
the eye aa a sessile organ upon the prae-oral region of the *****
678
ARTHROPODA
(the eye-stallr and sessile lateral eyes of Arthropods- generally,
exclusive of Peripatus).
(10) The forma assumed by special modification of the elements
of the para podium in the maxillae, labium, &c, of Hexapods,
Chilopods, Diplopods, and of various Crustacea, deserve special
enumeration, out cannot be deal* with without ample space and
illustration.
It may be pointed out that the most radical difference presented
in this list is that between appendages consisting of the corm alone
without rami (Onychophora) and those with more or less developed
rami' (the rest of the Arthropoda). In the latter class we should
distinguish three phases: (a) those with numerous and compara-
tively undeveloped rami; (ft) those with three, or two highly
developed rami, or with only one — the corm being reduced to the
dimensions of a mere basal segment; (c) those reduced to a secondary
simplicity (degeneration) by overwhelming development of one
segment (e.g. the isolated gnathobase often seen as " mandible "
and the genital operculum)
There is no reason to suppose that any of the forms of limb
observed in Arthropoda may not have been independently developed
in two or more separate diverging lines of descent*
Branchiae. — In connexion with the discussion of the limbs of
Arthropods, a few words should be devoted to the gill-processes.
It seems probable that there arc branchial plumes or filaments in
some Arthropoda (some Crustacea) which can be identified with
the distinct branchial organs of Chactopoda, which lie dorsal of the
para podia and are not part of the parapodium. On the other hand,
we cannot refuse to admit that any of the processes of an Arthro-
pod parapodium may become modified as branchial organs, and
that, as a rule, branchial out-growths are easily developed, da
now, in all the higher groups of animals. Therefore, it seems to be,
with our present knowledge, a hopeless task to analyse the branch:' '
organs of Arthropoda ana to identify them genetically in groups.
A brief notice must suffice of the structure and history of the Eyes,
the Tracheae and the so-called Malpighian tubes of Arthropoda,
though special importance attaches to each in regard to the deter-
mination of the affinities of the various animals included in this great
tub-phylum.
The £>w.— The Arthropod eye appears to be an organ of special
character developed in the common ancestor of the Euarthropoda,
and distinct from the Chaetopod eye, which is found only in the
Onychophora where the true Arthropod eye is absent. The essential
difference between these two kinds of eye appears to be that the
Chaetopod eye (in its higher developments) is a vesicle enclosing the
lens, whereas the Arthropod eye is a pit or series of pits into which
the heavy chitinous cuticle dips and enlarges knobwise as a lens.
Two distinct forms of the Arthropod eye are observed — the mono-
meniscous (simple) and the polymeniscous (compound). The nerve-
end-cells, which lie below the lens, are part of the general epidermis.
They show in the monomeniscous eye (see article Aracunida, fig. 26)
a tendency to group themselves into " retinulae," consisting of five
to twelve cells united by # vertical deposits of chitin (rhabdoms).
In the case of the polymeniscous eye (fie. 2^. article Arachkida) a
■ingle retinula or group of nerve-end-ccus is grouped beneath each
associated lens. A further complication occurs in each of these two
classes of eye. The monomeniscous eye is rarely provided with a
•ingle layer of cells beneath its lens; when it is so, it is called mono-
stichous (simple lateral eye of Scorpion, fig. 33, article Arachnida).
More usually, by an infolding of the layer of cells in development,
we get three layers under the lens: the front layer is the corneagen
layer, and is separated by a membrane from the other two which,
more or less, fuse and contain the nerve-end<ells (retinal layer).
These eyes arc called diplostichous, and occur in Arachnida and
Hexapoda (fig. 24, article Arachnida).
On the other hand, the polymeniscous eye undergoes special
elaboration on its lines. The retinulae become elongated as deep
and very narrow pits (fig. 12 and explanation), and develop addi-
tional cells near the mouth of the narrow pit. Those nearest to the
lens are the corneagen cells of this more elaborated eye, and those
between the original retinula cells and the corneagen cells become
firm and transparent. They are the crystalline cells or vitrella (see
Watase, 7). Each such complex of cells underlying the lenticlc of a
compound eye is called an " ommatidium "; the entire mass of cells
underlying a monomeniscous eye is an " ommataeum." ( The
oramataeum, as already stated, tends to segregate into retinulae
which correspond potentially each to an ommatidium of the com-
pound eye. The ommatidium is from the first segregate and consists
of few cells. The compound eye of the king-crab (Limulus) is the
only recognized instance of ommatidia in their simplest state.
Each can be readily compared with the single-layered lateral eye of
the scorpion. In Crustacea and Hexapoda of all grades we find
compound eyes with the more complicated ommatidia described
above, We do not find them in any Arachnida.
It is difficult in the absence of more detailed knowledge as to the
eyes of Chilopoda and Diplopoda to give full value to these facts
In tracing the affinities of the various classes of Arthropods. But
•hey seem to point to a community of origin of Hexapods and
'istacea in regard to the complicated ommatidia of the compound
and to a certain isolation 01 the Arachnida. which are. however.
able, to far as the eyes are concerned, to a distant common
origin with Crustacea and Hexapoda through the very
compound eyes (monostichous, polymeniscous) of Limulua.
The Tracheae. — In regard to tracheae the very natural tei
of zoologist* has been until lately to consider them as having once
developed and once only, and therefore to hold that a group
" Tracheata " should be recognized, including all trachcate Arthro-
pods. We are driven by the conclusions arrived at as to the deriva-
tion of the Arachnida from branchiate ancestors, independently
of the other trachcate Arthropods, to formulate the conclusion
that tracheae have been independently developed in the Arachnida*
class. We are also, by the isolation of Peri pat us and the im possi-
bility of tracing to it all other trachcate Arthropoda. or of regarding
it as a degenerate offset from some one of the tracheate classes*.
forced to the conclusion that the tracheae of the Onychophora have
been independently acquired. Having accepted these two con-
clusions, we formulate the generalization that tracheae can be inde-
pendently acquired by various branches of Arthropod descent ia
adaptation to a terrestrial as opposed to an aquatic mode of life.
A great point of interest therefore exists in the knowledge of the
structure and embryology of tracheae in the different group*. It
must be confessed that we have not such full knowledge on thts bead
as could be wished for. Tracheae are essentially tubes like blood-
vessels — apparently formed from the same tissue elements as blood-
vessels — which contain air in place of blood, and usually communi-
cate by definite orifices, the tracheal stigmata, with the atmosphere.
They are lined internally by a cuticular deposit of chitin. In Peri-
Fic. 12. — Diagram to show the deri-
vation of the unit or " ommatidium "
of the compound eye of Crustacea and
Hexapoda, C, from a simple mono-
meniscous monostichous eye resem-
bling the lateral eye of a scorpion, A,
or the unit of the compound lateral
eye of Limulus (see article Arachnida,
figs. 23 and 23). B represents an inter-
mediate hypothetical form in which
the cells beneath the lens are begin-
ning to be superimposed as corneagen,
vitrella and retinula, instead of stand-
ing side by side in horizontal series.
The black represents the cuticular
product of the epidermal cells of the
ocular area, taking the form either of
lens, d, of crystalline body, cry, or of
rhabdom, rhab: hy, hypodermis or epidermal cells; corn 1 , lateralrv-
placed cells in the simpler stage, A, which like the nerve-end ceils.
vi/ 1 and rrf 1 , are corneagens or lens-producing; com, speeisazed
corneagen or lens-producing cells; to*, potential vitrella cells with
erf, potential crystalline body now indistinguishable from retinula
cells and rbabdomcres; vit, vitrella cell with cry, its contained
cuticular product, the crystalline cone or body; reP, rhab*, minuts
cells and rhabdom of scorpion undifferentiated from adjacent reus,
wf 1 ; ret, retinula cell; rhab, rhabdom; «/, optic nerve-fibres.
(Modified from Watase.)
patus and the Diplopods they consist of bunches of fine tubes which
do not branch but diverge from one another; the chitinous uning
is smooth. In the Hexapods and Chilopods, and the Arachmtfs
(usually), they form tree like branching structures, and their finest
branches are finer than any blood-capillary, actually in some cases
penetrating a single cell and supplying it with gaseous oxygen. In
these forms the chitinous lining of the tubes is thickened by a close-
set spiral ridge similar to the spiral thickening of the cellulose wall
of the spiral vessels of plants. It is a noteworthy fact that other
tubes in these same terrestrial Arthropoda — namely, the ducts cf
glands — are similarly strengthened by a chitinous cuticle, and that
a spiral or annular thickening of the cuticle is developed in them
also. Chitin is not exclusively an ectodermal product, but occurs
also in cartilaginous skeletal plates of mesoblastic origin (connective
tissue). The immediate cavities or pits into which the tracheal
stigmata open appear to be in many cases ectodermic in sinkingv
but there seems to be no reason (based on embryological observation)
for regarding the tracheae as an ingrowth of the ectoderm. They
appear, in fact, to be an air-holding modification of the vasifactive
connective tissue. Tracheae are abundant just in proportion as
blood-vessels become suppressed. They are recipro ca lly exclushc.
It seems not improbable that they are two modifications of the
same tissue-elements. In Peripatus the stigmatic pits at which the
tracheae communicate with the atmosphere are scattered and not
definite in their position. In other cases the stigmata are definitely
paired and placed in a few segments or in several It seems that we
have to suppose that the vasifactive tissue of Arthropoda can readily
take the form of air-holding instead of blood-holding tubes, and that
this somewhat startling change in its character hat taken place
independently in several instances — viz. in the Onychophora. in
more than one group of Arachnida, in Diplopoda, and again in the
Hexapoda and Chilopoda.
The Maipighian Tubes. — This name is applied to the numerous
fine caeca! tubes of noticeable length developed from the proctodaeal
ARTHROPODA
679
Invert of ectodermal origin in Hexapeds. ..
to excrtte nitrogenous waste products similar to uric acid. Tubes
of renal excretory function in a like position occur in most terrestrial
Arthropoda— viz, in Chilopoda, Diplopoda and Arachnida. They
are also found in some of the semi-terrestrial and purely aquatic
Amphipod Crustaceans. But the conclusion that all such tubes are
identical in essential character seems to be without foundation. The
Malpighian tubes of Hexapods are outgrowths of the proctodaeemj
but those of Scorpion and the Amphipod Crustacea are part of the
metenteroa or endodermal gut, though originating near its junction
with the proetodaeum. Hence the presence or absence of such tubes
cannot be used as aa argument as to affinity without some dis-
crimination. The Scorpion's so-called Malpighian tubes are not the
same organs as those so named in the other Tracheata. Such renal
caecal tabes seem to be readily evolved from either metenteron or
proetodaeum when the conditions of the out-wash of nitrogenous,
waste-products are changed by the transference from aquatic to
terrestrial life. Theabsence of such renal caeca in Limulus and their
presence in the terrestrial Arachnida is precisely on a parallel with
their absence in aquatic Crustacea and their presence in the feebly
branchiate Amphipoda.
Group CktracUrs.— We shall now pass the groups of the Arthro-
poda in review, attempting to characterise them in such a way as
will indicate their probable affinities and genetic history.
Sub-Phylum ARTHROPOD A.— The characters of the sub-
phylum and those of the associated sub-phyla Chaetopoda and Roti-
fer* have been givea above, as well as the general characters of
the phylum Appendicular which comprises these great sub-phyla.
Grade A.— Hyparthropoda.
Hypothetical forms.
Grade B.— Protarthropoda.
(a) The integument is covered by a delicate soft cuticle (not firm
or plated) which allows the body and its appendages great range of
extension and contraction.
(6) The paired claws on the ends of the parapodia and the fang-
like modifications of these on the first post-oral appendages (man-
dibles) are the only hardchitinous portions of the integument.
(c) The head is deuterognathous — that is to say, there is only one
prosthomere, and accordingly the first and only pair of hemignaths
is developed by adaptation of the appendages of the second somite.
(d) The appendages of the third somite (second post-osal) are
clawless oral papillae.
(e) The rest of the somites carry equi-formal simple appendages,
consisting of a corm or axis tipped with two chitiaous claws and
devoid of rami
(/) The segmentation of the body is anomomeristic there being
no fixed number of somites characterizing all the forms included.
(g) The pair of eyes situated on the prosthomere are not of the
Euarthropod type, but resemble those of Chaetopods (hence Nereid-
ophthalmous).
(a) The muscles of the body-wall and gut do not consist of trans-
versely-striped muscular fibre, but of the unstriped tissue observed
also in Chaetopoda.
(i) A pair of coefomoducta is developed In every somite including
the prosthomere, in which alone it atrophies in .later development.
0; The ventral nerve-cords are widely separated— in fact, lateral
in position.
(ft) There are no masses of nerve-cells forming a ganglion (neuro
mtn) in each somite. (In this respect the Protarthropoda are at
a lower stage than most of the existing Chaetopoda.)
(/) The genital ducts are formed by the enlargement of the coelo-
moducts of the penultimate somite.
Class (Unica).— Onychophora.
With the characters of the grade: add the presence within the
body of fine unbranched tracheal tubes, devoid of spiral thickening,
opening to the exterior by numerous irregularly scattered tracheal
pits.
Genera— Eoperipatua, Peripatopds, Opisthopatus, &c (See Peri-
PATUS.)
Grade C (of the Arthropoda).— Euarthropoda.
(a) Integument heavily plated with firm chitinous cuticle, allow-
ing no expansion and retraction of regions of the body nor change
of dimensions, except, in some cases, a docso-ventral bellows move-
ment. The separation of the heavier plates of chitut by grooves of
delicate cuticle results in the hinging or jointing of the body and
its appendages, and the consequent flexing and extending of the
jointed pieces.
(b) Claws and fangs are developed on the branches or rami of the
parapodia, not on the end of the axis or corm.
(c) The head Is either deuterognathous, tritognathous, or tetartog-
nathous.
(rf) Rarely only one. and usually at least two, of the somites
following the mandibular somite carry appendages modified as jaws
(with exceptions of a secondary origin).
(*) The rest of the somites may all carry appendages, or only a
limited number may carry appendages. In all cases the append-
ages primarily develop rami or branches which form the limbs, the
primitive axis or corm being reduced and of
the most primitive stock all the post-oral appen<
basic outgrowths.
lificant size. In
had gnatho-
The segmentation of the body is anomomeristic in the more
Aibersef ea *
archaic members of each class, nomomeristic in the higher members.
(f) The two eyes of Chaetopod structure have disappeared, and
are replaced by the Euarthropod eyes.
(ft) The muscles in all parts of the body consist of striped muscular
fibre, never of unstriped muscular tissue.
(«) The coelomoducts are suppressed in most somites, and retained
only as the single pair of genital ducts (very rarely more numerous)
and in some also as the excretory glands (one or two pairs).
(/) The ventral nerve-cords approach one another in the mid-
ventral line behind the mouth.
(ft) The nerve-cells of the ventral* nerve cords are segregated aa
paired ganglia in each somite, often united by meristic dislocation
into composite ganglia.
(/) The genital ducts may be the coelomoducts of the penultimate
or antepenultimate or adjacent somite, or of a somite placed near
the middle of the series, or of a somite far forward in the series.
Class 1 (of the Euarthropoda). — Diplopoda.
The head has but one prosthomere (monoprosthomerous), and is
accordingly deuterognathous. This carries short-jointed antennae
(in one case bi-ramose) and eyes, the structure and development of
which- require further elucidation. Only one somite following the
first post-oral or mandibular segment baa its appendages modified
asiaws.
The somites of the body, except in Paqropus, either (use after
early development and form double somites with two pairs of
appendages (Julus, &c), or present legless and leg-bearing somites
alternating.
Somites, anomomeristic, from 12 to 150 in the post-cephalic series.
The genital ducts open in the fourth, or between the fourth and
fifth post-oral somite.
Terrestrial forms with small-jointed legs formed by adaptation of
a single ramus of the appendage. Tracheae are present.
Note.— The Diplopoda include the Juliformia, the Symphyla
(Scolopendrella), and Pauropoda (Pauropus). They were until
recently classified with the Chilopoda (Centipedes), with which
they have no close affinity, but only a superficial resemblance.
(Compare the definition of the class Chilopoda.)
The movement of the legs in Diplopoda is like that of those of
Peripatus, of the Phyllopoq Crustacea, and of the parapodia of
Chaetopoda, symmetrical and identical on the two sides of the
body. The legs of Chilopoda move in alternating groups on the
two sides of the body. This implies a very much higher develop-
ment of nerves and muscles in the latter. (See Millipede.)
Class 2 (of the Euarthropoda).— Arachnida.
Head tritognathous and diprosthomerous — that is to say, with
two prosthomercs, the first bearing typical eyes, the second a pair
of appendages reduced to a single ramus, which is in more primitive
forms antenniform, in higher forms chelate or retrovert. The
ancestral stock was pantognathobasic — i.e. had a gnathobase or
jaw process on every parapodium. As many as six pairs of ap-
pendages following the mouth may have an enlarged gnathobase
actually functional as a jaw or hemignath, but a ramus is well
developed on each of these appendages either as a simple walking
leg, a palp or a chela. In the more primitive forms the appendage
of every post-oral somite has a gnathobase and two rami ; in higher
specialized forms the gnathobases may be atrophied in every append-
age, even in the first post -oral.
The more primitive forms arc anomomeristic; the higher forms
nomomeristic, showing typically three groups or tagmata of six
somites each.
The genital apertures are placed on the first somite of the second
tagma or mesosoma. Their position is unknown in the more primi-
tive forms. The more primitive forms have branchial respiratory
processes developed on a ramus of each of the post-oral appendages.
In higher specialized forms these branchial processes become first
of all limited to five segments of the mesosoma, then sunk beneath
the surface as pulmonary organs, and finally atrophied, their place
being taken by a well-developed tracheal system.
A character of great diagnostic value in the more primitive
Arachnida is the tendency of the chitinous investment of the tergal
surface of the telson to unite during growth with that of the free
somites in front of it, so as to form a pygidial shield or posterior
carapace, often comprising as many as fifteen somites (Trilobites,
Limulus).
A pair of centra! monomeniscous diplostichous eyes is often present
on the head. Lateral eyes also are often present which are mdnosti-
chous withaggregatedlenses(l»mM/«i)orwith isolated Ienses(Scorpiok
or are diplostichous with simple lens {Pedipalpi, Araneae, Ac.).
Class 3 (of the Euarthropoda).— Crustacea.
Head tetartognathous and triprosthomerous— that is to say, with
three prosthomeres; the first bearing typical eyes, the second a
pair of antenniform appendages (often bi-ramose), the third a pair
of appendages usually antenniform, sometimes claw-like. The
ancestral stock was (as in the Arachnida) pantognathobasic, th**
68o
ARTHROPODA
is to say, had a gnathobase or jaw-process on the base of every
pott-oral appendage.
Besides the first post-oral or mandibular pair, at least two succeed-
ing pairs of appendages are modified as jaws. These have small
and insignificant rami, or none at all, a feature in which the Arach-
nida differ from them. The appendages of four or more additional
following somites may be turned upwards towards the mouth and
assist in the taking; of food.
The more primitive forms (Entomostraca) are anomomeristic,
presenting great variety as to number of somites, form of appendages,
and tagmatic grouping; the higher forms (Malacostraca) are norao-
meristic, showing in front of the telson twenty somites, of which the
six hinder carry swimmerets and the five next in front ambulatory
limbs. m The genital apertures are neither far forward nor far backi
ward in the series of somites, e.g. on the fourteenth post-oral in
Apus, on the ninth post-oral in female Astacus and in Cyclops.
with rare exceptions, branchial plates are developed either by
modification of a ramus of the limbs or as processes on a ramus, or
upon the sides of the body. No tracheate Crustacea are known,
but some terrestrial Isopoda develop pulmonary in-sinkings of- the
integument. A characteristic, com parable In value to that presented
by the pygidial shield of Arachnida, is the frequent development
off a pair of long appendages by the penultimate somite, which with
the telson form a trifid, or, when that is small, a bifid termination
to the body.
The lateral eyes of Crustacea are potymemscous, with highly
specialized retlnulae like those of Hexapoda, and unlike the simpler
compound lateral eyes of lower Arachnida. Monomcniscous eyes are
rarefy present,and when present,single,minute,and central in position.
Note. — The Crustacea exhibit a longer and more complete series
of forms than any other class of Arthropoda, and may be regarded
as preserving the most completely represented line of descent.
Class 4.— Chilopoda.
Head triprosthomerous ' and tetartognathous. .The two somites
following the mandibular or first post-oral or buccal somite carry
appendages modified as maxillae. The fourth post-oral somite has
its appendages converted into very large and powerful hemignaths,
which are provided with poison-glands. The remaining somites
carry single-clawed walking legs, a single pair to each somite. The
body is anomomeristic, showing in different genera from 17 (Inclusive
of the anal and genital) to 175 somites behind that which bears the
poison jaws. No tagmata are developed. The genital ducts open
on the penultimate somite.
Tracheae are developed which are dendriform and with spiral
thickening of their lining. Their trunks open at paired stigmata
E laced laterally in each somite of the trunk or in alternate somites.
Fsually the tracheae open by paired stigmata placed upon the sides
of a greater or less number of the somites, but never quite regularly
on alternating somites. At most they are present on all the pedi-
gerous somites excepting the first and the last. In Scutigera there
are seven unpaired dorsal stigmata, each leading into a sac whence
a number of air-holdinc tubes project into the pericardial blood-sinus.
Renal caecal tubes (Malpignian tubes) open into the proctodaeum.
(See Centipede.)
Class 5.— Hexapoda.
Head shown by its early development to be triprosthomerous
and consequently tetartognathous. The first prosthoraere has its
appendages represented by the compound eyes and a protocerebrura,
the second has the antennae for its appendages and a deutoccrebral
neuromere, the third has suffered suppression of its appendages
(which corresponded to the second pair of antennae of Crustacea),
but has a tritocerebnim and coeloraic chamber. The mandibular
somite bears a pair of gnathobasic hemignaths without rami or
palps, and is followed by two jaw-bearing somites (maxillary and
labial)- This enumeration would give six somites in all to the head
— three prosthomeres and three opisthomeres. Recent investigations
(Folsom, 4) show the existence in the embryo of a prae-maxillary
or supra-lingual somite which is suppressed during development.
This gives seven somites to the Hexapod's head, the tcrgites ot which
are fused to form a cephalic carapace or box. The number is signifi-
cant, since it agrees with that found in Edriophthalmous Crustacea,
and assigns the labium of the Hexapod to the same somite numeri-
cally as that which carries the labium-like maxillipedes of those
Crustacea.
The somites following the head are strictly nomomeristie and
nomotagmic. The first three form the thorax, the appendages of
which are the walking legs, tipped with paired claws or ungues
(compare the homoplastic claws of Scorpio and Peri pat us). Eleven
somites follow these, forming the abdominal " tagma." giving thus
twenty-one somites in all (as In the higher Crustacea). The somitea
of the abdomen all may carry rudimentary appendages In the
1 Embryological evidence of this is still wanting. In the other
classes of Arthropoda we have more or less complete embryological
evidence on the subject. It appears from observation of the embryo
that whilst the first prosthoraere of Centipedes has its appendages
reduced and represented only by eye-patches (as in Arachnida,
which disappears, whilst the third carries the permanent antennae,
which accordingly correspond to the second antennae of Crustacea,
and are absent in Hexapoda.
may <
the obvious abdominal somites to as few as eight. The 1
apertures are median and placed far back in the series of somites,
via. the female on the seventh abdominal (seventeenth of the whole
series) and the male on the ninth or ante-penultimate abdominal
(nineteenth of the whole series). The appendages of the eighth and
tenth abdominal somites are modified as gonapophysea. The
eleventh abdominal segment as the telson, usually small and soft;
it carries the anus.
The Hexapoda are not only all confined to a very definite dis-
position of the somites, appendages and apertures, as thus indicated,
but in other characters also they present the specialisation of a
narrowly-limited highly-developed order of such a class as the
Crustacea rather than a range from lower more generalized to higher
more specialised forms such as that group and also the Arachnida
present. It seems to be a legitimate conclusion that the most
primitive Hexapoda were provided with wings, and that the term
Pterygota might be used as a synonym of Hexapoda. Many Hexa-
poda have lost either one pan* or both pairs of wings; cases are
common of wingless genera allied to ordinary Pterygote genera.
Some Hexapoda which are very primitive in other respects happen
to be also Apterous, but this cannot be held to prove that the posse j
sion of wings is not a primitive character ot He xap oda (compare
the case of the Struthious Birds). The wings ofHea^
expansions of the terga of the second and third thoracic somites.
They appear to be serial equivalents (homogenous meromes) of the
tracheal gills, which develop in a like position on the abdominal
segments of some aquatic Hexapoda.
The Hexapoda are all provided with a highly developed tracheal
system, which presents considerable variation in regard to its
stigmata or orifices of communication with the exterior. In some
a serial arrangement of stigmata comparable to that observed in
Chilbpoda is found. In other cases (some larvae) stigmata are
absent; in other cases again a single stigma is developed, as ia
the smaller Arachnida and Chilopoda, in the median dorsal line
or other unexpected position. When the facile tendency of Arthro-
poda to develop tracheal air-tubes is admitted, it becomes probable
that the tracheae of Hexapods do not all belong to one original
system, but may be accounted for by new developments within the
group. Whether the primitive tracheal system of Hexapoda was
a closed one or open by serial stigmata in every somite remains at
present doubtful, but the intimate relation of the system to the
wings and tracheal gills cannot be overlooked.
The lateral eyes of Hexapoda, Kke those of Crustacea, belong to
the most specialized type 01 " compound eye," found only in tbete
two classes. Simple monomcniscous eyes are also present in many
Hexapods.
Renal excretory caeca (Malpighian tubes) are developed from the
proctodaeum (not from mesenteron as in scorpion and Amphipoda).
Concluding Remarks on Ike Relationships to one another of the Classes
of the Arthropoda. — Our general conclusion from a survey of the
Arthropoda amounts to this, that whilst Peripatus, the Diplopoda.
and the Arachnida represent terrestrial offshoots from successive
lower grades of primitive aquatic Arthropoda which are extinct, the
Crustacea alone present a fairly full series of representatives leading
upwards from unspecialized forms. The latter were not very far
removed from the aquatic ancestors (Trilobites) of the Arachnid*,
but differed essentially from them by the higher specialization of
the head. We can gather no indication of the forefathers of the
Hexapoda or of the Chilopoda less specialized than they are. whilst
possessing the essential characteristics of these classes. Neither
embryology nor palaeontology assists us in this direction. On the
other hand, the Tacts that the Hexapoda and the Chilopoda haw
triprosthomerous heads, that the Hexapoda have the same total
number of somites as the nomomeristie Crustacea, and the same
number of opisthomeres in the head as the more terrestrial Crustacea,
together with the same adaptation of the form of important appen-
dages in corresponding somites, and that the compound eyes 0/ both
Crustacea and Hexapoda are extremely specialized and elaborate in
structure and identical in that structure, all lead to the suggestion
that the Hexapoda, and with them, at no distant point, the Chilo-
poda, have branched off from the Crustacean main stem as specialized
terrestrial lines of descent. And it seems probable that in the case
of the Hexapoda, at any rate, the point of departure was subsequent
to the attainment of the nomomeristie character presented by the
higher jgrade of Crustacea. It is on the whole desirable to recognize
such affinities in our schemes of classification.
We may tabulate the facts as to head-structure in Chaetopoda
and Arthropoda as follows:—
Grade j: (below the Arthropoda).— Agnatha, AraOSTMOafSKa.
Without parapodial jaws; without the addition of originally
post-oral somites to the prae-oral region, which is a simple proatomtal
lobe of the first somite; the first somite is perforated by the mouth
and its parapodia are not modified as jaws.
•Cuabiosooa.
ARTHUR
68 1
Crtd«i(QftheArthropo<U).-MOMOGNATHA,MoNOPRC«THOME*A.
With a single pair of para podia I jaws carried by the somite which
is perforated by the mouth; this is not the first somite, but the
second. The nrst somite has become a prosthomere, and carries a
pair of extensile antennae.
-Onvchophora (Peripatus, fire).
Grades (of the Arthropoda).— Dignath a, MonoprosthomEra.
The third somite as well as the second develops a pair of para*
podial jaws; the first somite is a prosthomere carrying jointed
antennae.
bDiplopoda.
Grade 3 (of the Arthropoda).— Pantockatha, Difrosthovera.
A gnathobase is developed (in the primitive stock) on every pair
of post-oral appendages; two prostnomeres present, the second
somite as well as the first having passed in front of the mouth, but
only the second has appendages.
=»Arachnida.
Grade 4 (of the Arthropoda).— Pantocnatka, Trjprosthomkra.
The original stock, like that of the last grade, has a gnathobase
on every post-oral appendage, but three prosthomeres are now
present, in consequence of the movement of the oral aperture from
the third to the fourth somite. The later eyes arc polymeniscous,
with specialised vitrellac and retinulae of a definite type peculiar to
this grade.
-Crustacea, Chilopoda, Hexapoda.
According to older views the increase of the number of somites
in front of the mouth would have been regarded as a case of inter-
calation by new somite-budding of new prae-oral somites in the
•cries. We are prohibited by a general consideration of metamerism
in the Arthropoda from adopting the hypothesis of intercalation of
somites. However strange it may seem, we have to suppose that
one by one in the course of long historical evolution somites have
passed forwards and the mouth has passed backwards. In fact,
we have to suppose that the actual somite which in grades 1 and 2
bore the mandibles lost those mandibles, developed their rami as
tactile organs, and came to occupy a position in front of the mouth,
whilst its previous jaw-bearing function was taken up by the next
somite in order, into which the oral aperture had passed. A similar
history must have been slowly brought about when this second mandi-
bulate somite in its turn became a gnat nous and passed in front of
the mouth. The mandibular parapodia may be supposed during
the successive stages of this history to have had, from the first,
well-developed rami (one or two) of a palp-like form, so that the
change required when the mouth passed away from them would
merely consist in the suppression of the gnathobase. The solid palp-
less mandible such as wc now sec in some Arthropoda is, necessarily,
a late specialization. Moreover, it appears probable that the first
somite never had its parapodia modified as jaws, but became a
prosthomere with tactile appendages before parapodial jaws were
developed at all, or rather pari passu with their develo * he
second somite. It is worth while bearing in mind a secc ity
as to the history of the prosthomeres, viz. that the bucxa sic
parapodia (the mandibles) were in each of the three grad< 10-
merisra only developed after the recession of the m< he
addition of one, of two, or of three post -oral somites to ral
region- had taken place. In fact, we may imagine t ar-
actcristic adaptation of one or more pairs of post-oral to
the purposes of the mouth as jaws did not occur until a. ral
forms with one, with two, and with three prosthomeres had come
into existence. On the whole the facts seem to be against this
supposition, though we need not suppose that the gnathobase was
very large or the rami undeveloped in the buccal parapodia which
were destined to lose their mandibular features and pass in front of
the mouth.
References. — 1. Batcson, Materials for the Study of Variation
(Macmillan, 1894), p. 85; 2. Lankcstcr, " Primitive Cell-layers of the
Embryo." Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. (1873), p. 336; 3. Korschclt
and Heider, EnlwUkelungsgesthichte (Jena, 1892), cap. xv. p. 189;
4. Folsom, " Development of the Mouth Parts of Anurida," Bulletin
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, vol. xxxvi. No. 5 (1900), pp. 142-
5. Lankester, " Observations and Reflections on the Appcnd-
and Nervous System of Apus Cancriformis," Quart. Journ.
Alter. Sci. vol. xxi. (1881); 6. Holer, " Ein Krebs mit einer Extremi-
st statt eines Stielauges," Verkandl. d. deutschen tool. GeseUsck.
(1894) ; 7. Watase, " On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of
Arthropods," Studies from the Biol. Zab. of the Johns Hopkins
University, vol. iv. pp. 287-334; 8. Bcnham describes backward
shifting of the oral aperture in certain Chaetopods, Proc. Zoolog.
Soc. London (1900),' No. Ixiv. p. 976. N. 5.— References to the early
literature concerning the group Arthropoda will be found in Cams,
Ceschichle der Zoologie. The more important literature up to 1892
is given fn the admirable treatise on Embryology by Professors
Korschelt and Heider. Detailed references will be found under
the articles on the separate groups of Arthropoda. (E. R. L.)
ARTHUR (Fr. Artus), the central hero of the cycle of romance
known as the Matitre de Bretagne (see Arthurian Lecend).
Whether there was an historic Arthur has been much debated;
undoubtedly for many centuries after the appearance of Geoffrey
of Monmouth's Historic Brilonum (circ. 1136), the statements
therein recorded of a mighty monarch, who ruled over Britain
in the 5th-6th centuries, and carried his conquests far afield,
even to the gates of Rome, obtained general, though not
universal, credence. Even in the 12th century there were some
who detected, and derided, the fictitious character of Geoffrey's
" History." As was naturally to be expected, the pendulum
swung to the other extreme, and in a more critical age the
existence of Arthur was roundly denied. The truth probably
lies midway between the two. The words of Wace, the Norman
poet who translated the His tor ia into verse, are here admirably
to the point. Speaking of the tales told of Arthur, he says:—
" Ne tot mencunge, ne tot veir,
Ne tot fable, ne tot savcir,
Tant ont li conteor conte,
Et li fableor tant fable
Por lor contes embeleter
Que tout ont fait fable temblor." l
The opinion now generally accepted by scholars is that the
evidence of Nennius, whose Historic Britonwn preceded that of
Geoffrey by some 400 years, is in the main to be relied on. He
tells us that Arthur was Dux beUorum, and led the armies of the
British kings against the Saxon invaders, whom he defeated in
twelve great battles. Tunc Arthur pugnabat cum regibus
Brilonum, sod ipse dux erat bdlorum.
The traditional site of these battles covers a very wide area, and
it is supposed that Arthur held a post analogous to that of the
general who, under the Roman occupation, was known as Comes
BriUmniae, and held a roving commission to defend the island
wherever attacked, in contradistinction to the Dux Britanniorum,
who had charge of the forces in the north, and the Comes Littoris
Saxon ici, whose task it was to defend the south-east line. The
Welsh texts never call Arthur gwlcdig (prince), but omheradawr
(Latin imperator) or emperor, a title which would be bestowed on
the highest official in the island. The truth thus appears to be
that, while there was never a King Arthur, there was a noted
chieftain and general of that name. If we say that he carried on
a successful war against the Saxons, was probably betrayed by
his wife and a near kinsman, and fell in battle, we have stated all
which can be claimed as an historical nucleus for his legend. It
is now generally admitted that the representation of Arthur as
world conqueror, Well-Kaiser, is due to the influence of the
Charlemagne cycle. In the 12th century the Matitre de Prance
was waning, the Matitre de Bretagne waxing in popularity, and
public opinion demanded that the central figure of the younger
cycle (for whatever the date of the subject matter, as a literary
cycle the Arthurian is the younger) should not be inferior in
dignity and importance to that of the earlier. When we add to
this the fact that the writers of the 12th century represented
the personages and events of the 6th in the garb, and under the
conditions, of their own time, we can understand the reason of
the manifold difficulties which beset the study of the cycle.
But into the figure of Arthur as we know him, other elements
have entered; he is not merely an historic personality, but at the
same time a survival of pre-historic myth, a hero of romance, and
a fairy king; and all these threads are woven together in one
fascinating but bewildering web. It is only possible here to
summarize the leading features which may be claimed as charac-
teristic of each phase.
Mythic— Certain elements of the story point to Arthur as a
culture hero; as such his name has been identified with the
Mercurius Artaius of the Gauls. In this role he slays monsters,
the boar Twrch Trwyth, the giant of Mont St Michel and the
Demon Cat of Losanne (Andre de Coutances tells us that Arthur
was really vanquished and carried off by the Cat, but that one
durst not tell that talc before BritonsI). He never, it should be
1 Nor all a lie, nor all true, nor all fable, nor all known, so much
have the story-tellers told, and the fablers fabled, in order to em-
bellish their tales, that they have made all seem fable.
682
ARTHUR
noted, rides on purely ehtvatric ventures, such as aiding distressed
damsels, seeking the Grail, &c. His expeditions are all more or
less warlike. The story of his youth belongs, as Alfred Nutt
(Folk-lore, vol. iv.) has shown, to the group of tales classified as
the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula, found in all Aryan
lands. Numerous parallels exist between the Arthurian and
early Irish heroic cycles, notably the Fenian or Ossianic. This
Fenian cycle is very closely connected with the Tuatha de
Danaan, the Celtic deities of vegetation and increase; recent
research has shown that two notable features of the Arthurian
story, the Round Table and the Grail, can be most reasonably
accounted for as survivals of this Nature worship, and were
probably parts of the legend from the first.
Romantic.^-TYit character of Arthur as a romantic hero is, In
reality, very different from that which, mainly through the
popularity of Tennyson's Idylls, English people are wont to
suppose. In the earlier poems he is practically a lay figure, his
court the point of departure and return for the knights whose
adventures are related in detail, but he himself a passive spectator.
In the prose romances he is a monarch, the splendour of whose
court, whose riches and generosity, are the admiration of all;
but morally he is no whit different from the knights who surround
him; he takes advantage of his bonnes fortunes as do others.
He has two sons, neither of them born in wedlock; one, Modred,
is alike his son and his nephew. In certain romances, the
Perlesvaus and Din Crdne, he is a veritable rot faintanl, over-
come by sloth and luxury. Certain traits of his story appear to
show the influence of Northern romance. Such is the story of his
begetting, where Uther takes upon him the form of Gorlois to
deceive Yguerne, even as Siegfried changed shapes with Gunther
to the undoing of Brttnnhilde: The sword in the perron (stone
pillar or block), the withdrawal of which proves his right to the
kingdom, is the sword of the Branstock. Morgain carries him off,
mortally wounded, to Avalon, even as the Valkyr bears the
Northern hero to Valhal. Morgain herself has many traits in
common with the Valkyrie; she is one of nine sisters, she can fly
through the air as a bird (Swan maiden) ; she possesses a marvel-
lous ointment (as does Hilde, the typical Valkyr). The idea of a
•lumbering hero who shall awake at the hour of his country's
greatest need is world-wide, but the most famous instances
are Northern, e.g. Olger Danske and Barbarossa, and depend
ultimately on an identification with the gods of the Northern
Pantheon, notably Thor. W. Larminie cited an instance of a
rhyme current in the Orkneys as a charm against nightmare,
which confuses Arthur with Siegfried and his winning of the
Valkyr.
Fairy. — We find that at Arthur's birth (according to Layamon,
who here differs from Wace), three ladies appeared and prophe-
sied his future greatness. This incident is also found in the first
continuation to the Perceval, where the prediction is due to a
lady met with beside a forest spring, dearly here a water fairy.
In the late romance of La BatailU de Loquifer Avalon has become
a purely fairy kingdom, where Arthur rules in conjunction with
Morgain. In Huon de Bordeaux he is Oberon's heir and successor,
while in the romance of Brun de la Montague, preserved in a
unique KS. of the Bibliotheque Natkraale, we have the curious
statement that all fairy-haunted places, wherever found, belong
to Arthur:—
" Et touz ces lieux faes
Sont Art us dc Bretagne."
This brief summary of the leading features of the Arthurian
tradition will indicate with what confused and complex material
we are here dealing. (See also Arthurian Legend, Grail,
Merlin, Round Table; and Celt: Celtic literature.)
Texts. Historic: — Nennius. Hittoria Britonum; H. Zimmer,
Nennius Vindicatus (Berlin. 1890, an examination into the credi-
bility of Nennius; Geoffrey ot Monmouth, Hist or \a Britonum
(translations of both histories arc in Bohn'a Library) ; Wace, the
Brut (cd. by Leroux de Lincey) ; Layamon (cd. by Sir Fred. Madden).
Romantic: — Merlin — alike in the Ordinary, or Vulgate (cd.
Sommer). the Suite or " Huth " Merlin, the 13th century Merlin
(cd. by G. Paris and J. I'lrkh), and the unpublished and unique
version of Bibl. nat. Jonds franfois, 337 (cf. Freymond's analysis
in Zeilsckrifl Jnr frans. Spracht, xxii.)— devotes considerable space
to the elaboration of the material supplied by the chronicles, the
beginning of Arthur's reign, his marriage and wars with the Saxons
The imitation of the Charlemagne romances is here evident ; the
Saxons bear names of Saracen origin, and camels and elephants
appear on the scene. The Morte Arthur, or Mort an rot A rims, a
metrical romance, of which a unique English version exists in the
Thornton collection (ed. for Early English Text Society), givw an
expanded account of the passing of Arthur; in the French prose form
it is now always found incorporated with the Lancelot, of which it
forms the concluding section. The remains of the Welsh traditi .i
are to be found in the Mabinogion (cf. Nutt's edition, where the
stories are correctly classified), and in the Triads. Professor RK «
Studies in the Arthurian Legend arc largely based on Welsh material.
and may be consulted for details, though the conclusions) drawn
are not in harmony with recent research. These are the only texts
in which Arthur is the central figure; in the great bulk of t><
romances his is but a subordinate role. (J. L. Wj
ARTHUR I. (1 187-1203), duke of Brittany, was the posthumous
son of Geoffrey, the fourth son of Henry II. of England, and
Constance, heiress of Conan IV., duke of Brittany. The Bretons
hoped that their young prince would uphold their independence,
which was threatened by the English. Henry II. tried to seize
Brittany, and in 1187 forced Constance to marry one of his
favourites, Randulph de Blundcvill, carl of Chester (d. 1232).
Henry, however, died soon afterwards ( 1 189). The new king of
England, Richard Cccur de Lion, claimed the guardianship of
the young Arthur, but in 1100 Richard left for the Crusade
Constance profited by his absence by governing the duchy, axd
in xi 04 she had Arthur proclaimed duke of Brittany by aa
assembly of barons and bishops. Richard invaded Brittany in
11 06, but was defeated in 1197 and became reconciled to Con-
stance. On his death in 1189, the nobles of Anjou, Maine ar.d
Touraine refused to recognize John of England, and did homage
to Arthur, who declared himself the vassal of Philip Augustus.
In 1202 war was resumed between the king of England and the
king of France. The king of France recognised Arthur's ri*ht
to Brittany, Anjou, Maine and Poitou. While Philip Augustus
was invading Normandy, Arthur tried to seise Poitou. Bat,
surprised at Mircbeau, he fell into the hands of John, who sent
him prisoner to Falaise In the following year he was transferred
to Rouen, and disappeared suddenly. It is thought that John
killed him with his own hand. After this murder John was
condemned by the court of peers of France, and stripped of the
fiefs which he possessed in France.
See Ralph of Coggcshall, " Chronicon Anglicanura.*' in the
Monument* Britannuse historian Dom Lobineau, Mittoirx de
Bretagne (1702); Dom Moricc, Hi stair » de Bretagne (174*- 1756);
A. de la Bcrderic, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. iii. (1899); Bemoot.
" De la condamnation de Jean-sans-Tcrre par la Cour dca Pairs de
France," in the Revue hist or tone (1886), vof xxxii.
ARTHUR III. (13Q3-MS8). earl of Richmond, constable of
France, and afterwards duke of Brittany, was the third son of
John IV., duke of Brittany, and Joan of Navarre, afterwards the
wife of Henry IV. of England. His brother, John V., gave hiss
his earldom of Richmond in England. While still very young.
he took part in the civil wars which desolated France during the
reign of Charles VI. From 14 10 to 14 14 he served on the side
of the Armagnacs, and afterwards entered the service of Louis the
dauphin, whose intimate friend lie became. He profited by his
position at court to obtain the lieutenancy of the Bastille, the
governorship of the duchy of Nemours, and the confiscated
territories of Jean Larcheveque, seigneur of Parthenay. His
efforts to reduce the latter were, however, interrupted by the
necessity of marching against the English. At Agincourt be
was wounded and captured, and remained a prisoner in England
from 141 5 to 1420. Released on parole, he gained the favour of
King Henry V. by persuading his brother, the duke of Brittany,
to conclude the treaty of Troycs, by which France was handed
over to the English king. He was rewarded with the countship
of Ivry
In 1423 Arthur married Margaret of Burgundy, widow of the
dauphin Louis, and became thus the brother-in-law of Philip
the Good of Burgundy, and of the regent, the duke of Bedford.
Offended, however, by Bedford's refusal to give him a high
command, he severed his connexion with the English, and in
March 142 5 accepted the consUble'ssword from King Chariea VAX
ARTHUR
683
He now threw himself with ardour into the French cause, and
persuaded his brother, John V. ol Brittany, to conclude with
Charles VII. the treaty ol Saurour (October 7, 14*5)- But
though he saw clearly enough the measures necessary for success,
he lacked the means to carry them out. In the field he met with
a whole series of reverses; and at court, where his rough and
overbearing manners made him disliked, his influence was over-
shadowed by that of a series of incompetent favourites. The
peace concluded between the duke of Brittany and the English
in September 1427 led to his expulsion from the court, where
Georges de la TrerooUle, whom he himself had recommended to
the king, remained supreme for six years, during which Richmond
t ried in vain tooverthrow him. In the meantime, in June 1429, he
joined Joan of Arc at Orleans, and fought in several battles under
her banner, till the influence of La Tremoille forced his with-
drawal from the army. On the 5th of March 143 a Charles VII.
concluded with him and with Brittany the treaty of Rennes;
but it was not until June of the following year that La Tremoille
was overthrown. Arthur now resumed the war against the
English, and at the same time took vigorous measures against
the plundering bands of soldiers and peasants known as rotttiers
or tcorcheurs. On the 20th of September 143 5, mainly as a result
of his diplomacy, was signed the treaty of Arras between Charles
VII. and the duke of Burgundy, to which France owed her
salvation.
On the 13th of April 1436, Arthur took Paris from the English;
but he was fll seconded by the king, and hampered by the
necessity for leading frequent expeditions against the tcorcheurs;
it was not till May 1444 that the armistice of Tours gave him
leisure to carry out the reorganization of the army which he had
long projected. He now created the companies d'ordonnancc,
and endeavoured to organize the militia of the francs archers.
This reform had its effect in the struggles that followed. In
alliance with his nephew, the duke of Brittany, he reconquered,
during September and October 1449, nearly all the Cotentin;
on the 15th of April 1450 he gained over the English the battle of
Formigny; and during the year he recovered for France the
whole of Normandy, which for the next six or seven years it was
his task to defend from English attacks. On the death of his
nephew Peter II., on the 22nd of September 1457, he became
duke of Brittany, and though retaining his office of constable of
France, he refused, like his predecessors, to do homage to the
French king for his duchy. He reigned little more than a year,
dying on the 26th of December 1458, and was succeeded by his
nephew Francis II., son of his brother Richard, count of
£ tarn pes.
Arthur was three times married: (1) to Margaret of Burgundy,
duchess of Guienne (d. 1442) ; (2) to Jeanne d'Albret, daughter
of Charles II. of Albrct(d. 1444); (3) to Catherine of Luxemburg,
daughter of Peter of Luxemburg, count of St Pol, who survived
him. He left no legitimate children.
Authorities. — The main source for the life of Duke Arthur HI.
is the chronicle of Guillaume Gruel (c. 14x0-1474-1482). Gruel
entered the service of the earl of Richmond about 1425, shared in
all his campaigns, and lived with him on intimate terms. The
chronicle covers the whole period of the duke's life, but the earlier
part, up to 1425, is much less full and important than the later,
which is based on Gruel's personal knowledge and observation. In
spite of a perhaps exaggerated admiration for his hero, Gruel dis-
plays in his work so much good faith, insight and originality that
be is accepted as a thoroughly trustworthy authority. It was first
published at Paris in 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best
is that of Achille le Vavasseur, Chronique d' Arthur de Richemont
(Paris. 1890). See also E. Cosneau, Le ConnHobie de Richemont
(Paris. 1886); G. du Fretne de Beaucourt, Uistoire de Charles VII.
(Paris. 1 88 1, acq.).
ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830-1886), twenty -first
president of the United States, was born in Fairfield, Vermont,
on the 5th of October 1830. His father, William Arthur (1 796-
1875), when eighteen years of age, emigrated from Co. Antrim,
Ireland, and, after teaching in various places in Vermont and
Lower Canada, became a Baptist minister. William Arthur
had married Malvina Stone, an American girl who lived at the
time of the marriage in Canada, and the numerous changes of the
family residence afforded a bash for allegations in 1880 that the
son Chester was born not in Vermont, but in Canada, and was
therefore ineligible for the presidency. Chester entered Union
College as a sophomore, and graduated with honour in 1848.
He then became a schoolmaster, at the same time studying law.
In 1853 he entered a law office in New York city, and in the
following year was admitted to the bar. His reputation as a
lawyer began with his connexion with the famous "Lemmon
slave case," in which, as one of the special counsel for the state,
he secured a decision from the highest state courts that slaves
brought into New York while in transit between two slave states
were ipso facto free. In another noted case, in 1855, he obtained
a decision that negroes were entitled to the same accommodations
as whites on the street railways of New York city. In politics
he was actively associated from the outset with the Republican
party. When the Civil War began he held the position of
cngineer-in-chief on Governor Edwin D. Morgan's staff, and
afterwards became successively acting quartermaster-general,
inspector-general, and quartermaster-general of the state troops,
in which capacities he showed much administrative efficiency.
At the dose of Governor Morgan's term, on the 31st of December
1862, General Arthur resumed the practice of his profession,
remaining active, however, in party politics in New York city.
In November 1871 he was appointed by President U. S. Grant
collector of customs for the port of New York. The custom-
house had long been conspicuous for the most flagrant abuses of
the " spoils system "; and though General Arthur admitted that
the evils existed and that they rendered efficient administration
impossible, he made no extensive reforms. In 1877 President
Rutherford B. Hayes began the reform of the civil service with
the New York custom-house. A non-partisan commission,
appointed by Secretary John Sherman, recommended sweeping
changes. The president demanded the resignation of Arthur
and his two principal subordinates, George H. Sharpe, the
surveyor, and Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer, of the Port.
General Arthur refused to resign on the ground that to retire
" under fire " would be to acknowledge wrong-doing, and
claimed that as the abuses were inherent in a widespread system
he should not be made to bear the responsibility alone. Hia
cause was espoused by Senator Roscoe Conkling, for a time
successfully; but on the nth of July 1878, during a recess of
the Senate, the collector was removed, and in January 1879,
after another severe struggle, this action received the approval
of the Senate. In 1880 General Arthur was a delegate at large
from New York to the Republican national convention. In
common with the rest of the "Stalwarts," he worked hard for
the nomination of Gen. U. S. Grant for a third term. Upon the
triumph of James A. Garfield, the necessity of conciliating the
defeated faction led to the hasty acceptance of Arthur for the
second place on the ticket. His nomination was coldly received
by the public; and when, after his election and accession, he
actively engaged on behalf of Conkling in the great conflict with
Garfield over the New York patronage, the impression was
widespread that he was unworthy of his position. Upon the
death of President Garfield, on the 19th of September 1881,
Arthur took the oath as his successor. Contrary to the general
expectation, his appointments were as a rule unexceptionable,
and he earnestly promoted the Pendleton law for the reform of
the civil service. His use of the veto in 1882 in the cases of a
Chinese Immigration Bill (prohibiting immigration of Chinese
for twenty years) and a River and Harbour Bill (appropriating
over $18,000,000, to be expended on many insignificant as well
as important streams) confirmed the favourable impression
which had been made. The most important events of his
administration were the passage of the Tariff Act of 1883 and
of the " Edmunds Law " prohibiting polygamy in the territories,
and the completion of three great trans-con linen tal railways—
the Southern Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe. His administration was lacking in political
situations of a dramatic character, but on all questions that arose
his policy was sane and dignified. In 1884 he allowed hia name
to be presented for renomination in the Republican convention,
but he was easily defeated by the friends of James G. Blaine.
684 ARTHURIAN LEGEND— ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION
At the expiration of his term he resumed his residence in New
York city, where he died on the 18th of November 1886.
For an account of his administration see United States: History.
ARTHURIAN LEGEND. By the "Arthurian legend," or
MatUre de Bretagne, we mean the subject-matter of that import-
ant body of medieval literature known as the Arthurian cycle
(see Arthur). The period covered by the texts in their present
form represents, roughly speaking, the century x 1 50-1 250. The
History of Nennius is, of course, considerably earlier, and that of
Geoffrey of Monmouth somewhat antedates 1150 (1136), but
with these exceptions the dates above given will be found to
cover the composition of all our extant texts.
As to the origin of this Maticre de Bretagne, and the circum-
stances under which it became a favourite theme for literary
treatment, two diametrically opposite theories are held. One
body of scholars, headed by Professor Wcndelin Fdrster of Bonn,
while admitting that, so far as any historic basis can be traced,
the events recorded must have happened on insular ground,
maintain that the knowledge of these events, and their romantic
development, are due entirely to the Bretons of the continent.
The British who fled before the Teutonic and Scandinavian
invasions of the 6th and 8th centuries, had carried with them to
Armorica, and fondly cherished, the remembrance of Arthur and
his deeds, which in time had become interwoven with traditions
of purely Breton origin. On the other side of the Channel, i.e.
in Arthur's own land, these memories had died out, or at most
survived only as the faint echo of historic tradition. Through
the medium of French-speaking Bretons these tales came to the
cognizance of Northern French poets, notably Chretien de Troyes,
who wove them into romances. According to Professor Forster
there were no Arthurian romances previous to Chretien, and
equally, of course, no insular romantic tradition. This theory
reposes mainly on the supposed absence of prc-Chrftien poems,
and on the writings of Professor H. Zimmcr, who derives the
Arthurian names largely from Breton roots. This represents
the prevailing standpoint of German scholars, and may be called
the " continental " theory. In opposition to this the school of
which the late Gaston Paris was the leading, and most brilliant,
representative, maintains that the Arthurian tradition, romantic
equally with historic, was preserved in Wales through the
medium of the bards, was by them communicated to their
Norman conquerors, worked up into poems by the Anglo-
Normans, and by them transmitted to the continental poets.
This, the " insular " theory, in spite of its inherent probability,
has hitherto been at a disadvantage through lack of positive
evidence, but in a recently acquired MS. of the British Museum,
Add. 36614, we hnd the first continuator of the Perceval,
Wauchicr de Denain, quoting as authority for stories of Gawain
a certain Blcheris, whom he states to have been " born and bred
in Wales." The identity of this Bleheris with the Bledhericus
mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis as Famosus Hit fabulator,
living at a bygone and unspecified date, and with the Breri
quoted by Thomas as authority for the Tristan story, has been
fully accepted by leading French scholars. Further, on the
evidence of certain MSS. of the Perceval, notably the Paris MS.
(Bibl. NaL 1450), it is clear that Chretien was using, and using
freely, the work of a predecessor, large fragments of which have
been preserved by the copyists who completed his unfinished
work The evidence of recent discoveries is all in favour of the
insular, or French, view.
So far as the character, as distinguished from the provenance,
of this subject-matter is concerned, it is largely of folk-lore
origin, representing the working over of traditions, in some cases
(as e.g. in the account of Arthur's birth and upbringing) common
to all the Aryan peoples, in others specifically Celtic. Thus
there are a number of parallels between the Arthurian and the
Irish heroic cycles, the precise nature of which has yet to be
determined. So far as Arthur himself is concerned these parallels
arc with the Fenian, or Ossianic, cycle, in the case of Gawain
with the Ultonian.
In its literary form the cycle falls into three groups:— pseudo-
historic: the Histories of Nennius and Geoffrey, the Brut of
Wace and Layamon (see Arthur), poetic: the works of
Chretien de Troyes, Thomas, Raoul de Houdenc and others (see
Gawain, Perceval, Tristan, and the writers named above);
prose: the largest and most important group (see Grail,
Lancelot, Merlin, Tristan). Of these three branches the
prose romances offer the most insuperable problems; none can
be dated with any certainty; all are of enormous length; and
all have undergone several redactions. Of not one do we as yet
possess a critical and comparative text, and in the absence of
such texts the publication of any definite and detailed theory as
to the evolution and relative position of the separate branches of
the Arthurian cycle is to be deprecated. The material is so vast
in extent, and in so chaotic a condition, that the construction
of any such theory is only calculated to invite refutation and
discredit
The best general study of the cycle is to be found in Gaston
Paris'* manual La Litter ature francaiseaumoyen 4£«(newand revised
edition, 1005). Sec also the introduction to vol. xxx. of Hissoire
UtUratre de la France. For the theories as to origin, see the Intro-
ductions to Professor Fdrster's editions of the poems of Chretiea
de Troyes, notably that to vol. iv., Der KarrcnriUer, which is a looa
and elaborate restating of his position. Also Professor H. Zimmcr s
articles in Cottingische gelekrte Anzeigen, 12 and ao. For the Insular
view, Ferd. Lot s " Etudes sur la provenance du cycle arthurien."
Romania, vols, xxiv.-xxviii., are very valuable. For a popular
treatment of the subject, cf. No*, t. and iv. of Popular Studies «
Romance and Folk-lore (Nutt). Robert Huntington Fletcher's
" The Arthurian Matter in the Chronicles " (voL x. of Harvard
Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature), is a most useful
summary. (J. L. W.)
ARTICHOKE. The common artichoke, Cynara, scciyutus,
is a plant belonging to the natural order Compositae, having
some resemblance to a large thistle. It has long been esteemed
as a culinary vegetable ; the parts chiefly employed being the
immature receptacle or floret disk, with the lower part of the
surrounding leaf-scales, which are known as " artichoke bottoms. *
In Italy the receptacles, dried, are largely used in soups; those of
the cultivated plant as Carciofo domestico, and of the wild variety
as Carciofo spinoso.
The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuber osus, is a distinct
plant belonging to the same order, cultivated for its tubers.
It closely resembles the sunflower, and its popular name is a
corruption of the Italian Girasote Articiocco, the sunflower
artichoke. It is a native of Canada and the north-eastern
United States, and was cultivated by the aborigines. The
tubers are rich in the carbohydrate inulin and in sugar.
The name is derived from the northern Italian etrHeiotto,
or arciciocco, modern carciofo; these words come, through the
Spanish, from the Arabic al-kharskuf. False etymology has
corrupted the word in many languages: it has been derived in
English from " choke," and " heart," or the Latin tortus, a
garden; and in French, the form artkhaut has been connected
with chaud, hot, and chou, a cabbage.
ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint), a term primarily for
that which connects two parts together, and so transferred to
the parts thus joined; thus the word is used of the separate
clauses or heads in contracts, treaties or statutes and the like;
of a literary composition on some specific subject in a periodical;
or of particular commodities, as in " articles of trade and com-
merce." It appears also in the phrase " in the article of death "
to translate in articulo mortis, at the moment of death. la
grammar the term is used of the adjectives which state the ex-
tension of a substantive, i.e. the number of individuals to which
a name applies; the indefinite article denoting one or any of
a particular class, the definite denoting a particular member of
a class.
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, hi English company law, the
regulations for the internal management of a joint stock company
registered under the Companies Acts. They are, in fact, the
terms of the partnership agreed upon by the shareholders among
themselves. They regulate such matters as the transfer and
forfeiture of shares, calls upon shares, the appointment and
qualification of directors, their powers and proceedings, general
meetings of the shareholders, votes, dividends, the keening and
audit of accounts, and other such matters, In regard to these
ARTICULATA— ARTILLERY
685
internal regulations the legislature has left the company free
to adopt whatever terms of association it chooses. It has
furnished in the schedule to the Companies Act 1862 (Table A),
a model or specimen set of regulations, but their adoption,
wholly or in part, is optional; only if a. company does not
register articles of its own these statutory regulations are to
apply. When, as is commonly the case, a company decides to
have articles of its own framing, such articles must be expressed
in separate paragraphs, numbered arithmetically; and signed
by the subscribers of the memorandum of -association. They
must also be printed, stamped like a deed, and attested. When
so perfected, they are to be delivered, with the memorandum
of association, to the registrar of joint stock companies, who is
to retain and register them. The articles of association thereupon
become a public document, which any person may inspect on
payment of a fee of one shilling. This has important con-
sequences, because every person dealing with the company is
presumed to be acquainted with its constitution, and to have
read its articles. The articles, also, upon registration, bind the
company and its members to the same extent as if each member
had subscribed his name and affixed his seal to them. (See also
Memorandum or Association; Company; Incorporation.)
In the United States, articles of association are any instrument
in writing which sets forth the purposes, the terms and conditions
upon which a body of persons have united for the prosecu-
tion of a joint enterprise. When this instrument is duly executed
and hied, the law gives it the force and effects of a charter of
incorporation.
ARTICULATA, a zoological name now obsolete, applied by
Cuvier to animals, such as insects and worms, in which the body
displays a jointed structure. (See Arthropooa.)
ARTICULATION (from Lat articular*, to divide into joints),
the act of joining together; in anatomy the junction of the
bones (see Joints); in botany the point of attachment and
separation of the deciduous parts of a plant, such as a leaf.
The word is also used for division into distinct parts, as of human
speech by words or syllables.
ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. arlitler, to equip with engines of
war, probably comes from Late Lat. articttlum, dim. of ars, art,
cf. " engine " from mgenium, or of artus, joint), a term originally
applied to all engines for discharging missiles, and in this sense
used in English in the early 17th century. In a more restricted
sense, artillery has come to mean all firearms not carried and
used by hand, and also the personnel and organisation by which
the power of such weapons is wielded. It is, however, not usual
to class machine guns (q.t.) as artillery. The present article
deals with the development and contemporary state of the
artillery arm in land warfare, in respect of its organization,
personnel and special or "formal" employment. For the
materiel — the guns, their carriages and their ammunition — see
Ordnance and Ammunition. For ballistics, see that heading,
and for the work of artillery in combination with the other arms,
see Tactics.
Artillery, as distinct from ordnance, is usually classified in
accordance with the functions it has to perform. The simplest
division is that into mobile and immobile artillery, the former
being concerned with the handling of all weapons so mounted
as to be capable of more or less easy movement from place to
place, the latter with that of weapons which are installed in
fixed positions. Mobile artillery is subdivided, again chiefly in
respect of its employment, into horse and field batteries, heavy
field or position artillery, field howitzers, mountain artillery and
siege trains, adapted to every kind of terrain in which field troops
may be employed, and work they may have to do. Immobile
artillery is used in fixed positions of all kinds, and above all in
permanent fortifications; it cannot, therefore, be classified as
above, inasmuch as the raison d'Ure, and consequently the arma-
ment of one fort or battery may be totally distinct from that
of another. " Fortress," " Garrison " and " Foot " artillery are
the usual names for this branch. The dividing line, indeed, in
the case of the heavier weapons, varies with circumstances;
guns of position may remain on their ground while elaborate
fortifications grow up around, them, or the deficiencies of a field
army in artillery may be made good from the matiriel, more
frequently still from the personnel, of the fortress artillery.
Thus it may happen that mobile artillery becomes immobile
and vice versa. But under normal circumstances the principle of
classification indicated is maintained in all organized military
forces.
Historical Sketch
1. Early Artillery. — Mechanical appliances for throwing pro*
jectiles were produced early in the history of organized warfare,
and " engines invented by cunning men to shoot arrows and great
stones " are mentioned in the Old Testament. These were con-
tinually improved, and, under the various names of catapulta,
balista, onager, trtbuchet, &c, were employed throughout the
ancient and medieval periods of warfare. The machines finally
produced were very powerful, and, even when a propelling agent
so strong as gunpowder was discovered and applied, the super-
session of the older weapons was not effected suddenly nor
without considerable opposition. The date of the first employ-
ment of cannon cannot be established with any certainty, but
there is good evidence to show that the Germans used guns at
the siege of Cividale in Italy ( 1331). The terms of a commission
given (14x4) by Henry V. to his magister operationum, ingeniarum,
el gunnarum ac aliarum ordinationum, one Nicholas Merbury,
show that the organization of artillery establishments was grafted
upon that which was already in existence for the service of the
old-fashioned machines. Previously to this it is recorded that
of some 340 men forming the ordnance establishment of Edward
III. in 1344 only 12 were artillerymen and gunners. Two years
later, at Crecy, it is said, the English brought guns into the open
field for the first time. At the siege of Harfieur (14x5) the
ordnance establishment included 25 " master gunners " and 50
"servitour gunners." The "gunner" appears to have been
the captain of the gun, with general charge of the guns and
stores, and the special duty of laying and firing the piece in
action.
2. The Beginnings of Field Artillery. — It is clear, from such
evidence as we possess, that the chief and almost the only use of
guns at this time was to batter the walls of fortifications, and it
is not until later in the 15th century that their employment in
the field became general (see also Cavalry). The introduction
of field artillery may be attributed to John 2i£ka, and it was in
his Hussite wars (1410-1424) that the Wagenburg, a term of
more general application, but taken here as denoting a cart or
vehicle armed with several small guns, came into prominence.
This device allowed a relatively high manoeuvring power to be
attained, and it is found occasionally in European wars two
centuries later, as for instance at Wimpfen in 1622 and Cropredy
Bridge in 1644. In an act of attainder passed by the Lancastrian
party against the Yorkists (1459), it is stated that the latter
were " traiterously ranged in bataill . . . their cartes with
gonnes set before their batailles " (Rot. Pari. 38 Henry VI.,
v. 348). In the London fighting of 1460, small guns were used
to clear the streets, heavy ordnance to batter the walls of the
Tower. The battle of Lose Coat Field (1469) was decided almost
entirely by Edward IV.'s field guns, while at Blackheath (1497)
"some cornets of horse, and bandes of foot, and good store of
artillery wheeling about " were sent to " put themselves beyond "
the rebel camp (Bacon, Henry VII.). The greatest example of
artillery work in the 15th century was the siege of Constantinople
in 1453, at which the Turks used a large force of artillery, and
in particular some monster pieces, some of which survived to
engage a British squadron in 1807, when a stone shot weighing
some 700 lb cut the mainmast of Admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth's
flagship in two, and another killed and wounded sixty men.
For siege purposes the new weapon was indeed highly effective,
and the castles of rebellious barons were easily knocked to
pieces by the prince who owned, or succeeded in borrowing, a
few pieces of ordnance (cf . Carlyle, Frederick the Great, book ut.
chap. i.).
3. The i6ih Century.— In the Italian wars waged by Charles
686
ARTILLERY
VIII., Louis XII. and Frauds I. of France, artillery played a
most conspicuous part, both in siege and field warfare. Indeed,
cannon did excellent service in the field before hand firearms
attained any considerable importance. At Ravenna (151 2) and
Marignan (1515) field artillery did great execution, and at the
latter battle " the French artillery played a new and distinguished
part, not only by protecting the centre of the army from the
charges of the Swiss phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss,
but also by rapidly taking up such positions from time to time
. . . as enabled the guns to play upon the flanks of the attacking
columns" (Chesney, Observations on Firearms, 185a). In this
connexion it must, however, be observed that, when the arquebus
and other small arms became really efficient (about 1535), less
is heard of this small and handy field artillery, which had
hitherto been the only means of breaking up the heavy masses
of the hostile pikemen. We have seen that artillery was not
ignored in England; but, in view of the splendid and unique
efficiency of the archers, there was no great opportunity of
developing the new arm. In the time of Henry VIII., the
ordnance in use in the field consisted in the main of heavy
culverins and other guns of position, and of lighter field pieces,
termed sakers, falcons, &c It is to be noticed that already the
lightest pieces had disappeared, the smallest of the above being
a i-pounder.' In the earlier days of field artillery, the artillery
train was a miscellaneous congeries of pontoon, supply, baggage
and tool wagons, heavy ordnance and light guns in carts.
With the development of infantry fire the use of the last-
named weapons died out, and it is largely due to this fact that
" artillery " came to imply cumbrous and immobile guns of
position. Little is, therefore, heard of smart manoeuvring, such
as that at Marignan, during the latter part of the 16th century.
The guns now usually come into action in advance of the troops, -
but, from their want of mobility, could neither accompany a
farther advance nor protect a retreat, and they were generally
captured and recaptured with every changing phase of the fight.
Great progress was in the meanwhile made in the adaptation of
ordnance to the attack and defence of fortresses and, in particular,
vertical fire came into vogue. A great Turkish gun, carrying a
600-lb stone shot, was used in the siege of Constantinople,
apparently in this way, since Gibbon records that at the range
of a mile the shot buried itself a fathom deep in earth, a
fact which implies that a high angle of elevation was given.
In the celebrated siege of Malta in 1565 artillery played a
conspicuous part
4. The Thirty Years' War.-— Such, in its broadest outlines, is
the history of artillery work during the first three centuries of its
existence. Whilst the material had undergone a very consider-
able improvement, the organization remained almost unchanged,
and the tactical employment of guns had become restricted,
owing to their slowness and difficulty of movement on the
march and immobility in action. In wars of the type of the
War of Dutch Independence and the earlier part of the Thirty
Years' War, this heavy artillery naturally remained useful
enough, and the Wagenburg had given place to the musketry
initiated by the Spaniards at Bicocca and Pavia, which since
1525 had steadily improved and developed. It is not, therefore,
until the appearance of a captain whose secret of success was
vigour and mobility that the first serious attempt was made to
produce field artillery in the proper sense of the word, that is, a
gun of good power, and at the same time so mounted as to be
capable of rapid movement. The " carte with gonncs " had been,
as is the modern machine gun, a mechanical concentration of
musketry rather than a piece of artillery. Maurice of Nassau,
indeed, helped to develop the field gun, and the French had in-
vented the limber, but Gustavus Adolphus was the first to give
artillery its true position on the battlefield. At the first battle
of Brcitenfeld (1631) Gustavus had twelve heavy and forty-two
light guns engaged, as against Tilly's heavy 24 -pounders, which
were naturally far too cumbrous for field work. At the Lech
(1632) Gustavus seems to have obtained a local superiority
over his opponent owing to the handiness of his field artillery
even more than by its fire-power. At LUtzcn (1632) he had sixty
guns to Wallenstein's twenty-one. His field pieces were not the
celebrated " leather " guns (which were indeed a mere make-
shift used in Gustavus' Polish wars) but iron a-pounders. These
were distributed amongst the infantry units, and thus began the
system of " battalion guns " which survived in the armies of
Europe long after the conditions requiring it had vanished.
The object of thus dispersing the guns was doubtless to ensure
in the first place more certain co-operation between the two arms,
and in the second to exercise a military supervision over the
lighter and more useful field pieces which- it was as yet impossible
to exercise over the personnel of the heavy artillery.
5. Personnel and Classification. — More than 300 years 'after
the first employment of ordnance, the men working the guns and
the transport drivers were still civilians. The actual commander
of the artillery was indeed, both in Germany and in England.
usually a soldier, and Lennart Torstensson, the commander of
Gustavus' artillery, became a brilliant and successful general.
But the transport and the drivers were still hired, and even the
gunners were chiefly concerned for the safety of their pieces,
the latter being often the property, not of the king waging war,
but of some " master gunner " whose services he had secured,
and the latter's apprentices were usually in entire charge of the
material. These civilian " artists," as they were termed, owed
no more duty to the prince than any other employes, and erven
Gustavus, it would appear, made no great improvement in the
matter of the reorganisation of artillery trains. Soldiers as
drivers do not appear until 150 years later, and in the meanwhile
companies of " firelocks " and " fusiliers " (q.r) came into
existence, as much to prevent the gunners, and drivers from
running away as to protect them from the enemy. A further
cause of difficulties, in England at any rate, was the age of the
"gunners." In the reign of Elizabeth, some of the Tower
gunners were over ninety years of age. Complaints as to the
inefficiency of these men are frequent in the years preceding the
English Civil War. Gustavus, however, has the merit of being
the first to make the broad classification of artillery, as mobile
or non-mobile, which has since been almost universally in force.
In his time the 1 2-pounder was the heaviest gun classed as mobile,
and the " f eildpecce " par excellence was the o-pounder or demi-
culverin. After the death of Gustavus at Lfllxea (163a), his
principles came universally into practice, and amongst them
were those of the employment of field artillery.
6. The English Civil War.— Even in the English Civil War
(Great Rcbellion),in which artillery was hampered by the previous
neglect of a century, its field work was not often contemptible,
and on occasion the arm did excellent service. But in the cam-
paigns of this war, fought out by men whose most ardent desire
was to dedde the quarrel swiftly, the marching and mangeavring
were unusually rapid.. The consequence of this was that the
guns were sometimes either late in arriving, as at EdgehiU, or
absent altogether, as at Preston. The rile of guns was further
reduced by the fact that there were few fortresses to be reduced,
and country houses, however strong, rarely required to be
battered by a siege train. The New Model army usually sent for
siege guns only when they were needed for particular service.
On such occasions, indeed, the heavy ordnance did its work so
quickly and effectually that the assault often took place one or
two days after the guns had opened fire. Cromwdl in his sieges
made great use of shells, 11-inch and even larger mortars being
employed. The castle of Devizes, which had successfully re-
sisted the Parliamentary battering guns, succumbed at once
to vertical fire. It does not, however, appear certain that there
was any separation of field from siege ordnance, although the
Swedish system was followed in almost all military matters.
7. Artillery Progress, 1660-1740.— Cromwell's practice of
relegating heavy guns to the rear, except when a serious siege
operation was in view, and in very rapid movements leaving even
the field pieces far behind, was followed to some extent in the
campaigns of the age of Louis XIV. The number of ammunition
wagons, and above all of horses, required for each gun was four
or five times as great as that required even for a modern quick-
firer. In the days of Turenne heavy guns were much employed.
ARTILLERY
687
as the campaigns of the French were directed as a rule to the
methodical conquest of territory and fortified towns. Similarly,
Marlborough, working amidst the fortresses of the Netherlands
in 1 706, had over 100 pieces of artillery (of which 60 were mortars)
to a force of some 11,000 men, or about 9 pieces per 1000 men.
On the other hand, in his celebrated march to the Danube in
1704, he had but few guns, and the allied armies at Blenheim
brought into the field only 1 piece per rooo men. At Oudenarde
" from the rabidity of the march ... the battle was fought with
little aid from artillery on either side " (Coxe, Marlborough).
There was less need now than ever before for rapid manoeuvres
of mobile. artillery, since the pike finally disappeared from the
scene about 1700, and infantry fire-power had become the
decisive factor in battles. In the meantime, artillery was gradu-
ally ceasing to be the province of the skilled workman, and
assuming its position as an arm of the military service. In the
17th century, when armies were as a rule raised only " for the
war," and disbanded at the conclusion of hostilities, there had
been no very pressing need for the maintenance in peace of an
expensive personnel and material. Gunners therefore remained,
as civilians, outside the regular administration of the forces,
until the general adoption of the " standing army " principle in
the last years of the century (see Army). From this time steps
were taken, in all countries, to organize the artillery as a military
force. After various attempts had been made, the "Royal
Regiment of Artillery " came into existence in England in 17 16.
It is, however, stated that the English artillery did not " begin
to assume a military appearance until the Flanders campaigns "
of the War of the Austrian Succession. Even in the War of
American Independence a dispute arose as to whether a general
officer, whose regimental service had been in the Royal Artillery,
was entitled to command troops of all arms, and the artillery
drivers were not actually soldiers until 1793 at the earliest
French artillery officers received military rank only in 1732.
8. Artillery m the Wars of Frederick the Great, —By the time
of Frederick the Great's first wars, artillery had thus been
divided into (a) those guns moving with an army in the field,
and (b) those which were either wholly stationary or were called
upon only when a siege was expected. The personnel was gradu-
ally becoming more efficient and more amenable to discipline;
the transport arrangements, however, remained in a backward
state. Siege and fortress artillery was now organized and
employed in accordance with the system of the " formal attack "
as finally developed by Vauban. For details of this, as involving
the tactical procedure of artillery in the attack and defence of
fortresses, the reader is referred to Fortification and Siege-
olajt. We are concerned here more especially with the progress
of field artillery. The part played by this arm began now to
vary according to the circumstances of each action, and the
" moral " support of guns was calculated as a factor in the dis-
positions. In. the early Silesian wars, heavy or reserve guns
protected the deployment of the army and endeavoured to
prepare for the subsequent advance by firing upon the hostile
troops; the battalion guns remained close to the infantry,
accompanied its movements and assisted in the fire fight. Their
support was not without value, and the heavy guns often pro-
voked the enemy into a premature advance, as at Mollwitz.
But the infantry or the cavalry forced the decision. It has been
mentioned that with the final disappearance of the pike, about
1700, infantry fire-power ruled the battlefield. Throughout the
1 8th century, it will be found, when the infantry is equal to its
work the guns have only a subordinate part in the fighting of
pitched battles. At Kunersdorf (1759) the first dashing charge
of the Prussian grenadiers captured 7 a guns from the Russian
army. Later the total of captured ordnance reached 180, yet
the Russians, then almost wholly in flight, were not cut to pieces,
for only a few light guns of the Prussian army could get to the
front; their heavy pieces, though twelve horses were harnessed
to each, never came into action. This example will serve to
illustrate the difference between the artillery of 1760 and that
of fifty years later. According to Tempelhof, who was present,
Kunersdorf was the finest opportunity for field artillery that
he had ever seen. Yet the field artillery of the x8th century was,
if anything, more powerful than that of Napoleon's time; it
was the want of mobility alone which prevented the Prussians
from turning to good account an opportunity fully as favourable
as that of the German artillery at Sedan. That Frederick made
more use of his guns in the later campaigns of the Seven Years'
War is accounted for by the fact that his infantry and cavalry
were no longer capable of forcing a decision, and also by changes
in the general character of the operations. These were fought
in and about broken country and entrenched positions, and the
mobility of the other arms sank to that of the artillery. Thus
power came to the front again, and the heavier weapons regained
their former supremacy. In a bataitte rangte in the open field
the proportion of guns to men had been, in 1741, 2 per 1000.
At Leuthen (1757) heavy fortress guns were brought td the front
for a special purpose. At Kunersdorf the proportion was 4 and 5
per xooo men, with what degree of effectiveness we have seen.
In the later campaigns the Austrian artillery, which was, through-
out the Seven Years' War, the best in Europe, placed its numerous
and powerful ordnance (an " amphitheatre of 400 guns," as
Frederick said) in long lines of field works. The combination
of guns and obstacles was almost invariably too formidable to
offer the slightest chance of a successful assault. It was at this
stage that Frederick, in 1759, introduced horse artillery to keep
pace with the movements of cavalry, a proof, if proof were needed,
of the inability of the field artillery to manoeuvre. The field
howitzer, the weapon par excellence for the attack of field works,
has never perhaps been more extensively employed than it was
by the Prussians at that time. At Burkersdorf (1762) Frederick
placed 45 howitzers in one battery. In those days the mobile
artillery was always formed in groups or " batteries " of from
10 to 20 pieces. England too was certainly abreast of other
countries in the organization of the field artillery arm. About
the middle of the 18th century the guns in use consisted of 24-
pounders, 12-poundcrs, 6-pounders and 3-pounders. The guns
were divided into "brigades" of four, five and six guns re-
spectively, and began to be separated into "heavy" and "light"
brigades. Each field gun was drawn by four horses, the two
leaders being ridden by artillerymen, and had 100 rounds of
shot and 30 rounds of grape. The British artillery distinguished
itself in the latter part of the Seven Years' War. Foreign critics
praised its lightness, its elegance and the good quality of its
materials. At Marburg (1760) " the English artillery could
not have been better served; it followed the enemy with such
vivacity, and maintained its fire so well, that it was impossible
for the latter to re-form," says Tempelhof, the Prussian artillery
officer who records the lost opportunity of Kunersdorf. The
merits and the faults of the artillery had been made clear, and
nowhere was the lesson taken to heart more than in France,
where General Gribeauval, a French officer who had served in
the war with the Austrian artillery, initiated reforms which in
the end led to the artillery triumphs of the Napoleonic era.
While Frederick had endeavoured to employ, as profitably as
possible, the existing heavy equipments, Gribeauval sought
improvement in other directions.
9. GribcattvaVs Reforms. — At the commencement of the z8th
century, French artillery had made but little progress. The
•carriages and wagons were driven by wagoners on foot, and on
the field of battle the guns were dragged about by ropes or
remained stationary. Towards the middle of the century
some improvements were made. Field guns and carriages were
lightened, and the guns separated into brigades. Siege carriages
were introduced. From 1765 onwards, however, Gribeauval
strove to build up a complete system both of personnel and
materiel, creating a distinct materiel for field, siege, garrison
and coast artillery. Alive to the vital importance of mobility
for field artillery, he dismissed to other branches all pieces of
greater calibre than i2-pounders, and reduced the weight of
those retained. His reforms were resisted, and for a time
successfully; but in 1776 he became first inspector-general
of artillery, and was able to put his ideas into force. The field
artillery of the new system included 4-pounder regimental guns,
688
ARTILLERY
and for the reserve 8- and 12-pounders, with 6-inch howitzers.
For siege and garrison service Gribeauval adopted the 16- pounder
and 12-pounder guns, 8-inch howitzer and 10- inch mortar, 12-,
10- and 8-inch mortars being introduced in 1785.
The carriages were constructed on a uniform model and
technically improved. The horses were harnessed in pairs,
instead of in file as formerly, but the manner in which the teams
were driven remained much the same. The prolong (a sort of
tow-rope) was introduced, to unite the trail of the gun and the
limber in slow retiring movements. Siege carriages differed from
those of field artillery only in details. Gribeauval also introduced
new carriages for garrison and coast service. The great step
made was in a uniform construction being adopted for all
materiel, and in making the parts interchangeable so far as
possible. In 1765 the personnel of the French artillery was
reorganized. The corps or reserve artillery was organized in
divisions of eight guns. The battery or division was thus
made a unit, with guns, munitions and gunners complete, the
horses and drivers being added at a later date. Horse artillery
was introduced into the French army in 1791. The last step was
made in 1800, when the establishment of a driver corps of
soldiers put an end to the old system of horsing by contract.
10. British Artillery, 1793-181$. — Meanwhile the numbers of
the English artillery had increased to nearly 4000 men. For
some five centuries the word "artillery" in England meant
entirely garrison artillery; the field artillery only existed in
time of war. When war broke out, a train of artillery was
organized, consisting of a certain number of field (or siege) guns,
manned by garrison gunners; and when peace was proclaimed
the train was disbanded, the materiel being returned into store,
and the gunners reverting to some fort or stronghold. In 1793
the British artillery was anything but efficient. Guns were still
dispersed among the infantry, mobility had declined again since
the Seven Years' War, and the American war had been fought
out by the other arms. The drivers were mere carters on foot
with long whips, and the whole field equipment was scarcely
able to break from a foot-pace. Prior to the Peninsular War,
however, the exertions of an able officer, Major Spearman, had
done much to bring about improvement. Horse artillery had
been introduced in 1793, and the driver corps established in
1 704. Battalion guns were abolished in 1 803, and field " brigades
of six guns " were formed, horse artillery batteries being styled
" troops." Military drivers were introduced, and the horses
teamed in pairs. The drivers were mounted on the near horses,
the gunners either rode the off horses or were carried on the
limbers and wagons. The equipment was lightened, and a new
system of manoeuvres introduced. A troop of horse artillery and a
field brigade each had five guns and one howitzer. The " driver
corps," raised in 1794, was divided into troops, the addition
of one of which to a company of foot artillery converted it into a
field brigade. The horse artillery possessed both drivers and
horses, and required very limited assistance from the driver corps.
11. French Revolutionary Wars.— During the long wars of the
French Revolution and Empire the artillery of the field army by
degrees became field artillery as we know it to-day. The develop-
ment of musketry in the 16th century had taken the work of
preparing an assault out of the hands of the gunners. Per contra,
the decadence of infantry fire-power in the latter part of the
Seven Years' War had reinstated the artillery arm. A similar
decadence of the infantry arm was destined to produce, in 1807,
artillery predominance, but this time with an important differ-
ence, viz. mobility, and when mobility is thus achieved we have
the first modern field artillery. The new tactics of the French in
the Revolutionary wars, forced upon them by circumstances,
involved an almost complete abandonment of the fire-tactics of
Frederick's day, and the need for artillery was, from the first
fight at Valmy onwards, so obvious that its moral support was
demanded even in the outpost line of the new French armies.
St Cyr (Armies of the Rhine, p. 1 1 2) quotes a case in which " right
In the very farthest outpost line " the original 4-pounder guns
were replaced by 8-, 16- , and in the end by 24-pounders. The
cardinal principle of massing batteries was not, indeed, forgotten,
notwithstanding the weakness of raw levies. But though, as we
have seen, the materiel had already been greatly improved, and
the artillery was less affected by the Revolution than other arms
of the service, circumstances were against it, and we rarely find
examples of artillery work in the Revolutionary wars which show
any great improvement upon older methods. The field guns were
however, at last organized in batteries each complete in itself,
as mentioned above. The battalion gun disappeared; it was a
relic of days in which it was thought advisable, both for other
reasons and also because the short range of guns forbade aay
attempt at concentration of fire from several positions at one
target, to have some force of artillery at any point that might be
threatened. Though it was officially retained in the regulations
of the French army, " officers and men combined to reject it "
(Rouquerol, Q. P. Field A rlillery, p. 1 2 1) , and its last appearances,
in 1809 and in 1813, were due merely to an endeavour on the
part of Napoleon to give cohesion thereby to the battalions of
raw soldiers which then constituted his. army: But, with the
development of mobility, it was probably found that sufficient
guns could be taken to any threatened point, and no one had ever
denied the principle of massed batteries, although, in practice,
dispersion had been thought to be unavoidable.
12. Napoleon* s Artillery Tactics.— During the war the French
artillery steadily improved in manoeuvring power. But many
years elapsed before perfection was attained. Meanwhile, the
infantry, handled without regard to losses in every fight, had
in consequence deteriorated. The final production of the field
artillery battle, usually dated as from the battle of FriedUnd
(June 14, 1807), therefore saved the situation for the French.
Henceforward Napoleon's battles depend for their success on an
" artillery preparation," the like of which had never been seen.
Napoleon's own maxim illustrates the typical tactics of 1807-
1815. " When once the milte has begun," he says, " the man who
is clever enough to bring up an unexpected force of artillery,
without the enemy knowing it, is sure to carry the day." The
guns no longer "prepared" the infantry advance by slowly
disintegrating the hostile forces. Still less was it their business
merely to cover a deployment. On the contrary, they now wesit
in to the closest ranges and, by actually annihilating a portion of
the enemy's line with case-shot fire, " covered " the assault so
effectively that columns of cavalry and infantry reached the gap
thus created without striking a blow. It is unnecessary to give
examples. Every one of Napoleon's later battles illustrates the
principle. The most famous case is that of the great battery of
100 guns at Wagram (q.v.) which preceded the final attack of the
centre. When Napoleon at Leipzig saw the allied guns forming
up in long lines to prepare the assault, he exclaimed, " At last
they have learned something." This "case-shot preparation,"
of course, involved a high degree of efficiency in manoeuvre, as
the guns had to gallop forward far in front of the infantry. The
want of this quality had retarded the development of field
artillery for 300 years, during which it had only been important
relatively to the occasional inferiority of other troops. After
Napoleon's time the art of tactics became the art of combining
the three arms.
13. Artillery, 1 815-1865.— Henceforward, therefore, the his-
tory of artillery becomes the history of its technical effectiveness,
particularly in relation to infantry fire, and of improvements
or modifications in the method of putting well-recognized
principles into action. Infantry fire, however, being more
variable in its effectiveness than that of artillery, the period
1815-1870 saw many changes in the relations of the two arms.
In the time of Napoleon, infantry fire never equalled that of the
Seven Years' War, and after the period of the great wars the
musket was less and less effectively used. Economy was,
however, practised to excess in every army of Europe during the
period 181 5-1850, and even if there had been great battles at
this time, the artillery, which was maintained on a minimum
strength of guns, men and horses, would not have repeated the
exploits of Senarmont and Drouot in the Napoleonic wars. The
principle was well understood, but under such conditions the
practice was impossible. It was at this stage* that the general
ARTILLERY
Plate 1.
>
•2
.a
b
Plate II.
ARTILLERY
Photo, Gale 6* Polden.
Breech Loading Field Battery (15-Pr. B. L.).
Photo, Gale & Polden.
Quick- Firing Horse Artillery (Royal Horse Artillery, 13-Pr. Q. F.).
Photo, Gale br Polden.
Q. F. Field Artillery (18-Pr. Q. F., R. F. A.).
Photo, Topical Press.
French (75-Mm. Q. F.) Field Artillery Manoeuvring.
ARTILLERY
689
Introduetkmof.therifledjmusket put an end, once for all, to the
artillery tactics o! the smooth-bore days. Infantry, armed "with a
far-ranging rifle, as in the American Civil War, kept the guns
beyond case-shot range, compelling them to use only round shot
or common shelL In that war, therefore, attacking infantry met,
on reaching dose quarters, not regiments already broken by a
feu ttenfer, but the full force of the defenders',, artillery and
infantry, both arms fresh and unshaken, and the full volume of
their case shot and musketry • At Fredericksburg the Federal
infantry attacked, - unsupported by a single field piece; at
Gettysburg the Federal artillery general Hunt was able to
reserve his ammunition to meet Lee's assault, although the
infantry of his own side was meanwhile subjected to the fire of 137
Confederate guns. Thus, in both these cases the assault became
one of infantry against unshaken infantry and artillery. On
many occasions, indeed, the batteries on either side went into
close ranges, .as the traditions of the old United States army
dictated, but their losses were then totally out of proportion to
their effectiveness. Indeed, the increased range at which battles
were now fought, and the ineffectiveness of the projectiles
necessarily used by the artillery at these ranges, so far neutral-
ized even rifled guns that artillery generals could speak of " idle
cannonades " as the " besetting sin " of some commanders.
14. The Franco-German War, 1870-71.— In the next great
war, that of 1866 (Bohemia), guns were present on both sides in
great numbers, the average for both aides being three guns per
1000 men. Artillery, however, played but a small part in the
Prussian attacks, this being due to the inadequate training then
afforded, and also to the mixture of rifled guns and smooth-bores
in their armament- In Prussia,-, however, the exertions of
General v. Hmdersin, the improvement of the materiel, and above
all the better tactical training of the batteries, were rewarded
four years later by success on the battlefield almost as decisive
as Napoleon's. In 1870 the French artillery was invariably
defeated by that of the Germans, who were then free to turn
their attention to the hostile infantry. . At first, indeed, the
German infantry was too impatient to wait until the victorious
artillery had prepared the way for them by disintegrating the
opposing line of riflemen. Thus the attack of the Prussian
Guards at St Privat (August x8, 1870) melted away before the
unbroken fire-power of the French, as .had that of the Federals
at Fredericksburg and that of the Confederates at Gettysburg.
But such experiences taught the German infantry commanders
the necessity of patience, and at Sedan the French army was
enveloped by the fire of nearly 600 guns, which did their work
so thoroughly that the Germans annihilated the Imperial army
at the cost of only 5 % of casualties.
x 5. Results of the (Far.— The tactical lessons of the war, so far
as field artillery is concerned, may be briefly summarized as (a)
employment of great masses of guns; (b) forward position of guns
in the order of march, in order to bring them into action as
quickly as possible; (c) the so-called " artillery duel," in which
the assailant subdues the enemy's artillery fire; and (d) when this
is achieved, and not before, the thorough preparation of all
infantry attacks by artillery bombardment This theory of
field artillery action has not, even with the almost revolutionary
improvements of the present period, entirely lost its value, and
it may be studied in detail in the well-known work of von Schell,
Takiik der Fddartillerie (1877), later translated into English by
Major-General Sir A. £. Turner {Tactics of Field Artillery, 1000).
In one important matter, however, the precepts of Schell and his
contemporaries no longer hold good. " It is absolutely necessary
that the object- of the infantry's attack should be cannonaded
before it advances. To accomplish this, sufficient time should
be given to the artillery, and on no account should the infantry
be ordered to advance until the fire of the guns has produced the
desired effect." This, the direct outcome of the slaughter at St
Privat, represents the best possibilities of breechloading guns
with common shell— no more than a slow disintegration of the
enemy's power of resistance by a thorough and lengthy " artillery
preparation." ' Against troops sheltered behind works (as in the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78) the common shell usually failed
to give satisfactory results, if for. no other reason, because the
" preparation " consumed an inordinate time, and in any case
the hostile artillery had first of all to be subdued in the artillery
duel.
16. Quick-firing Field Guns.— In 1891, a work by General
Willc of the German army (The Field Gun of the Future) and in
1892 another by Colonel. Langlois' of the French. service (Field
Artillery with the other Arms) foreshadowed many revolutionary
changes in matiriel and tactics which have now taken place.
The new ideas spread rapidly, and the quick-firing gun came by
degrees to be used in every army. The original designs have
been greatly improved upon (see Ordnance: Field artillery
equipments), but the principles of these designs have not under-
gone serious modification. These arc, briefly, the mechanical
absorption of the recoil, by means of brakes or buffers, and the
development of " time shrapnel " as the projectile of field
artillery. The absorption of recoil of itself permits of a higher
rate of fire, since the gun does not require to be run up and relaid
after every shot Formerly such an advantage was illusory
(since aim could not be taken through the thick bank of smoke
produced by rapid fire), but the introduction of smokeless
powder removed this objection. Artillerists, no longer handi-
capped, at once turned their attention to the increase of the rate
of fire. At the same time a shield was applied to the gun, for the
protection of the detachment. This advantage is solely the
result of the non-recoiling carriage. The gunners had formerly
to stand dear of the recoiling gun, and a shield was therefore of
but slight value.
17. Time Shrapnel. — The power of modern artillery owes even
more to the improvement of the projectile than to that of the
gun (see Ammunition). The French, always in the forefront of
artillery progress, were the first nation to realize the new signifi-
cance of the time-fuze and the shrapnel shell. These had been
in existence for many years; to the British army are due both the
invention and the development of the shrapnel, which made its
first appearance in European warfare at Vimeira in 1808. But,
up to the introduction of rifled pieces, the Napoleonic case-shot
attack was universally and justly considered the best method of
fighting, and in the transition stage of the matiriel many soldiers
continued to put faith in the old method,— hence the Prussian
artillery in 1866 had many smooth-bore batteries in the field,-*
and between i860 and 1870 gunners, now convinced of the
superiority of the new equipments, undoubtedly sought to turn
to account the minute accuracy of the rifled weapons in un-
necessarily fine shooting. Thus, in 1870 the French time-fuze
was only graduated for two ranges, and the Germans used
percussion fuzes only. But this phase has passed, and General
Langlois has summarized the tactics of the newest field artillery
in one phrase: " It results in transferring to 3000 yds. the point-
blank and case-shot fire of the smooth-bore." The meaning of
this "will be discussed later; here it will be sufficient to say that U
is claimed for the modern gun and the modern shell that the
Napoleonic method 1 of annihilating by a rain of bullets has been
revived, with the distinction that the shell, and not the gun,
fires the bullets close up to the enemy. In the Boer War, Pieter's
Hill furnished a notable example of this " covering," as distinct
from " preparation," of an assault by artillery fire.
xS. Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery.— Amongst
other results of this war was a recrudescence of the idea of
" dispersion." This will be noticed later; the more material
result of the Boer War, and of the generally increasing specializa-
tion in the varidus functions of the artillery arm, has been the
reintroduction of heavy ordnance into field armies. The field
howitzer reappeared some time before the outbreak of that war,
and the British howitzers had illustrated their shell-power in the
Sudan campaign of 1898. During the latter part of the 19th
century, siege and fortress artillery underwent a development
hardly leas remarkable than that of field artillery in the same
time. Rifled guns, " long " and " short " for direct and curved
fire, formed the siege artillery of the Germans in x 870-71, and
1 Napoleon's maxim, quoted above, reappears in spirit in the
British F. A. Training 01 1906 (p. 225).
to
6go
ARTILLERY
with the redaction of the old-fashioned fortresses. of France
began a new era in siegecraft (see Fortotcation and Siege-
craft). At the present time howitzers 1 (B.L. rifled) are the
principal siege weapons, while heavy direct-fire guns (see
Ordnance passim) still retain a part of the work formerly
assigned to the artillery of the attack. For an account of a siege
with modern artillery see Macalik and L&ngcr, Kampf urn eine
Festung, which describes an imaginary siege of Koniggr&tz. On
the whole, it may be said that modern artillery has caused a
revolution in methods of fortification and siegecraft, which is
little less far-reaching than the original change from the
trtbuchet to the bombard.
Organization
19. Field Artillery Organization. — A battery of field artillery
comprises three elements, viz. matiriel, — guns, carriages,
ammunition and stores; personnel,— officers, non-commissioned
officers, gunners, drivers and artificers; and transport, — almost
invariably horses, though other animals, and also motor and
mechanical transport, arc used under special circumstances. As
for the matiriel, the guns used by field artillery in almost all
countries are quick-firers, throwing shells of 13 to 18 pounds;
details of these will be found in the article Ordnance. The
number of guns in a battery varies in different countries between
four arid eight; by far the most usual number is six. With the
introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small
batteries (of four guns) has become very pronounced, the ruling
motives being (a) better control of fire in action, and (b) more
horses available to draw the increased number of ammunition
wagons required. " Mixed " batteries of guns and howitzers
were formerly employed on occasion, and were supposed to be
adapted to every kind of work. However, the difference between
the gun and the howitzer was so great that at all times one part of
the armament was idle, while the general increase in the artillery
arm has permitted batteries and brigades of howitzers to be
formed, separately, as required. Machine guns (q.v,) are not
treated in Great Britain as being artillery weapons, though abroad
they are often organized in batteries. During, and subsequent
to the Boer War, heavier machine guns, called pompoms, came
into use. The rocket (q.v.), formerly a common weapon of the
artillery, is now used, if at all, only for mountain and forest
warfare against savages.
20. Ammunition. — The vehicles of a battery include (besides
guns and Umbers) ammunition wagons, store and provision carts
or wagons and forage wagons. On the amount of ammunition
that should be carried with a field battery there was formerly a
considerable diversity of opinion. The greater the amount a
battery carries with it, the more independent it is; on the other
hand, every additional wagon makes the battery more cumbrous
and, by lengthening out the column, keeps back the combatant
troops marching in rear. But since the introduction of the Q.F.
gun it has been universally recognized that the gun must have
a very liberal supply of ammunition present with it in action, and
the old standard allowance of one wagon per gun has been
increased to that of two and even three. Formerly batteries
were further hampered by having to carry the reserve of small-
arm ammunition for infantry and cavalry. But the greater
distances of modern warfare accentuate the difficulties of such a
system, and the reserve ammunition for all arms is now carried in
special " ammunition columns " (see Ammunition), the personnel
and transport of which is furnished by the artillery.
si. Interior Economy. — The organization and interior economy
of a battery is much the same in all field artillery. In England the
command is held by a major, the second in command is a captain.
The battery is divided into three " sections " of two guns each,
each under a subaltern officer, who is responsible for everything
connected with his section — men, horses, guns, carriages, ammuni-
tion and stores. Each section again consists of two sub-sections,
each comprising one gun and its wagons, men and horses, and at
1 The old wnooth-bore mortar for high-angle fire has of course
disappeared, but the name " mortar is still applied in some
countries to short rifled howitzer*.
the head of each is the " No; x" of the gun detachment— usaiDy
a sergeant — who is immediately responsible to the section
commander for his sub-section.
The No. x rides with the gun, there is also another mourned
non-commissioned officer who rides with the first wagon, ami t*«
gunners arc seated on the gun-carriage, wagon and limbers. The
increased number of wagons now accompanying the gun Us,
however, given more seating accommodation to the detachment,
and this distribution has in some cases been altered. The thm
drivers ride the near horses of their respective pairs, each pa
and each wagon being drawn by six horses. On the march, th
gun is attached to the limber, a two-wheeled carriage drawn by
the gun team; the wagon consists likewise of a " body " and a
limber. A battery has also a number of non-combatant carriage,
such as forge and baggage wagons. In addition to the guar -n
and drivers, there are men specially trained in iange-tu^
signalling, &c, in all batteries.
22. Special Natures of Field Artillery.— Horse Artillery dif m
from field in that the whole gun detachment is mounted, and tie
gun and wagon therefore are freed from the load of men and thcr
equipment The organization of a battery of horse artillery
differs but slightly from that of a field battery; it is somewlut
stronger in rank and file, as horse-holders have to be provided ior
the gunners in action. Horse artillery is often lightened, more-
over, by sacrificing power (see Oxdnance). The essential feature
of Mountain Artillery in general is the carrying of the whote
equipment on the backs of mules or other animals. The total
weight is usually distributed in four or five mule-loads. For
action the loads are lifted off the saddles and " assembled," and
the time required to do this is, in well-trained batteries, oniyoae
minute. For the technical questions connected with the gun a»i
its carriage, see Ordnance. The weight of a shell in a mountain
gun rarely exceeds 12 lb., and is usually less. In most armes
the field howitzer has, after an eclipse of many yean, reaswnr J
its place. The weapons used are B.L. or Q.F. howitzers on nild
carriages; the calibre varies from about 4 to 5 in. In Great
Britain the field howitzer batteries are organized as, and lorn
part of, the Royal Field Artillery, two batteries of six howitteo
each forming a brigade.
2$. Heavy Ordnance.— Heavy Field Artillery, officially defined
as "all artillery equipped with mobile guns of 4-in. calibre and
upwards," is usually composed, in Great Britain, of s-in. a
4'7-in. Q.F. guns on field carriages. 6-in. Q.F. guns have abo
been used. A battery (4 guns) is attached to the divisional
artillery of each division, a company of the Royal Garrison
Artillery furnishing the personnel. The four guns are divided
into two sections, each section under an officer and each sub-
section under a non-commissioned officer, as in the horse »j^
field batteries. Siege and garrison, artillery have not mw-lr
the complete and permanent organization that distinguishes fcti i
artillery. For siege trains the matiriel is usually kept in store.
and the personnel and transport are supplied from other sourer*
according to requirement. In garrison artillery, the f>&*
mounted in fortresses and batteries, or stored in arsenals to
the purpose, furnish the matiriel, and the companies of garrison
artillery the personnel. In Great Britain, the Royal Gsrrisoa
Artillery finds the mountain batteries and the heavy field
artillery in addition to its own units. The siege trains are, **
has been said, organized ad hoe on each particular occasloo
(see Fortotcation and Siegecrafi). In Great Britain, d*
guns and howitzers manned by the R.G.A. would be 6-in. and
8-in. howitzers, 4'7-in. and 6-in. gun*} and still heavier howiueis.
as well as the field and heavy batteries belonging to the division*
making the siege.
24. Higher Organization of Artillery.— The higher units, »
almost every country except Great Britain, are the regim"'*
and, sometimes, the brigade of two or more regiments. Thee
units are distributed to army corps, divisions ano> districts.
in the same way as units of other arms (see Aurr). " In Grea<
Britain the Royal Regiment of Artillery still comprises thtwboie
personnel of the arm, being divided into the Royal Bone, ftW*j
Field and Royal Garrison Artillery; to each branch Sptatl
ARTILLERY
691
Reserve end Territorial artillery are affiliated. Over mud
above the military command of these higher units, provision is
usually made for technical control of the maUrid, and a variety
of training and experimental establishments, such as schools
of gunnery, are maintained in all countries. The more special
unit of organization in mobile artillery is the brigade, formerly
called brigade-division (German, Abtetiung; French grouft).
The brigade is in Great Britain the administrative and tactical
unit. Mountain artillery is not organised in brigades in the
British empire. The unit consists, in the case of guns, of three
batteries (18 guns, heavy artillery 12), in the case of field
howitzers of two batteries (12 howitzers), and in the horse
artillery of two batteries (12 guns), and is commanded by a
lieutenant-colonel. To each brigade is allotted an ammunition
column. The necessity for such a grouping of batteries will be
apparent if the reader notes that 54 field guns, xa howitzers
and 4 heavy field guns form the artillery of a single British
division of about 15,000 combatants.
25. Grouping of the Artillery .—The "corps artillery" (formerly
the" reserve artillery ") now consists only of the howitzer and
lieavy brigades, with a brigade of horse artillery. The latter is
held at the disposal of the corps commander for the swift reinforce-
ment of a threatened point; the howitzers and the heavy guns
have, of course, functions widely different from those of the
mass of guns. As the field artillery is required to come into
action at the earliest possible moment, it has now been dis-
tributed amongst the Infantry divisions, and marches almost
at the head of the various combatant columns, instead of being
relegated perhaps to the tail of the centre column. The redis-
tribution of the British army (1907) on a divisional basis is a
remarkable example of this; even the special natures of artillery
(except horse artillery) are distributed amongst the divisions.
In Germany two "regiments" (each of 2 Abteilungen»6
batteries) form a brigade, under an artillery general in each
division who thus disposes of 7a field guns, and the howitzers,
with such horse artillery batteries as remain over after the
cavalry has been supplied, still form a corps or reserve artillery.
In 1903 the French, after long hesitation, assigned the whole
of the field artillery to the various divisions, but later (for reasons
stated in the article Tactics) arranged to reconstitute the old*
fashioned corps artillery in war. (See also Abjcy, f 49).
Tacticax Wokx
26. General Characteristics of Field Arttikry Action.— The duty
of field artillery in action is to fire with the greatest effect on the
target which is for the moment of the greatest tactical importance.
This definition of field artillery tactics brings the student at once
to questions of combined tactics, for which consult the article
Tactics. The purpose of the present article is to indicate the
methods employed by the gunners to give effect to their fire at
the targets mentioned. For this purpose the artillery has at
its disposal two types of projectile, common (or rather, high
explosive) shell and shrapnel, and two fuzes, "time" and
" percussion " (see Ammunition). The actual process of coming
into action may be described in afew words. The gun is, at or
near its position in action, " unlimbered " and the gun limber
and team sent back under cover. Ammunition for the gun
is first taken from the wagon that accompanies it, as it is very
desirable to keep the limbers full as long as possible, in case of
emergencies such as that of a temporary separation from the
wagon. limber supply is, however, allowed in certain circum-
stances. The wagon is now placed as a rule by the side of the
gun, an arrangement which immensely simplifies the supply
of ammunition, this being done under cover of the armour on
the wagon and of the gun-shield and also without fatigue to the
men. The older method of placing the wagon at some distance
behind the gun is still occasionally used, especially in the case of
unshielded equipments. No horses are allowed, in any case,
to be actually with the line of guns. According to the British
Field Artillery Training of 1006, a battery in action would be
thus distributed: first, the " fighting battery " consisting of the
six guns, each with its wagon alongside, and the limbers of the
two flank guns; then, under cover in rear, the " first line of
wagons" comprising the teams of the fighting battery, the
four remaining gun limbers, and six more wagons. The
non-combatant vehicles form the " second line of wagons."
27. Occupation of a Position*— This depends primarily upon
considerations of tactics, for the accurate co-operation of the
guns is the first essential to success in the general task. In
details, however, the choice of position varies to some extent
with the nature of the equipment: for instance, an elevated
position is better adapted than a low one for high velocity guns
firing over the heads of their own infantry, and again, the
" spade " with which nearly all equipments are furnished (see
Ordnance) should have soil in which it can find a hold. Cover
for the gun and its detachment cannot well be obtained from the
configuration of the ground, because, if the gun can shoot over
the covering mass of earth, the hostile shells can of course do
likewise. Sufficient protection is given by the shield, and thus
" cover " for field-guns simply means concealment. Cover for
the " first line of wagons " is, however, a very serious considera-
tion. As to concealment, it is stated that " the broad white
flash from a gun firing smokeless powder is visible " to an enemy
" unless the muzzle is at least xo ft. below the covering crest "
(Bethcll, If offer* Gnnsand Gunnery, 1907, p. 147). Concealment
therefore, means only the skilful use of ground in such a way as
to make the enemy's ranging difficult, ' This frequently involves
the use of retired positions, on reverse slopes, in low ground, &c,
and in all modern artillery the greatest stress is laid on practice
in firing by indirect means. Controversy has/however, arisen as
to whether inability to see the foreground is not a drawback so
serious that direct fire from a crest position, in spite of its
exposure, must be taken as the normal method. The latter is
of course immensely facilitated by the introduction of the shield.
A great advantage of retired positions is that, provided unity of
direction is kept, an overwhelming artillery surprise (see F. A.
Training, 1906, p. 225) is carried out more easily than from a
visible position. The extent of front of a battery in action is
governed by the rule that no two gun detachments should be
exposed to being hit by the bullets of one shell, and also by the
necessity of having as many guns as possible at work. These
two conditions are met by the adoption of a 20-yards interval
between the muzzles of the guns. . At the present time the gun
and its wagon are placed as. close together as possible, to obtain
the full advantage of the armoured equipment. The shield,
behind which the detachments remain at all times covered from
rifle (except at very short range) and shrapnel bullets, 1 enables
the artillery commander to handle his batteries far more boldly
than formerly was the case. General Langlois says " the shield-
protected carriage is the corollary to the quick-firing gun."
Armour on the wagon, enabling ammunition supply as well as
the service of the gun, to be carried on under cover, soon followed
the introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight
and consequently increased difficulty of " man-handling " the
equipment is held to be of far less importance than the advantages
obtained by the use of armour.
28. Laying. — " Elevation " may be defined as the vertical
inclination of the gun, " direction •" as the horizontal inclination
to the right or left, necessary to direct the path of the projectile
to the object aimed at. " Laying " the gun, in the case of most
modern equipments, is divided, by means of the device called
the independent line of sight (see Ordnance), into two processes,
performed simultaneously by different men, the adjustment of
the sights and that of the gun. The first is the act of finding
the " line of sight," or line joining the sights and the point aimed
at; for this the equipment has to be " traversed " right or left
so as to point in the proper direction, and also adjusted in the
vertical plane. The simplest form of laying for direction, or
" line," is called the " direct " method. If the point aimed at is
the target, and it can be seen by the layer, he has merely to look
over the " open " sights. But the point aimed at is rarely the
target itself. In war, the target, even if visible, is often indistinct,
1 Though not of course against' the direct impact of shrapnel or
H»E> shells.
692
ARTILLERY
and in this case, as also when the guns are under cover or engaging
a target under cover, an " aiming point " or "auxiliary mark/'
a conspicuous point quite apart and distinct from the target, has
to be employed (" indirect " method). In the Russo-Japanese
War the sun was sometimes used as an aiming point. When the
guns are behind cover and the foreground cannot be seen, an
artificial aiming point is often made by placing a line of " aiming
posts " in the ground. If an aiming point can be found which is
in line with the target, as would be the case when aiming posts
are laid out, the laying is simple, but it is as often as not out of
the line. Finding the "line " in this case involves the calculation,
from a distant observing point, of the angle at which the guns
must be laid in order that, when the sights are directed upon
the aiming point, the shell will strike the target. It is further
.necessary to find the " angle of sight " or inclination of the line
of sight to the horizontal plane. If aim be taken over the open
sights at the target, the line of sight naturally passes through
the target, but in any other case it may be above or below it
Then the point where the projectile will meet the line of sight,
which should coincide with the target, is beyond it if the line of
sight is below or angle of sight is too small, and short of it if the
line of sight is too high — that is, range and fuze will be wrong.
The process of indirect laying for elevation therefore is, first, the
measurement of the angle of sight, and secondly, the setting of
the sights to that angle by means of a clinometer; this is called
clinometer laying. In all cases the actual elevation of the gun
to enable the shell to strike the target is a purely mechanical
adjustment, performed independently; the gun is moved
relatively to the sights, which have been previously set as
described. Frequently the battery commander directs the guns
from a point at some distance, communication being maintained
by signallers or by field telephone. This is the normal procedure
when the guns are firing from cover. Instruments of precision
and careful calculations are, of course, required to fight a battery
in this manner, many allowances having to be made for the
differences in height, distance and angle between the position. of
the battery commander and that of the guns.
29. Ranging 1 (except on the French system alluded to below)
is, first, finding the range (i.e. elevation required), and secondly,
correcting the standard length of fuze for that range in accordance
with the circumstances of each case. To find the elevation
required, it is necessary to observe the bursts of shells " on graze "
with reference to the target. The battery commander orders two
elevations differing by 300 yds., e.g. " 2500, 2800," and tells off a
" ranging section " of two guns. These proceed to fire percus-
sion shrapnel at the two different elevations, in order to obtain
bursts "over" (+) and "short" (— ). When it is certain that
this " long bracket " is obtained, the " 100 yds. bracket " is
found, the elevations in the given case being, perhaps, 2600 and
2700 yds. " Verifying " rounds are then fired, to make certain
of the 100 yds. bracket. The old " short bracket " (50 yds.) is
not now required except at standing targets. Circumstances
may, of course, shorten the process ; for instance, a hit upon the
target itself could be " verified " at once. The determination of
.the fuze (by time shrapnel) follows. The fuze has a standard
length for the ascertained range, but the proper correction of this
standard length to suit the atmospheric conditions has to be
made. The commander has therefore already given out a series
of corrector* lengths, his object being to secure bursts both in air
1 Finding the line is alio an integral part of ranging. When an
aiming point is used, the angle at which the guns must be laid
with reference to it is calculated and given out by the battery
commander. The modern goniometric sight permits of a wide-angle
(in England 180 ° right or left) being given. '' Deflection " is a small
angular correction applied to individual guns.
"The " corrector ' is an adjustment on the sights of the gun used
to determine the correct fuze. In the British Q.F. equipment, a
graduated dial or drum shows the elevation of the gun above the
lino of sight. The fuse lengths are marked on a movable scale
opposite the range graduations to which they apply, and the " cor-
rector " moves this fuze scale so as to bring different fuze lengths
opposite the range graduation. For example, a certain corrector
setting gives 11 } on the fuze scale opposite 4000 yds. on the range
scale, and if the shells set to 11) burst too high, a new corrector
setting as taken, the (use length 12 is now opposite to the 4000 range
and on graze. When he is finally satisfied he opens fire " far
effect"
30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted
from Field Artillery Training, 1906, is given below.
Battery commander gives target, Ac, and orders: * Right
section ranging section; remainder corrector 150 increase 10,
4400-4700," for the long bracket.
No. 1 gun fires, elevation 4400 yds., P.S., round observed-
No. 2 , 4700 „ „ „ „ +
B.C. orders "4SOO-46oa"
No. x gun fires, elevation 4500 yds., P.S., round observed -
No. 2 „ „ „ 4600 „ „ ... ., +
The 100 yds. bracket appears to be 4500-4600. B.C. order?:
" Remainder 4500 time shrapnel," and gives the ranging sect**
4500-4600 to ,T verify." Guns 3, 4, 5, 6 set fuzes for 4500 with
correctors 150, 160, 170, 180.
No. 1 gun fires, elevation.4500 yds., P.S., round observed -
No. 2 „ „ \ ,, 4600 „ „ „ „ +
B.C. orders: Remainder 4500, one round gun fire, 3 seconds.
No. 3 elevation 4500 yds. T. S. corrector 150 an*
No~4 „ „ „ „ „ 160 air
No. 5 » „ n „ ,» 170 graze
No. 6 „ , iSo „
B.C. selects corrector 160 and goes to " section fire.**
The battery now begins to fire for effect."
No. 1 elevation 4500 yds. T.S. corrector' 160 air
followed by Nos. 5, 2, 4 and 6.
There is another method of ranging, viz. with time shrapod
only. In this the principle- is that several shells, fired with the
same corrector setting, but at different elevations, wiH burst is
air at different points along one line. Bunts high in the sir
cannot be judged, and itis-therefore necessary to bring down the
line of bursts to the target, so that the bursts in air appear
directly in front or directly in rear of it. Rounds are therefore
fired (in pairs owing to possible imperfections in the fuzes) to
ascertain the corrector which gives the best line of observation.
This found, the target is bracketed by bursts low in the air
observed -f and —, as in the ordinary method with percuaka
shrapnel
The operations of finding the " line of fire " and the' proper
elevation may be combined, as the shells in ranging can be made
to " bracket " for direction as well as for elevation. The line as
be changed towards a new target in any kind of direct sad
indirect laying, in the latter case by observing the angle made
with it by the original line of fire and giving deflection to the guns
accordingly. Further, the fire of several dispersed batteries may
be concentrated, distributed, or " switched " from one target to
another on a wide front, at the will of the commander.
31. Observation of Fire, on the accuracy of which depends
the success of ranging, may be done either by the battery com-
mander himself or by a special "observing " party. In either case
the shooting is carefully observed throughout, and correction
ordered at any time, whether during the process of ranging or
during fire for effect. The difficulties of observation vary
considerably with the ground, &c, for instance, the light may be
so bad that the target can hardly be seen, or again, if there be a
hollow in front of the target, a shell may burst in it so far brio*
that the smoke appears thin, the round being then judged
" over " instead of " short" On the other hand, a hollow
behind the target may cause a round to be lost altogether.
Ranging with time shrapnel has the merit of avoiding most of
these " traps." The " French system of fire discipline," referred
to below, has this method as the usual procedure.
32. Fire.— Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British
service as: "distant," 6000 to 4500 yds.; "long," 45°° M
3500; "effective," 3500 to aooo; and "decisive," 2000 and
graduation, and this length gives bursts doser up and lower, to
the German service a corrector (Aufsaltschieber) alters the real
elevation given to the gun, so that while throughout the battery a"
guns have the same (nominal or ordered) elevation shown on t«
sights, the real elevations of individual guns vary according to the
different corrector settings. Thus bursts at different height* ana
distances from the target are obtained by shifting the trajectory"
the shell. The fuse, being set for the nominal elevation common to
all the guns, burns for the same time in each case, and thus the bum
will be lower and closer to the target with a less (real) efcvauoa,
and higher and farther from it with a greater.
ARTILLERY
6 93
under. The actual methods of fire employed are matters of
detail; it will be sufficient to say that " section fire," in which
the two guns of a section are fired alternately at a named interval,
usually 30 seconds, and " rapid fire," in which two, three or more
rounds as ordered are fired by each gun as quickly as possible,
arc the norma! methods. Each battery usually engages a portion
of the objective equal in length to its own front, owing to the
spread of the cone of shrapnel bullets (see below). The fire is, of
course, almost always frontal, though enfilade and oblique fire,
when opportunities occur for their employment, are more deadly
tharrever, because of the depth of the cone. As for the general
conduct of an artillery action, accurate fire for effect, at a medium
rate, is used in most armies, but in the French and, since 1006, in
the British services, a new method has arisen, in consequence of
the introduction of the modern quick-firer and the perfection of
the time shrapnel. The French battery (1000 Q.F. equipment)
consists of four guns and twelve wagons. The gun is shielded, as
also are the wagons; the high velocity and flat trajectory give a
maximum depth to the cone of sfirapnel bullets. In the hope of
obtaining a rapid and overwhelming fire, the French artillery
ranges only for a long bracket, and once this bracket is found, the
ground within its limits is swept from end to end in a burst of
rapid fire. This is termed a rafale (squall or gust), and techni-
cally signifies " a series of eight rounds per gun, each two rounds
being laid with 100 metres more elevation than the last pair, the
whole fired off as rapidly as possible." The cone of time shrapnel
being assumed as 300 yds. (or metres), it is clear that four pairs of
rounds, bursting, say, at 1000, 1100, 1200 and 1300 yds. (adding,
lor the last, 300 yds. for its forward effect), sweep the whole
ground between 1000 and 1600 yds. from the guns. The
maximum depth would, of course, be obtained with four eleva-
tions differing by the depth of the cone; in such a case the space
from 1000 to 7 too yds. would be covered, though much less
effectively, since the same number of bullets are distributed over
a larger area. On the other hand, the rafale, at a minimum,
covers 300 yds., all the gups in this case being laid at the same
elevation throughout. Here the maximum number of bullets is
obtained for every square yard attacked. Between these extremes,
a skilful artillery officer can vary the rafale to the needs of each
several case almost indefinitely. " Sweeping " fire is a series of
three rounds per gun, one in the original line, one to the right and
one to the left of it; this is significantly called " mowing " (tir
fauchant) . A further refinement in both services is the combined
M search and sweep." Forty-eight rounds, constituting in the
French army a series of this last kind, can, it is said, be fired in
1 minute and 15 seconds, without setting fuzes beforehand, to
cover an area of 600 X 200 metres. The result of such a series,
worked out mathematically, is that 19 % of all men and 75 % of
all horses, in the area and not under cover, should be hit by
separate bullets (Bethell, Modem Guns and Gunnery, 1007).
Even allowing a liberal deduction for imperfect distribution of
bullets, we may feel certain that nothing but shielded guns could
live long in the fire-swept zone. This is, of course, a rate of fire
which could not be kept up for any length of time by the same
battery. A French battery, firing at the maximum rate, would
expend every available round in 13 minutes.
.33- Projectiles Employed.— ** Time shrapnel," say the German
Field Artillery regulations, " is the projectile par excellence . . .
against all animate targets which are not under cover." It
achieves its purpose, as has been said, by sending a shower of
bullets over an area of ground in such quantity that this is swept
from end to end. These bullets are propelled, in a cone, forward
from the point of burst of the shell, and the effective depth of this
cone at medium ranges with a fairly high velocity gun may be
taken at 300 yds. Further, the corrector enables the artillery
commander to burst his shells at any desired point; for example,
a long fuze may be given, to burst them close up when firing upon
a deep target (such as troops in several lines, one behind the other) ,
and thereby to obtain the maximum searching effect, or to obtain
direct hits oh shielded guns, while a short corrector, bursting the
shell welt in front of the enemy, allows the maximum lateral
spread of the bullets, and therefore sweeps the greatest front. The
number of bullets in the shell is such that troops in the open
under effective shrapnel fire must suffer very heavily, and may be
almost annihilated. If the enemy is close behind good cover,
the bullets, indeed, pass harmlessly overhead. This, however,
leads to a very important fact, viz. that artillery can keep down
the fire of hostile infantry, " blind " the enemy, in Langlois'
phrase, by pinning it down to cover. Under cover the men are
safe, but if they raise their heads to take careful aim, they will
almost certainly be hit. Their fire under such conditions is
therefore unaimed and wild at the best, and may be wholly
ineffective. Common shell and Mgk-exptostoe shell (see Ammu-
nition) belong to another class of projectile. The former is now
not often used, but a certain proportion of H.E. shell is carried
by the field artillery in many armies (see table in Oionance:
Field Equipments) . This has a very violent local effect within a
radius of 20 to 25 yds. of the point of burst (see Ammunition,
fig. 10). It therefore covers far less ground than shrapnel, and is
naturally used cither (a) against troops under substantial cover
or (6) to wreck cover and buildings. In the former case the shell
is supposed to send a rain of splinters vertically downwards.
This it will do, provided the fuze is minutely accurate, and a burst
is thus obtained exactly over the heads of the enemy, but this is
now generally held to be unlikely, and in so far as effect against
personnel is concerned the H.E. shell is not thought to be of much
value. Indeed, in the British and several other services, no H.E.
shells at all are carried by field batteries, reliance being placed
upon percussion shrapnel in attacking localities, buildings,- &c,
and for ranging. Experiments have been made towards pro-
ducing a " H.E. shrapnel," which combines the characteristics
of both types (see, for a description, Ammunition). For the pro-
jectiles used in attacking shielded guns, see section on "field
howitzers " below. Case shot is now rarely employed. In the
war of 1870-71 Prince Kraft von Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, who
commanded the Prussian Guard artillery, reported the ex-
penditure of only one round of case, and even that was merely
" broken in transport." The close-quarters projectile of to-day
is more usually shrapnel with the fuze set at zero. Langlois,
however, calls case shot " the true projectile for critical moments,
which nothing can replace."
34. Tactics of Field Artillery.— On the march, the position
and movement of the guns are regulated by the necessity of
coming quickly into action; the usual place for the arm is at
or near the heads of the combatant columns, i.e. as far forward
as is consistent with safety. Safety is further provided for by
an " escort," or, if such be not detailed, by the nearest infantry
or cavalry. In attack, the role of the field artillery is usually
(1) to assist if necessary the advanced guard in the preliminary
fighting— for this purpose a battery is usually assigned to that
corps of troops, other batteries also being sent up to the front
as required, (2) to prepare, and (3) to support or cover the
infantry attack. "Preparation" consists chiefly in engaging
and subduing the hostile artillery. This is often spoken of as
the " artillery duel," and is not a meaningless bombardment,
but an essential preliminary to the advance. Massed guns with
modern shrapnel would, if allowed to play freely upon the attack,
infallibly stop, and probably annihilate, the troops making it.
The task of the guns, then, is to destroy the opposing guns and
artillerymen, a task which will engage almost all the resources of
the assailant's artillery in the struggle for artillery superiority.
Shielded guns, enhanced rate of fire, perfection in indirect laying
apparatus, and many other factors, have modified the lessons
of 1870, and complicated the work of achieving victory in the
artillery duel so far that the simple " hard pounding " of former
days has given way to a variety of expedients for inflicting the
desired loss and damage, as to which opinions differ in and
within every army. One point is, however, dear and meets with
universal acceptance. " The whole object of the duel is to enable
the artillery subsequently to devote all available resources to its
principal task, which is the material and moral support of the
infantry during each succeeding stage of the fight" (French
regulations). One side must be victorious in the end, and when,
and not until, the hostile artillery is beaten out of action, the
694
ARTILLERY
victor hat acquired the power of pressing home the attack. The
Br.-^b regulations (1006), indeed, deal with the steps to be taken
mUsi, though the artillery of the attack is beaten, the infantry
advance is continued, but only so as to order the guns to " reopen
at all costs," in other words, as a forlorn hope. The second part
of the preparation, the gradual disintegration of the opposing
line of infantry, has practically disappeared from the drill books.
The next task of the guns, and that in which modem artillery
asterts its power to the utmost, is the support of the infantry
attack. The artillery and infantry co-operate, " the former by
firing rapidly when they see their own infantry . . . press
forward, and the latter by making full use of the periods of intense
artillery fire to gain ground" (British F.A. Training, 1906).
Thus aided, the infantry closes in to decisive ranges, and as it
gains ground to the front, every gun " must be at once turned
upon the points selected . . . the most effective support afforded
to the attacking infantry by the concentrated fire of guns and
field howitzers. The former tie the defenders to their entrench-
ments (for retreat is practically impossible over ground swept
by shrapnel bullets), distract their attention and tend to make
them keep their heads down, while the shell from the field
howitzers searches out the interior of the trenches, the reverse
slopes of the position, and checks the movement of reinforcements
towards the threatened point." In these words the British
Field Artillery drill-book of 1902 summarizes the act of " cover-
ing " the infantry advance. Unofficial publications are still
more emphatic. The advance of the infantry to decisive range
would often be covered by a mass of one hundred or mora field
guns, firing shrapnel at the rate of ten rounds per gun per minute
at the critical moment. Against such a storm of fire the defend-
ing infantry, even supposing that its own guns had refitted and
were again in action, would be powerless. It is in recognition
of the appalling power of field artillery (which has increased in
a ratio out of all proportion to the improvements of modern
rifles) that the French system has been elaborated to the perfec-
tion which it has now attained.
With modern guns and modem tactics artillery almost in-
variably fires over the heads of its own infantry. The German
regulations indeed say that it should be avoided as far as possible,
but, as a matter of fact, if the numerous guns of a modem army
(at Koniggr&U there were 1550 guns on the field, at Gravelotte
1252, at Mukden 3000) were to be given a clear front, there would
be no room for deploying the infantry. Consequently the French
regulations, in* which the power of the artillery it given the
greatest possible scope, say that " it almost always fires over the
heads of its own infantry." With field guns and on level ground
it is considered dangerous that infantry in front of the guns
should be less than 600 yds. distant— not for fear of the shells
striking the infantry, but because the fragments resulting from
a " premature " burst arc dangerous up to that distance. The
question of distance is more important in connexion with the
" covering " of the assault. Up to a point, the artillery enables
the attacking infantry to advance with a minimum of loss and
exhaustion, and thus to dose with the enemy at least on equal
terms, if not with a serious advantage, for the fire of the guns may
shake, perhaps almost destroy the enemy's power of resistance.
But when the infantry approaches the enemy the guns can no
longer fire upon the fetter's front line without risk of injuring
their friends. All that they can do, when the opposing infantries
can see the whites of each other's eyes, is to lengthen the fuze,
raise the trajectory and sweep the ground where the enemy's
supports are posted. Under these circumstances it is practically
agreed that the risk should be taken without hesitation at so
critical a moment as that of a decisive infantry assault which
must be pushed home at whatever cost " It will be better for
the infantry to chance a few friendly shells than to be received
at short range with a fresh outburst of hostile rifle fire "
(Rouquerol, Tactical Employment of Quick-firing Field Artillery).
Thus, the distance at which direct support ceases, formerly
600 yds., has been diminished to 100, and even to 50 yds.
Howitzers can, of course, maintain their fire almost up to the
very last stage, and, in general, high-explosive shell, owing to its
purely local effect, may be employed for some time after it an
become unsafe to use shrapnel.
35. Field artillery in defence, which would presumably be
inferior to that of the attack, must, of course, act according to
circumstances. We arc here concerned not with the absolute
strength or weakness of the passive defensive, which is a matter
of tactics (c. v.) t but with the tactical procedure of aniilrry.
which, relatively to other methods, is held to offer the best dumr
of success, so far as success is attainable. On the defensor
in a prepared position, which in European warfare at any rale
will be an unusually favourable case for the defender— the pn»
have two functions, that of engaging and holding the bo>ti*
artillery, and that of meeting the infantry assault- The dilemma
is this, that on the one hand a position in rear of the lice *i
battle, with modem improvements in communicating and indirect
laying apparatus, is well suited for engaging the hostile guns, but
not for meeting the assault; and on the other, guns on the for-
ward slope of the defender's ridge or hill can fire direct, but are
quickly located and overwhelmed, for they can hardly reread
silent while their own infantry bears the fire of the assailant's
shrapnel. Thus the defender's guns would, as a rule, have to
be divided. One portion would seek to fight from rearward
concealed positions, and use every device to delay the victory
of the enemy's guns and the development of the battk unU
it is too late in die day for a serious infantry attack. Further,
the enemy's mistakes and the " fortune of war " may give oppor-
tunities of inflicting severe losses; such opportunities have always
occurred and will do so again. In the possible (though very tar
from probable) case of the defender not merely baffling, but
crushing his opponent in the artillery duel, he may, if he so
desires, himself assume the role of assailant, and at any rate be
places a veto on the enemy's attack.
The portion told off to meet the infantry assault would be
entrenched on the forward slope and would take no part u
the artillery duel. Very exceptionally, this advanced artii!*7
might fire upon favourable targets, but its paramount duty is to
remain intact for the decisive moment. Here again the defender
is confronted with grave difficulties. It is true that his advanced
batteries may be of the greatest possible assistance at the croi*
of the infantry assault, yet even so the covering fire of the bo&uk
guns, as soon as the hostile infantry had found them their target.
may be absolutely overwhelming; moreover, once the fight has
begun, the guns cannot be withdrawn, nor can their positions
easily be modified to meet unexpected developments. The
proportion of the whole artillery force which should be com-
mitted to the forward position is disputed. Colonel BethrJ
(Journal Royal Artillery, vol xxxaii. p. 67) holds that all the
mountain guns, and two-thirds of the field guns, should
be in the forward, all the howitzers and heavy guns acJ
one-third of the field guns la the retired position. But
in view of the facts that if once the advanced guns are
submerged in the tide of the enemy's assault, they will be
irrecoverable, and that a modem Q.F. gun, with plenty oi
ammunition at hand, may use " rapid fire " freely, arullcry
opinion, as a whole, is in favour of having fewer guns and an
abnormal ammunition supply in the forward entrenchment*,
and the bulk of the artillery (with the ammunition columns at
hand) in rear. But the purely passive defensive is usually but a
preliminary to an active counter-stroke. This counier-atuct
would naturally be supported to the utmost by the offensive
tactics of the artillery, which might thus at the end of a bat tie
achieve far greater results than it could have done at the be***
ning of the day. In pursuit, it is universally agreed that the
action of the artillery may be bold to the verge of rashness.
The employment of field artillery in advanced and rear tuui
actions varies almost indefinitely according to circumstances,
with outposts, guns would only be employed exceptionally.
36. Marches.— The importance of having the artillery well up
at the front of a marching column is perhaps best expressed to
the phrase of Prince Kraft von Hohenlohc-Ingelfingen, " save
hours and not minutes." The Germans in 1870 so far acted up to
the principle that Prince Hohenlohe. when asked, at the beginning
ARTILLERY
*95
of the battle of Sedan, for a couple of guns, was able to reply,
" You shall have ninety " (see, for details of the march of the
Guard artillery, his betters on Artillery, 6th letter). The German
regulations for field service say, very plainly, " the horses have
not done their work until they have got the guns into action,
even at the cost. of utter exhaustion." A notable march was
made by the 62nd battery, R.F. A., in the South African War. On
the day of the battle of Modder River, the battery marched
32 m. (mostly through deep sand) arriving in time to take part in
the action. Such forced marches, if rare, are nowadays expected
to be within the power of field artillery to accomplish. Horse
artillery is'capable of more than this, and as to pace, manoeuvr-
ing at the cavalry rate. Heavy guns are the least mobile, and
would rarely be able to keep pace with infantry in a forced
inarch. Field artillery walks 4, trots 9, and gallops at the rate
of 15 m. an hour. A fair marching pace (trot and walk) is 4 m.
an hour for field, 5 for horse batteries. A march of 14 m. would,
according to the German regulations, be performed by
a field battery in 5 hours,
a horse battery in 4 hours,
under favourable circumstances (Bronsart von Schcllendorf).
37. Power and Mobility. — It will have been made clear that
every gun represents a compromise between these two require-
ments, and that each type of artillery has been evolved in accord-
ance with the relative requirements of these conditions in respect
of the work to be performed. The classification which has been
followed in this article represents the practically unanimous
decision of every important military state. Still, there has
always been controversy between the individual adherents of
each side, and the Boer War experiences raised the question as
to whether field artillery, as the term is usually understood, should
not be abolished, with a view to having only heavy guns and
horse artillery with a field army.
38. Concentration and Dispersion. — The use of their artillery
made by the Boers in the South African War led to the revival of
the idea of " dispersing " guns instead of " concentrating " them.
It would be more accurate to say that military thinkers had,
after the introduction of the quick-firing gun, challenged every
received principle, and amongst others the employment of
artillery in masses, which, as a result of the war of 1870, " had
become almost an article of faith." The idea was to make use
of the increased power of the guns to gain equally great results
with the employment of less material than formerly. Thus the
dispersion of guns is bound up with the passive defensive. The
first editions of the British Field Artillery Training and Combined
Training, strongly influenced as they were by South African
experience, did not legislate, even in dealing with defence, for
"dispersion " in the Boer manner, but only for adaptability (see
Field Artillery Training, 1003, p. 15). In the Boer War, whilst
the Boers nearly always scattered their guns, almost the only
occasion upon which their artillery played a decisive part was at
Spion Kop, where its fire was concentrated upon the point of
assault. At Pieter's Hilt, the fire of seventy guns covered the
British infantry assault in the Napoleonic manner. On the whole
it may be accepted as a genera) truth that guns are safe, and m*y
be locally effective, when dispersed, but that they cannot produce
decisive effect except when used in masses. It must, however,
be clearly understood that a " mass" in this sense means a large
number of guns, under one command, and susceptible of being
handled as a unit, so far as the direction and effectiveness of their
fire is concerned. This being secured, and on that condition only,
it does not matter whether the actual gun positions are scattered
over a few square miles, or are closed in one long line and using
direct fire— they are still a mass, and capable of acting effectively
as such. While there are undoubtedly grave dangers in using
the indirect method too freely, technical improvements in laying,
telephones, &c, have had much to do with the possibility, at any
rate under favourable circumstances, of a concentration which
may be described as one of sheHs rather than of guns, and the
reader is reminded in this connexion that the work formerly done
by the gun is now performed by the shell.
39. Horse A rtillery is to be regarded as field artillery of great
mobility and manoeuvring power. Its value may be said, in
general terms, to lie in augmenting the weak fire-power of the
moun ted troops, and hi facilita ting their work as much as possible.
Thus, when cavalry meets serious opposition in reconnoitring, the
guns may be able to break down the enemy's resistance without
calling for assistance from the main body of the cavalry, and, in
the action of cavalry versus cavalry, the " paramount duty of the
horse artillery is to shatter the enemy's cavalry " (Field Artillery
Training, 1006), i.e. to "prepare" the success of the cavalry
charge by breaking up as far as possible the enemy's power of
meeting it. In the cavalry battle, covering fire is practically
impossible, owing both to the short distances separating the
combatants and to the rapidity of their movements, but steps
are taken " to enable all the guns to bear on the enemy's cavalry
at' the points of collision." The ideal position for the horse
artillery is out to a flank, the cavalry manoruvring so as to draw
the enemy's cavalry under enfilade fire, and at the same time to
force them to mask the fire of their own horse artillery. Another
and a most important function of the horse batteries Is to rein*
force, with the greatest possible speed, any point in the general
line of battle which is in need of artillery support. For thk
reason the corps artillery generally includes horse batteries.
40. Field Hampers are somewhat less mobile than field guns*,
they have , however, far greater shell power. The special fea tares
of the weapon are, of course, the product of the special require-
ments which have called it into existence. These are, briefly
(a) the necessity of being able to "search" the interior of
earthworks, a task which, as has been said, is beyond the power
of high-velocity field guns, and (0) demolition work, which is
equally beyond the power of even a H.E. shell of field-gun
calibre. The first of these conditions implies a steep "angle of
descent," which again implies a high angle of elevation. The
second requires great shell power but does not call for high
velocity. The howitzer, therefore, is a short gun, firing a heavy
shell at high angles of elevation. Howitzers almost always are
laid by the indirect method of fire from under cover, since it
is dear that, with high angles of elevation, the gun may be
brought dose up to the covering mass, and still fire over it.
Ranging must be done very accurately and yet economically,
as but few of their heavy shells can be carried in the wagons
and limbers, and the shells descending upon an enemy almost
vertically lose the long sweeping effect of the field shrapnel
which neutralizes minor errors of ranging. The projectiles
employed are high explosive and shrapnel, the latter for use
against personnel under cover, the former for demolition of field
works, casemates or buildings. It is very generally held that
howitzer time shrapnel is the best form of projectile for the
attack of shielded guns. Here it may be said that no completely
satisfactory method of dealing with these has yet been discovered.
The best procedure with field guns is said to be lengthening the
fuze to obtain a high percentage of bursts on graze. A shell
striking the face of the shield will penetrate it, and should kill
some at least of the gun detachment behind. The high-explosive
shrapnel alluded to above is designed primarily for the attack
of shielded guns.
41. Heavy Field Artillery, alternatively called Artillery of
Position, as has been said, includes all guns of 4 -in. calibre and
upwards, mounted on travelling carriages. In South Africa,
where firm soil was usually to be found, 6 -in. guns were employed
as heavy field guns, but in Europefeven the 5-in. (British Service)
is liable to sink into the ground. In Great Britain, guns only
arc used by this branch; abroad, the ''heavy artillery of the
field army," the "Kght siege train," &c, as it is variously called,
is as a rule composed of howitzers of a heavier calibre than the
field howitzer, the 15-cm. (6- in.) howitzer being most commonly
met with. This artillery has, however, a different tactical role
from the heavy field artillery of the British service; and it is
always with a view to the attack of permanent or semi-
permanent fortifications that the tnaUriel is organized. In
Great Britain, heavy batteries armed with the 5-in. gun are
considered as " an auxiliary to the horse and field artillery "
{Heavy Artillery Training). Ranging is conducted with grew*—
696
ARTIODACTYLA
deliberation than ranging with the lighter guns, though
•pom the time general lines. Parts of the process may,
towcver, be omitted in certain circumstances. Heavy guns
me high-explosive (lyddite) shells and time shrapnel, the
former for ranging and for demolishing cover, the latter against
personnel. Laying is usually indirect. The tactical principles
upon which heavy artillery does its work are based, in the main,
on the long range (up to 10,000 yds.) and great shell-power of the
guns. This power enables the artillery to reach with effect
targets which are beyond the range of lighter ordnance, and it
is, therefore, considered possible to disperse the guns in batteries,
and even in sections of two guns, along the front of the army,
without forfeiting the power of concentrating their fire on any
point — a power which otherwise they would not possess owing
to their want of mobility. At the same time it is not forbidden
to bring them into line with the rest of the artillery, in order to
achieve a decisive result. In the attack, beside the general task
of supplementing the effect of other natures of ordnance, heavy
artillery may demolish cover, buildings, &c, held by the enemy,
and during the infantry assault they may do excellent service in
sweeping a great depth of ground, their smaller angle of descent,
and the greater remaining velocity and heavier driving charge
of their shrapnel, as compared with field guns, enabling them
to do this effectively. In the defence, long-range fire has great
value, especially in sweeping approaches which the enemy must
use. In pursuit, the heavy artillery may be able to shell the main
body of the enemy during its retreat, even if it has left a rear-
guard. In retreat, the want of mobility of these guns militates
against their employment in exposed positions, such as rearguards
usually have to take up.
Bibliography. 1 - be
mentioned Napolcot xir
de I'artUlerie (Pari* Its
GeschUtsweseus (Bei ry
Papers (London, i< tu
seiner Artillerie (Be ng
der FeldartiUerie, 1 1a,
L' Artillerie de camp in,
Das GeschUtawesen, i mr
Gegenwart (Leipzig, Id-
art. 1620-1878 (1 ss.
AH. (1844-1845); v.
Tempelhol, Gesck. 6 vol
Artillery. A compl >ry
works of the 14th, „ ax
J&hns.Gcschichie der Kriegsvnssensckaften, pp. 221-236, 182-424, 621,
658 and 747-752. For the early 17th century, Diego Ufa no, Tratado
de la Artilleria (1613) is a standard treatise of the time, but the
mystery preserved by artillerists in regard to their arm is responsible
for an astonishing dearth of artillery literature even in tne time
of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 appeared Casimir Simienowics'
Art magna* artilleriae, an English translation of which was published
in London in 1729. and in 1683 Michael Mieth published Artilleriae
Recentior Praxis. The first edition of Surirey de S. Remy, Mfmoires
d'A rtillerie, appeared in Paris in 1697. With the reorganisation of the
arm in the early 18th century came many manuals and other works
(see Tahns, op. cit. pp. 1607-1621 and 1692-1698), amongst which
may be mentioned the marquis de Quincy s Art de la guerre (1726).
From 1740 onwards numerous manuals appeared, mostly official
reglements—mye French General Staff, L'A rtillerie francaiu an X VIII*
sticle (1008); and the tactical handling of the arm is treated in
general works, such as Guibert's, on war. See also de Morla, Tratado
de la Artilleria (1784), translated into German by Hoyer (Lekrbuck
der A rt.-Wissenschoft, Leipzig, 1821*1826); Dn Service de I 'artillerie
d la guerre (Paris, 1780, German translation, Dresden. 1782, and
English, by Capt. Thomson, R.A., London, 1789), Bardet de Villc-
neuve's Traitk de I artillerie (Hague, 1741), and Hennebert, Gribeau-
val, Lieut.-Genfral des armies du Fpy (Paris, 1896). Important works
of the period 1 800-1 850 are ScHarnhorst, Ilandbuck der Artillerie
(Hanover, 1 804-1 806, French translation by Fourcy, Traill sur
r artillerie. Pans, 1840-1841); Rouvroy, Vorlesungen uber die
Artillerie (Dresden, 1 821-1825); Timmerhans, Essai d'un traiti
a" artillerie (Brussels, 1839-1846); C. v. Decker, Die Artillerie fur
all* Waffen (1826); Griffiths, The Artillerists Manual (Woolwich,
1640): Tiobert, TraUt d'artillerie (Paris, 1 845-1847); Taubert
(translated by Maxwell), Use of Field Artillery on Service (London,
1856); Capt. Simmonds, R.A., Application of Artillery in the Field
(London, 1819); Gassendi, Aidc-mtmoire a r usage des oficiers
d'artillerie (Paris, 1819). See also Girod de I'Ain, Grands arltlleurs,
Drouot, Senarmont. Eble (Paris. 1894). Among the numerous works
1 Most of the works named deal with technical questions of equip-
ment* ammunition, ballistics, &c.
on modern field artillery may be mentioned Prince HohenWw
Ingelnngen, Briefe Uber Artillerie (Berlin, 1887, 2nd ed., English
translation by Col. Watford. Letters en Artillery, Woolwich. i6£;k
Hoffbaner. Taktik der FeldartiUerie, 1866 und 1870-1871 (Berlin,
1876), and Applikatoriscke Studie liber Verwendung der ArUlleru
(Berlin. 1884); Erb, L Artillerie dans les batailles de Met* (Para,
1906); Leurs, L'Art. de campagne prussienne 1864-1870 (Brus&cU,
1874): v. Schell, Studie Uber Taktik der Feldartillerie (quoted
above); Hennebert, Artillerie modern* (Paris, 1889); and (or
quick-firing artillery, Langlois, Artillerie de campagne en Uciss*
avec les autres armes (Pans, 1892 and 1907); Wille, Fddgestkutx
der Zukunft (Berlin, 1891); WafenUkre (2nd ed., 1901): and
Zur FeldgesckUttfrage (Berlin, 1896); Rohne, Die Taktik der FeU-
artillerie (Berlin, 1900), Studie Uber d. SckueUfeuergesdudM t>
Rokrrucklauflafette (Berlin, 1901). Die frantdstscke FeUartiUent
(Berlin, 1902); Entwcklung des Massengebraucks der FddartiUerit
(Berlin, 1900); and articles in JakrbUckerf. d. Deutsche Armee urn"
Marine (October 1901 and January 1905); Hoffbaoer, Die Frag* its
.SckneUfeuerfeldeescJiiUxes (Berlin, 1902), and Verwendmnr der Fed-
kaubitten (Berlin, 1901); Wangemann, FUr die leickie PddkauWu
(Berlin, 1904); von Reichenau, Studie Uber . . . Ausbildnng der
Feldart. (Berlin, 1896), Einfluss der Schilde auf die Entmcktunt des
F.-A. Materials, and Neue Studien Uber die Entwicklmng der FeUerL
gJcrlin v ---.-. fakntng und Verwendung dm
htisia ; Korsen and Kflhn, Wafen-
Ukre (\ EmfM de V artillerie de camper*
a tir ra t isation de V artillerie de camper*
(Paris, Organisation du materiel de ler-
tillerie sad in English, Capt. P. de B.
Radclif J's work (Tke Tactual Employ-
ment o\ , London, 1903), and especially
Lt.-Col and Gunnery (Woolwkh. 1907)
See alst the British; French and Genua*
artillery. <C F. A)
ARTIODACTYLA (from Gr. &>not, even, and Murrvta, 1
finger or toe, "even-toed")* the suborder of ungulate mammals
in which the central (and in some cases the only) pair of tees in
each foot are arranged symmetrically on each side of a vertical
line running through the axes of the limbs. As contrasted wits
the Perissodactyla living, and in a great degree extinct, Aruo-
dactyla are characterized by the following structural features.
The upper premolar and molar teeth are not alike, the former
being single and the latter two-lobed; and the last lower molar
of both first and second dentition is almost invariably three-
lobed. Nasal bones not expanded posteriorly. No alispbeneid
canal. Dorsal and lumbar vertebrae together always nineteen,
though the former may vary from twelve to fifteen. Femur
without third trochanter. Third and fourth digits of both feet
almost equally developed, and their terminal phalanges flattened
on their inner or contiguous surfaces, so that each is not sym-
metrical in itself, but when the two are placed together they
form a figure symmetrically disposed to a line drawn between
them. Or, in other words, the axis or median line of the whok
foot is a line drawn between the third and fourth digits (fig. 1).
Lower articular surface of the astragalus divided into two nearly
equal facets, one for the navicular and a second for the cuboid
bone. The calcaneum with an articular facet for the lower end
of the fibula. Stomach almost always more or less complei-
Colon convoluted. Caecum small. Placenta diffused or cotyle-
donary. Teats either few and inguinal, or numerous sod
abdominal.
Artiodactyla date from the Eocene period, when tbey appear
to have been less numerous than the Perissodactyla, although at
the present day they are immeasurably ahead of that group, and
form indeed the dominant ungulates. As regards the gradual
specialization and development of the modern types, the follow-
ing features are noteworthy.
1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply
tubercular, or bunodont (/Sowfe , a hillock) type of molar into one
in which the four main tubercles, or columns, have assumed 1
CTescentic form, whence this type is termed selenodont (a<X*rt.
the new moon). Further, there is the modification of the latter
from a short-crowned, or brachyodont type, to one in which the
columns are tall, constituting the hypsodont, or hypsasdenodont.
type. It is noteworthy, however, that in some instances there
appears to have been a retrograde modification from the sckoo-
dont towards the bunodont type, the hippopotamus being a esse
in point. Other modifications are the loss of the upper incisors;
ARTIODACTYLA
697
the development of the canines into projecting tusks; and the
loss of the anterior premolars.
a. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a com-
plete and distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state in
which it coalesces more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction
of the fibula till nothing but its lower extremity remains. Reduc-
tion and final loss of outer pair of digits (second and fifth), with
coalescence of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the two
middle digits to form a cannon-bone. Union of the navicular and
cuboid, and sometimes the ectocuneiform bone, of the tarsus.
3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or
axis vertebrae from a cone to a hollow half-cylinder.
4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and
gradual complication of form of antlers.
5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with
ruminating function superadded. Modification of placenta from
simple diffused to cotyledonary form.
ABC
. Fie. 1. — Bones of Right Fore Feet of existing Artiodactyla.
A, Pig (Sus scrofa). U, Ulna. «, Unciform.
B, Red deer (Ctrvus elopkus). R, Radios. «, Magnnra.
c, Cuneiform, Id, Trapezoid.
C, Camel (Camelus bactrianus). /, Lunar.
s, Scaphoid.
In the Sheep and the Camel the long compound bone, supporting
the two main (or only) toes is the cannon-bone.
The primitive Artiodactyla thus probably had the typical
number (44) of incisor, canine and molar teeth, brachyodont
molars, conical odontoid process, four distinct toes on each foot,
with metacarpal, metatarsal and all the tarsal bones distinct,
and no frontal appendages.
As regards classification, the first group is that of the Pecora,
or Cotylophora, in which the cheek-teeth are selenodont, but
^ there are no upper incisors or canine-like premolars,
r * 9fm ' while upper canines are generally absent, though some-
times largely developed. Inferior incisors, three on each side
with an incisiform canine in contact with them. Cheek-teeth
consisting of p.\, m.\ ,in continuous series. Auditory bulla simple
and hollow within. Odontoid process of second vertebra in the
form of a crescent, hollow above. Lower extremity of the fibula
represented by a distinct malleolar bone articulating with the
outer surface of the lower end of the tibia. Third and fourth
metacarpals and metatarsals confluent into cannon-bones (fig. 1
B), and the iocs enclosed in hoofs. Outer toes small and rudi-
mentary, or in some cases entirely suppressed; their metacarpal
or metatarsal bones never complete. Navicular and cuboid
bones of tarsus united. The skull generally lacks a sagittal
crest; and the condyle of the lower jaw is transversely elongated.
Horns or antlers usually present, at least in the male sex. Left
brachial artery arising from a common innominate trunk,
instead of coming off separately from the aortic arch. Stomach
with four complete cavities. Placenta cotyledonous. Teats a or 4.
The group at the present day is divided into Cirafidao (giraffe
and okapi), Cervidae (deer), AtUilocapridae (prongbuck), and
Bondae (oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, &c). (See Pecora.)
The second group is represented at the present day by the
camels (Camdus) of the Old, and the llamas (Lama) of the New
World, collectively constituting the family Candida*. m L ,___ Jt _
They derive their name of Tylopoda (" boss-footed ") W* **
from the circumstance that the feet form large cushion-like pads,
supporting the weight of the body, while the toes have broad
nails on their upper surface only, instead of being encased in
hoofs. The cheek-teeth are selenodont, and one pair of upper
incisors is retained, while some of the anterior premolars assume
a canine-like shape, and are separated from the rest of the cheekv
series. Auditory bulla filled with honeycombed bony tissue.
Odontoid process of second vertebra semi-cylindrical ; skull with a
sagittal crest; and the condyle of the lower jaw rounded. Third
and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals (which are alone present)
fused into cannon-bones for the greater part of their length, but
diverging inferiorly (fig. 1, C) and with their articular surfaces
for the toes smooth, instead of ridged as in the Pecora. Navi-
cular and cuboid bones of tarsus distinct. No horns or antlers.
Stomach, although complex, differing essentially from that of
the Pecora. Placenta diffuse, without cotyledons. Teats few.
(See Tylopoda.) -
In the same sectional group is included the North American
family of oreodonts (Oreodontidae), which are much more primi-
tive ruminants, with shorter necks and limbs, the full series of
44 teeth, all in apposition, and the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones separate, and the toes generally of more normal type,
although sometimes daw-like. (See Oreodon.) The Eocene
American genus Homacodon is regarded as representing a third
family group, the Homacodontida* (- PontoUstidat), in which the
molars were of a bunodont type, and approximate to those of the
Condylarthra from which this family appears to have sprung,
and to have given origin on the one hand to the Oreodontidae,
and on the other to the Camdidae. The family is represented in
the Lower, or Wasatch, Eocene by Trigonolestes, in the Middle
(Bridger) Eocene by Homacodon (Pantolestes), and in the Upper
(Uinta) Eocene by Bunomeryx.
The third group is that represented by the chevrotains or
mouse-deer, forming the family Tragulidae, with Tragulus in
south-eastern Asia and Dorcatherium (or Hyomoschus) rnguBms.
in equatorial Africa. The cheek-teeth are selenodont,
as in the two preceding groups; there are no upper incisors, but
there are long, narrow and pointed upper canines, which attain a
large size in the males; the lower canines are incisor-like, as in
the Pecora, and there are no caniniform premolars in either jaw.
Cheek-teeth in a continuous series consisting of p.\, f».f . Odon-
toid process of axis conical. Fibula complete. Four complete
toes on each foot. The middle metacarpals and metatarsals
generally confluent, the outer ones (second and fifth) slender but
complete, i.e. extending from the carpus or tarsus to the digit.
Navicular, cuboid and ectocuneiform bones of tarsus united.
Auditory bulla of skull filled with cancellar tissue. No frontal
appendages. Ruminating, but the stomach with only three
distinct compartments, the maniplies or third cavity of the
stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary. Placenta diffused.
(See Chevrotain.)
In this place must be mentioned the extinct Oligocene Euro-
pean group typified by the well-known genus Anoptotkerium
of the Paris gypsum-quarries, and hence termed
Anoplotherina, although the alternative title Dicho-
bunoidea has been suggested. It includes the two
families Anoplotheriidac and Dichobunidae, of which the first
died out with the Oligocene, while the second may have given
origin to the TraguHna and perhaps the Pecora. There is the
full series of 44 teeth, generally without any gaps, and most
of the bones of the skeleton are separate and complete; while,
in many instances at any rate, the tail was much longer
than in any existing ungulates, and the whole bodily form
698
ARTISAN— ARTOIS
Approximated to that of a carnivore. The upper molars, which
may be either selenodont or buno-setenodont, carry five cusps
each, instead of the four characteristic of all the preceding
groups; and they are all very low-crowned, so as to expose the
whole of the valleys between the cusps* In Anoplotkerium, some
of the species of which were larger than tapirs, there were either
two or three toes, the latter number being almost unique among
the Artiodactyla. Allied genera are Diplobune and Dacrytherium.
The Dichobunidae include the genus Dukobune, of which the
species were small animals with buno-selenodont molars.
Xiphoden and Dickodon represent another type with cutting
premolars and selenodont molars; while Caenotherium and
Ptesiomeryx form yet another branch, with resemblances to the
ruminants. The most interesting genera are, however, the Upper
Oligocene and Lower Miocene Gdocus and Prodrtmotkerium,
which have perfectly selenodont teeth, and the third and fourth
metacarpal and metatarsal bones respectively fused into an
imperfect cannon-bone, with the reduction of the lateral meta-
carpals and metatarsals to mere remnants of their upper and
lower extremities. While Gcl&cus exhibits a marked approxima-
tion to the Tragulidae, Prodremolherium comes nearer to the
Fig 2.— Restoration of Anoplotkerium commune.
Cervidae, of which it not improbably indicates the ancestral type.
The Dichobunidae may be regarded as occupying a position
analogous to that of the Homaeodontidae in the Tylopoda, and like
the latter, are probably the direct descendants of Condylarthra.
The last section of the Artiodactyla is that of the Suina,
represented at the present day by the pigs (Suidae), and the
fflllmM _ hippopotamuses (Hippopolamidae), and in past times
by the Antkracotkeriidae, in which may probably be
included the Elolkeriidae. In the existing members of the group
the cheek-teeth approximate to the bunodont type, although
showing signs of being degenerate modifications of the selenodont
modification. There is at least one pair of upper incisors, while
the full series of 44 teeth may be present. The metacarpals
and metatarsals are generally distinct (fig. 1 A), and never fuse
into a complete cannon-bone; and the navicular and cuboid
bones of the tarsus are separate. The odontoid process of the
second vertebra is pig-like: and the tibia and fibula and radius
and ulna are severally distinct. The stomach is simple or some-
what complex, and the placenta diffused. The Suidae include
the Old World pigs (Suinae) and the American peccaries (Dicoly-
linae), and are characterized by the snout terminating in a fleshy
disk-like expansion, in the midst of which are perforated the
nostrils; while the toes are enclosed in sharp hoofs, of which the
lateral ones do not touch the ground. There is a caecum. The
Dicotylinae differ from the Suinae in that the upper canines arc
directed downwards (instead of curving upwards) and have
sharp cutting-edges, while the toes are four in front and three
behind (instead of four on each foot), and the stomach is complex
instead of simple. In the Old World a large number of fossil
forms are known, of which the earliest is the Egyptian Eocene
Ceniokyus. Originally the family was an Old World type, but
in the Miocene it gained access into North America, where the
earliest form is BoOtriolabis, an ancestral peccary showing signs
of affinity with the European Miocene genus PoJaeockoerus.
(See Swine and Peccary.)
The Hippopolamidae are an exclusively Old World group, in
which the muzzle is broad and rounded and quite unlike that of
the Suidae, while the crowns of the cheek-teeth form a distinctly
trefoil pattern, when partially worn, which Is only foreshadowed
in those of the latter. The short and broad teeth terminate fa
four subequal toes, protected by short rounded hoofs, and aQ
reaching the ground. The hinder end of the lower jaw is provided
with a deep descending flange. Both indsors and canines are
devoid of roots and grow throughout life, the canines, and fa
the typical species one pair of lower incisors, growing to as
immense size. The stomach is complex; but there ia no caecum.
Although now exclusively African, the family (of which all the
representatives may be included in the single genus Hippo-
potamus, with several subgeneric groups) is repreacnted in the
Pliocene of Europe and the Lower Pliocene of northern India.
Its place of origin cannot yet be determined.
The extinct Antkracotkeriidae were evidently nearly allied to
the Hippopolamidae, of which they are ia all probability the
ancestral stock. They agree, for instance, with that family in the
presence of a descending flange at the hinder end of each side
of the lower jaw; but their dentition is of a more generalized
type, comprising the full series of 44 teeth, among which the
incisors and canines are of normal form, but specially enlarged,
and developing roots in the usual manner. The molars are
partially selenodont in the typical genus Anthracotkerium, with
five cusps, or columns, on the crowns of those of the upper jaw,
which are nearly square. The genus has a very wide distribution,
extending from Europe through Asia to North America, and
occurring in strata which are of Oligocene and Miocene age.
In Ancodon (Hyopotamus) the cusps on the molars are taller, so
that the dentition is more decidedly selenodont; the distribution
of this genus includes not only Europe, Asia and North Africa,
but also Egypt where it occurs in Upper Eocene beds in company
with the European genus Rhagatkerium, which is nearer Anthra-
cotkerium. On the other hand, in Merycopotamus, of the Lower
Pliocene of India and Burma, the upper molars have lost the
fifth intermediate cusp of Ancodon', and thus, although highly
selenodont, might be easily modified, by a kind of retrograde
development, into the trefoil-columned molars of Hippopotamus.
In the above genera, so far as is known, the feet were four-toed,
although with the lateral digits relatively small ; but in Ehtkeriuu
(or Entelodan), from the Lower Miocene of Europe and the
Oligocene of North America, the two lateral digits in each foot
had disappeared. This is the more remarkable seeing that
Elolfterium may be regarded as a kind of bunodont Anlkrat*
tkerium. It shows the characteristic hippopotamus-flange to the
lower jaw, but has also a large descending process from the juga)
bone of the zygomatic arch of the skull. Finally, we have in the
Pliocene of India the genus Tetraconodon, remarkable for the
enormous size attained by the bluntly conical premolars; as
the molars are purely bunodont, this genus seems to be a late
and specialized survivor of a primitive type. (R. L.*)
ARTISAN, or Artizan, a mechanic; a handicraftsman m
distinction to an artist. The English word (from Late Lat-
arlitianus, instructed in arts) at one time meant " artist/' but has
been restricted to signify the operative workman only.
ARTOIS, an ancient province of the north of France, corre-
sponding to the present department of Pas de Calais, with the
exclusion of .the arrondissements of Boulogne and Montreuii
which belonged to Picardy. It is a rich and well-watered
country, producing abundance of grain and hops, and yielding
excellent pasture for cattle. The capital of the province was
Arras, and the other important places were Saint-Omer, Bfthune,
Aire, Hesdin, Bapaume, Lens, Lillcrs, Saint-Pol and Saint-
Venant. The name Artois (still more corrupted in u Arras ") &
derived from the Atrebates, who possessed the district in the time
of Caesar. From the 9th to the 12th century Artois belonged 1 to
the counts of Flanders. It was bestowed in 1180 on Philip
Augustus of France by Philip of Alsace, as the dowry of his niece
Isabella of Hainaut. At her death in 1 ioo, Baldwin IX., count of
Flanders (d. 1206), and then his son-in-law, Ferrand (Ferdinand)
of Portugal, count of Flanders, disputed the possession of the
country with the king of France, Ferrand being in the eoalitiea
which was overthrown by Philip Augustus at Bouvines (itu)
In 1237 Artois, which was raised to a countship the followHuj
year, was conferred as an appanage by Saint Louis on his brother
ART SALES
699
Robert, who dfed on crusade in 1950. ' His son, Robert II., took
part in the wars in Navarre, Sicily, Guienne and Flanders, and
was killed at the battle of Courtrai in 1302. After his death, his
son Philip having predeceased him (1298), Artois was adjudged
to his daughter Mahaut, or Matilda, as against her nephew
Robert, son of Philip, who attempted to support his claim to the
countship by forged titles. Banished from France for this crime
(132 2), Robert of Artoia took refuge in England, where he became
earj of Richmond, and incited Edward III. to make war upon
Philip of Valois. His descendants, the counts of Eu (?.».), con-
tinued to style themselves counts of Artois. By the marriage
of Mahaut (d. 1329) with Otto IV., Artois passed to the house of
Burgundy, in whose possession it remained till the marriage of
Mary, the daughter of Charles the Bold, to the archduke Maxi-
milian brought it to the house of Austria. Louis XI., however,
occupied portions of Artois, and the claims of Austria were
contested by France until the treaty of Senfis (1493)- Th*
emperor Charles V. established the council of Artois, with
sovereign authority. At the end of the Thirty Years' War
Artois was again conquered by the French, and the conquest
was ratified in the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) by Spain, to
whom the province had fallen in 1634. During the war between
France and Holland (1672-77) and that of the Spanish Succes-
sion, Artois was invaded again, but the treaties of Nijmwegen
(1678) and of Utrecht (1713) confirmed the sovereignty of France.
The title of count of Artois was borne by Charles X. of France
before his accession to the throne. This new creation became
extinct on the death of the comte de ChambOrd in 1883.
* ART SALES. The practice of selling objects of art by auction
in England dates from the latter part of the 17th century, when
in roost cases the names of the auctioneers were suppressed.
Evelyn (under date June 21, 1693) mentions a "great auction of
pictures (Lord Mdford's) in the Banquetting House, Whitehall,"
and the practice is frequently referred to by other contemporary
and later writers. Before the introduction of regular auctions
the practice was, as in the case of the famous collection formed
by Charles I., to price each object and invite purchasers, just as
in other departments of commerce. But this was a slow process,
especially in the case of pictures, and lacked the incentive of
excitement. The first really important art collection to come
under the hammer was that of Edward, earl of Oxford, dispersed
by Cock, under the Piazza, Covent Garden, on 8th March 1741/2
and the five following days, six more days being required by
the coins. Nearly all the leading men of the day, including
Horace Walpolc, attended or were represented at this sale, and
the prices varied from five shillings for an anonymous bishop's
" head " to 165 guineas for Vandyck's group of " Sir Kenclm
Digby, lady, and son." The next great dispersal was Dr Richard
Mead's extensive collection, of which the pictures, coins and
gems, &c, were sold by Langford in February and March 1754.
the sale realizing the total, unprecedented up to that time, of
£16,069. The thirty-eight days' sale (1786) of the Duchess of
Portland's collection is very noteworthy, from the fact that it
included the celebrated Portland vase, now in the British
Museum. Many other interesting and important 18th-century
sales might be mentioned. High prices did not become general
until the Calonne, Trumbull (both 1795) and Bryan O798) sales.
As to the quality of the pictures which had been sold by auction
up to the latter part of the 18th century, it may be assumed that
this was not high. The i m porta tion of pictures and other objects
of art had assumed extensive proportions by the end of the 18th
century, but the genuine examples of the Old Masters probably
fell far short of 1 %. England was felt to be the only safe
asylum for valuable articles, but the home which was intended to
be temporary often became permanent. Had it not been for the
political convulsions on the continent, England, instead of being
one of the richest countries in the world in art treasures, would
have been one of the poorest. This fortuitous circumstance had.
moreover, another effect, in that it greatly raised the critical
knowledge of pictures. Genuine works realized high prices; as,
for example, at Sfr William Hamilton's sale (1 801), when Beckford
paid 1300 guineas for the little picture of "A Laughing Boy "by
Leonardo da Vinci; and when at the Lafontafne safes {1807 and
181 1) two Rembrandts each realized 5000 guineas, " The Woman
taken in Adultery," now in the National Gallery, and " The
Master Shipbuilder," now at Buckingham Palace. The Beckford
sale of 1823 (41 days, £43,869) was the forerunner of the gredt
art dispersal of the 19th century; Horace Wal pole's accumula-
tion at Strawberry Hill, 1842 (24 days, £33,450), and the Stowc
collection. 1848 (41 days, £75,562), were also celebrated.
They comprised every phase of art work, and in all the quality
was of a very high order. They acted as a most healthy stimulus
to art collecting, a stimulus which was further nourished by the
sales of the superb collection of Ralph Bernal in 1855 (3a days,
£62,690), and of the almost equally fine but not so comprehensive
collection of Samuel Rogers, 1856 (18 days, £42,367). Three
years later came the dispersal of the 1500 pictures which formed
Lord Northwick's gallery at Cheltenham (pictures and works of
art, 18 days, £94,722).
Towards the latter part of the first half of the 19th century an
entirely new race of collectors gradually came into existence;
they were for the most part men who had made, or were making,
large fortunes in the various industries of the midlands and north
of England and other centres. They were untrammelled by
" collecting " traditions, and their patronage was almost ex-
clusfvely extended to the artists of the day. The dispersals of
these collections began in 1863 with the Bickncll Gallery, and
continued at irregular intervals for many years, e.g. Gillott
(1872), Mendel (1875), Wynn Ellis and Albert Levy (1876),
Albert Grant (1877) and Munro of Novar (1878). These patrons
purchased at munificent prices either direct from the easel or
from the exhibitions not only pictures in oils but also water-
colour drawings. As a matter of investment their purchases
frequently realized far more than the original outlay; sometimes,
however, the reverse happened, as, for instance, in the case of
Landseer's " Otter Hunt," for which Baron Grant is said to have
paid £10,000 and which realized shortly afterwards only 5650
guineas. One of the features of the sales of the 'seventies was
the high appreciation of water-colour drawings. At the Gillott
sale (1872) 160 examples realized £27,423, Turner's " Bam-
borough Castle " fetching 31 so gns.; at the Quillcr sale (187s)
David Cox's " Hayficld," for which a dealer paid him 50 gns.
in 1850, brought 28ro gns. The following are the most remark-
able prices of later years. In 1895 Cox's "Welsh Funeral"
(which cost about £20) sold for 2400 gns., and Burne- Jones's
"Hesperidcs" for 2460 gns. In 1008, 13 Turner drawings
fetched £12,415 (Acland-Hood sale) and 7 brought £11,077
(Holland sale), the " Heidelberg " reaching 4200 gns. For Fred
Walker's " Harbour of Refuge " 2580 gns. were paid (Tatham
sale) and 2700 gns. for his " Marlow Ferry " (Holland). The
demand for pictures by modern artists, whose works sold at
almost fabulous prices in the 'seventies, has somewhat declined;
but during all its furore there was still a small band of col-
lectors to whom the works of the Old Masters more especially
appealed. The dispersal of such collections as the Bredel
(1875), Watts Russell (1875), Foster of Clewcr Manor (1876),
the Hamilton Palace (17 days, £397,562)— the greatest art sale
in the annals of Great Britain— Bale (1882), Leigh Court (1884),
and Dudley (1892) resulted, as did the sale of many minor
collections each season, in many very fine works of the Old
Masters finding eager purchasers at high prices. A striking
example of the high prices given was the £24,250 realized by the
pair of Vandyck portraits of a Genoese senator and his wife in
the Peel sale, 1900.
Since the last quarter of the 19th century the chief feature
in art sales has been the demand for works, particularly female
portraits, by Reynolds, his contemporaries and successors.
Thfs may be traced to the South Kensington Exhibitions of
T867 and t868 and the annual winter exhibitions at Burlington
Housc.-which revealed an unsuspected wealth and charm in the
works of many English artists who had almost fallen into oblivion.
A few of the most remarkable prices for such pictures may be
quoted: Reynolds's "Lady Betty Delme" " (1804), 11,000
gns.; Romney's "The Ladies Spencer" (1896), 10,500 «w*.
7od-
ARTS AND CRAFTS
Gainsborough's "Duchess of Devonshire" (1876), 10,100 gns. (for
the history of its disappearance see Gainsborough, Thomas),
" Maria Walpolc," 12,100 gns. (Duke of Cambridge's sale, 1004);
Constable's " Stratford Mill " (1895), 8500 gns.; Hoppner's
"Lady Waldegrave " (1006), 6000 gns. ; Lawrence's " Childhood's
Innocence " (1907), 8000 gns.; Raeburn's " Lady Raeburn "
(1005), 8500 gns. Here may also be mentioned the 12,600 gns.
paid for Turner's " Mortlalce Terrace " in 1008 (Holland sale).
The " appreciation " of the modern continental schools,
particularly the French, has been marked since 1880; of high
prices paid may be mentioned Corot's " Danse des Amours "
(1808), £7200; Rosa Bonheur's " Denizens of the Highlands "
(1888), 5 5 so gns.; Jules Breton's " First Communion," £9100
in New York (1886) ; Meissonier's " Napoleon I. in the Campaign
of Paris," 12} in. by 9I in. (1882), 5800 gns., and " The Sign
Painter " (1891), 6450 gns. High prices are also fetched by
pictures of Daubigny, Fortuny, Gallait, G£r6me, Troyon and
Israels. The most marked feature of late has been the demand for
the 18th-century painters Watteau, Boucher, Fragonard, Pater
and Lancrel; thus " La Ronde Champetre " of the last named
brought £11,200 at the Say Sale in 1008, and Fragonard's " Le
Reveil de Venus " £5520 at the Sedelmeyer sale, 1007.
" Specialism " is the one important development in art col-
lecting which has manifested itself since the middle of the 29th
century. This accounts for and explains the high average quality
of the Wellcsley (1866), the Bucclcuch (1888) and the Holford
(1893) collections of drawings by the Old Masters; for the
Sibson Wedgwood (1877), the Due dc Forli Dresden (1877),
the Shuldham blue and white porcelain (1880), the Benson
collection of antique coins (1909), and for the objects of art at
the Massey-Mainwaring and Lewis-Hill sales of 1007. Very many
other illustrations in nearly every department of art collecting
might be quoted— the superb series of Marlborough gems (187$
and 1809) might be included in this category but for the fact
that it was formed chiefly in the 18th century. The appreciation
— commercially at all events — of mezzotint portraits and of
portraits printed in colours, after masters of the early English
school, was one of the most remarkable features in art sales
during the last years of the 19th century. The shillings of fifty
years before were then represented by pounds. The Fraser
collection (December 4 to 6, 1900) realized about ten times
the original outlay, the mezzotint of the " Sisters Frank-
land," after Hoppner, by W. Ward, selling for 290 guineas as
against 10 guineas paid for it about thirty years previously.
The H. A. Blyth sale (March 11 to 13, xooi, 346 lots,
£21,717: xos.) of mezzotint portraits was even more remarkable,
and as a collection it was the choicest sold within recent times,
the engravings being mostly in the first state. The record prices
were numerous, and, in many cases, far surpassed the prices which
Sir Joshua Reynolds received for the original pictures; if- the
exceptionally fine example of the first state of the " Duchess of
Rutland," after Reynolds, by V. Green, realized 1000 guineas,
whereas the artist received only £150 for the painting itself.
Even this unprecedented price for a mezzotint portrait was
exceeded on the 30th of April 1001, when an example of the first
published state of " Mrs Carnac," after Reynolds, by J. R. Smith,
sold for 1160 guineas. At the Louis Huth sale (1905) 83 lots
brought nearly £10,000, Reynolds's " Lady Bampfylde" by T.
Watson, first state before letters, unpublished, fetching 1200
guineas. Such prioes as these and many others which might
be quoted are exceptional, but they were paid for objects of
exceptional rarity or quality.
It is not necessary to pursue the chronicle of recent sales,
which have become a feature of every season. It is worth men-
tioning, however, that the Holland sale, in June 1008, realized
£138,118 (432 lots), a " record " sum for & collection of pictures
mainly by modern artists; and that for the Rodolphe Kann
collection ( Paris) of pictures and objects of art, including x 1 mag-
nificent RembrandU, Messrs Duveen paid £1,000,000 \p 1907.
In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices
for really great artistic pieces, even to a sensational extent. The
competition has become acute, largely owing to American and
German acquisitiveness. The demand for the finest woefcs of art
of all descriptions is much greater than the supply. As an
illustration of the magnitude of the art sale business it may be
mentioned that the " turnover " of yne firm in London alone
has occasionally exceeded £1,000,000 annually.
Bibliography. — The chief compilations dealing with art sales
in Great Britain are: G. Rcdford, Art Sates (1888) ; and W. Roberts.
Memorials of Christie* s (1897); whilst other books containing much
important matter are W. Buchanan, Memoirs of Pointing; The
Year's Art (1880 and each succeeding year); F. S. Robinson. Too
Connoisseur-, and L. Soullie, Les Ventes dt tableaux, dessims d objets
d'arl au XIX* siicie (chiefly French).
ARTS AND CRAFTS, a comprehensive title for the arts of
decorative design and handicraft — all those which, in association
with the mother-craft of building (or architecture), go to the
making of the house bcautif uL Accounts of these will be found
under separate headings. " Arts and crafts " are also associated
with the movement generally understood as the F.nglt*h revival
of decorative art, which began about 1875. The title itself only
came into general use when the Arts and Crafts Exhibition
Society was founded, and held its first exhibition at the New
Gallery, London, in the autumn of x888, since which time arts
and crafts exhibitions have been common all over Great Britain.
The idea of forming a society for the purpose of showing con-
temporary work in design and handicraft really arose out of a
movement of revolt or protest against the exclusive view of art
encouraged by the Royal Academy exhibitions, in which oil
paintings in gilt frames claimed almost exclusive attention—
sculpture, architecture and the arts of decorative design being
relegated to quite subordinate positions. In 1 886, out of a feeling
of discontent among artists as to the inadequacy of the Royal
Academy exhibitions, considered as representing the art of
Great Britain, a demand arose for a national exhibition to include
all the arts of design. One of the points of this demand was for
the annual election of the hanging committee by the whole body
of artists. After many meetings the group representing the arts
and crafts (who belonged to a larger body of artists and craftsmen
called the Art-workers' Guild, founded in 1884), 1 perceiving that
the painters, especially the leading group of a school not hitherto
well represented in the Academy exhibitions, only cherished
the hope of forcing certain reforms on the Academy, and were
by no means prepared to lose their chances of admission to its
privileges, still less to run any risk in the establishment of a really
comprehensive national exhibition of art, decided to organize
an exhibition themselves in which artists and craftsmen might
show their productions, so that contemporary work in decorative
art should be displayed to the public on the same footing, and
with the same advantages as had hitherto been monopolized by
pictorial art. For many years previously there had been great
activity in the study and revival in the practice of many of the
neglected decorative handicrafts. Amateur societies and classes
were in existence, like the Home Arts and Industries Association,
which had established village classes in wood-carving, metal
work, spinning and weaving, needlework, pottery and basket-
work, and the public interest in handicraft was steadily growing
The machine production of an industrial century had laid its
iron hands upon what had formerly been the exclusive province
of the handicraftsman, who only lingered on in a few obscure
trades and in forgotten corners of England for the most part
The ideal of mechanical perfection dominated British workmen,
and the factory system, first by extreme division of labour,
and then by the further specialization of the workman under
machine production, left no room for individual artistic feeling
among craftsmen trained and working under such conditions.
The demand of the world-market ruled the character and quality
of production, and to the few who would seek some humanity,
simplicity of construction or artistic feeling in their domestic
decorations and furniture, the only choice was that of the trades-
man or salesman, or a plunge into costly and doubtful experi-
ments in original design. From the 'forties onward there had
> Whose members, comprehending as they do the principal ttviat
designers, architect*, painters and craftsmen of all kinds, have played
no inconsiderable part in the English.revivai
ART SOCIETIES
701
been much research and study of medieval art in England;
there had been many able designers, architects and antiquaries,
such as the Pugins and Henry Shaw (1800-1873) and later
William Burges (1827-1881), William Butterfield (18 14-1000) and
G. E. Street and others. The school of pre-Raphaelitc painters, by
their careful and thorough methods, and their sympathy with
medieval design, were among the first to turn attention to beauty
of design, colour and significance in the accessories of daily life,
and artists like D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown, and W.
Holman Hunt themselves designed and painted furniture.
The most successful and most practical effort indeed towards
the revival of sounder ideas of construction and workmanship
may be said to have arisen ont of the work of this group of artists,
and may be traced to the workshop of William Morris and his
associates in Queen Square, London. William Morris, whose
name covers so large a field of artistic as well as literary and
social work, came well equipped to his task of raising the arts
of design and handicraft, of changing the taste of his countrymen
from the corrupt and vulgar ostentation of the Second Empire,
and its cheap imitations, which prevailed in the 'fifties and
'sixties, and of winning them back, for a time at least, to the
massive simplicity of plain oak furniture, or the delicate beauty
of inlays of choice woods, or the charm of painted work, the
richness and frank colour of formal floral and heraldic pattern
in silk textiles and wall-hangings and carpets, the gaiety and
freshness of printed cotton, or the romantic splendour of arras
tapestry. Both William Morris and his artistic comrade and life-
long friend, Edward Burnc- Jones, were no doubt much influenced
at the outset by the imaginative insight, the passionate artistic
feeling, and the love of medieval romance and colour of Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, who remains so remarkable a figure in the great
artistic and poetic revival of the latter half of the 19th century.
To William Morris himself, in his artistic career, it was no small
advantage to gain the ear of the English public first by his
poetry. His verse-craft helped his handicraft, but both lived
aide by side. The secret of Morris's great influence in the re-
vival was no doubt to be attributed to his way of personally
mastering the working details and handling of each craft he took
up in turn, as well as to his power of inspiring his helpers and
followers. He was painter, designer, scribe, illuminator, woodV
cngraver, dyer, weaver and finally printer and papermaker,
and having mastered these crafts be could effectively direct and
criticize the work of others. His own work and that of Burne-
Jones were well known to the public, and in high favour long
before the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society was formed, and
though largely helped and inspired by the work of these two
artists, the aims and objects of the society rather represented
those of a younger generation, and were in some measure a fresh
development both of the social and the artistic ideas which
were represented by Ruskin, Rossetti and Morris, though the
society includes men of different schools. Other sources of in-
fluence might be named, such as the work of Norman Shaw and
Philip Webb in architecture and decoration, of Lewis Day in
surface pattern, and William de Morgan in pottery. The demand
for the acknowledgment of the personality of each responsible
craftsman in a co-operative work was new, and it had direct
bearing upon the social and economic conditions of artistic pro-
duction. The principle, too, of regarding the material, object,
method and purpose of a work as essential conditions of its
artistic expression, the form and character of which must always
be controlled by such conditions, had never before been so
emphatically stated, though it practically endorsed the somewhat
vague aspirations current for the unity of beauty with utility.
Again, a very notable return to extreme simplicity of design
in furniture and surface decoration may be remarked ;. and
a certain reserve in the use of colour and ornament, and a love
of abstract forms in decoration generally, which are characteristic
of later taste. Not less remarkable has been the new develop-
ment in the design and workmanship of jewelry, gold- and
silversmiths' work, and enamels, with which the names pf
Alexander Fisher, Henry Wilson, Nelson Dawson and C. R.
Ashbte axe associated. Among the arts and crafts of design
which have blossomed into new life in recent yean— and there
is hardly one which has not been touched by the new spirit—
book-binding must be named as having attained a fresh and
tasteful development through the work of Mr Cobden-Sanderson
and his pupils. The art and craft of the needle also must not
be forgotten, and its progress is a good criterion of taste In
design, choice of colour and treatment. The work of Mrs Morris,
of Miss Burden (sometime instructress at the Royal School of Art
Needlework, which has carried on its work from 1875), of Miss
May Morris, of Miss Una Taylor, of Miss Buckle, of Mrs Waiter
Crane, of Mrs Ncwbcry, besides many other skilled needlewomen,
has been frequently exhibited. Good work is often seen in the
national competition works of the students of the English art
schoc4s r shown at South Kensington in July. The increase of
late years in these exhibitions of designs worked out in the
actual material for which they were intended is very remarkable,
and is an evidence of the spread of the arts and crafts movement
(fostered no doubt by the increase of technical schools, especially
of the type of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the
Technical Education Board of the London County Council),
of which it may be said that if it has not turned all British
craftsmen into artists or all British artists into craftsmen, it
had done not a little to expand and socialize the idea of art,
and (perhaps it is not too much to say) has made the tasteful
English house with its furniture and decorations a model for the
civilized world. (W. Ca.)
ART SOCIETIES In banding themselves into societies and
associations artists have always been especially remarkable.
The fundamental motive of such leaguing together is apparent,
for, by the establishment of societies, it becomes possible for the
working members of these to hold exhibitions and thereby to
obtain some compensation or reward for their labours. With the
growth of artistic practice and public interest, however, art
societies have been instituted where this primary object is either
absent or is allied to others of more general scope. The further*
ance of a cult and the specializing of work have also given rise
to many new associations in Great Britain, besides the Royal
Academy (see Academy, Royal). At the outset, therefore, it
will be weU to mention the leading art societies thus described.
The (now Royal) Society of Painters in Water Colours, founded
in 1804, and the (now Royal) Society of British Artists (1823),
are typical of those societies which exist merely for purposes
of holding exhibitions and conferring diplomas of membership.
The British Institution (for the encouragement of British artists)
was started in 1806 on a plan formed by Sir Thomas Bernard;
and in the gallery, erected by Alderman Boydell to exhibit the
paintings executed for his edition of Shakespeare, were from
time to time exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased
British artists and others, till 1867, when the lease of the premises
expired. A fund of £16,200, then in the hands of trustees, had
accumulated to £24,610 in 1884. The Artists' Society, formed
in 1830, has for its object the providing of facilities to enable
its members to perfect themselves in their art. To this end there
is a good library of works on art, and abundant opportunities
are afforded for general study from the life. In the furtherance
of a cult the Japan Society, devoted to the encouragement of
the study of the arts and industries of Japan, is a typical example;
and the Society of Mezzotint Engravers is representative of
those bodies formed in the interests of particular groups of
workers. One of the remarkable features in the history of art
in Great Britain has been the' rapid increase of the artistic rank
and file. Taking the number of exhibitors at the principal
London and provincial exhibitions, it is found that in the period
1885-1000 the ranks were doubled. At theendof the 10th century
it was estimated that there were quite 7000 practising artists.
Coincident with this astonishing development there has been a
corresponding addition of new art societies and the enlargement
of older bodies. For instance, the membership of the Royal
Society of British Artists advanced in the period mentioned from
80 to 150. Similar extensions can be noted in other societies,
or in such a case as that of the Royal Institute of Painters
in Water Colours, where the membership is limited to tod*
J02
ART SOCIETIES
it is to be noticed that more space is given to the works of
outsiders. But the expansion of older exhibiting societies has
not proved sufficient. Portrait painters, pastellists, designers,
miniaturists and women artists have felt the necessity of forming
separate coteries. Interesting though these movements from
within may be, the growth of societies originating in the spirit
of altruism associated with such names as Ruskin and Kyrle
is equally instructive. Nearly all these are the products of the
last quarter of the 19th century, and include the Sunday Society,
which in 1806 secured the Sunday opening of the national
museums and galleries in the metropolis.
The specializing of study and work has also given rise to much
artistic endeavour. For a long time archaeology— British and
Egyptian— claimed almost exclusive attention. Latterly the
arts of India and Japan have engaged much notice, and societies
have been organized to further their study. Finally, bands of
workers in particular branches of art have felt the need of
clubbing together in order to protect their special interests. A
slight suspicion of trade-unionism is attached to some of these;
but on the whole the establishment of such bodies as the Society
of Illustrators, the Society of Designers, and the Society of
Mezzotint Engravers has been with a view to advancing the
public knowledge of the merits of these branches of artistic
enterprise.
Exhibiting Societies.— (a) Old Established.— These in
London are: The Royal Academy, the Royal Water Colour
Society, the Royal Institute of Painters In Water Colours, the
Society of Oil Painters, and the Royal Society of British Artists.
In the provinces, the Birmingham Royal Society of Artists has
been in existence since 1825, and has a life academy with professors
attached, (b) Modern. — In this category are many which reflect
the new spirit which came into artistic life in the last quarter of
the 10th century. The New English Art Club, founded in 1885
as a protest against academic art, achieves its purpose by
exhibition only. The International Society of Painters and
Engravers, again, represents the wider ideas of the 20th century.
The Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, consisting of
fellows and associates, not exceeding 150 in all, conserves the
interests of a numerous body of workers, and, in addition to
holding exhibitions, confers diplomas (R.E. and A.R.E.) on the
exhibitors of meritorious etchings or engravings. The Society
of Women Artists (formerly the Society of Lady Artists) is wholly
devoted to the display of works by female artists, and in 189 1
the Society of Portrait Painters was formed to carry out the
object conveyed in its title. Two associations advance the art
of the miniature-painter, and the Pastel Society, formed in 1898,
holds displays of members' work at the Royal Institute Galleries.
In Scotland there is the Royal Scottish Academy. The Royal
Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colours (Glasgow) grants
the title R.S.W. to its members, and the Society of Scottish
Artists (Edinburgh), founded in 1801 , has a membership of nearly
500 young artists. Other exhibiting societies which call for
mention arc: The Yorkshire Union of Artists (Leeds), which
consolidates many local societies; the Nottingham Society of
Artists, which also encourages drawing from the living model;
and the Liverpool Sketching Club, founded in 1870, which holds
an annual exhibition.
Societies or Instruction and Popular Encouragement.
—It is under this head that the chief evidence of the modern
art revival will be found. First it should be noted that there
are very few societies designed for the artistic improvement
of artists. The Artists' Society has already been mentioned;
and the Art Workers' Guild, which meets at Clifford's Inn Hall,
provides meetings, from which the public is excluded, where
profitable discussions take place on questions of craft and design.
But, as a rule, the art society, of which only artists are mem-
bers, is organized for exhibition purposes or for the protection of
interests. With regard to those societies of popular and educa-
tional intention the old Society of Arts in the Adelphi, founded
in J 7 54, enjoys a good record. Numerous lectures on art subjects
have from time to time been given, and in 1887 a scheme was
devised by which awards are made to student-workers in design.
The Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts (Conduit
Street) has also laboured since its foundation in 1858 to increase
a technical knowledge, its members holding conversazioni at
various picture galleries. The Artists' and Amateurs' Com-er-
sazione, instituted in 183 1, which used to meet at the Piccadilly
Galleries and is now defunct, carried out a similar plan. Two
other societies, now obsolete, should be mentioned whose met hut's
were directly educational. The Arundel Society, which far
many years promoted the knowledge of art by copying end
publishing important works of ancient masters, issued to its
members on payment of annual subscriptions, was evenlua ly
wound up on the last day of 1897. The Arundel Club, founded
in 1004, continues the aim, but with a wider scope, reproducing
works of art rendered somewhat inaccessible by being in private
collections. The International Chalcographies I Society, formed
for the study of the early history of engraving, also did use»ul
work. Another association of painters, sculptors, architects
and engravers, the Graphic Society, ceased on the 20th of
October 1800. This was one of the most interesting o(
societies, rare works of art being exhibited and discussed 11
its meetings. A very active educational body, originated n
1888, namely the Royal Drawing Society, has for its definite
object the teaching of drawing as a means of education. The
methods of instruction are based on the facts that very young
children try to draw before they can write, and that they have
very keen perception and retentive memory. The society aims,
therefore, at using drawing as a means of developing these innate
characteristics of the young, and already nearly 300 important
schools follow out its system. Lord Leigh ton, Sir John Millars
and Sir Edward Bume -Jones took an active part in the society's
labours. The Art for Schools Association, founded in i88j. h=s
also done steady work in endeavouring to provide schools with
works of art These are chiefly reproductions of standard works
of art or of historical and natural subjects. The wave of enthusi-
asm aroused by Mr Ruskin's teachings caused Societies of the
Rose to be founded in London, Manchester, Sheffield, Brrnurg-
ham, Aberdeen and Glasgow; but some of these eventually
ceased active work, to be revived again, however, by the Ruskin
Union, formed in the year of the great writer's death (iqoo).
Most of these societies were formed in 1879; but it should not
be forgotten that two years earlier the Kyrle Society was started
with the object of bringing the refining and cheering influences
of natural and artistic beau ty to the homes of the people. Under
the presidency of Earl Brownlow, the Home Arts and Industries
Association continues a work which was started in 1884, ard
anticipated much of the present system of technical education
Voluntary teachers organize classes for working people, at wh..h
a practical knowledge of art handiwork is taught. Training
classes for voluntary teachers are held at the studios at the
Albert Hall, as well as an annual exhibition. An interesting
type of society has been established in Bolton, Lancashire.
Under the title of an Arts Guild the members, numbering
over 200, devote themselves to the advancement of taste in
municipal improvements.
Societies or Special Study, Practice and Protection.—
Under this head should be placed those associations which affect
a cult, or are composed of particular workers, or which protect
public or private interests. Perhaps the chief of the first kind
is the Japan Society, which, since its inception in 1892, has been
joined by over 1350 members interested in matters relating to
Japanese art and industries. The Dtircr Society, formed in 1S07.
has for its main object the reproduction of works by Albrecht
Dttrer, and his German and Italian contemporaries. The Vasan
Society, founded in 1005, works in harmony with the Arundel
Club and the DUrer Society, reproducing drawings by the Old
Masters. In this ca tegory of special study may also be placed t he
Society for the Encouragement and Preservation of Indian Art.
the Egypt Exploration Fund, and the Society for the Promo-
tion of Hellenic Studies. Of the societies of special practice it
has already been noticed that some are purely exhibiting associa
tions, such as the Portrait Painters, the Pastel Society, and the
two miniature bodies. The formation of the Society of Mezzotint
ART TEACHING
703
Engraven in 1898 is an example of the leaguing together of
particular workers to call attention to their interests. Original
and translator engravers, together with collectors and con-
noisseurs, comprise the membership. The decaying art of wood
engraving is also fostered by the International Society of Wood
Engravers, and the Society of Designers, founded in 1896, safe-
guards the interests of professional designers for appUed art,
without holding exhibitions. Special practice and protection are
also considered by the Society of Illustrators, composed of artists
who work in black and white for the illustrated press. This
society was inaugurated in 1804, and fifteen of the members of
the committee must be active workers in illustration. As an
instance of the tendency of art workers to combine, the Society
of Art Masters is a good illustration. This is an association of
teachers of art schools, controlled by the art branch of the Board
of Education, and has a membership of over 300. Good work of
another kind occupies the National Trust for Places of Historic
Interest or Natural Beauty. The council of the Trust includes
representatives of such bodies as the National Gallery, the
Royal Academy, the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours,
the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects, the Universities, Kyrle Society, Society for the Protection
of Ancient Buildings and the Selborne Society.
Foiexgn Art Societies.— The following are brief particulars
of the chief art societies elsewhere than in Great Britain:—
AUSTRIA.— Vienna. Vereinigung bildender Kunstler Oslerreicks
(Society of Austrian Painters) and the Wiener Kunstlergenossensckaft
(Association of Viennese Artists).
Belgium. — Brussels, Sociiti des beaux-arts, the Libre Esthitique,
Sociiti des aquareUistes et pasteUistes, Sociiti royale beige des
aquartiksUs, and numerous private societies (cercles) in Brussels,
Antwerp 1 , Liege, Ghent and other cities.
France.— Paris, the Sociiti des artistes franeais (The Salon),
Sociiti nation/ale des beaux-arts (The New Salon), Sociiti des
aquareUistes. Exhibiting societies ate the Sociiti des artistes
mdipendants, Sociiti des orientalises, and Salon des pastellisles.
Germany. — The small local societies are affiliated to one large
parent body, the Deutsche Kunstlergenossensckaft, in Berlin under
the presidency of Anton von Werner. The Deutsche IUustraloren-
terband watches over the interests of illustrators and designers. In
Munich there are two bodies — the Kunstlergenossensckaft (old society
of artists), holding its exhibitions in the Glasj
bildender Kinstler, the Secessionists.
Italy. — Four exhibiting societies: Rome, Sooietd in Arte Libertas,
Scuota. degJi Aquarellistti Milan, Famiglia Artistic*, Societd degli
Artiste 1 Florence, Circolo Artistico; Naples, Instituti di Belli Arti.
Portugal. — Scciedade promotora das Bellas- Artes and Cremio
Artistico.
Russia.— There Is no exclusively art society of importance, but
there is at St Petersburg the Sociiti lUHraue et artistique.
Spain. — Madrid, V Association des artistes espagnols.
Sweden. — Stockholm, Sveuska Konstuareruas Forening.
Switzerland.— Berne, La Sociiti des peintres et scvJpteurs
suisses.
United States.— New York, National Academy of Design,
American Water Color Society, and National Sculpture Society.
(A.C.R.C.)
ART TEACHING. It is the tendency of all departments of the
human mind to outgrow their original limits. Traditions of
teaching are long-lived, especially in art, and new ideas only
slowly displace the old, so that art teaching as a whole is seldom
abreast of the ideas and practice of the more advanced artists.
The old academic system adapted to the methods and aims in art
in the 18th century, which has been carried on in the principal
art schools of Great Britain with but slight changes of method,
consisted chiefly of a course of drawing from casts of antique
statues in outline, and in light and shade without backgrounds, of
anatomical drawings, perspective, and drawing and painting
from the living model. Such a training seems to be more or less
a response to Lessing's definition of painting as " the imitation of
solid bodies upon a plane surface/' It seems to have been
influenced more by the sculptor's art than any other. Indeed,
the academic teaching from the time of the Italian Renaissance
was no doubt principally derived from the study of antique
sculpture; the proportions of the figure, the style, pose, and
sentiment being all taken from Graeco-Roman and Roman
sculptures, discovered so abundantly in Italy from the 16th
century onwards. As British ideas of art were principally
derived from Italy, British academics endeavoured to follow the
methods of teaching in vogue there in, later times, and so the art
student in Great Britain has bad his intention and efforts
directed almost exclusively to the representations of the abstract
human form in abstract relief. Traditions in art, however, may
sometimes prove helpful and beneficial, and preservative of beauty
and character, as in the case of certain decorative and constructive
arts and handicrafts in common use, such as those of the rural
waggon-maker and wheelwright, and horse-harness maker.
Some schools of painting, sculpture and architecture have
preserved fine and noble traditions which yet allowed for in-
dividuality. Such traditions may be said to have been character-
istic of the art of the middle ages. It often happens, too, when
many streams of artistic influence meet, there may be a certain
domination or ascendancy of the traditions of one art over the
others, which is injurious in its effects on those arts and diverts
them from their true path. The domination of individualistic
painting and sculpture over the arts of design during the last
century or two is a case in point.
With the awakening of interest in industrial art— sharply
separated by pedantic classification from fine art — which began
in England about the middle of the 10th century, schools of
design were established which included more varied studies.
Even as early as 1836 a government grant was made towards the
opening of pubUc galleries and the establishment of a normal
school of design with a museum and lectures, and in 1837 the
first school of design was opened at Somerset House. In 1840
grants were made to establish schools of the same kind in
provincial towns, such as Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow,
Leeds and Paisley. The names of G. Wallis in 1847, and
Ambrose Poynter in 1850, are associated with schemes of art
instruction adopted in the government art schools, and the year
1851, the year of the Great Exhibition, was also marked by the
first public exhibition of students' works, and the first institu-
tion of prizes and scholarships. In 1852 " the Department
of Practical Art " was constituted, and a museum of objects
collected at Marlborough House which afterwards formed the
nucleus of the future museum at South Kensington. In 1853
" the Department of Science and Art " was established, and in
1857, under the auspices of Henry Cole, the offices of the depart-
ment and the National Art Training School were removed from
Marlborough House to South Kensington. Classes for instruction
in various crafts had been carried on both at Somerset House and
Marlborough House, and the whole object of the government
schools of design was to give an artistic training to the designer
and craftsman, so that he could carry back to his trade or craft
improved taste and skill. The schools, however, became largely
filled by students of another type — leisured amateurs who sought
to acquire some artistic accomplishment, and even in the case of
genuine designers and craftsmen who developed pictorial skill in
their studies, the attraction and superior social distinction and
possibility of superior commercial value accruing to the career
of a painter of easel pictures diverted the schools from their
original purpose.
For some time after the removal to South Kensington, during
the progress of the new buildings, and under the direction of
Godfrey Sykes and F. W. Moody, practical decorative work both
in modelling and painting was carried out in the National Art
Training School; but on the completion of these works, the
school relapsed into a more or less academic school on the
ordinary lines, and was regarded chiefly as a school for the train-
ing of art teachers and masters who were required to pass through
certain stereotyped courses and execute a certain series of
drawings in order to obtain their certificates. Thus model-
drawing, freehand outline, plant-drawing in outline, outline
from the cast, light and shade from the cast, drawing of the
antique figure, still life, anatomical drawings, drawing and
painting from the life, ornamental design, historic studies of
ornament, perspective and geometry, were all taken up in a
cut-and-dried way, as isolated studies, and with a view solely
to obtaining the certificate or passing an examination. TW*
theoretic kind of training, though still in force, and the
7°4
ART TEACHING
enabled the department to turn out certificated teachers for the
schools of the country of a certain standard, and to give to
students a general theoretic idea of art, has been found wanting,
since, in practice, when the student in design leaves his school
and desires to take up practical work as a designer or craftsman,
he requires special knowledge, and specialized skill in design for
his work to be of use; and though he may be able to impart to
others what he himself has laboriously acquired, the theoretic
and general character of his training proves of little or no use,
face to face with the ever shifting and changing demands of the
modern manufacturer and the modern market.
A growing conviction of the inadequacy of the schools of the
Science and Art Department (now the Board of Education),
considered as training grounds for practical designers and
craftsmen, led to the establishment of new technical schools in
the principal towns of Great Britain. The circumstance of
certain large sums, diverted from their original purpose of com-
pensation to brewers, being available for educational purposes
and at the disposal of the county councils and municipal bodies,
provided the means for the building and equipment of these
new technical schools, which in many cases are under the same
roof as the art school in the provincial towns, and, since the
Education Act of 1002, are generally rate-supported. The art
schools formerly managed by private committees and supported
by private donors, assisted by the government grants, are now,
in the principal industrial towns of Great Britain, taken over
by the municipality. Birmingham is singularly well organized
in this respect, and its art school has long held a leading position.
The school is well housed in a new building with class-rooms
with every appliance, not only for the drawing, designing and
modelling side, but also for the practice of artistic handicrafts
such as metal repoussl, enamelling, wood-carving, embroidery,
&c. The municipality have also established a jewelry school,
so as to associate the practical study of art with local industry.
Manchester and other cities are also equipped with well-organized
art schools.
The important change involved in the incorporation of the
Science and Art Department with the Board of Education also
led to a reorganization of the Royal College of Art. A special
council of advice on art matters was appointed, consisting of re-
presentatives of painting, sculpture, architecture and design, who
deal with the Royal College of Art, and appoint the professors
who control the teaching in the classes for architecture, design
and handicraft, decorative painting and sculpture, modelling
and carving. The council decide upon the curriculum, and
examine and criticize the work of the college from time to time.
They also advise the board in regard to the syllabus issued to
the art schools of the country, and act as referees in regard to
purchases for the museum.
Of other institutions for the teaching of art, the following may
be named: The Royal Drawing Society of Great Britain and
Ireland, which was formed principally to promote the teaching
of drawing in schools as a means of education. The system
therein adopted differs from the ordinary drawing courses, and
favours the use of the brush. Brush work has generally been
adopted for elementary work, too, by London County Council
teachers, drawing being now a compulsory subject Remarkable
results have been obtained by the Alma Road Council schools in
the teaching of boys from eight to twelve by giving them spaces
to fill with given forms—leaf shapes— from which patterns are
constructed to fill the spaces, brush and water-colour being the
means employed. At the Royal Female School of Art in Queen
Square, London, classes in drawing and painting from life are
held, and decorative design is also studied. There are also the
Royal School of Art Needlework and the School of Art Wood-
carving, all aided by the London County Council. The City
and Guilds of London Institute has two departments for what
is termed " applied " art, one at the South London School of
Technical Art, and the other at the Art Department in the
Technical College, Finsbury. The Slade School of Drawing,
Painting ancj Sculpture, University College, Gower Street, con-
fines itself to drawing and painting from the antique and life,
and exercise in pictorial composition. There are also lec tu res on
anatomy and perspective. The Slade professorships at Oxford
and Cambridge universities are concerned with the teaching and
literature of art, but they do not concern themselves with the
practice. There are also, in addition to the schools of art named
and those in connexion with the Board of Education and the
London County Council in the various districts of London, many
and various private clubs and schools, such as the T^ghawi u d
" Heathcrley V 1 chiefly concerned in encouraging drawing and
painting from the life, and for the study of art from the pictorial
point of view, or for the preparation of candidates for the Royal
Academy or other schools. The polytechnics and technical insti-
tutes also provide instruction in a great variety of artistic crafts.
A general survey, therefore, of the various institutions which
are established for the teaching of art in Great Britain gives the
impression that the study of art is not neglected, although,
perhaps, further inquiry might show that, compared with the
great educational establishments, the proportion is not excessive.
Now that the Education Act 1002 has given the county coonrib
control of elementary and secondary education and charged
them with the task of promoting the co-ordination of all forms
of education in consultation with the Board of Education, it a
probable that an elementary scholar who shows artistic ability
will be enabled to pass on from the elementary classes in one
school to the higher art and technical schools, secondary and
advanced, without retracing his steps, thus escaping the depres-
sion of going over old ground.
The general movement of revival of interest in the arts of
decorative design and the allied handicrafts, with the desire
to re-establish their influence in art-teaching, has been doe to
many causes, among which the work of the Arts and Crafts
Exhibition Society may count as important From the leading
members of this body the London County Council Technical
Educational Board, when it was face to face with the problem
of organizing its new schools and its technical classes, sought
advice and aid. Success has attended their schools, especially
the Central School of Arts and Crafts at Morley Hall, Regent
Street. The object of the school is to provide the craftsman ia
the various branches of decorative design with such means of
improving his taste and skill as the workshop does not afford.
It does not concern itself with the amateur or with theoretic
drawing. The main difference in principle adopted in this school
in the teaching of design is the absence of teaching design apart
from handicraft. It is considered that a craftsman thoroughly
acquainted with the natural capacities of his material and strictly
understanding the conditions of his work, would be able, H he
had any feeling or invention, to design appropriately in that
material, and no designing can be good apart from a knowledge
of the material in which it is intended to be carried out. It
should be remembered, too, that graphic skill in repre se nting the
appearances of natural objects is one sort of skill, and the execu-
tive skill of the craftsman in working out his design, say in wood
or metal, is quite another. It follows that the works of drawing
or design made by the craftsman would be of quite a different
character from a pictorial drawing, and might be quite simple
and abstract, while clear and accurate. The training for the
pictorial artist and for the craftsman would, therefore, naturally
be different.
The character of the art-teaching adopted in any country
must of course depend upon the dominant conception of art and
its function and purpose. If we regard it as an idle accomplish-
ment for the leisured few, its methods will be amateurish and
superficial. If we regard art as an important factor in education,
as a language of the intelligence, as an indispensable companion
to literature, we shall favour systematic study and a training in
the power of direct expression by means of line. We shall value
the symbolic drawing of early civilizations like the Egyptian,
and symbolic art generally, and in the history of decorative an
we shall find the true accompaniment and illustration of human
history itself. From this point of view we shall value the acquisi-
tion of the power of drawing for the purpose of presenting and
explaining the facts and forms of nature. Drawing will be the
ARTUSI— ARUNDEL
7©S
most direct means at the command of the teacher to explain, to
expound, to demonstrate where mere words are not sufficiently
definite or explicit. Drawing in this sense is taking a more
important place in education, especially in primary education,
though there is no need for it to stop there, and one feels it may
be destined to take a more important position both as a training
for the eye and hand and an aid to the teacher. Then, again,
we may regard art more from its social aspect as an essential
accompaniment of human life, not only for its illustrative and
depicting powers, but also and no less for its pleasure-giving
properties, its power of awakening and stimulating the observa-
tion and sympathy with the moods of nature, its power of
touching the emotions, and above all of appealing to our sense
of beauty. Wc shall regard the study of art from this point of
view as the greatest civilizer, the most permeating of social and
human forces. Such ideas as these, shared no doubt by all who
take pleasure and interest in art, or feel it to be an important
element in their lives, are crossed and often obscured by a
multitude of mundane considerations, and it is probably out of
the struggle for ascendancy between these that our systems of art
teaching are evolved. There is the demand of the right to live
on the part of the artist and the teacher of art. There is the
demand on the part of the manufacturer and salesman for such
art as will help him to dispose of his goods. In the present
commercial rivalry between nations this latter demand is brought
into prominent relief, and art is apt to be made a minister, or
perhaps a slave to the market These arc but accidental relation-
ships wi th art. All who care for art value it as a means of expres-
sion, and for the pleasure and beauty it infuses into all it touches,
or as essential and inseparable from life itself. Seeing then the
importance of art from any point of view, individual, social,
commercial, intellectual, emotional, economic, it should be
important to us in our systems of art-teaching not to lose sight of
the end in arranging the means — not to allow our teaching to be
dominated by either dilettantism or commercialism, neither to
be feeble for want of technical skill, nor to sacrifice everything
to technique. The true object of art-teaching is very much like
that of all education — to inform the mind, while you give skill
to the hand— not to impose certain rigid rules, or fixed recipes
and methods of work, but while giving instruction in definite
methods and the use of materials, to allow for the individual
development of the student and enable him to acquire the power
to express himself through different media without forgetting
the grammar and alphabet of design. Practice may vary, but
principles remain, and there is a certain logic in art, as well as in
reasoning. All art is conditioned in the mode of its expression
by its material, and even the most individual kind of art has a
convention of its own by the very necessities and means of its
existence. Methods of expression, conventions alter as each
artist, each age seeks some new interpretation of nature and the
imagination'— the well-springs of artistic life, and from these
reviving streams continually flow new harmonies, new inventions
and recombinations, taking form and colour according to the
temperaments which give them birth. (W. Cr.)
ARTUSI, GIOVANNI MARIA, Italian composer and musical
theorist, was born in Bologna, and died on the 18th of August
1613. He was canonico regulare at the church of San Salvatore
in his native city. He is chiefly famous in the history of music
for his attacks upon Monteverde (9.9.) embodied in his VArtusi
oxtto d. imp. (1600). For an exhaustive explanation and a
translation of excerpts from these the studies of Dr G. Vogel and
O. Riemann should be consulted. These will be found in the
VicrUljakrsschriji fiir Musikwissenschaft, Leipzig, voL 3, pp. 326,
380 and 426.
AHU ISLANDS (Dutch Aroc), a group hi the residency of
Amboyna, Dutch East Indies; between 5° 18' and f 5' S.,
and 154° and 135° £.; the member nearest to the south-west
coast of New Guinea lying about 70 m. from it. The larger
islands (Wokan, Kobrur, Maikor and Trangan), and certain of
the lesser ones, are regarded by the Malays as one land mass which
they call tana besar (" great land "). This is justified inasmuch
as its parts are only isolated by narrow creeks of curious form,
having the character of rivers. The smaller islands number some
eighty; the total land area is 3244 sq. m.; and the population
about 22,000. The islands are low, but it is only on the coast
that the ground is swampy. The principal formation is coralline
limestone; the eastern coast is defended by coral reefs, and the
neighbouring sea (extending as far as New Guinea, and thus
demonstrating a physical connexion with that land) is shallow,
and abounds in coral in full growth. A large part of the surface
is covered with virgin forest, consisting of screw-pines, palm trees,
tree ferns, canariums, &c. The fauna is altogether Papuan.
The natives are also Papuans, but of mixed blood. They are
divided into two confederations, the Uli-luna and the Uli-sawa,
which are hostile to each other. The houses are remarkable as
being built on piles sunk in the solid rock and having two rooms,
the one surrounding the other. The people are in manners
complete savages. The natives are governed by rajas (want
kajas), the Dutch government being represented by a poslhoudcr.
In the interior is said to exist a tribe— the Korongoeis— with
white skins and fair hair, but it has never been seen by travellers,
A few villages are nominally Christian, and the Malays have
introduced Mahommedanism, but most of the natives have no
religion. Dobbo, on a small western island, is the chief place;
its resident population is reinforced annually, at the time of the
west monsoon, by traders from that quarter, who deal in the
tripang, pearl shell, tortoise-shell, and other produce of the
islands.
ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF. This historic dignity, the premier
earldom of England, is popularly but erroneously supposed to
be annexed to the possession of Arundel Castle. Norman earls
were carls of counties, though sometimes styled from their chief
residence or from the county town, and Mr J.H. Round has shown
that the earldom of " Arundel " was really that of Sussex. Its
origin was the grant by Henry I. to his second wife, in dower, of
the forfeited " honour " of Arundel, of which the castle was the
head, and which comprised a large portion of Sussex. After his
death she married William " de Aibini " (i.e. d'Aubigny), who
from about the year 1141 is variously styled earl of Sussex, of
Chichester, or of Arundel, or even Earl William " de Aibini."
His first known appearance as earl is at Christmas 1141, and it
has been ascertained that, after acquiring the castle by marriage,
he had not thereby become an earl. Henry II., on his accession,
" gave " him the castle and honour of Arundel, in fee, together
with " the third penny of the pleas of Sussex, of which he is
carl." His male line of heirs became extinct on the death of
Hugh " de Aibini," earl of Arundel, in 1243, who had four sisters
and co-heirs. In the partition of his estates, the castle and
honour of Arundel were assigned to his second sister's son, John
Fitzalan of a Breton house, from which sprang also the royal
house of Stuart. It is proved, however, by record evidence, that
neither John nor his son and successor were ever carls; but
from about the end of 1 289, when his grandson Richard came of
age, he is styled earl of Arundel. Richard's son Edmund was
forfeited and beheaded in 1326, and Arundel was out of posses-
sion of the family till 1331, when his son was restored, and
regained the castle and also the earldom by separate grants.
Both were again lost in 1397 on his son being beheaded and
attainted. But the latter's son was restored to both the earldom
and the estates by Henry IV. in 1400. He died without issue in
1415.
The castle and estates now passed to the late earl's cousin and
heir-male under a family entail, but the representation in blood
of the late earl passed to his sisters and co-heirs, of whom the
eldest had married Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk. The
descent of the earldom remained in doubt, till the heir-male's
son and heir successfully claimed it in M33. in virtue of his
tenure of the castle, alleging that it was " a dignity or name
united and annexed to the castle and lordship of Arundel for
time whereof memory of man was not to the contrary." His
claim was opposed on behalf of the Mowbrays, and the allegation
on which it was based is discussed and refuted at great length
in the Lords* Reports on the Dignity of a Peer (i. 4c* — k
In the descendants of his brother the earldom remain'
706
ARUNDEL
till 1580, when the last Fitzalan earl died, leaving as his sole heir
his daughter's son Philip Howard, whose father Thomas, duke of
Norfolk, had been beheaded and attainted in 1572.
Philip, who was through his father senior representative of the
earls of Arundel down to 1415, and through his mother sole
representative of the subsequent earls, was summoned to parlia-
ment as earl in January 1581, but was attainted in 1589. His
son Thomas was restored to the earldom and certain other
honours in 1604, and, in 1627, obtained an act of parliament
" concerning the title, name and dignity of Earl of Arundel, and
for the annexing of the Castle, Honour, Manor and Lordship of
Arundel . . . with the titles and dignities of the Baronies of
Fitzalan, Clun and Oswaldestre, and Maltravers, ... to the
same title, name and dignity of Earl of Arundel." This act,
which was based on the earl's allegation that the title had been
44 invariably used and enjoyed " by the owners of the castle,
" and by reason of the said inheritance and seisin/' has been
much discussed, especially in the Lords* Reports (i. 430-434).
There is no doubt that the earl's object was to entail the earldom
and the castle strictly on a certain line of heirs, and this was
effected by elaborate remainders (passing over the Howards,
earls of Suffolk). It is under this act of parliament that the
earldom has been held ever since, and that it passed with the
castle in 1777 to the heir-male of the Howards, although the
representation in blood then passed to heirs general. Thus the
castle and the earldom cannot be alienated from the line of heirs
on whom it is entailed by the act of 1627; while the heirship in
blood of the earlier earls (to 141 5) is vested in Lords Mowbray
and Petre and the Baroness Berkeley, and that of the later earls
(to 1777) in Lords Mowbray and Petre.
The precedence of the earldom was challenged in 1446 by
Thomas Courtenay, earl of Devon, owing to the question as to
its descent spoken of above, but the king in council confirmed to
the earl the precedence of his ancestors " by reason of the Castle,
Honour and Lordship of Arundel." In the act of 1627 the
u places " and *' pre-eminences " belonging to the earldom were
secured to it. It would appear, however, that the decision of
the dispute with the earl of Devon in 1446 restricts that prece-
dency to such as the earl's ancestors had enjoyed, if indeed it
goes farther than to guarantee his precedence over the earl of
Devon. But as there is no other existing earldom older than
that of Shrewsbury (1442), the present position of Arundel as
the premier earldom is beyond dispute.
Sec Lords' Reports on the Dignity of a Peer; Dugdale's Baronage;
Tierney's History qf Arundel; G. E. C|okayncj's Complete Peerage;
Round s Geoffrey do MandevUle; Pike's Constitutional History of
the House of Lords. (J. H. R.)
ARUNDEL, BARLS OF. According to Cokaync {Complete
Peerage, i. p. 138, note a) there is an old Sussex tradition to the
effect that
" Since William rose and Harold fell
There have been carls of Arundel."
This, he adds, " is the case If for ' of ' we read * at. 1 ** The
questions involved in this distinction are discussed in the pre-
ceding article on the earldom of Arundel, now held by the duke
of Norfolk. The present article is confined to a biographical
sketch of the more conspicuous earls of Arundel, first in the
Fitzalan line, and then in the Howard line.
Richard Fitzalan (1267-1302), earl of Arundel, was a son of
John, lord of Arundel (1246-1272), and a grandson of another
John, lord of Arundel, Clun and Oswaldestre (Oswestry), who
took a prominent, if somewhat wavering, part in the troubles
during the reign of Henry III., and who died in November 1267.
Richard, who was called earl of Arundel about 1289, fought for
Edward I. in France and in Scotland, and died on the 9th of
March 1302.
He was succeeded by his son, Edmund (1285-1326), who
married Alice, sister of John, carl de Warenne. A bitter enemy
of Piers Gaveston, Arundel was one of the ordaincrs appointed
in 1310; he declined to march with Edward II. to Bannockburn,
and after the king's humiliation he was closely associated with
Thomas, earl of Lancaster, until about 1321, when he became
connected with the Despensers and sided with the king. He
was faithful to Edward to the last, and was executed at Hereford
by the partisans of Queen Isabella on the 17th of November ijrf.
His son, Richard (c. 1307-1376), who obtained his father's
earldom and lands in 1331, was a soldier of renown and a faithful
servant of Edward III. He was present at the battle of Slurs
and at the siege of Tournai in 1340; he led one of the divisions
of the English army at Crecy and took part in the siege of
Calais; and he fought in the naval battle with the Spaniards off
Winchelsea in August 1350. Moreover, he was often employ
by Edward on diplomatic business. Soon after 1347 Arundel
inherited the estates of his uncle John, earl de Warenne, and in
1361 he assumed the title of earl de Warenne or carl of Surrey.
He was regent of England in 1355, and died on the 24th of
January 1376, leaving three sons, the youngest of whom, Thomas,
became archbishop of Canterbury.
Richard's eldest son, Richard, earl of Arundel and Surrey
(c. 1346-1307), was a member of the royal council during the
minority of Richard II., and about 1381 was made one of the
young king's governors. As admiral of the west and south he
saw a good deal of service on the sea, but without earning any
marked distinction except in 1387 when he gained a victory over
the French and their allies off Margate. About 1385 the earl
joined the baronial party led by the king's uncle, Thomas of
Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, and in 1386 was a member of
the commission appointed to regulate the kingdom and the royal
household. Then came Richard's rash but futile attempt to
arrest Arundel, which was the signal for the outbreak of
hostilities. The Gloucester faction quickly gained the upper
hand, and the earl was one, and perhaps the most bitter, of the
lords appellant He was again a member of the royal council,
and was involved in a quarrel with John of Gaunt, duke of
Lancaster, whom he accused in the parliament of 1394. After a
personal altercation with the king at Westminster in the same
year Arundel underwent a short imprisonment, and in 13^7
came the final episode of his life. Suspicious of Richard he
refused the royal invitation to a banquet, but his party had
broken up, and he was persuaded by his brother, Thomas
Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, to surrender himself and to
trust to the king's clemency. At once he was tried, was attainted
and sentenced to death, and, bearing himself with great intre-
pidity, was beheaded on the 21st of September 1307. He was
twice married and had three sons and four daughters. The earl
founded a hospital at Arundel, and his tomb in the church of the
Augustinian Friars, Broad Street, London, was long a place of
pilgrimage.
His only surviving son, Thouas (1381-1415), was a ward of
John Hoiand, duke of Exeter, from whose keeping he escaped
about 1398 and joined his uncle, Archbishop Tlomas Arundel.
at Utrecht, returning to England with Henry of Lancaster, after-
wards King Henry IV., in 1309. After Henry's coronation he
was restored to his father's titles and estates, and was employed
in fighting against various rebels in Wales and in the north of
England. Having left the side of his uncle, the archbishop,
Arundel joined the party of the Beauforts, and was one of the
leaders of the English army which went to France in 14 11 ; then
after a period of retirement he became lord treasurer on the
accession of Henry V. From the siege of Harfleur he returned
ill to England and died on the 13th of October 141 5. His wife
was Beatrix (d. i430)# » natural daughter of John I., king of
Portugal, but he left no children, and the lordship of Arundel
passed to a kinsman, John Fitzalan, Lord Maltravers (1385-
142 1 ), who was summoned as earl of Arundel in 1416.
John's son, John (1408-1435), did not secure the earldom
until 1433, "hen as the " English Achilles " he had already
won great distinction in the French wars. He was created duke
of Touraine, and continued to serve Henry VI. in the field until
his death at Beauvais from the effects of a wound on the 1 2th
of June 1435. The earl's only son, Humphrey, died in April
1438, when the earldom passed to John's brother, William
(1417-1488).
Henry Fitzalan, uth earl of Arundel (e. 1517-1580), son of
William, nth earl, by Anne, daughter of Henry Percy, 4th carl
ARUNDEL
797
of Northumberland, was born about 1517. He entered King
Henry's household, attending the latter to Calais in 153a. In
1533 he was summoned to parliament in his father's barony of
Maltravers, and in 1540 he was made deputy of Calais, where his
vigorous administration was much praised. He returned to
England in April 1544 after the death of his father, and was
made a knight of the Garter. In July of the same year he
commanded with Suffolk the English expedition to France as
lord marshal, and besieged and took Boulogne. On his return
to England he was made lord chamberlain, an office which he
retained after the accession in 1547 of Edward VI., at whose
coronation he acted as high constable. He was one of the twelve
counsellors nominated in Henry VIII. 's will to assist the executors,
but he had little power during the protectorship of Somerset or
the ascendancy of Warwick (afterwards dukeof Northumberland) ,
and in 1550 by the latter's device he was accused of embezzle-
ment, removed from the council, confined to his bouse, and fined
£12,000 — £8000 of this sum being afterwards remitted and the
charges never being proved. Subsequently he allied himself
with Somerset, and was implicated in 1551 in the latter's plot
against Northumberland, being imprisoned in the Tower in
November. On the 3rd of December 1 552, though he had never
been brought to trial, he signed a submission and confession
before the privy council, and was liberated after having been
again heavily fined. As Edward's reign drew to its close,
Arundel's support was desired by Northumberland to further
his designs on the throne for his family, and he was accordingly
reinstated in the council and discharged of his fine. In June 1 553
he opposed Edward's " device " for the succession, which passed
over his sisters Mary and Elizabeth as illegitimate, and left the
crown to the children of the duchess of Suffolk, and alone of the
council refused the " engagement " to support it, though he
signed the letters patent. On the death of Edward (July 6,
1553) he ostensibly joined in furthering the duke's plans, but
secretly took measures to destroy them, and according to some
accounts sent a letter to Mary the same evening informing her
of Edward's death and advising her to retreat to a place of
security. Meanwhile he continued to attend the meetings of
the council, signed the letter to Mary declaring her illegitimacy
and Lady Jane Grey's right to the throne, accompanied North-
umberland to announce to Jane her accession, and urged
Northumberland to leave London and place himself at the head
of the forces to attack Mary, wishing him God-speed on his
departure. In Northumberland's absence, he gained over his
fellow-councillors, and having succeeded with them in getting
out of the Tower, called an assembly of the corporation and
chief men of the city, denounced Northumberland, and had
Mary proclaimed queen, subsequently riding off to join her with
the Great Seal at Framlingham. On the 20th of July he secured
Northumberland at Cambridge, and returned in triumph with
Mary to London on the 3rd of August, riding before her with the
sword of state. He was now made a privy councillor and lord
steward, and was granted several favours and privileges, acting
as high constable at the coronation, and obtaining the right to
create sixty knights. He took a prominent part in various public
acts of the reign, was a commissioner to treat for the queen's
marriage, presided at the trial of the duke of Suffolk, assisted
in suppressing Wyatt's rebellion in 1554, was despatched on
foreign missions, and in September 1555 accompanied Philip
to Brussels. The same year he received, together with other
persons, a charter under the name of the Merchant Adventurers
of England, for the discovery of unknown lands, and was made
high steward of Oxford University, being chosen chancellor in
1559* but resigning hh> office in the same year. In 1557, on the
prospect of the war with France, he was appointed lieutenant-
general of the forces for the defence of the country, and in 1558
attended the conference at the abbey of Cercamp for the negotia-
tion of a peace. He returned to England on the death of Mary
in November 1558, and is described to Philip II. at that time as
" going about in high glee, very smart " and with hopes of
marrying the queen, but as " flighty " and of " small ability."
He was reinstated in all his offices by Elizabeth, served as high
constable at her coronation, and was visited several times by
the queen at Nonsuch in Surrey. As a Roman Catholic he
violently opposed the arrest of his co-religionists and the war
with Scotland, and in 1560 came to blows with Lord Clinton in
the queen's presence on a dispute arising on those questions.
He incurred the queen's displeasure in 1562 by holding a meeting
at his house during her illness to consider the question of the
succession and promote the claims of Lady Catherine Grey.
In 1564, being suspected of intrigues against the government,
he was dismissed from the lord-stewardship and confined to his
house, but was restored to favour in December. In March 1566
he went to Padua, but being summoned back by the queen he
returned to London accompanied by a large cavakade on the
17th of April 1567. Next year he served on the commission of
inquiry into the charges against Mary, queen of Scots. Sub*
sequently he furthered the marriage of Mary with the duke of
Norfolk, his son-in-law, together with the restoration of the
Roman Catholic religion and government, and deposition of
Elizabeth, in collusion with Spain. He made use of the incident
in 1568, of the seizure of treasure at Southampton intended for
Philip, as a means of effecting Cecil's overthrow, and urged upon
the Spanish government the stoppage of trade. He is described
in 1569 to Philip as having " good intentions," " whilst benefiting
himself as he was very needy." In January he alarmed Elizabeth
by communicating to her a supposed Spanish project for aiding
Mary and replacing her on her throne, and put before the queen
in writing his own objections to the adoption of extreme measures
against her. In June he received with Norfolk and Luroley 6000
crowns from Philip. In September, on the discovery of Norfolk's
plot, he was arrested, but not having committed himself suffi-
ciently to incur the charge of treason in the northern rebellion
he escaped punishment, was released in March 1570, and was
recalled by Leicester to the council with the aim of embarrassing
Cecil. He again renewed his treasonable intrigues, which were
at length to some extent exposed by the discovery of the Ridolfi
plot in September 1571. He was once more arrested, and not
liberated till December 1572 after Norfolk's execution. He died
on the 24th of February 1 580, and was buried in the chapel at
Arundel, where a monument was erected to his memory.
He married (1) Catherine, daughter of Thomas Grey, 2nd
marquess of Dorset, by whom he had Henry, who predeceased
him, and two daughters, of whom Mary married Thomas Howard,
4th duke of Norfolk; and (2) Mary, daughter of Sir John Arundel!
and dowager countess of Sussex, by whom he had no children.
Arundel was the last earl of his family, the title at his death
passing through his daughter Mary to the Howards.
Authorities. — MS. Life by a contemporary in Royal hfSS.,
British Museum, 17 A ix., printed with notes inGcnl. Mag. (l833)(ii.),
pp. 11, 118, 2io, 490; M. A. Tierney, Hist, of Arundel, p. 319:
Chronicle of Queen Jane (Camden Soc. 1850): Literary Remains
2 Scr. iv. 84. &c.
Philip Howard, 1st earl 1 of Arundel (1557-1505). eldest son
of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, executed for high
treason in 1 57 2, and of Lady Mary, daughter and heiress of Henry
Fitzalan, 12th earl of Arundel, was born on the 28th of June
1557. He was married in 1571 to Anne, daughter and co-heiress
of Thomas Dacrc, Lord Dacrc (1566), and was educated at
Cambridge, being accorded the degree of M.A. in 1576. Sub-
sequently Lord Surrey, as he was styled, came to court, partook
in its extravagant gaieties and dissipations, and kept his wife
in the background; but he nevertheless failed to secure the
favour of Elizabeth, who suspected the Howards generally.
On the death of his maternal grandfather in February 1580 he
became earl of Arundel and retired from the court. In 1582 his
wife joined the church of Rome, and was committed to the
charge of Sir Thomas Shirley by the queen. He was himself
suspected of disloyalty, and was regarded by the discontented
Roman Catholics as the centre of the plots against the queen's
government, and even as a possible successor. In x 58,1 T
1 i.e. in the Howard line.
708
ARUNDEL
with some reason suspected of complicity in Throgmorton's plot
and prepared to escape to Flanders, but his plans were interrupted
by a visit from Elizabeth at his house in London, and by her
order subsequently to confine himself there. In September 1 584
he became a Roman Catholic, dissembling his conversion and
attempting next year once more to escape abroad; but having
been brought back he was placed in the Tower on the 25th of
April 1585, and charged before the Star Chamber with being a
Romanist, with quitting England without leave, sharing in
Jesuit plots, and claiming the dukedom of Norfolk. He was
sentenced to pay £10,000 and to be imprisoned during the
queen's pleasure. In July 1586 his liberty was offered to him
if he would carry the sword of state before the queen to church.
In 1 588 he was accused of praying, together with other Romanists,
for the success of the Spanish Armada. .He was tried for high
treason on the 14th of April 1589, found guilty and condemned
to death; but lingered in confinement under his sentence, which
was never executed, till his death on the 10th of October 159s.
He was buried in the Tower, whence his remains were removed
in 1624 to Arundel. His career, his later religious constancy
and his tragic end have evoked general sympathy, but his
conduct gave rise to grave suspicions, and the punishment
inflicted upon him was not unwarranted; while the account of
the severity of his imprisonment given by his anonymous and
contemporary biographer should be compared with his own
letters expressing gratitude for favours allowed. 1 There appears
no foundation for the belief that he was poisoned, and according
to Camden his death was caused by his religious austerities. 1
He was the author of a translation of An Epistle of Jesus Christ
to tlte Faithful Soule by Johann Justus (1595, reprinted 1871)
and of three MS. treatises On the Excellence and Utility of Virtue.
Inscriptions carved by his hand arc still to be seen in the Tower.
He had two children, Elizabeth, who died young, and Thomas,
who (restored in blood) succeeded him as and earl of Arundel,
and was created earl of Norfolk in 1644.
Authorities.— Article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography and au
thorities there collected; the contemporary Lives of Philip Howard,
Earl of Arundel and of Anne Dacre his Wife, ed. by the duke of
Norfolk (1857); M. Ticrncy. History of Arundel (1834), p. 357;
C. H. Cooper, Atkenae Cantabrigenses (1861), with bibliography, ii.
187 and 547; H. Howard, Memoirs of the Howard Family (1824).
Thomas Howard, 2nd earl of Arundel, and earl of Surrey and
of Norfolk (c. 1 58 5- 1 646), son of Philip, 1st earl of Arundel and
of Lady Anne Dacre, was born in 1585 or 2586 and educated at
Westminster school and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Owing
to the attainder of his father he was styled Lord Maltravers, but
at the accession of James I. he was restored to his father's earl-
doms of Arundel and Surrey, and to the baronies of his grand-
father, Thomas, 4th duke of Norfolk. . He came to court, travelled
subsequently abroad, acquiring a taste for art, and was created
R.G. on his return in May 161 x. In 1613 he escorted Elizabeth,
the electress palatine, to Heidelberg, and again visited Italy.
On Christmas day 1615 Arundel joined the Church of England,
and took office, being appointed a privy councillor in 1616. He
supported Raleigh's expedition in 1617, became a member of
the New England Plantations Committee in 1620 and planned
the colonization of Madagascar. He presided over the House
of Lords Committee in April 1621 for investigating the charges
against Bacon, whom he defended from degradation from the
peerage, and at whose fall he was appointed a commissioner of
the great seal. On the 16th of May he was sent to the Tower
by the Lords on account of violent and insulting language used
by him to Lord Spencer. He incurred Prince Charles's and
Buckingham's anger by his opposition to the war with Spain
in 1624, and by his share in the duke's impeachment, and on the
occasion of his son's marriage to Lady Elizabeth Stewart without
the king's approval he was imprisoned in the Tower by Charles I.,
shortly after his accession, but was released at the instance of
the Lords in June 1626, being again confined to his house till
March 1638, when he was once more liberated by the Lords.
•See Col. of St. Pap. Dom. 1581-1500, 611: and Hist. MSS.
C&mm Mara, of Salisbury's MSS. iii. 253. 414.
•Camden » Elizabeth in Hist, of Ent^and (1706), 587.
In the debates on the Petition of Right, while approving its
essential demands, he supported the retention of some discre-
tionary power by the king in committing to prison. The same
year he was reconciled to the king and again made a privy
councillor. On the 29th of August 1621 he had been appointed
carl marshal, and in 26*3 constable of England, in 2630 reviving
the earl marshal's court. In 2625 he was made lord-lieutenant
of Sussex and in 2635 of Surrey. He was sent to the Hague in
2632 on a mission of condolence to the queen of Bohemia on her
husband's death. In 1634 he was made chief justice in eyre of
the forests north of the Trent; he accompanied Charles the same
year to Scotland on the occasion of his coronation, and in 16 \6
undertook an unsuccessful mission to the emperor to procure the
restitution of the Palatinate to the young elector. In 1638 he
supported the king's exactions from the vintners, was entrusted
with the charge of the Border forts, and, supporting alone
amongst the peers the war against the Scots, was made general
of the king's forces in the first Bishops' War, though according
to Clarendon " he had nothing martial about him but his presence
and looks." He was not employed in the second Bishops' War,
but in August 1640 was nominated captain -general south of the
Trent. In April he was appointed lord steward of the royal
household, and in 1642 as lord high steward presided at the trial
of Strafford. This closed his public career. He became again
estranged from the court, and in 2641 he escorted home Marie
de' Medici, remaining abroad, with the exception of a short visit
to England in 2642, for the rest of his life, and taking up per-
manent residence at Padua. He contributed a sum of £34.000
to the king's cause, and suffered severe losses in the war. On
the 6th of June 1644 he was created earl of Norfolk. He died at
Padua, when on the point of returning home, on the 14th of
September 1646, and was buried at Arundel.
Lord Arundel was a man of high character, an exemplary
husband and parent, but reserved and unpopular, and Clarendon
ridicules bis family pride. His claim to fame rests upon his
patronage of arts and learning and his magnificent collections.
He employed Hollar, Ought red, Francis Junius and Inigo Jones;
included among his friends Sir Robert Cotton, Spelman, Camden.
Selden and John Evelyn, and his portrait was painted by Rubens
and Vandyck. He is called the " Father of vertu in England."
and was admired by a contemporary as the person to whom
" this angle of the world oweth the first sight of Greek and
Roman statues."* He was the first to form any considers tile
collection of art in Great Britain. His acquisitions, obtained
while on his travels or through agents, and including inscribed
marbles, statues, fragments, pictures, gems, coins, books and
manuscripts, were deposited at Arundel House, and suffered
considerable damage during the Civil War; and, owing to the
carelessness and want of appreciation of his successor*, nearly
half of the marbles were destroyed. After his death the treasures
were dispersed. The marbles and many of the statues were
given by his grandson, Henry, 6th duke of Norfolk, to the
university of Oxford in 2667, became known as the Arundel
(or Oxford) Marbles, and included the famous Parian Chronicle,
or M armor Chronkon, a marble slab on which are recorded in
Greek events in Grecian history from 1382 B.C. to 354 B.C., said
to have been executed in the island of Paros about 263 B.C. Its
narration of events differs in some respects from the most trust-
worthy historical accounts, but its genuineness, challenged by
some writers, has been strongly supported by Porson and others,
and is considered fairly established. Other statues were pre-
sented to the university by Henrietta Louisa, countess of
Pomfrct, in 2755. The cabinets and gems were removed by the
wife of Henry, 7th duke of Norfolk, in 2685, and after her death
found their way into the Marlborough collection. The pictures
and drawings were sold in 1685 and 2601, and Lord Stafford's
moiety of the collection in 2720. The coins and medals were
bought by Heneage Finch, and earl of Winchelsea, and dispersed
in 1696; the library, at the instance of John Evelyn, who feared
its total loss, was given to the Royal Society, and a part,
' Peacham in the Com pt cat Gentleman (1634), p. 107* and Secret
Hist, of James I. (181 1), 1. 199.
ARUNDEL
709
consisting of genealogical and heraldic collections, to the College
of Heralds, the manuscript portion of the Royal Society's moiety
being transferred to the British Museum in 1831 and forming the
present Arundel Collection, The famous bust of Homer reached
the British Museum after passing through various hands.
Lord Arundel married in 1606 Lady Ahethea, daughter and
heir of Gilbert Talbot, 7th earl of Shrewsbury, by whom, besides
three sons who died young and one daughter, he had John, who
predeceased him, Henry Frederick, who succeeded him as. 3rd
earl of Arundel and earl of Surrey and of Norfolk, and William,
Viscount Stafford, executedin 1680. In 1849 the Arundel Society
for promoting artistic knowledge was founded in his memory.
Henry Frederick's grandson Thomas, by the reversal (1660) of
the attainder of 157s, succeeded to the dukedom of Norfolk, in
which the earldom has since then been merged.
Authorities.— See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography, and
authorities there collected; D. Lloyd, Mcmoires (1668), p. 284;
Sir E. Walker, Historical Discourses (1705), p. — '»* c - " - *'—
6272 f. r~* w ~ y ^
Thomas
334. 444. 495I.W. Crowne, A T\
Places . . . tn the Trowels of .
A.B. 1636 * -•
Number t
H. Howard, Memorials of the Howard Family (1834), p
Causton, The Howard Papers (1862) ; Preface to Catalogue of Arundel
MSS., Brit. Museum (1840), &c For publications relating to the
Parian Chronicle see Marmora ArundeUtana, publ. J. Selden (i6a8) ;
Prideaux's Marmora Oxoniensia (1676); Maittaire's variorum
edition (1732); Chandler's Marmora Oxoniensia (1763 and 1791),
G. Roberts; J. Robertson, The Parian Chronicle (1788) : J. Hewlett,
A Vindication (1789); R- Poison. "The Panan Chi
ndtcahon (I7&,/, ~- . v ._., ,«, ....... ^iwiuc, »
Tracts, ed. by T. Kidd (1815); Chronicon Parimm. ed. by C. F. C.
Wagner (1832-1833) ; C. Mullcr's Fragmenla Histoncorum Graocorum
(1841), i. 333; F. Jacoby, Das Marmot Parium (1904).
ARUMDBL, THOMAS (1353-M14), archbishop of Canterbury,
was the third son of Richard Fitialan, earl of Arundel and
Warenne, by his second wife, Eleanor, daughter of Henry
Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. His family was an old and
influential one, and when Thomas entered the church his prefer-
ment was rapid. In 1373 he became archdeacon of Taunton,
and in April 1374 was consecrated bishop of Ely. During the
early years of the reign of King Richard II. he was associated
with the party led by Thomas, duke of Gloucester, Henry, earl
of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV., and his own brother
Richard, earl of Arundel, and in 1386 he was sent with Gloucester
to Eltham to persuade Richard to return to parliament This
mission was successful, and Arundel was made lord chancellor
in place of Michael dc la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and assisted to
make peace between the king and the supporters of the commis-
sion of regency. In April 1388 he was made archbishop of York,
and, when Richard declared himself of age in 1389, he gave up
the office of chancellor, to which, however, he returned in 1391.
During his second tenure of this office he removed the courts of
justice from London to York, but they were soon brought back
to the metropolis. In September 1396 he was translated from
York to Canterbury, and again resigned the office of chancellor.
He began his new rule by a vigorous attempt to assert his rights,
warned the citizens of London not to withhold tithes, and decided
appeals from the judgments of his suffragans during a thorough
visitation of his province. In November 1396 he had officiated
at the marriage of Richard and Isabella, daughter of Charles VL,
king of France, and his fall was the sequel of the king's sudden
attack upon the lords appellant in 1397. After the arrest of
Gloucester, Warwick and Arundel, the archbishop was impeached
by the Commons with the king's consent, although Richard,
who had not yet revealed his hostility, held out hopes of safety
to him. He was charged with assisting to procure the commission
of regency in derogation of the royal authority, and sentence
of banishment was passed, forty days being given him during
which to leave the realm. Towards the end of 1397 he started
for Rome, and Pope Boniface DC, at the urgent request of the
king, translated him to the see of St Andrews, a step which the
pope afterwards confessed he repented bitterly. This translation
virtually deprived Arundel of all authority, as St Andrews did
not acknowledge Boniface.. He then became associated with
Henry of Lancaster, but did not return to England before 1309,
and the account which Froissart gives telling how he was sent by
the Londoners to urge Henry to come and assume the crown is
thought to refer to bis nephew and namesake, Thomas, earl of
ArundeL Landing with Henry at Ravenspv , he accompanied
him to the west He took his place at once as archbishop of
Canterbury, witnessed the abdication of Richard in the Tower
of London, led the new king, Henry IV., to his throne in presence
of the peers, and crowned him on the 13th of October 1399.
The main work of his later years was the defence of the church,
and the suppression of heresy. To put down the Lollards, be
called a meeting of the clergy, pressed on the statute do haereHco
comburendo, and passed sentence of degradation upon William
Sawtrey. He resisted the attempt of the parliament of 1404 to
disendow the church, but failed to induce Henry to pardon
Archbishop Scrope in 1405. In 1407 he became chancellor for
the fourth time, and in 1408 summoned a council at Oxford,
which drew up constitutions against the Lollards. These he
published in January 1400, and among them waa one forbidding
the translation of the Bible into English without the consent of
the bishop of the diocese, or of a provincial synod. In 1411 he
went on an embassy abroad, and in 141a became chancellor
again, his return to power being accompanied by a change in the
foreign policy of Henry IV. In 1397 he had sought to vindicate
his right of visitation over the university of Oxford, but the
dispute remained unsettled until 141 x when a bull was issued by
Pope John XXIII. recalling one issued by Pope Boniface IX.,
which had exempted the university from the archbishop's
authority. In 14x3 be took a leading part in the proceedings
against Sir John' Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, and in the following
year he died on the 19th of February, and was buried at Canter-
bury. A legend of a later age tells how, just before his death,
he was struck dumb for preventing the preaching of the word of
God.
The chief authorities are T. Waking-ham, Historia Anglicana, ed.
by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); Eulogium historiarum she
temporis, ed. by F. S. Haydon (London, 1858-1863); the Monk
of Evesham, Historia oitae et regni Ricardi II., ed. by T. Hearne
(Oxford, 1729) ; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,
vqI. iv. (London, 1860-1876).
ARUNDEL, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m.
S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast
railway. Pop. (1901) 2739. It is pleasantly situated on the
slope of a hill above- the river Arun, which is navigable for small
vessels to Littlehampton at the mouth, 6 m. south. From the
summit of the hill rises Arundel Castle, which guarded the passage
along the river through the hills. For its connexion with the
title of earl of Arundel see Aeundel, Earldom of. A castle
existed in the time of King Alfred, and at the time of the Conquest
it was rebuilt by Roger de Montgomerie, but it was taken from
his son, who rebelled against the reigning monarch, Henry L
In 1397 it was the scene of a conspiracy organized by the carl
of Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury and duke of Gloucester,
to. dethrone Richard H. and murder the lords of his council, a
plot which was discovered before it could be carried into execu-
tion. During the civil wars of the 17 th century, the stronghold
was frequently assaulted by the contending parties, and conse-
quently greatly damaged; but it was restored by Charles, xxtb
duke of Norfolk (d. .1815), who made it what it now is, one of
the most splendid baronial mansions in England. Extensive
reconstruction, in the style of the 13th century, was undertaken
towards the dose of the 19th century. The town, according
to the whimsical etymology shown on the corporation seal, takes
its name from hirondtllc (a swallow). The town hall is a castel-
lated building, presented to the corporation by the duke of
Norfolk. The church of St Nicholas, founded about 1375, it
Perpendicular with a low tower rising from the centre. In the
north aisle of the chancel there are several ancient monuments of
the earls of Arundel. The church is otherwise remarkable for
Its- reredos and iron work. The chancel is. the property of the
duke of Norfolk and is screened from the rest of the build' —
7io ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR— ARUSIANUS MESSIUS
although in 1880 this exercise of right by the owner was made
the subject of an action at law and subsequent appeal. The
Roman Catholic church of St Philip Neri was built by the duke
of Norfolk (1873). Some remains of a Maison Dieu, or hospital,
erected in the time of Richard II., still exist. The borough is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 2053 acres.
The first mention of Arundel (HarundeU) comes as early as 877,
when it was left by King Alfred in his will to his nephew iEthelm.
In the time of Edward the Confessor the town seems to have con-
sisted of the mill and a fortification or earthwork which was probably
thrown up by Alfred as a defence against the Danes; but it had
increased in importance before the Conquest, and appears in Domes-
day as a thriving borough and port. It was granted by the Conqueror
to Roger de Montgomery, who built the castle on the site of the
ancient earthwork. From very early times markets were held
within the borough on Thursday and Saturday, and in 128* Richard
Fiualan, earl of Arundel, obtained a grant of two annual fairs on
the 14th of May and the 17th of December. The borough returned
two members to parliament from 1302 to 1832 when the Reform
Act reduced the membership to one; in 1868 it was disfranchised
altogether. There are no early charters extant, but in 1 586 Elizabeth
acknowledged the right of the mayor and burgesses to be a body
corporate and to hold a court tor pleas under forty shillings, two
weekly markets and four annual fair*-— which rights they claimed
to have exercised from time immemorial. James II. confirmed in
1688 a charter given two years before, and incorporated the borough
under the title of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 burgesses. The
town was half destroyed by fire in 1338, but was soon rebuilt.
Arundel was formerly a thriving seaport, and in 1813 was connected
by canal with London.
See M. A. Tierney, The History and Antiquities of the Castle and
Town of Arundel (London, 1834); Victoria County History— Sussex.
ARUNDELL OF WARDOUR, THOMAS ARUNDHLI* 1ST
Bason (c. 1562-1639), son of Sir Mathew Arundell of Wardour
Castle in Wiltshire, a member of the ancient family of Arundells
of Lanherne in Cornwall, and of Margaret, daughter of Sir Henry
Willoughby, was born about 1562. In 1579 he was personally
recommended by Queen Elizabeth to the emperor Rudolph II.
He greatly distinguished himself while serving with the imperial
troops against the Turks in Hungary, and at the siege of Gran or
Esztergom on the 13th of August 1595, he captured the enemy's
banner with his own hand. He was created by Rudolph II. a
count of the Holy Roman Empire in December 1 595, and returned
to England after suffering shipwreck and barely preserving bis
life in January 1 596. His assumption of the foreign title created
great jealousy among the English peers, who were wont to give a
precedence by courtesy to foreign nobles, and he incurred the
resentment of bis father, who objected to his superior rank and
promptly disinherited him. The queen, moreover, was seriously
displeased, declared that " as chaste wives should have no glances
but for their own spouses, so should faithful subjects keep their
eyes at home and not gaze upon foreign crowns," and committed
him to the fleet immediately on his arrival, while she addressed
a long letter of remonstrance on the subject to the emperor.
Arundell remained under arrest till April, when he was liberated
after an examination. In April 1597, however, he was again
confined, but declared innocent of any charge save that of
" practising to contrive the justification of his vain title with
Ministers beyond the seas." In December he was liberated and
placed under the care of his father, but next year he was again
arrested and accused of a conspiracy against the government.
His petitions for a licence to undertake an expedition by sea,
wherein he declared "his end was honour which some base
minds call ambition," were refused, but in 1 599 he was apparently
again restored to favour. On the 4th of May 1005 he was
created by James I. Baron Arundell of Wardour, but fell again
under temporary suspicion at the time of the Gunpowder Plot.
In 1623 he once more got into trouble by championing the cause
of the recusants, of whom he was himself one, on the occasion of
the visit of the Spanish envoys, and he was committed to custody,
and in 1625 all the arms were removed by the government from
Wardour Castle, After the accession of Charles I. he was
pardoned, and attended the sittings of the House of Lords. He
was indicted in the king's bench about the year 1627 for not
paying some contribution, and in 1632 he was accused of har-
bouring a priest. In 1637 he was declared exempt from the
recusancy laws by the king's order, but in 1639 he again
petitioned for relief. The same yew he paid £500 in Dca of
attending the king at York. He died on the 7th of November
1639. Arundell was an earnest Roman Catholic, but the sus-
picions of the government as to his loyalty were probably un-
founded and stifled a career destined by nature for succesaf ul
adventure. He married (1) Mary, daughter of Henry Wriothesiey,
2nd earl of Southampton, by whom besides other children
he had Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd baron; and (2) Anne,
daughter of Miles Pbilipson, by whom he had several daughters.
Henky Arundell, 3rd Baron Arundell of Wardour (c. 1607-
1694), son of Thomas, 2nd baron, and of Blanche, daughter of
Edward, earl of Worcester, was born on the 21st of July 1607,
and succeeded on his father's death in 1643 to the family tide
and estates. A strong royalist and Roman Catholic, he supported
the king's cause, and distinguished himself in 1644 by the re-
capture of his castle at Wardour from the parliamentarians, who
had taken it in the previous year in spite of bis mother's brave
defence of the place. In 1648 he was one of the delinquents
exempted from pardon in the proposals sent to Charles in the
Isle of Wight. His estates had been confiscated, but he was
permitted about 1653 to compound for them in the sum of
£35,000. In 1652, in consequence of his being second at a dud
m which one of the combatants was killed, he was arrested, and
tried in 1653; he pleaded his peerage, but the privilege was
disallowed as the House of Lords had been abolished. At the
Restoration he regained possession of the family estates, and in
1663 was made master of the horse to Henrietta Maria. He tu
one of the few admitted to the king's confidence concerning the
projects for the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion and
the alliance with France. In 1669 he took part in the secret
council assembled by Charles II., and in October was sent to
France, ostensibly for the funeral of Henrietta Maria, but in
reality to negotiate with Louis XIV. the agreement which took
shape in 1670 in the treaties of Dover (see Charles II.). In
1676 he was privy to James's negotiations with Rome through
Coleman. He was accused in 1678 by Titus Oates of participa-
tion in the popish plot, and was one of the five Roman Catholic
peers arrested and imprisoned in the Tower in October, found
guilty by the Middlesex grand jury of high treason, and
impeached subsequently by the parliament. Lord Stafford was
found guilty and executed in December x68o, but after the
perpetration of this injustice the proceedings were interrupted,
and the three surviving peers were released on bail on the uih
of February 1684. On the 22nd of May 1685, after James II s
accession, the charge was annulled, and on the 1st of June 1685
they obtained their full liberty. In February t686, with other
Roman Catholics, Arundell urged upon the king the removal
of his mistress, Lady Dorchester, on account of her strong Pro-
testantism. In spite of his religion he was made a privy councillor
in August 1686, and keeper of the privy seal in 1687, being
excused from taking the oaths by the king's dispensation. He
presented the thanks of the Roman Catholics to James in June
1687 for the declaration of indulgence. His public career ended
with the abdication of the king, and he retired to Breamore, the
family residence since the destruction of Wardour Castle. He
died on the 28th of December 1694. He was the author of five
religious poems said to be composed during his confinement in
the Tower in 1679, published the same year and reprinted in
A Collection of Eiikty-six Loyal Poems in 1685. His piety and
benevolence to his unfortunate co-religionists were conspicuous.
Evelyn calls him " very good company " and he was a noted
sportsman, the Quorn pack being descended from his pack of
hounds at Breamore. He married Cecily, daughter of Sir Henry
Compton, by whom besides other children he had Thomas, who
succeeded him as 4th baron.
The barony is still held in the Arundell family, which has
never ceased to be Roman Catholic. The 14th baron (b. 1850)
was a direct descende nt of t he 6th.
ARUSIAITUS MBUIUS, or Messus, Latin grammarian,
flourished in the 4th century a.d. He was the author of a small
extant work Exempto Efoeutumum, dedicated to Orybrius and
Probinus, consuls for the year 395. It contains an alphabetical
ARVAL BROTHERS— ARYAN
7it
list, chiefly of verbs admitting more thiui one construction, with
examples from each of the four writers, Virgil, SaDnst, Terence
and Cicero. Cassiodorus, the only writer who mentions Arnsianus,
refers to it by the term Quadriga.
See Kefl, Crammatici Latini, vii. ; Suringar, Historic Critica SchoH-
astarum Latinorum (1834-1835): Van der Hoevea, Specimen
LiUrarium (1845).
ARVAL BROTHERS (Fratres Arvales), in Roman antiquities,
a college or priesthood, consisting of twelve members, elected
for life from the highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently,
during the empire, including the emperor. Their chief duty was
to offer annually public sacrifice for the fertility of the fields
(Varro, L. L. v. 8$). It is generally held that the college was
founded by Romulus (see AcCa Lakentia) . This legend probably
arose from the connexion of Acca Larentia, as meter Latum,
with the Lares who had a part in the religious ceremonies of the
Arvales. But apart from this, there is proof of the high antiquity
of the college, which was said to have been older than Rome itself,
in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to late times,
a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still
preserved. It is dear also that, while the members were them-
selves always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were
held in high respect. And yet it is singular that no mention of
them occurs in Cicero or Livy, and that altogether literary
allusions to them are very scarce. On the other hand, we possess
a long series of the acta or minutes of their proceedings, drawn
up by themselves, and inscribed on stone. Excavations, com-
menced in the x6th century and continued to the 19th, in the
grove of the Des Dia about 5 m. from Rome, have yielded 96 of
these records from a.d. 14 to 74 x. The brotherhood appears
to have languished in ' obscurity during the republic, and
to have been revived by Augustus. In his time the college
consisted of a master (mogUter), a vice-master (promogister),
a fiamen, and a praetor, with eight ordinary members, attended
by various servants, and in particular by four chorus boys, sons
of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore a wreath of
corn, a white fillet and the praetexta. The election of members
was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a
flameu, was himself elected for one year. The great annual
festival which they had to conduct was held in honour of the
anonymous Dea Dia, who was probably identical with Ceres.
It occupied three days in May. The ceremony of the first day
took place in Rome itself, in the house of the magbter or his
deputy, or on the Palatine in the temple of the emperors,' where
at sunrise fruits and incense were offered to the goddess. A
sumptuous banquet took place, followed by a distribution of
doles and garlands. On the second and principal day of the
festival the ceremonies were conducted in the grove of the Dea
Dia. They included a dance in the temple of the goddess, at
which the song of the brotherhood was sung, in language so
antiquated that it was hardly intelligible (see the text and
translation in Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk, i. ch. xv.) even to
Romans of the time of Augustus, who regarded it as the oldest
existing document in their mother-tongue. Espedal mention
should be made of the ceremony of purifying the grove, which
was held to be defiled by the felling of trees, the breaking of a
bough or the' presence of any iron tools, such as those used by
the lapidary who engraved the records of the proceedings on
stone. The song and dance were followed by the election of
officers for the next year, a banquet and races. On the third day
the sacrifice took place in Rome, and was of the same nature as
that offered on the first day. The Arvales also offered sacrifice
and solemn vows on behalf of the imperial family on the 3rd of
January and on other extraordinary occasions. The brotherhood
is said to have lasted tiU the time of Theodosius. The British
Museum contains a bust of Marcus Aurelius in the dress of a
Frater Arvalis.
Marini, Atti e Uonumenti de* Fratri Arvali 0793): Hoffmann,
Die if/ (1 858); OMenberg, De Sacris Fratrnm A. (1875); Be, K k »
Das Lied der Anatbruder (1856) ; Bieal. " U Chant de« Aryals ,r in
Uim. de la Soc. de Linguistwue (1881): Edon, NouveUe Elude sur
U Chant JJmural (1884); Corfu* Inscriptionum Latinorum, vi.
20*3-2119; Heiuen, Acta Fratrum ArvaUum (1874).
" &RVAU, Aivzis or Axtheis (O. None Atfr, inheritance,
and (ft, A.S. Ale, a banquet), primarily the funeral dinner, and
later, especially in the north of England, a thin, light, sweet cake,
spiced with cinnamon and nutmeg, served to the poor at such
feasts. The funeral meal was called the Arvel-dinner. The
custom seems to have been to hold on such occasions an informal
inquest, when the corpse was publicly exposed, to exculpate the
heir and those entitled to the property of the dead from all
accus ation s of foul play.
ARVBRMI, the name of an ancient Gaulish tribe in the
Auvergne, which still bears its name. It resisted Caesar longer
than most of Gaul; when once vanquished it adopted Roman
civilization readily. Its tribal deity, the god of the mountain,
the Puy de Dome, rechristened in Roman phrase Mercurius
Dumias, was famous far beyond its territory. Part of his temple
has been excavated recently.
ARYAN, a term which has been used in a confusing variety
of significations by different philologists. By Max Muller
especially it was employed as a convenient short term for the
whole body of languages more commonly known as Indo-
European (q.v.) or Indo-Germanic. In the same way Mas Muller
used Aryas as a general term for the speakers of such languages,
as in his book published in x888, Biographies of Words and the
Borne of ike Aryas. " Aryas are those who speak Aryan lan-
guages, whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In calling
them Aryas we predicate nothing of them except that the
grammar of their language is Aryan " (p. 245). It is to be
observed, therefore, that Max Muller is careful to avoid any
ethnological signification. The Aryas are those who speak
Aryan without regard to the question whether Aryan is their
hereditary language or not. As he says still more definitely
elsewhere in the same work (p. 120), " I have declared again and
again that if I say Aryas, I mean neither blood nor bones, nor
hair nor skull; I mean simply those who apeak an Aryan
language. The same applies to Hindus, Greeks, Romans
Germans, Celts and Staves. When I speak of them I commit
myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed and
fair-haired Scandinavians may have been conquerors or con-
quered, they may have adopted the language of their darker
lords or their subjects, or vice versa. I assert nothing beyond
their language when I call them Hindus, Greeks, Romans,
Germans, Celts and Slaves; and in that sense, and in that sense
only, do I say that even the blackest Hindus represent an earlier
stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians
... To me an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist
who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a bracbycephalie
grammar.' 1
From the popularity of Max Mailer's works on comparative
philology this is the use of the word which is most familiar to
the general public. The arguments in support of this use are
set forth by him in the latter part of lecture vi. of the Lecture*
on the Science of Language (first series) and as an appendix to
chap. vii. of the final edition (f. pp. 991 ff.). The Sanskrit usage
of the word is fully illustrated by him from the early Sanskrit
writings in the article " Aryan " in the ninth edition of this
encyclopaedia. From the earliest occurrences of the word it is
clear that it was used as a national name not only In India but
also in Bactria and Persia (in Sanskrit drya- and drya-, in Zend
airy a-, in Old Persian oriyo*). That it is in any way connected
with a Sanskrit word for earth, ira, as Max Mailer asserts, is far
from certain. As Spiegel remarks (Die ariscke Period*, p. 105),
though it is easy enough to connect the word with a root <w->
there are severafFoots of that form which have different meanings,
and there is no certain criterion whereby to decide to which of
them it is related. Nor are the other connexions for the word
outside this group free from doubt. It is, however, certain that
the connexion with Erin (Ireland), which Pictet in his article
"Iren and Arier" (Ruhn and Schleicher's Beitrdge, i. 1858,
pp. 81 ff.) sought to estabhsb, is impossible (Whitley Stokes in
Max Mfiller's Lectures, 1801, i. pp. 399 f.), though the word n>*»
have the tame origin as the Aria- of names like Arit
7™
which it found in both Celtic and Germanic words (Uhleabeck,
KungefassUsetyuulogtickes Wdrttrbmck der al hndiKken Spracke,
B.V.). The name of Armenia (Old Persian Armina-), which baa
often been connected, is of uncertain origin. Within Sanskrit
itself probably two words have to be distinguished: (i) arya,
the origin of Aryan, from which the usual term dryo is a deriva-
tive; (a) aryd, which frequently appears in the Rig Veda as an
epithet of deities. In many passages, however, aryds may
equally well be the genitive of art, which is explained as " active,
devoted, pious." Even in this word probably two originally
separate words have to be distinguished, for the further mean-
ings which Grassmann in his dictionary to the Rig Veda attaches
to it, via. " greedy " (for treasure and for battle), M godless,"
" enemy," seem more appropriately to be derived from the same
source as the Greek Ipi-s, "strife." The word dry*- is not
found as a national name in the Rig Veda, but appears in the
Vdjatasuyi-sainktia, where it is explained by Mahldhara as
Voiiya-, a cultivator or a man of the third among the original
four classes of the population. So in the Alkaroa Veda (iv. so. 4;
six. 62. 1) it is contrasted with the Sudra or fourth class (Spiegel,
Ariscke Penode, p. 102). In the Avesta, airy*- is found both as
adjective and substantive in the sense of Aryan, but no light is
thrown upon the history of the word. Darius describes himself
in an inscription as of Aryan stock, Dirayahafiui ariya k Hd r a x .
In the Avesta the derivative eiryona- is also found in the sense
of Aryan. In both India and Persia a word is found (Skt.
aryaman-; Zend avyam<2»-)which is apparently of the same origin.
In both Sanskrit and Zend it means something like "comrade "
or " bosom friend," but in Zend is used of the priestly or highest
das*. In Sanskrit, besides this use in which it is contrasted
with the Ddsa or D6syu t the enemies, the earlier inhabitants, the
word is often used for the bridegroom's spokesman, and in both
languages is also employed as the name of a divine being. In the
Rig Veda, Aryaman- as a deity is most frequently coupled with
Mitra and Varuna (Grassmann, WerUrtmch, a. v.); in Zend,
scrortting to Bartholomae (AUiranischu Wdrterbuck, a. v.), from
the earliest literature, the Gathas, there is nothing definite to be
learnt regarding Airyonon.
Whatever the origin of arya- t however, it is clear that it is a
word with dignified aiforiations, by which the peoples belonging
to the Eastern section of the Indo-European* were proud to call
themselves. It is now used uniformly by scholars to indicate
the Eastern branch as a whole, a compound, Inda-Aryan, being
employed for that part of the Eastern branch which settled in
India to distinguish them from the Iranians {Iran is of the same
origin), who remained in Bactria and Persia, while Aryo-Indian
is sometimes employed to distinguish the Indian people of this
stock from the Dmvidian and other stocks which also inhabit
parts of the Indian peninsula. Of the stages in the occupation
of the Iranian table-land by the Aryan people nothing is known,
the people themselves having apparently no tradition of a time
when they did not hold these territories (Spiegel, Ariscke Periode,
p. 3x9). Though the Hindus have no tradition of their invasion
of India, it is certain that they are not an indigenous people,
and, if they are not, it is dear that they could have come in no
other direction save from the other side of the Hindu Kusb. At
the period of their earliest literature, which may be assigned
roughly to about 1000 B.C., they were still settled in the valley
of the Indus, and at this time the separation probably had not
long taken place, the Eastern portion of the stock having pushed
then* way along the Kabul valley into the open country of the
Indus. According to Professor E. W. Hopkins {India Old and
New, loot, p. 31) the Rig Veda was composed in the district
about Umballa. He argues that the people must have been then
to the west of the great rivers, otherwise the dawn could not be
addressed as one who " in shining light, before the wind arises,
comes gleaming over the waters, making good paths." The
vocabulary is still largely the same; whole sentences can be
transliterated from one language to the other merely by making
tegular phonetic changes and without the variation of a single
word (for examples see Bartholomae, Hamfbutk deraUiramstken
DiaieMe, 1883, p. v.; Williams Jackson, Avesta Grammar, 1802,
ARYA SAMAJ
pp. xxxL f.; Grundriss der irtmixfkrm Pmlelegie^ 1805, i. p. \\
It is noteworthy that it is those who remain behind whoat
language has undergone most change.
By four well-marked characteristics the Aryan group is easflr
distinguishable from the other Indo-European languages. (1)
By the confusion of original e and 0, both long and short, with
the original long and short a sound; (a) the shortachwa-souBdi
is represented here, and in this group only, by * (ft**, " father,"
as compared with swfo Ac); (3) original s after •» u and tone
consonants becomes #; (4) the genitive plural of stems ending
in a vowel has a su&x-n&m borrowed by analogy from the stems
ending in -» (Skt. dtodndm, "of hones"; Zend «*>!»*■;
Old Persian aspanam). The distinctions between Sanskrit aad
Iranian are also clear. (1) The Aryan voked aspirates**, 4b,**,
which survive in Sanskrit, are confused in Iranian with original
I, d, b, and further changes take place in the langnagr of the
later parts of the Avesta; (a) the Aryan breathed aspirates
kk, tk, pk, except in combination with certain consonants,
become spirants in Iranian; (3) Aryan * b e c o mes A initially
before vowels in Iranian and also in certain cases medially,
Iranian in these respects resembling Greek (cf. Skt. sapU;
Zend kopto; Gr. erra, " seven "); (4) in Zend there are many
vowel changes which it does not share with Old Persian. Some
of these arise from the umlaut or epen thesis which is so prevalent,
and which we have already seen in atryo- as compared with the
Skt drya. In other respects the languages are remark aNy alike,
the only striking difference being in the numeral " one "—Skt
ek*-\ Zend aee*-\ Old Persian otto-, where the Iranian group
has the same stem as that seen in the Greek ol(0o-s, " alone."
For the subdivisions of the two groups see the articles oa
Pebsu: Language, and Indo-A*yan Languages. Dr Grienoa
has shown in his monograph on " The Pisaca ^T*r <**
North- Western India " (Royal Asiatic Society, 1006) that there
is good reason for regarding various dialects of the north-western
frontier (Kafiristan, Chitral, Gilgit, Dardistan) as a separate
group descended from Aryan but independent of either Sanskrit
or Iranian.
The history of the separation of the Aryan from the other
Indo-European languages is not yet dear (see Iiroo-EuionAi
Languages). Various attempts have been made, with little
success, to identify fragments of unknown la nguagrs in cuneiform
inscriptions with members of this group. The investigation has
entered a new and more favourable stage' as the result of the
discoveries made by German excavators at Boghas Keui (said
to be identical with Herodotus' Pteria m Cappadoria), where
treaties between the king of the Hittitesand the king of Mitanni,
in the beginning of the 14th century B.C., seem almost certainly
to contain the names of the gods Mitra, Varuna and India,
which belong to the early Aryan mythology (H. Winckler,
Mitkilungen der deutsdum Orientgesellsekaft, No. 35; E. Meyer,
Siumngsberiekte der Berliner Akademie, 1008, pp. 14 ff . ; Zatuknft
fur tergleickende Sprockfenckung, 42, xoo8, pp. 24 ff.). Still
further light is to be expected when the vast collections of the
German expedition to Turfan (Turkestan) have been sifted. Up
to 1000 only a preliminary account had been given of Tocharah,
a hitherto unknown Indo-European language, which b reported
to be in some respects more akin to the Western groups than to
Aryan. But further investigation is still required (see E. Sef
and W. Siegling, " Tocbarisch, die Sprache der Indoskythen,'' in
Sitntngsberkkteder Bert. Akad. (July 1908, pp. 91 5 ff.). (P. Gt .)
ARYA 8AMAJ, a Hindu religious association with reformiof
tendencies, which was founded by a Guxerati Brahman named
Dayanand Saraswati. This man was born of a Saivite family
about 1825, but in early manhood grew dissatisfied with kW*
worshrp. He undertook many pilgrimages and steadied the Vedk
philosophy in the hope of solving the old problem of the Buddha,
— how to alleviate human misery and attain final liberation.
About x866, when he had begun to teach and to gather disciples,
he first saw the Christian scriptures, which he vehemently
assailed, and the Rig Veda, which he correspondingly exalted,
though in the conception which he ultimately formed of God the
former was much more influential than the latter. Dayanand's
ARYTENOID— ASAFETIDA
7»3
treatment of the Vedas was peculiar, and consisted of
reading into them his own beliefs and modern scientific dis-
coveries. Thus he explains the Yajna (sacrificial cult) as " the
entertainment of the learned in proportion to their worth, the
business of manufacture, the experiment and application of
chemistry, physics and the arts of peace; the instruction of the
people, the purification of the air, the nourishment of vegetables
by the employment of the principles of meteorology, called
Agni-Notri in Sanskrit." He denied that the Vedas warranted
the caste system, but wished to retain the four grades as orders
of learning to which admission should be won by examination.
These views naturally met with scanty acceptance among the
Brahmans to whom he introduced them, and Day ana nd turned
to the masses and established Samajes in various parts of India,
the first being at Bombay in 1875. He chose the epithet Arya
as being more dignified than the slightly contemptuous term
Hindu. After a successful scries of tours, during which he
debated publicly with orthodox pundits and with Christian
missionaries, he died at Ajmere in 1883.
The Arya Samaj is not an eclectic system like the Brahma
Samaj, which strives to find the common basis underlying all
the great religions, and its narrower scope and corresponding
intensity of conviction have won it a greater strength. It
seemed to meet the feeling of many educated natives whose faith
in current Hinduism was undermined, but who were predisposed
against any foreign religious influence. Their patriotic ardour
gladly seized on "a view of the original faith of India that
seemed to harmonize with all the discoveries of modern science
and the ethics of European civilization," and they cheerfully
supported their leader's strange polemic with the agnostic and
rationalist literature of Europe. By 1800 their numbers had
increased to 40,000, by 1000 to over 92,000. Divisions had,
however, set in, especially a cleavage into the Ghasi or vegetarian,
and the Monsi or flesh-eating sections. To the latter belong
those Rajputs who though generally in sympathy with the
movement declined to adhere to the tenet of the Samaj which
forbade the destruction of animal life and the consumption of
animal food. The age of admission to the Samaj is eighteen,
and members are expected to contribute to its funds at least
x % of their income.
The ten articles of their creed may be summarized thus: —
r. The source of all true knowledge is God.
2. God is " all truth, all knowledge, all bliss, boundless, almighty,
just, merciful, unbegotten, without a beginning, incompar-
able, the support and Lord of all, all-pervading, omniscient,
imperishable, immortal, eternal, holy, and the cause of the
universe; worship is due to him alone.
3. The medium of true knowledge is the Vedas.
4. and 5. The truth is to be accepted and to become the guiding
principle.
6. The object of the Samaj is to benefit the world by improving
its physical, social, intellectual and moral conditions.
7. Love and justice are the right guides of conduct.
8. Knowledge must be spread.
9. The good of others must be sought.
10. In general interests members must subordinate themselves to
the good of others; in personal interests they should retain
independence.
The sixth clause comprehends a wide programme of reform,
induding%bstinence horn spirituous liquors and animal food,
physical cleanliness and exercise, marriage reform, the promotion
of fe male e ducation, the abolition of caste and of idolatry.
ARYTENOID (or arytaenoid; from Gr. &pbratpa, a funnel or
pitcher), a term, meaning funnel-shaped, applied to cartilages
such as those of the larynx.
ARZAMAS, a town of Russia, in the government of, and 76 m.
by rail S. of the town of, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the Tesha river,
at its junction with the Arsha. It is an important centre of
trade, and has tanneries, oil, flour, tallow, dye, soap and iron
works; knitting is an important domestic industry. Sheep-
skins and sail-cloth are articles of trade. The town has several
churches. Pop. (1897) 10,591.
AS, the Roman unit of weight and measure, divided into
1 a usuiae (whence both " ounce " and " inch "); its fractions
being deunx \\, dextans |, dodrans f, bes |, septunx fg,
semis |, quincunx -rY triens f , quadrans }, sextans t,sescunda§,
uncia tY A* really denoted any integer or whole; whence the
English word " ace." The unit or as of weight was the libra
(pound: « about nf oz. avoirdupois); of length, pes (foot:
-about 1 if in.); of surface, jugerum (—about § acre); of
measure, liquid amphora (about si gaL), dry modius (about
i't peck). In the same way as signified a whole inheritance;
whence heres ex asse, the heir to the whole estate, hares ex semisse,
heir to half the estate. It was also used in the calculation of
rates of interest.
As was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of different
weight and value at different periods (see Numismatics,
5 Roman) . The first introduction of coined money is ascribed to
Servius TuUius. The old as was composed of the mixed metal
aes, an alloy of copper, tin and lead, and was called as libratit,
because it nominally weighed 1 lb or 1 a ounces (actually 10).
Its original shape seems to have been an irregular oblong bar,
which was stamped with the figure of a sheep, ox or sow. This,
as well as the word pecunia for money (ptcus, cattle), indicates
the fact of cattle having been the earliest Italian medium of
exchange. The value was indicated by little points or globules,
or other marks. After the round shape was introduced, the one
side was always inscribed with the figure of a ship's prow, and
the other with the double head of Janus. The subdivisions of
the as had also the ship's prow on one side, and on the other the
head of some deity. The First Punic War having exhausted
the treasury, the as was reduced to 2 oz. In the Second Punic
War it was again reduced to half this weight, via. to 1 oz.
And lastly, by the Papirian law (89 B.C.) it was further reduced
to the diminutive weight of half an ounce. It appears to have
been still more reduced under Octavian, Lepidus and Antony,
when its value was \ of an ounce. Before silver coinage was
introduced (269 B.C.) the value of the or was about 6d., in the
time of Cicero less than a halfpenny. In the time of the emperor
Severus it was again lowered to about W of an ounce. During
the commonwealth and empire aes grave was used to denote the
old as in contradistinction to the existing depreciated coin;
while aes rude was applied to the original oblong coinage of
primitive times.
ASA, in the Bible, son (or, perhaps, rather brother) of Abijah,
the son of Rehoboam and king of Judah (1 Kings xv. 9-24). Of
his long reign, during which he was a contemporary of Baasha,
Zimri and Omri of Israel, little is recorded with the exception
of some religious reforms and conflicts with the first-named.
Baasha succeeded in fortifying Ramah (er-Rdm), $ m. north of
Jerusalem, and Asa was compelled to use the residue of the
temple-funds (cf . 1 Kings xiv. 26) to bribe the king of Damascus
to renounce his league with Baasha and attack Israel. Galilee
was invaded and Baasha was forced to return; the building
material which he had collected at Ramah being used by Asa to
fortify Geba, and Mizpah to the immediate north of Jerusalem.
The Book of Chronicles relates a story of a sensational defeat of
Zerah the " Cushite," and a great religious revival in which Judah
and Israel took part (2 Chron. xiv.-xv. 15) (see Chronicles).
Asa was succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat. #
" Cushite " may designate an Ethiopian or, more probably,
an Arabian (Cush, the " father " of the Sabaeans, Gen. x. 7).
" If by Zerah the Ethiopian or Sabacan prince be meant, the
only real difficulty of the narrative is removed. No king Zerah
of Ethiopia is known at this period, nor does there seem to be
room for such a person " (W. E. Barnes, Cambridge Bible,
Chronicles, p. xxxi.). The identification with Osorkon I. or II.
is scarcely tenable considering Asa's weakness; but inroads by
desert hordes frequently troubled Judah, and if the tradition
be correct in locating the battle at Mareshah it is probable that
the invaders were in league with the Philistine towns. Similar
situations recur in the reigns of Ahaz and Jehoram.
See also Wellhausen, Prolegomena, 208; S» A. Cook, Expositor
(June {906), p. 540 sq. (S. A. C)
ASAFETIDA (osa, Lat. form of Persian aza* mastic, and
fetidus, stinking, so called in distinction to asa dtdcis* which was
a drug highly esteemed among the ancients as laser cyrenaicur*
7H
ASAF-UD-DOWLAH— ASBESTOS
and is supposed to have been a gummy exudation from Thapsis
gar genua), a gum-resin obtained principally from the root of
Ferula Jeiida, and probably also from one or two other closely
allied species of umbelliferous plants. It is produced in eastern
Persia and Afghanistan, Herat and Kandahar being centres of
the trade. Ferula fetida grows to a height of from 5 to 6 ft., and
when the plant has attained the age of four years it is ready for
yielding asafetida. The stems are cut down close to the root,
and the juice flows out, at first of a milky appearance, but quickly
setting into a solid resinous mass. Fresh incisions are made as
long as the sap continues to flow, a period which varies according
to the size and strength of the plant. A freshly-exposed surface
of asafetida has a translucent, pearly-white appearance, but it
soon darkens in the air, becoming first pink and finally reddish-
brown. In taste it is acrid and bitter; but what peculiarly
characterizes it is the strong alliaceous odour it emits, from
which it has obtained the name asafetida, as well as its German
name Teufelsdreck (devil's dung). Its odour is due to the presence
of organic sulphur compounds. Asafetida is found in commerce
in " lump " or in " tear," the latter being the purer form.
Medicinally, asafetida is given in doses of 5 to 1 5 grains and acts
as a stimulant to the intestinal and respiratory tracts and to
the nervous system. An enema containing it is useful in relieving
flatus. It is sometimes useful in hysteria, which is essentially
a lack of inhibitory power, as its nasty properties induce sufficient
inhibitory power to render its rcadministration superfluous.
It may also be used in an effervescing draught in cases of
malingering, the drug " repeating " in the mouth and making
the malingering not worth while. The gum-resin is relished as a
-condiment in India and Persia, and is in demand in France for
use in cookery. In the regions of its growth the whole plant is
used as a fresh vegetable, the inner portion of the full-grown stem
being regarded as a luxury.
ASAF-UD-DOWLAH, nawab wazir of Oudh from 1775 t0 *797»
was the son of Shuja-ud-Dowlah, his mother and grandmother
being the begums of Oudh, whose spoliation formed one of the
chief counts in the charges against Warren Hastings. When
Shuja-ud-Dowlah died he left two million pounds sterling buried
in the vaults of the zenana. The widow and mother of the
deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the
terms of a will which was never produced. When Warren
Hastings pressed the nawab for the payment of debt due to the
Company, he obtained from his mother a loan of 26 lakhs of
rupees, for which he gave her a jagir of four times the value;
he subsequently obtained 30 lakhs more in return for a full
acquittal, and the recognition of her jagirs without interference
for life by the Company. These jagirs were afterwards con-
fiscated on the ground of the begum's complicity in the rising
of Chai Singh, which was attested by documentary evidence.
The evidence now available seems to show that Warren Hastings
did his best throughout to rescue the nawab from his own
incapacity, and was inclined to be lenient to the begums.
Soo The Administration of Warren Hastings. 9772-1783, by G. W.
Forrest (189.Z).
AS4PH, the eponym of the Asaph ite gild of singers, one of the
hereditary choirs that superintended the musical services of the
temple at Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The names occur
in the titles of certain Psalms, and the writer of the Book of
Chronicles makes Asaph a seer (2 Chron. xxix. 30), contemporary
with David and Solomon, and chief of the singers of his lime.
ASBESTOS, a fibrous mineral from Gr. ao/Seoroc, unquench-
able, by transference, incombustible, in allusion to its power of
resisting the ac tion of fire. The word was applied by Dioscorides
and other Greek authors to quicklime, but Pliny evidently used
it in its modern sense. It was occasionally woven by the ancients
into handkerchiefs, and, it has been said, into shrouds which were
used in cremation to prevent the ashes of the corpse from
mingling with the wood-ashes of the pyre.
In different varieties of asbestos the fibres vary greatly in
character. When silky and flexible they arc sometimes known
as mountain flax. The finer kinds are often termed amianthus
(q.v.). When the fibre* are naturally interwoven, so aa to form
a felted mass, the mineral passes under such trivial names as
mountain leather, mountain cork, mountain paper, &c. Tbe
asbestos formerly used in the arts was generally a fibrous form
of some kind of amphibolc, like tremolitc, or anthophvLic.
though occasionally perhaps a pyroxene. In recent years,
however, most of the asbestos, in the market is a fibrous variety
of serpentine, known mincralogically as chrysotile, and probal!)
some of the ancient asbestos was of this character (see Amian-
thus). Both minerals possess similar properties, so far as
resistance to heat is concerned. The amphibole-asbestos, or
hornblende-asbestos, is usually white or grey in colour, and ma}
present great length of fibre, some of the Italian asbestos reachxg
exceptionally a length of 5 or 6 ft., but it is often harsh and
brit tic. Tbe serpentine-asbestos occurs in narrow veins, yields*
fibres of only 2 or 3 in. in length, but of great tensile strength:
they are usually of a delicate silky lustre, very flexible and elastic,
and of yellowish or greenish colour.
The Canadian asbestos, which of all kinds is at present tbe
most important industrially, occurs in a small belt of serpentine
in tbe province of Quebec, principally near Black Lake and
Thctford, where it was first recognized as commercially valuable
about 1877. The rock is generally quarried, cobbed by hand,
dried if necessary, crushed in rock-breakers, and then pa»«:<i
between rollers; it is reduced to a finer state of division by
so-called fiberizers, and graded on a shaking screen, where the
loosened fibres are sorted. The process varies in different milk
In the United States asbestos is worked only to a very limited
extent. An amphibole-asbestos is obtained from Sail Mountain,
Georgia; and asbestos has also been worked in the serpentine
of Vermont. It occurs also in South Carolina, Virginia, Ma>*a-
chusctts, Arizona and elsewhere. Dr G. P. Merrill has shown
that some asbestos results from a process of shearing in the nxis.
Formerly asbestos was obtained almost exclusively from Italy
and Corsica, and a large quantity is still yielded by Italian
workings. This is mostly an amphibolc. It is. in some cases
associated with nodules of green garnet known as " seeds "—
Semenze deW amianto. Asbestos is widely distributed, but only
in a few localities does it occur in sufficient abundance and purity
to be worked commercially; it is found, for example, to a limited
extent, at many localities in Tirol, Hungary and Russia;
Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. In the British
Isles it is not unknown, being found among the old rocks of North
Wales and in parts of Ireland. Byssoliic or asbestoid is a blue
or green fibrous amphibole from Dauphiny.
The Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West, Cape Colony,
yield a blue fibrous mineral which is worked under the name cj
Cape asbestos. This is referable to the variety of amphibolt
called crocidolite (q.v.). It occurs in veins in slaty rocks,
associated with jaspers and quartzites rich in magnetite and
brown iron-ore. Their geological position is in the Griqua Town
scries, belonging to what arc known in South Africa as tbe
Prc-Cape rocks.
Asbestos was formerly spun and woven into fabrics as a rare
curiosity. Charlemagne u» said to have possessed a tablecloth
of this material, which when soiled was purified by being thrown
into the fire. At a meeting of the Royal Society in x6;6 a
merchant from China exhibited a handkerchief of " salamander's
wool," or linum asbcslL By the Eskimos of Labrador asbestos
has been used as a lamp- wick, and it received a similar application
in some of the sacred lamps of antiquity. In recent tiir.es
asbestos has been applied to a great variety of uses in the
industrial arts, and its applications are constantly increasing.
Its economic value depends not only on its power of withstanding
a high temperature, but also on its low thermal conductivity
and its partial resistance to the attack of acids; hence it is used
for jacketing boilers and steam-pipes, and as a filtering medium
for corrosive liquids. It has also come into use as aa electric
insulator. It is made into yarn, felt, millboard, &c f and is
largely employed as packing for joints, glands and stopcocks
in machinery. Fire-proof sheathing, and felt are used for floor-
ing and roofing; fire-proof curtains have been made for the
stage, and even clothing for firemen. Asbestos enter* into the
ASBJ6RNSEN^-A8BURY' park
composition of fire-proof cements, plasters and paints: it is used
for packing safes; and is made into balls with fire-day for gas-
stoves. Various preparations of asbestos with other materials
pass in trade under such names as uralite, salamandrite, asbes-
tolith, gypsine, &c. "Asbestic " is the name given to a Canadian
product formed by crushing the serpentine rock containing thin
seams of asbestos, and mixing the result with lime so as to form
a plaster.
Reference.— Fritx CirM, Asbestos, its Occurrence, Exploitation
and Uses (Ottawa, 1905) ; I. H. Pratt and J. S. Diller in Annual Reports
on Mineral Resources, U.S. Geol. Survey: G. P. Merrill, The Non-
metallic Minerals (New York, 1904); R* H. Jones, Asbestos and
Asbestk (London, 1897). (F- W. R.*)
ASBJ6RN8EN, PETER CHRISTEN (1813-1885), and HOE;
jOrQEN ENOEBRETSEM (1813-1882), collectors of Norwegian
folklore, so -closely united in their life's work that it is unusual
to name them apart. Asbjdrnsen was bom in Christians on
the 15th of January 181 2; he belonged to an ancient family of
the Gudbrandsdal, which is believed to have died with him.
He became a student at the university in 1833, but as early as
1832, in his twentieth year, he had begun to collect and write
down all the fairy stories and legends which he could meet with.
Later he began to wander on foot through the length and breadth
of Norway, adding to his stores. Moe, who was bom at Mo i
Hole parsonage, in Sigdal Ringerike, on the 22nd of April 18 13,
met Asbjdrnsen first when he was fourteen years of age. A close
friendship began between them, and lasted to the end of their
lives. In 1834 Asbjdrnsen discovered that Moe had started in-
dependently on a search for the relics of national folklore; the
friends eagerly compared results, and determined for the future to
work in concert By this time, Asbjdrnsen had become by pro-
fession a zoologist, and with the aid of the university made a
series of investigating voyages along the coasts of Norway,
particularly in the Hardanger fjord. Moe, meanwhile, having
left Christiania University in 1839, had devoted himself to the
study of theology, and was making a living as a tutor in Chris-
tiania. In his holidays he wandered through the mountains, in
the most remote "districts, collecting stories. In 1842-1843
appeared the first instalment of the great work of the two friends,
under the title of Norwegian Popular Stories (Norske Folheevenlyr),
which was received at once all over Europe as a most valuable
contribution to comparative mythology as well as literature.
A second volume was published in 1844, and a new collection in
1871. Many of the Folktevenlyr were translated into English
by Sir George Dasent in 1859. In 1845 Asbjbrnsen pub-
lished, without help from Moe, a collection of Norwegian
fairy tales (huldreevenlyr og folkesagn). In 1856 the attention
of Asbj&rnsen was called to the deforestation of Norway,
and he induced the government to take up this important
question. He was appointed forest-master, and was sent
by Norway to examine in various countries of the north of
Europe the methods observed for the preservation of timber.
From these duties, in 1876. he withdrew with a pension; he
died in Christiania on the 6th of January 1885. From 1841 to
1852 Moe travelled almost every summer through the southern
parts of Norway, collecting traditions in the mountains. In
1845 he was appointed professor of theology in the Military
School of Norway. He had, however, long intended to take holy
orders, and in 1853 he did so, becoming for ten years a resident
chaplain in Sigdal, and then (1863) parish priest of Bragerncs.
He was moved in 1870 to the parish of Vcstre Aker, near Chris-
tiania, and in 1875 he was appointed bishop of Christiansand.
In January 1882 he resigned his diocese on account of failing
health, and died on the following 27th of March. Moe has a special
claim on critical attention in regard to his lyrical poems, of which
a small collection appeared in 1850. He wrote little original
verse, but in his slendcT volume are to be found many pieces of
exquisite delicacy and freshness. Moe also published a delightful
collection of prose stories for children, In the Well and the Chnrn
(I Bronde og i K jot net), 1831; and A Little Christmas Present
{En liden Julcgave), i860. Asbjdrnsen and Moe had the advan-
tage of an admirable style in narrative prose. It was usually
said that the vigour came from Asbjdrnsen and the charm from
715
Moe, but the fact seems to be that from the long habit of writing
in unison they had come to adopt almost precisely identical modes
of literary expression. (E. G.)
ASBURY, FRANCIS (174J-1816), American clergyman, was
bom at Hamstcad Bridge in the parish of Handsworth, near
Birmingham, in Staffordshire, England, on the 20th of August
1745. His parents were poor, and after a brief period of study in
the village school of Barre, he was apprenticed at the age of
fourteen to a maker of " buckle chapes," or tongues. It seems
probable that his parents were among the early converts of
Wesley; at any rate, Francis became converted to Methodism
in his thirteenth year, and at sixteen became a local preacher.
He was a simple, fluent speaker, and was so successful that in
1767 he was enrolled, by John Wesley himself, as a regular
itinerant minister. In 1771 he volunteered for missionary work
in the American colonies. When he landed in Philadelphia in
October 1 77 1, the converts to Methodism, which had been intro-
duced into the colonies only three years before, numbered
scarcely 300. Asbury infused new life into the movement, and
within a year the membership of the several congregations was
more than doubled. In 1772 he was appointed by Wesley
"general assistant" in charge of the work in America, and
although superseded by an older preacher, Thomas Rankin
(1 738-1810), in 1773, nc remained practically in control. After
the outbreak of the War of Independence, the Methodists, who
then numbered several thousands, feH, unjustly, under suspicion
of Loyalism, principally because of their refusal to take the pre-
scribed oath; and many of their ministers, including Rankin,
returned to England. Asbury, however, feeling his sympathies
and duties to be with the colonies, remained at his post, and
although often threatened, and once arrested, continued his
Itinerant preaching. The hostility of the Maryland authorities,
however, eventually drove him into exile in Delaware, where he
remained quietly, but not in idleness, for two years. In 1782
he was reappointed to supervise the affairs of the Methodist
congregations in America. In 1784 John Wesley, in disregard
of the authority of the Established Church, took the radical step
of appointing the Rev. Thomas Coke (1 747-1814) and Francis
Asbury superintendents or " bishops " of the church in the United
States. Dr Coke was ordained at Bristol, England, in September,
and in the following December, in a conference of the churches
in America at Baltimore, he ordained and consecrated Asbury,
who refused to accept the position until Wesley's choice had been
ratified by the conference. From this conference dates the actual
beginning of the " Methodist Episcopal Church of the United
States of America." To the upbuilding of this church Asbury
gave the rest of his life, working with tireless devotion and
wonderful energy. In 1785, at Abingdon, Maryland, he laid the
corner-stone of Cokesbury College, the project of Dr Coke and
the first Methodist Episcopal college in America; the college
building was burned in 1795, *nd the college was then removed
to Baltimore, where in 1796, after another fire, it closed, and in
1816 was succeeded by Asbury College, which lived for about
fifteen years. Every year Asbury traversed a large area,
mostly on horseback. The greatest testimony to the work that
earned foT him the title of the " Father of American Methodism "
was the growth of the denomination from a few scattered bands
of about 300 converts and 4 preachers in 177 1, to a thoroughly
organized church of 214,000 members and more than 2000
ministers at his death, which occurred at Spottsylvania,
Virginia, on the 31st of March 1816.
His Journals (3 vols., New York, i«$a). apart from their import-
ance as a history of his life work, constitute a valuable commentary
on the social and industrial history of the United States during the
first forty years of their existence. Consult also F. W. Briggs,
Bishop Asbury (London, 1874); W. P. Strickland. The Pioneer
Bishop; or, The Lxfe and Times of Francis Asbury (NewYork,
1858); I. B. Wakeley, Heroes of Methodism (New York, 1856).:
W. C. Larrabce, Asbury ani His Co-Laborers (2 vols., Cincinnati,
1853); H. M. Du Bose. Francis Asbury (Nashville, Tenn., 1909);
see also under Methodism.
ASBURY PARK, a city of Monmouth county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, about 35 m. S. of New York City
(50 m. by rail). Pop. (1900) 4x48; (1005)4526; (19x0) i<*
7*6
ASCALON— ASCENSION
It is served by .the Central of New Jersey and the Pennsylvania
railways, and by electric railway lines connecting it with other
New Jersey coast resorts both north and south. Fresh- water
lakes, one of which, Deal Lake, extends for some distance into
the wooded country, form the northern and southern boundaries.
It is one of the most popular seaside resorts on the Atlantic coast,
its numerous hotels and cottages accommodating a summer
population that approximates 50,000, and a large transient
population in the autumn and winter months. There is an
excellent beach, along which extends a board-walk about 1 m.
long; the beach is owned and controlled by the municipality.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works, water being
obtained from artesian wells. Asbury Park was founded in 1869,
was named in honour of the Rev. Francis Asbury, was incorpor-
ated as a borough in 1874, and was chartered as a city in 1897.
In 1006 territory to the west with a population estimated at
6000 was annexed.
ASCALON, now 'AsjcaUn, one of the five chief cities of
the Philistines, on the coast of the Mediterranean, ia m. N. of
Gaza. The place is mentioned several times in the Tell el-
Amarna correspondence. It revolted from Egypt on two
occasions, but was reconquered, and a sculpture at Thebes
depicts the storming of the city. Ascalon was a well-fortified
town, and the scat of the worship of the fish-goddess Oerketo.
Though situated in the nominal territory of the tribe of Judah,
it was never for any length of time in the possession of the
Israelites. The only incident in its history recorded in the Bible
(the spoliation by Samson, Judg. xiv. 19) may possibly have
actually occurred at another place of the same name, in the hill
country of Judaea. Sennacherib took it in 701 B.C. The
conquest of Alexander hellenizcd its civilization, and after his
time it became tributary alternately to Syria and Egypt. Herod
the Great was a native of the city, and added greatly to its
beauty; but it suffered severely in the later wars of the Romans
and Jews. In the 4th century it again rose to importance;
and till the 7th century, when it was conquered by the Moslems,
it was the seat of a bishopric and a centre of learning. During
the first crusade a signal victory was gained by the Christians in
the neighbouring plain on the 15th of August 1009, but the city
remained in the hands of the caliphs till 11 57, when it was taken
by Baldwin 111., king of Jerusalem, after a siege of five months.
By Baldwin IV. it was given to his sister Sibylla, on her marriage
with William of Momferrat in 1 178. When Saladin (1 187) had
almost annihilated the Christian army in the plain of Tiberias,
Ascalon offered but a feeble resistance to the victor. At first he
repaired and strengthened its fortifications, but afterwards,
alarmed at the capture of St Jean d'Acre (Acre) by Richard
Cceur de Lion in 1 191, he caused it to be dismantled. It was
restored in the following year by the English king, but only to
be again abandoned. From this time Ascalon lost much of its
importance, and at length, in 1270, its fortifications were almost
totally destroyed by Sultan Bibars, and its port was filled up
with stones. The place is now a desolate heap of ruins, with
remains of its walls and fragments of granite pillars. The
surrounding country is well watered and very fertile.
Sec a paper by Guthe ; " Die Ruinen Ascalon*," in the Zeitschift
of the Deutsche Palastina-Verein, ii. 164 (translated in Palestine
Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1880, p. 182). See also
C. K. Conder in the latter journal, 1875, p. 15a. (R. A. S. M.)
ASCANIUS, in Roman legend, the son of Aeneas by Cretlsa or
Lavinia, From Livy it would appear that tradition recognized
two sons of Aeneas called by this name, the one the son of his
Trojan, the other of his Latin wife. According to the usual
account, he accompanied his father to Italy on his flight from
Troy. On the death of Aeneas, the government of Latium was
left in the hands of Lavinia, Ascanius being too young to under-
take it. After thirty years he left Lavinium, and founded Alba
Longa. Ascanius was also called Hus and lulus, and the
Julian gens claimed to be descended from him. Several more
or less contradictory traditions may be found in Dionysius of
Halicarnatsus, Strabo and other writers.
Virg. Aen, ii. 666; Livy i. 3; see also Klausen, Aeneas und die
Penaten (1840;..
ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, between 7* $/
and S° S., and 14° 18' and I4°a6' W., 800 m. N.W. of St Helena,
about 7 J m. in length and 6 in breadth, with an area of 38 sq. m.
and a circumference of about 22 m. The island lies within the
immediate influence of the south-east trade-wind. The lee side of
the island is subject to the visitation of " rollers," which break
on the shore with very great violence. Ascension is a volcanic
mass erected on a submarine platform. Numerous cones exist.
Green Mountain, the principal elevation, is a huge elliptic J
crater, rising 2820 ft. above the sea, while the plains or table-
lands surrounding it vary in height from 1 200 to 2000 f L On the
north side they sweep gradually down towards the snore, bat
on the south they terminate in bold and lofty. precipices. Steep
and rugged ravines intersect the plains, opening into small bays
or coves on the shore, fenced with masses of compact and cellular
lava; and all over the island are found products of volcanic
action. Ascension was originally destitute of vegetation save
on the summit of Green Mountain, which owes its verdure to
the mists which frequently enshroud it, but the lower hois have
been planted with grasses and shrubs. The air is dear and light
and the climate remarkably healthy, notwithstanding the high
temperature— the average day temperature on the shore being
85° F., on Green Mountain 75° F. The average rainfall is about
20 in., March and April being the rainy months. Ascension is
noted for the number of turtles and turtle eggs found on its
shores, the season lasting from December to May or June The
turtles are caught and kept in large ponds. The coasts abound
with a variety of fish of excellent quality, of which the most
important are the rock-cod, the cavalli, the co nger- e el and the
" soldier." Numbers of sheep arc bred on the island, and there
are a few cattle and deer, besides goats and wild cats. Feathered
game is abundant. Like St Helena, the island does not possess
any indigenous vertebrate land fauna. The "wideawake"
birds frequent the island in large numbers, and their eggs are
collected and eaten. Beetles and land-shells are well represented.
Flies, ants, mosquitoes, scorpions, centipedes and crickets abound
The flora includes purslane, rock roses and several species of
ferns and mosses.
The island was discovered by the Portuguese navigator. Joio
da Nova, on Ascension Day 1501, and was occasionally visited
thereafter by ships. In 1701 William Dampier was wrecked on
its coast, and during his detention discovered the only spring of
fresh water the island contains. Ascension remained uninhabited
till after the arrival of Napoleon at St Helena (181 s), when it
was taken possession of by the British government, who sent
a small garrison thither. A settlement, named George Town
(locally known as Garrison), was made on the north-west coast,
water being obtained from " Dampier's " springs in the Greea
Mountain, 6 m. distant. The island is under the rule of the
admiralty, and was likened by Darwin to " a huge ship kept ia
first-rate order." It is governed by a naval captain borne on the
books of the flagship of the admiral superintendent at Gibraltar.
A depot of stores for the navy is maintained, but the island is used
chiefly as a sanatorium. Ascension is connected by cable with
Europe and Africa, and is visited once a month by mail steamers
from the Cape. Formerly letters were left by passing ships in a
crevice in one of the rocks. The population, about 300, consists
of seamen, marines, and Krumen from Liberia.
See AJrica Pilot, part ii.. 5th ed. (London, 1901); C. Darwin.
Geological Observations on the VoUanu Jilands visited during the
Voyage of H. M.S. "Beagle" (London, 1844); Report of the Scientific
Results of the Voyage of the " Challenger, vol. i. part 2 (London.
1885) ; and Six Months m Ascension, by Mrs Gill (London, 1878). aa
excellent sketch of the island and its inhabitants. It was at Ascen-
sion that Mr, afterwards Sir, David Gill determined, in 1877, the
solar parallax.
ASCENSION. FEAST OP THE, one of the oecumenical festival*
of the Christian Church, ranking in solemnity with those of
Christmas, of Easter and of Pentecost. It is held forty days after
Easter, or ten days before Whitsunday, in celebration of Christ's
ascension into heaven forty days after the resurrection. It
always falls on a Thursday, and the day is known as Ascension
Day, or Holy Thursday. The festival is of great antiquity; and
ASCETICISM
717
though there is no discoverable trace of it before the middle of
the 4th century, subsequent references to it assume its long
establishment. Thus St Augustine (Ep. 54 ad Janitor.) mentions
it as having been kept from time immemorial and as probably
instituted by the apostles Chrysostom, in his homily on the
ascension, mentions a celebration of the festival in the church
of Romancsia outside Antioch, and Socrates {Hist, cedes, vii. 26)
records that in the year 300 the people of Constantinople " of
old custom " (i£ tihut) celebrated the feast in a suburb of the
city. As these two references suggest, the festival was associated
with a professional pilgrimage, in commemoration of the passing
of Christ and his apostles to the Mount of Olives; such a pro-
cession is described by Adamnan, abbot of Iona, as taking place
at Jerusalem in the 7th century, when the feast was celebrated
in the church on Mount Olivet (de loc. sand. i. 22). The Pert-
grinatio of Etheria (Silvia), which dates from c. a.d. 385, says
that the festival was held in the Church of the Nativity at
Bethlehem (Duchesne, Chr. Worship, p. 5x5). In the West,
however, in the middle ages, the procession with candles and
banners outside the church was taken as symbolical of Christ's
triumphant entry into heaven.
In the East the festival is known as the AMX^^ij, " taking
up," or hrurufojifri;, a term first used in the Cappadocian
church, and of which the meaning has been disputed, but which
probably signifies the feast "of completed salvation." The
word ascensia, adopted in the West, implies the ascension of
Christ by his own power, in contradistinction to the assumptio,
or taking up into heaven of the Virgin Mary by the power of God.
In the Roman Catholic Church the most characteristic ritual
feature of the festival is now the solemn extinction of the paschal
candle after the Gospel at high mass. This candle, lighted at
every mass for the forty days after Easter, symbolizes the
presence of Christ with his disciples, and its extinction his parting
from them. The custom dates from 1263, and was formerly
confined to the Franciscans; it was prescribed for the universal
church by the Congregation of Rites on the 19th of May 1697.
Other customs, now obsolete, were formerly associated with the
liturgy of this feast; e.g. the blessing of the new beans after the
Commemoration of the Dead in the canon of the mass (Duchesne,
p. 183). In some churches, during the middle ages, an image
of Christ was raised from the altar through a hole in the roof,
through which a burning straw figure representing Satan was
immediately thrown down.
In the Anglican Church Ascension Day and its octave con-
tinue to be observed as a great festival, for which a special
preface to the consecration prayer in the communion service is
provided, as in the case of Christmas, Easter, Whitsunday, and
Trinity Sunday. The celebration of the Feast of the Ascension
was also retained in the Lutheran churches as warranted by
Holy Scripture.
See Herzog-Hauck, ReaUncykkp&die (1900), s. "Himtnclfahrlsfest"'.
L. Duchesne, Christian Worship (and Eng. ed., London, 1904);
The Catholic Encyclopaedia (London and New York, 1907).
ASCETICISM* the theory and practice of bodily abstinence
and self-mortification, generally religious. The word is derived
from the Gr. verb actkw, " I practise," whence the noun SattTpit
and the adjective Araqrufo ; and it embodies a metaphor taken
from the ancient wrestling-place or palaestra, where victory
rewarded those who had best trained their bodies. Not a few
other technical terms of Greek philosophic asceticism, used in
the first instance by Cynics and Neo-pythagoreans, and then
continued among the Greek Jews and Christians, were metaphors
taken from athletic contests— but only metaphors, for all
asceticism, worthy of the name, has a moral purport, and is
based on the eternal contrast of the proposition, " This is right,"
with the proposition, " That is pleasant." The ascetic instinct
is probably aa old as humanity, yet we must not forget that early
religious practices are apt to be deficient in lofty spiritual mean-
ing, many things being esteemed holy that are from a modern
point of view trifling and even obscene. We may therefore
expect in primitive asceticism to find many abstentions and
much self-torture apparently valueless for the training of
character and discipline of the feelings, which are the essence of
any healthy asceticism. Nevertheless these non-moral taboos or
restraints may have played a part in building up in us that
faculty of preferring the larger good to the impulse of the momen t
which is the note of real civilization. Aristotle in his Ethics
defines, as the barbarian's ideal of life, " the living as one likes."
Yet nothing is less true; for the savage, more than the civilized
man, is tied down at every step with superstitious scruples and
restrictions barely traceable in higher civilizations except as
primitive survivals. It is not that savages are devoid of the
ascetic instinct. It is on the contrary over-developed in them,
but ill-informed and working in ways unessential or even morally
harmfuL It is the note of every great religious reformer, Moses,
Buddha, Paul, Mani, Mahomet, St Francis, Luther, to enlighten
and direct it to higher aims, substituting a true personal holiness
for a ritual purity or taboo, which at the best was viewed as a
kind of physical condition and contagion, inherent as well in
things and animals as in man.
It is useful, therefore, in a summary sketch of asceticism, to
begin with the facts as they can be observed among less advanced
races, or as mere survivals among people who have reached the
level of genuine moral reflection; and from this basis to proceed
to a consideration of self-denial consciously pursued as a method
of ethical perfection. The latter is as a rule less cruel and
rigorous than primitive forms of asceticism. Under this head
fall the following:— Fasting, or abstention from certain meats
and drinks; denial of sexual instinct; subjection of the body
to physical discomforts, such as nakedness, vigils, sleeping on
the bare ground, tattooing, deformation of skull, teeth, feet, &c,
vows of silence to be observed throughout life or during pilgrim-
ages, avoidance of baths, of hair-cutting and of clean raiment,
living in a cave; actual self -infliction of pain, by scourging,
branding, cutting with knives, wearing of hair shirts, fire-walking,
burial alive, hanging up of oneself by hooks plunged into the
skin, suspension of weights by such hooks to the tenderer parts
of the body, self -mutilation and numerous other, often ingenious,
modes of torture. Such customs repose on various superstitions;
for example, the self-mutilation of the Galli or priests of Cybcle
was probably a magical ceremony intended to fertilize the soil
and stimulate the oops. Others of the practices enumerated,
probably the greater part of them, spring from dcmonological
beliefs.
Fasting (q.v.) is used in primitive asceticism for a variety of
reasons, among which the following deserve notice. Certain
animals and vegetables are taboo, i.e. too holy, or — what among
Semites and others was the same thing— too defiling and unclean,
to be eaten. Thus in Leviticus xi. the Jews are forbidden to
eat animals other than cloven- footed ruminants; thus the
camel, coney, hare and swine were forbidden; so also any water
organisms that had not fins and scales, and a large choice of
birds, including swan, pelican, stork, heron and hoopoe. All
winged creeping things that have four feet were equally abomin-
able. Lastly, the weasel, mouse and most lizards were taboo.
All or nearly all of these were at one time totem animals among
one or another of the Semitic tribes, and were not eaten because
primitive men will not eat animals between which and themselves
and their gods they believe a peculiar tie of kinship to exist.
Men do not cat an animal for which they have a reverential
dread, or if they cat it at all, it is only in a sacramental feast and
In order to absorb into themselves its life and holy properties.
Such abstinences as the above, though based on taboo, that fa, on
a reluctance to eat the totem or sacred animal, are yet ascetic
in so far as they involve much self-denial. No flesh is more
wholesome or succulent than beef, yet the Egyptians and
Phoenicians, says Porphyry (de Abst. ii. xx), would rather eat
human flesh than that of the cow, and so would two hundred and
fifty millions of modern Hindus. The privation involved in
abstention from the flesh of the swine, a taboo hardly less wide-
spread, Is obvious.
Similar prohibitions are common in Africa, where fetish priests
are often reduced to a diet of herbs and roots. That such dietary
restrictions were merely ceremonial and superstitious, and not
718
ASCETICISM
intended to prevent the consumption of meats which would revolt
modern tastes, is certain from the fact that the Levitical law
freely allowed the eating of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets and
cockroaches, while forbidding the consumption of rabbits, hares,
storks, swine, &c. The Pythagoreans were forbidden to eat beans.
Another widespread reason for avoiding flesh diet altogether
was the fear of absorbing the irrational soul of the animal,
which especially resided in the blood. Hence the rule not to eat
meats strangled, except in sacramental meals when the god
inherent in the animal was partaken of. It is equally a soul or
spirit in wine which inspires the intoxicated; the old Egyptian
kings avoided wine at table and in libations, because it was the
blood of rebels who had fought with the gods, and out of whose
rotting bodies grew the vines; to drink the blood was to imbibe
the soul of these rebels, and the frenzy of intoxication which
followed was held to be possession by their spin is. The medieval
Jews also held that there is a cardiac demon in wine which
takes possession of drunken men; and the Mahommedan
prohibition of wine-drinking is based on a similar superstition.
The avoidance of wine, therefore, by Rechabites, Nazirites, Arab
dervishes and Pythagoreans, and also of leaven in bread, is
parallel to and explicable in the same way as abstention from
flesh. Porphyry (dc Abst. i. 19) acquaints us with another wide-
spread scruple against flesh diet. It was this, that the souls of
men transmigrated into animals, so that if you ate these, you
might consume your own kind, cannibal-wise. Contemporary
meat-eaters set themselves to combat this prejudice, and argued
that it was a pious duty to lull animals and so release the human
souls imprisoned. In the same tract Porphyry relates (ii. 48)
how wizards acquired the mantic powers of certain birds, such
as ravens and hawks, by swallowing their hearts. The soul of
the bird, he explains, enters them with its flesh, and endows
them with power of divination. The lover of wisdom, who is
priest of the universal God, rather than risk the taking into him-
self of inferior souls and polluting demons, will abstain from
eating animals. Such is Porphyry's argument.
The same fear of imbibing the irrational soul of animals, and
thereby reinforcing the lower appetites and instincts of the
human being, inspired the vegetarianism of Apollonius of Tyana
and of the Jewish Therapcutae, who in their sacred meals were
careful to have a table free from blood-containing meats; and
the fear of absorbing the animal's psychic qualities equally
motived the Jewish and early Christian rule against eating
things strangled. It was an early belief, which long survived
among the Manichaean sects, that fish, being born in and of the
waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other
fishes are free from the taint which pollutes all animals quae
copulatione generantur. Fish, therefore, unlike flesh, could be
safely eaten. Here we have the origin of the Catholic rule of
fasting, seldom understood by those who observe it. The same
scruple against flesh-eating is conveyed in the beautiful confes-
sion, in the Cretans of Euripides, of one who had been initiated
in the mysteries of Orpheus and became a " Bacchos." The last
lines of this, as rendered by Dr Gilbert Murray, arc as follows: —
" Robed in pure white, I have borne roc dean
From man's vile birth and coffined clay,
And exiled from my lips alway
Touch of all meat where life hath been."
This Orphic fast from meat was only broken by an annual
sacramental banquet, originally, perhaps, of human, but later of
raw bovine flesh.
The Manichaeans held that in every act of begetting, human or
otherwise, a soul is condemned afresh to a cycle of misery by
imprisonment in flesh — a thoroughly Indian notion, under the
influence of which their perfect or elect ones scrupulously
abstained from flesh. The prohibition of taking life, which
they took over from the Farther East, in itself entailed fasting
from flesh. A fully initiated Manichaean would not even cut his
own salad, but employed a catechumen to commit on his behalf
this act of murder, for which he subsequently shrived him.
We come to a third widespread reason for fasting, common
among savages. Famished persons are liable to morbid excite-
ment, and fall Into imaginative ecstasies, in the coarse of whka
they see visions and spectres, converse with gods and ancHs,
and are the recipients of supernatural revelations. According
King Saul " ate no bread all the day nor all the night " in wbch
the witch of Endor revealed to him the ghost of Samuel Weak
and famished, he hardly wanted to eat the fatted calf when tne
vision was over Among the North American Indians ecstatic
fasting is regularly practised. A faster writes down bis viscaa
and revelations for a whole season. They are then examined by
the elders of the tribe, and if events have verified them, be is
recognized as a supernaturally gifted being, and rewarded wits
chieftaincy. All over the world fasting is a recognized mode (A
evoking, consulting and also of overcoming the spirit world.
This is why the Zulus and other primitive races distrust 1
medicine man who is not an ascetic and lean with fasting. Ii
the Semitic East it is an old belief that a successful fast in tk
wilderness of forty days and nights gives power over the Djinnv
The Indian yogi fasts till he sees face to face all the gods of his
Pantheon; the Indian magician fasts twelve days before pro-
ducing rain or working any cure. The Bogomils fasted till they
saw the Trinity face to face. From the first, fasting was practised
in the church for similar reason. In the Shepherd of Hermes s
vision of the church rewards frequent fasts and prayer; and it is
related in extra-canonical sources that James the Less vowed
that he would fast until he too was vouchsafed a vision of the
risen Lord. After a long and rigorous fast the Lord appeared
to him. Not a few saints were rewarded for their fasting by
glimpses of the beatific vision. Dr Tylor writes on this point as
follows (Prim. Cult. ii. 415): " Bread and meat would have
robbed the ascetic of many an angel's visit: the opening of the
refectory door must many a time have dosed the gates of heaves
to his gaze."
Among the Semites and Tatars worshippers lacerate tbemsehrei
before the god. So in 1 Kings xviii. 28 the priests of Baal
engaged in a rain-making ceremony, gashed themselves with
knives and lances till the blood gushed out upon them. Tk
Syriac word etkkashshaph, which means literally to M cut oaf-
self," is the regular equivalent of to "make supplication. "
Among Greeks and Arabs, mourners also cut themselves with
knives and scratched their faces; the Hebrew law forbade sock
mourning, and we find the prohibition repeated in many canoos
of the Eastern churches. At first sight these rites seem intended
to call down the pity of heaven on man, but as Robertson Smith
points out, their real import was by shedding blood on a holy
stone or in a holy place to tie or renew a blood-bond between
tho God and his faithful ones. We have no dear information
about the mind of the Flagellants, who in 1250, and again is
1340, swarmed through the streets of European dties, naked
and thrashing themselves, till the blood ran, with leather thongs
and iron whips. They were penitents, and no doubt imbued
with the andent belief that without the shedding of blood there
is no remission of sins.
Asceticism then in its origin was usually not ascetic in *
modern sense, that is, not ethical. It was rather of the nature
of the savage taboo (9.9.) • the outcome of totemistic beliefs or t
mode of averting the contaminating presence of djinns and
demons. Above all, fasting was a mode of preparing oneseH
for the sacramental eating of a sacred animal, and as such often
assisted by use of purgatives and aperients. It was essential
in the old Greek rites of averting the Kires or djinns, the Ql
regulated ghosts who return to earth and molest the living, to
abstain from flesh. The Pythagoreans and Orphic mystot so
abstained all their life long, and Porphyry eloquently insists on
such a discipline for all who " are not content merely to talk
about Reason, but are really intent on casting aside the body
and living through Reason with Truth. Naked and without
the tunic of the flesh these will enter the arena and strive in the
Olympic contest of the soul."
It is time to pass on to Buddhist ascetidsm, In Its essence
a more ethical and philosophical product than some of toe
forms so far considered. The keynote of Buddhist asceticism is
deliverance from life and its inevitable suffering. Once at a
ASCETICISM
719
village where he rested the Blessed One (Buddha) addressed
his brethren and said: " It is through not understanding and
grasping four Noble Truths, O brethren, that we have had to
run so long, to wander so long in this weary path of transmigra-
tion, both you and I." These noble truths were about sorrow,
its cause, its cessation and the path which leads to that cessation.
Once they are grasped the craving for existence is rooted out,
that which leads to renewed existence is destroyed, and there
is no more birth. The Buddha believed he had a way of Truth,
which if an elect disciple possessed he might say of himself,
" Hell is destroyed for me, and rebirth as an animal, or a ghost,
or in any place of woe. I am converted, I am no longer liable
to be reborn in a state of suffering, and am assured of final
salvation."
Suffering, said the sage in his great sermon at Benares, is
inseparable from birth and old age. Sickness is suffering, so is
death, so is union with the unloved, and separation from the
loved; not to obtain what one desires is suffering; the entire
fivefold clinging to the earthly is suffering. Its origin is the
thirst for being which leads from birth to birth, together with
lust and desire, which find gratification here and there; the
thirst for pleasures, for being, for power. This thirst must be
extinguished by complete annihilation of desire, by letting it
go, expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room.
This extinction is achieved in eight ways, namely rectitude of
faith, resolve, speech, action, living, effort, thought, self-con-
centration.
In this gospel we must be done with the outer world, partici-
pation in which is not the self, yet means for the self birth
and death, appetites, longings, emotions, change and suffering,
pleasure and pain. He that has put off all lust and desire, all
hope and fear, all will to exist as a sinful, because a sentient,
being, has won to the heaven of extinction or Nirvana. He may
still tread the earth, but he is a saint or Brahman, is in heaven,
has quitted the transient and enjoys eternity.
Such was the Buddha's gospel, as his most ancient scriptures
enunciate it. Nirvana is constantly defined in them as supreme
happiness. It is not even clear how far, if we interpret it strictly,
this philosophy leaves any self to be happy. However this be,
its practical expression is the life of the monk who has separated
himself from the world. Five commandments must be observed
by him who would even approach the higher life of saint and
ascetic. They are these: to kill no living thing; not to lay
hands on another's property; not to touch another's wife,
not to speak what is untrue; not to drink intoxicating drinks.
Though couched in the negative, these rules must be inter-
preted in the amplest and widest sense by all believers. The
Order, however, which the would-be ascetic can enter by regular
initiation, when he is twenty years of age, entails a discipline
much more severe. He has gone forth from home into homeless-
ness, and has not where to lay his head. He must eat only the
morsels he gets by begging; must dress in such rags as he can
pick up; must sleep under trees. Mendicancy Is his recognised
way of life. Furthermore, he must abstain all his life from
sexual intercourse; he may not take even a blade of grass
without permission of the owner; he must not kill even a worm
or ant; he must not boast of his perfection. In practice the
lives of Buddhist monks are not so squalid as these rules would
lead us to suppose. Thanks to the reverent charity of the
laymen, they do not live much worse than Benedictine monks;
and the prohibition to live in houses does not extend to caves.
Everywhere in India and Ceylon they hollowed out cells and
churches in the cliffs and rocks, which are the wonder of the
European tourist.
But long before the advent of Buddhism, the hermit, or
wandering beggar, was a familiar figure in India. No formal
initiation was imposed on the would-be ascetic, save (in the case
of young men) the duty to live at first in his teacher's house.
One who had thus fulfilled the duties of the student order must
" go forth remaining chaste," says the Apastamba, ii. 9. 8. He
shall then " live without a fire, without a house, without pleasures,
without protection; remaining silent and uttering speech only
on the occasion of the daily recitation of the Veda; begging so
much food only in the village as will sustain his life, he shall
wander about, neither caring for this world nor for heaven.
He shall only wear clothes thrown away by others. Some
declare that he shall even go naked. Abandoning truth and
falsehood, pleasure and pain, the Vedas, this world and the next,
he shall seek the Universal Soul, in knowledge of which standeth
eternal salvation."
Such a life was specially recommended for one who has lived
the life of a householder, and, having begotten sons according
to the sacred law and offered sacrifices, desires in his old age to
abandon worldly objects and direct his mind to final liberation.
He leaves his wife, if she will not accompany him, and goes,
forth into the forest, committing her and his bouse to his sons.
He must indeed take with him the sacred fire and implements-
for domestic sacrifice, but until death overtakes him he must
wander silent, alone, possessing jiq hearth nor dwelling, begging
his food in the villages, firm of purpose, with a potsherd for an
alms bowl, the roots of trees for a dwelling, and clad in coarse
worn-out garments. " Let him not desire to die, let him not
desire to live; let him wait for his appointed time, as a servant
waits for the payment of his wages. Let him drink water
purified by straining with a cloth, let him utter speech purified
by truth, let him keep his heart pure. Let him patiently bear
hard words, let him not insult anybody, let him not become any
one's enemy for the sake of this perishable body. . . . Let him
reflect on the transmigrations of men, caused by their sinful
deeds, on their falling into hell, and on their torments in the
world of Yama. ... A twice-born man who becomes an
ascetic thus shakes off sin here below and reaches the highest
Brahman " (Laws of Manu, by G. Buhler, vi. 85).
This old-world wisdom of the Hindus, a thousand years before
our era, is worthily to be paralleled from the Manichaeism of
about the year 400. Augustine has preserved (contra Faustum,
v. 1) the portraiture of a Manichaean elect as drawn by himself: —
" 1 have given up father and mother, wife, children and all else
that the gospel bids us, and do you ask if I accept the goscel ?
Are you then still ignorant of what the word gospel means? It is
nothing else than the preaching and precept 01 Christ. I have cast
away gold and silver t and have ceased to carry even copper in my
belt, being content with my daily bread, nor caring for the morrow,
nor anxious how my belly shall be filled or my body clothed ; and
do you ask me if I accept the gospel? You behold in me those
beatitu'des of Christ which make up the gospel, and you ask me if
I accept it. You behold me gentle, a peacemaker, puts of heart,
a mourner, hungering, thirsting, bearing persecutions and hatreds
for righteousness' sake, and do you doubt whether I accept the
gospel. ... All that was mine 1 have given up, father, mother,
wife, children, gold, silver, eating, drinking, delights, pleasures.
Deem this a sufficient answer to your question and deem yourself
on the way to be blessed, if you have not been scandalised in me."
The Greek Cynics (see Cynics) played a great part in the
history of Asceticism, and they were so much the precursors of
the Christian hermits that descriptions of them in profane
literature have been mistaken for pictures of early monasUcUm.
In striving to imitate the rugged strength and independence of
their master Socrates, they went to such extremes as rather
to caricature him. They affected to live like beggars, bearing
staff and wallet, owning nothing, renouncing pleasures, riches,
honours. For older thinkers like Plato and Aristotle the perfect
life was that of the citixen and householder; but the Cynics
were individualists, citizens of the world without loyalty or
respect for the ancient city state, the decay of which was
coincident with their rise. Their seal for renunciation often
extended not to pleasures, marriage and property alone, but to
cleanliness, knowledge and good manners as well, and in this
respect also they were the forerunners of later monks.
Philo (20 b.C.-aj). 40) has left us many pictures of the life
which to his mind impersonated the highest wisdom, and they
are all inspired by the more respectable sort of cynicism, which
had taken deep root among Greek Jews of the day. One such
picture merits citation from his tract On Change of Names (vot
i. 583, ed. Mangey): " All this company of the good and wise
have of their own free will divested themselves of too copious
wealth; nay, have spurned the things dear to the flesh. Fr
7*o
ASCHAFFENBURG— ASCHAM
good habit and loty axe athletes, since they hire fortified
az*ir_st the soul the body which should be its servant; but the
disciples of wisdom are pale and waited, and in a manner reduced
to skeieioat. because they have sacrificed the whose of their
bodily strength to the faculties of the souL"
His own favourite ascetics, the Tbcrapeotae, whose chief
centre was is Egypt, had renounced property and all its tempta-
tions, and fled, irrevocably abandoning brothers, children, wives,
parents, throngs of kinsmen, intimacy of friends, the fatherlands
where they were bora and bred (see Teeilapectae). Here we
have the ideal of earty Christian renunciation at work, but apart
from the influence of Jesus. In the pages of Epictetas the same
ideal is constantly held op to as.
In the Christian Church there was from the earliest age a
leaning to excessive asceticism, and it needed a severe straggle
on the part of Paul, and of the Catholic teachers who followed
him, to secure for the baptized the right to be married, to own
property, to engage in war and commerce, or to assume public
office. One and all of the permanent institutions of society were
condemned by the early enthusiasts, especially by those who
looked forward to a speedy advent of the millennium, as alien to
the kingdom of God and as impediments to the life of grace.
Marriage and property had already been eschewed in the
Jewish Essene and Therapeutic sects, and in Christianity the
name of Encratite was given to those who repudiated marriage
and the use of wine. They did not form a sect, but represented
an impulse felt everywhere. In early and popular apocryphal
histories the apostles are represented as insisting that their
converts should cither not contract wedlock or should dissolve
the tie if already formed. This is the plot of the Acts of Tkeda,
a story which probably goes back to the first century. Repudia-
tion of the tie by fervent women, betrothed or already wives,
occasioned much domestic friction and popular persecution.
In the Syriac churches, even as late as the 4th century, the married
state seems to have been regarded as incompatible with the
perfection of the initiated. Renunciation of the state of wedlock
was anyhow imposed on the faithful during the lengthy, often
lifelong, terms of penance imposed upon them for sins committed;
and later, when monkery took the place, in a church become
worldly, partly of the primitive baptism and partly of that
rigorous penance which was the rcbaptism and medicine of the
lapsed, celibacy and virginity were held essential thereto, no
less than renunciation of property and money-making.
Together with the rage for virginity went the institution of
ttrgines svbintrodudoc, or of spiritual wives; for it was often
assumed that the grace of baptism restored the original purity
of life led by Adam and Eve in common before the FalL Such
rigours are encouraged in the Shepherd of Hennas, a book which
emanated from Rome and up to the 4th century was read in
church. They were common in the African churches, where they
led to abuses which taxed the energy even of a Cyprian. They
were still rife in Antioch in 960. We detect them in the Celtic
church of St Patrick, and, as late as the 7 th century, among the
Cel tic elders of the north of France. In the Syriac church as late
as 340, such relations prevailed between the " Sons and daughters
of the Resurrection." It continued among the Albigenses and
other dissident sects of the middle ages, among whom it served
a double purpose; for their elders were thus not only able to
prove their own chastity, but to elude the inquisitors, who were
less inclined to suspect a man of the catharism which regarded
marriage as the " greater adultery " (main* aduUerium) if they
found him cohabiting (in appearance at least) with a woman.
There was hardly an early council, great or small, that did not
condemn this custom, as well as the other one, still more painful
to think of, of self-emasculation. In the Catholic church, however,
common sense prevailed, and those who desired to follow the
Encratite ideal repaired to the monasteries.
Authorities.— E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London, 1903);
Robert Mn Smith, Religion of the Semites (London, 1901): J. fe.
Harmon. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion ;F. Max Mflller,
The Saered Booh of the East; Virtor Henry. La Matte dans I'Inds
ontique: I. C. Prater, The Golden Bough (London, 1900), and
Adonis, Auis, Osiris (London, 1906); Georges Lafay, Culie dee
I disinith tAltxanine (Paris, it**): TVlTissjiff.
MtifleUers (Munich. 1690 ; Fr. CwnT. J .
■Chicago. 1903;; Zcrkjtr. GcjcL iter A scat \i8fc3;- See
PvsiriCATiox. Gcldziher, " De fascefiae aax
de 1' Islam/* ia Rome de Fkisievw da reiigiens fiso*
Jf«M
P- 3U.
Mural ori. De Symisactu et AgapeUs 'Fwria, I70O-: Ja*. Ma.nnu.
Tyfits of FJkiasl Theory (Oxford. i&* : T. H. Gree*. PnUf.^mrm
to Ethics (Oxford, i&»3j: Fram Ccir.ner. La Jtc-wmj t*' .0
dans Ic paganism* remain (Paris. 1907); Facpkyrsas* XV A >
ututia; Plntarchus, De Caminm Esm. (F. C C
AfCHAFFBnORfi. a town of Germany, ia the ajasjdosr. d
Bavaria, on the right bank of the Main, at its 1 unrhii ni ■ wirr. tie
Aschafr, near the foot of the Spessart, at m. by rail S.E. ef
Frankfort-on-lfain. Pop. (1000) 18,091; (1005) »s**75- l3
chief buddings are the Joharmwnurg, built (1605-1614* -▼
Archbishop Schweikard of Cronberg. which rontams a tibrxnr
with a number of mmnaimia, a collection of engravings axe
paintings; the Siiftshirche, or cathedral, founded in 980 by On*
of Bavaria, but dating in the main from the early nth and the
13th centuries, in which are pitswud various moniinsi nts bv
the Vischers, and a sarcophagus, with the relics of St Margaret
(1540); the Capuchin hospital; a theatre, which mas f c em e nt
the house of the Teutonic order; and several mansions of the
German nobility. The town, which has been umaitsloi for its
educational establishments since the 10th c en tur y, has a gym-
nasfum. ryceum, seminarium and other schools. These is as
archaeological museum in the old abbey buildings. The grots
of Klemens Brentano and ms brother Christian (d. 1*51) are ia
the churchyard; and Wflhelm Heinse is buried in the town.
Coloured and white paper, ready-made dothing, crammer,
tobacco, lime and liqueurs are the chief manufacturea, witie
a considerable export trade is done down the Main in wood,
cattle and wine.
Aschaffenborg, called in the middle ages Aschafabvj* and also
Askenborg, was originally a Roman settlement. The loth and
23rd Roman legions had their station here, and on the ruins of
their castntm the Frankish mayors of the palace built a castle.
Bonifachis erected a chapel to St Martin, and founded a Bene-
dictine monastery. A stone bridge over the Main was built by
Archbishop Wflligis in 089. Adalbert increased the imfmrtance
of the town in various ways about usa. In iaoa a synod was
held here, and in 1474 an imperial diet, preliminary to that of
Vienna, in which the concordat was decided which baa therefore
been sometimes called the Aschafenburf Concordat*
The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' War,
being held in turn by the various belligerents. In 1842-1849,
King Louis built himself to the west of the town a country noose,
called the Pomfieianum, from its being an imitation of the house
of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii. In 1866 the Prussians inflicted
a severe defeat on the Austrians in the neighbourhood.
The principality of Aschaffenburg, deriving its name from the
city, comprehended an area of 654 English sq. m. It formed part
of the electorate of Mainz, and in 1803 was made over to the
archchanceUor, Archbishop Charles of Dalberg. In 1806 it was
annexed to the grand-duchy of Frankfort; and in 1814 was
transferred to Bavaria, in virtue of a treaty concluded on the
19th of June between that power and Austria. With lower
Franconia, it now forms a district of the kingdom of Bavaria.
A8CHAH, ROGER (c. 151 5-1 568), English scholar and writer.
was born at Kirby Wiske, a village in the North Riding of
Yorkshire, near Northallerton, about the year 1515. His name
would be more properly spelt Askham, being derived, doubtless,
from Askham in the West Riding. He was the third son of John
Aschain, steward to Lord Scrope of Bolton. The family name
of his mother Margaret is unknown, but she is said to have been
well connected. The authority for this statement, as for most
others concerning Ascham's early life, is Edward Grant, head-
master of Westminster, who collected and edited his letters and
delivered a panegyrical oration on his life in 1576.
Ascham was educated not at school, but in the house of Sir
Humphry Wingfield, a barrister, and in 1533 speaker of the
House of Commons, as Ascham himself tells us, in the Toxofkiins,
p. 120 (not, as by a mistake which originated with Grant and has
been repeated ever since, Sir Anthony Wingfield, whefwas nephew
ASCHAM
721
of the speaker). SJr Humphry "ever loved and used to have
many children brought up in his house," where they were under
a tutor named R. Bond. Their sport was archery, and Sir
Humphry "himself would at term times bring down from
London both bows and shafts and go with them himself to the
field and see them shoot" Hence Ascham's earliest English
work, tfce Toxophilus, the importance which he attributed to
archery in educational establishments, and probably the pro-
vision for archery in the statutes of St Albans, Harrow and
other Elizabethan schools. From this private tuition Ascham
was sent "about 1530," at the age, it is said, of fifteen, to St
John's College, Cambridge, then the largest and most learned
college in either university. Here he fell under the influence of
John Cheke, who was admitted a fellow in Ascham's first year,
and Sir Thomas Smith. His guide and friend was Robert
Pember, " a man of the greatest learning and with an admirable
facility in the Greek tongue." On his advice he practised
seriously the precept embodied in the saying, " I know nothing
about the subject, I have not even lectured on it," and " to
learn Greek more quickly, while still a boy, taught Greek to
boys." In Latin he specially studied Cicero and Caesar. He
became 8.A. on the x8th of February 1534/5. Dr Nicholas
Metcalfe was then master of the college, " a papist, indeed, and
yet if any young man given to the new learning as they termed
it, went* beyond his fellows," he " lacked neither open praise,
nor private exhibition." He procured Ascham's election to a
fellowship, " though being a new bachelor of arts, I chanced
among my companions to speak against the Pope . . . after
grievous rebuke and some punishment, open warning was given
to all the fellows, none to be so hardy, as to give me his voice at
that election." The day of election Ascham regarded as his
" birthday," and " the whole foundation of the poor learning I
have and of all the furtherance that hitherto elsewhere I have
obtained." He took his M.A. degree on the 3rd of July 1537.
He stayed for some time at Cambridge taking pupils, among
whom was William Grindal, who in 1544 became tutor to Princess
Elizabeth. Ascham himself cultivated music, acquired fame
for a beautiful handwriting, and lectured on mathematics.
Before 1540, when the Regius professorship of Greek was estab-
lished, Ascham " was paid a handsome salary to profess the
Greek tongue in public," and held also lectures in St John's
College. He obtained from Edward Lee, then archbishop of
York, a pension of £2 a year, in return for which Ascham trans-
lated Oecumenius > Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles. But
the archbishop, scenting heresy in some passage relating to the
marriage of the clergy, sent it back to him, with a present indeed ,
but with something like a reprimand, to which Ascham answered
with an assurance that he was " no seeker after novelties," as
his lectures showed. He was on safer ground in writing in 1 54 a-
2543 a book, which he told Sir William Paget in the summer
of 1544 was in the press, " on the art of Shooting." This was
no doubt suggested partly by the act of parliament 33 Henry
VIII. c o, *' an acte for mayntenaunce of Arty Marie and debar-
ringe of unlawful games," requiring every one under sixty, of good
health, the clergy, judges, ftc, excepted, " to use shooting in the
long bow," and fixing the price at which bows were to be sold.
Under the title of Toxophilus he presented it to Henry VIII. at
Greenwich soon after his triumphant return from the capture of
Boulogne, and promptly received a grant of a pension of £10 a
year, equal to some £200 a year of our money. A novelty of the
book was that the author had " written this Englishe matter
in the Englishe tongue for Englishe men," though he thought it
necessary to defend himself by the argument that what " the
best of the realm think it honest to use " he " ought not to suppose
it vile for him to write." It is a Platonic dialogue between Toxo-
philus and Pbilologus, and nowadays its chief interest lies in its
incidental remarks. It may probably claim to have been the
model for Isaak Walton's Com pi eat Angler.
From 1541, or earlier, Ascham acted as letter-writer to the
university and also to his college. Perhaps the best specimen
of his skill was the letter written to the protector Somerset in
1548 on behalf of Sedbergh school, which was attached to St
John's College by the founder, Dr Lupton, in 1525, and the
endowment of which had been confiscated under the Chantries
Act. In 1 546 Ascham was elected public orator by the university
on Sir John Cheke's retirement
Shortly after the beginning of the reign of Edward VI., Ascham
made public profession of Protestant opinions in a disputation
on the doctrine of the Mass, begun in his own college and then
removed for greater publicity to the public schools of the uni-
versity, where it was stopped by the vice-chancellor. Thereon
Ascham wrote a letter of complaint to Sir William Cecil. This
stood him in good stead. In January 1 548, Grindal, the princess
Elizabeth's tutor, died. Ascham had already corresponded with
the princess, and in one of his letters says that he returns her
pen which he has mended. Through Cecil and at the princess's
own wish he was selected as her tutor against another candidate
pressed by Admiral Seymour and Queen Katherine. Ascham
taught Elizabeth— then sixteen years old— for two years, chiefly
at Cheshunt In a letter to Sturm, the Strassburg schoolmaster,
he praises her "beauty, stature, wisdom and industry. She
talks French and Italian as well as English: she has often talked
to me readily and well in Latin and moderately so in Greek.
When she writes Greek and Latin nothing is more beautiful than
her handwriting ... she read with me almost all Cicero and
great part of Titus Livius: for she drew all her knowledge of
Latin from those two authors. She used to give the morning
to the Greek Testament and afterwards read select orations of
Isocrates and the tragedies of Sophocles. To these I added
St Cyprian and Melanchthon's Commonplaces." .In 1550 Ascham
quarrelled with Elizabeth's steward and returned to Cambridge.
Cheke then procured him the secretaryship to Sir Richard
Morrison (Moryson), appointed ambassador to Charles V. It
was on his way to join Morrison that he paid his celebrated
morning call on Lady Jane Grey at Bradgatc, where he found
her reading Plato's Phaedo, while every one else was out hunting.
The embassy went to Louvain, where he found the university
very inferior to Cambridge, then to Innsbruck and Venice.
Ascham read Greek with the ambassador four or five days a week.
His letters during the embassy, which was recalled on Mary's
accession, were published in English in 1553, as a " Report"
on Germany. Through Bishop Gardiner he was appointed Latin
secretary to Queen Mary with a pension of £20 a year. His
Protestantism he must have quietly sunk, though he told Sturm
that " some endeavoured to hinder the flow of Gardiner's
benevolence on account of bis religion." Probably his never
having been in orders tended to his safety. On the 1st of June
1 554 he married Margaret Howe, whom he described as niece of
Sir R. (? J., certainly not, as has been said, Henry) Wallop. By
her he had two sons. From his frequent complaints of his
poverty then and later, he seems to have lived beyond his income,
though, like most courtiers, he obtained divers lucrative leases
of ecclesiastical and crown property. In 1555 he resumed his
studies with Princess Elizabeth, reading in Greek the orations of
Aeschines and Demosthenes' De Corona. Soon after Elizabeth's
accession, on the 5th of October 1559, he was given, though a
layman, the canonry and prebend of Wetwang in York minster.
In 2563 he began the work which has made him famous,
The Scholtm aster. The occasion of it was, he tells us (though
he is perhaps merely imitating Boccaccio), that during the
"great plague " at London in 1563 the court was at Windsor,
and there on the 10th of December he was dining with Sir
William Cecil, secretary of state, and other ministers. Cecil
said he had " strange news; that divers scholars of Eaton be
run away from the schole for fear of beating "; and expressed
his wish that " more discretion was used by schoolmasters in
correction than commonly is." A debate took place, the party
being pretty evenly divided between floggers and anti-floggers,
with' Ascham as the champion of the latter. Afterwards Sir
Richard Sackville, the treasurer, came up to Ascham and told
him that " a fond schoolmaster " had, by his brutality, made him
hate learning, much to his loss, and as he had now a young son,
whom he wished to be learned, he offered, if Ascham would name
a tutor, to pay for the education of their respective sonsunr 1 ^
J22
ASCHERSLEBEN— ASCOLI
Ascham's orders, and invited Ascham to write a treatise on " the
right order of teaching.* The Seholemaster was the result. It
is not, as might be supposed, a general treatise on educational
method, but " a plaine and perfite way of teacbyng children to
understand, write and speake in Latin tong "; and it was not
intended for schools, but " specially prepared for the private
brynging up of youth in gentlemen and noblemens bouses."
The perfect way simply consisted in " the double translation of
a model book "; the book recommended by this professional
letter-writer being " Sturmius' Select Letters of Cicero" As a
method of learning a language by a single pupil, this method
might be useful; as a method of education in school nothing
more deadening could be conceived. The method itself seems
to have been taken from Cicero. Nor was the famous plea for
the substitution of gentleness and persuasion for coercion and
flogging in schools, which has been one of the main attractions
of the book, novel. It was being practised and preached at that
very time by Christopher Jonson (c. i 536-1 597) at Winchester;
it had been enforced at length by Wolsey in his statutes for his
Ipswich College in 2528, following Robert Sherborne, bishop
of Chichester, in founding Rolleston school; and had been re-
peatedly urged by Erasmus and others, to say nothing of William
of Wykeham himself in the statutes of Winchester College in
1400. But Ascham's was the first definite demonstration in
favour of humanity in the vulgar tongue and in an easy style
by a well-known " educationist," though not one who had any
actual experience as a schoolmaster. What largely contributed
to its fame was its picture of Lady Jane Grey, whose love of
learning was due to her finding her tutor a refuge from pinch-
ing, ear-boxing and bullying parents; some exceedingly good
criticisms of various authors, and a spirited defence of English
as a vehicle of thought and literature, of which it was itself an
excellent example. The book was not published till after
Ascham's death, which took place on the 23rd of December
1568, owing to a chill caught by sitting up all night to finish a
New Year's poem to the queen.
170a
by James Bennett with a life by Dr Johnson in 1771, reprinted in
8vo in 1815. Dr Giles in 1864-1865 published in 4 vols, select let ten
with the Toxophilut and Seholemaster and the life by Edward Grant,
The Seholemaster was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited
by the Rev. J. Upton in 171 1 and in 1743. by Prof. J. E. B. Mayor
The Seholemaster was reprinted in 1571 and 1589. It was edited
by the Rev. J. Upton in 171 1 and in 1743. by Prof. I. E. B. Mayor
in 1863. and by Prof. Edward Arbcr in 1870. The Toxophilus was
republished in 1571, 1589 and 1788, and by Prof. Edward Arber in
1 868 and 190*. (A. F. L.)
ASCHERSLEBKN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, 36 m. by rail N.W. from Halle, and at the junction
of lines to Cothcn and Nienhagen. Pop. (1900) 27,245; (1905)
27,876. It contains one Roman Catholic and four Protestant
Churches, a synagogue, a fine town-hall dating from the i6th
century, and several schools. The discovery of coal in the
neighbourhood stimulated and altered i ts industries. In addition
to the manufacture of woollen wares, for which it has long been
known, there is now extensive production of vinegar, paraffin,
potash and especially beetroot-sugar; while the surrounding
district, which was formerly devoted in great part to market-
gardening, is now turned almost entirely into beetroot fields.
There are also iron, zinc and chemical manufactures, and the
cultivation of agricultural seeds is carried on. In the neighbour-
hood are brine springs and a spa (Wilhclmsbad). Aschcrslebcn
was probably founded in the nth century by Count Esicoof
Ballenstcdt, the ancestor of the house of An halt, whose grandson,
Otto, called himself count of Ascania and Ascherslcben, deriving
the former part of the title from his castle in the neighbourhood
of the town. On the death of Otto III. (131 5) Ascherslcben
passed into the hands of the bishop of Halbcrstadt, and at the
peace of 1648 was, with the bishopric, united to Brandenburg.
ASCIANO, a town of Tuscany, in the province of Siena, 19 m.
S.E. of the town of Siena by rail. Pop. (iooi) 7618. It is
surrounded by walls built by the Siencse in 1351, and has some
14th-century churches with paintings of the same period. Six
miles to the south is the large Benedictine monastery of Monte
Oliveto Maggiore, founded in 1320, famous for Use frescoes' by
Luca Signorelli (1497-1498) and Antonio Bazzi, called Sodoxa
(1505), in the cloister, illustrating scenes from the legend of St
Benedict; the latter master's work is perhaps nowhere better
represented than here. The church contains fine inlaid cbuir
stalls by Fra Giovanni da Verona. The buildings, which are
mostly of red brick, are conspicuous against the gray clayey an:
sandy soil. The monastery is described by Aeneas Syh--s
Piccolo mini (Pope Pius II.) in his Commentaria. Remains cf
Roman baths, with a fine mosaic pavement, were found wit lux,
the town in 1898 (G. Pellegrini in Not hie degli scavi, 1899. 6;.
ASCITANS (or Ascitae; from &cr«fc, the Greek for a wine-skir.t.
a peculiar sect of and-century Christians (Montanists), «ho
introduced the practice of dancing round a wine-skin at their
meetings.
ASCITES (Gr. aairfrQf, dropsical, from a*«6t, bag-, sc
voffof, disease), the term in medicine applied to an efiusxa
of non-inflammatory fluid within the peritoneum. It is not a
disease in itself, but is one of the manifestations of diix^x
elsewhere— usually in the kidneys, heart, or in connexion *:ta
the liver (portal obstruction). Portal obstruction is the
commonest cause of well-marked ascites. It is produced by
(x) diseases within the liver, as cirrhosis (usually alcoholic) and
cancer; (2) diseases outside the liver, as cancer of stomach,
duodenum or pancreas, causing pressure on the portal vein,
or enlarged glands in the fissure of the liver producing the same
effect. Ascites is one of the late symptoms in the disease, and
precedes dropsy of the leg, which may come on later, due to
pressure on the large veins in the abdominal cavity by the
ascitic fluid. In ascites due to heart disease, the dropsy of the
feet and legs precedes the ascites, and there will be a history erf
palpitation, shortness of breath, and perhaps cough. In the
ascites of kidney troubles there will be a history of general
oedema — pufnness of face and eyes on rising in the morning prob-
ably having attracted the attention of the patient or his friends
previously. Other less common causes of ascites are chronic
peritonitis, either tuberculous in the young, or due to cancer ia
the aged, and more rarely still pernicious anaemia.
ASCLEPIADES, Greek physician, was born at Prusain Bithynia
in 124 B.C., and flourished at Rome in the end of the 2nd century
B.C. He travelled much when young, and seems at first to have
settled at Rome as a rhetorician. In that profession be did not
succeed, but he acquired great reputation as a physician. He
founded his medical practice on a modification of the atomic or
corpuscular theory, according to which disease results from an
irregular or inharmonious motion of the corpuscles of the body.
His remedies were, therefore, directed to the restoration of
harmony, and he trusted much to changes of diet, accompanied
by friction, bathing and exercise, though he also employed
emetics and bleeding. He recommended the use of wine, and
in every way strove to render himself as agreeable as possible
to his patients. His pupils were very numerous, and the schocJ
formed by them was called the Methodical. Asclepiades died
at an advanced age.
ASCLEPIADES, of Samos, epigrammatist and lyric poet, friend
of Theocritus, flourished about 270 B.C. He was the earliest
and most important of the convivial and erotic epigram rea-
lists. Only a few of his compositions are actual "inscrip-
tions "; others sing the praises of the poets whom he specially
admired, but the majority of them are love-songs. It is doubtful
whether be is the author of all the epigrams (some 40 in number)
which bear his name in the Greek Anthology. He possibly gave
his name to the Asclcpiadean metre.
ASCLEFIODOTUS, Greek military writer, flourished in the
1 st century B.C. Nothing is known of him except that he was
a pupil of Poseidonius the Stoic (d. 51 B.C.). He is the supposed
author of a treatise on Graeco-Macedonian tactics (Torn* a
Kc^ttXcua), which, however, is probably not his own work, but
the skeleton outline of the lectures delivered by his master, who
h known to have written a work on the subject
ASCOLI, GRAZIABIO ISAIA (1829-1907), Italian philologist;
of Jewish family, was born at Gorx, and at an early «a* showed a
ASCOLI PICENO— A^COT
723
marked linguistic talent. In 1854 he published his Sludii
oricntali t linguistics, and in i860 was appointed professor of
philology at Milan. He made various learned contributions to
the study of Indo-European and Semitic languages, and also of
the gipsy language, but his special field was the Italian dialects.
He founded the Arckivio glollohgico italiano in 1873, publishing
in it his Saggi Ladini, and making it in succeeding years the
great organ of original . scholarship on this subject. He was
universally recognized as the greatest authority on Italian
linguistics, and his article in the Encyclopaedia Brilannica
(o,tb ed., revised for this edition) became the classic exposition
in English. (See Italy: Language.)
ASCOLI PICENO 1 (anc. Asculum), a town and episcopal see
of the Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Ascoli Piceno,
17 m. W. of Porto d' Ascoli (a station on the coast railway, 56 m.
S.S.E. of Ancona), and 53 m. S. of Ancona direct, situated on
the S. bank Of the Tronto (anc. Truenlus) at its confluence with
the Castellano, 500 ft. above sea-level, and surrounded by lofty
mountains. Pop. (1001) town, 12,256; commune, 28,608. The
Porta Romana is a double-arched Roman gate; adjacent are
remains of the massive ancient city walls, in rectangular blocks
of stone 2 ft. in height, and remains of still earlier fortifications
have been found at this point (F. Barnabei in Notizic degli scavi,
1887, 252). The church of S. Gregorio is built into a Roman
tetrastyle Corinthian temple, two columns of which and the
cella are still preserved; the site of the Roman theatre can be
distinguished; and the church and convent of the Annunziata
(with two fine cloisters and a good fresco by Cola d' Am a trice
in the refectory) are erected upon large Roman substructures
of concrete, which must have supported some considerable
building. Higher up is the castle, which now shows no traces of
fortifications older than medieval; it commands a fine view of
the town and of the mountains which encircle it. The town
has many good pre-Renaissance buildings; the picturesque
colonnaded market-place contains the fine Gothic church of
S. Francesco and the original Palazzo del Comunc, now the
prefecture (Gothic with Renaissance additions). The cathedral
is in origin Romanesque,' but has been much altered, and was
restored in 1888 by Count Giuseppe Sacconi (1855-1905). The
frescoes in the dome, of the same date, are by Cesare Mariani.
The cope presented to the cathedral treasury by Pope Nicholas
IV. was stolen in 1904, and sold to Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, who
generously returned it to the Italian government, and it was
then placed for greater safety in the Galleria Corsini at Rome.
The baptistery still preserves its ancient character; and the
churches of S. Vittore and SS. Vincenzo ed Anastasio are also
good Romanesque buildings. The fortress of the Mala test a,
constructed in 1349, has been in the main destroyed; the part
of it which remains is now a prison. The present Palazzo
Comunale, a Renaissance edifice, contains a fine museum,
chiefly remarkable for the contents of prehistoric tombs found
in the district (including good bronze fibulae, necklaces, amulets,
&c, often decorated with amber), and a large collection of
acorn-shaped lead missiles (glandcs) used by slingers, belonging
to the time of the siege of Asculum during the Social War (89 B.C.).
There is also a picture gallery containing works by local masters,
Pietro Alamanni, Cola d' Ama trice, Carlo CriveHi, &c The
bridges across the ravines which defend the town are of consider-
able importance; the Ponte di Porta Cappucina is a very fine
Roman bridge, with a single arch of 71 It. span. The Ponte di
Cecco (so named from Cccoo d' Ascoli), with two arches, is also
Roman and belongs to the Via Salaria; the Ponte Maggiore
and the Ponte Cartaro are, on the other hand, medieval, though
the latter perhaps preserves some traces of Roman work. Near
Ascoli is Castel Trosino, where an extensive Lombard necropolis
of the 7th century was discovered in 1895; the contents of the
tombs are now exhibited in the Musco Nazionale dclle Termc
at Rome (Notizic degli scavi, 1895,35).
The ancient Asculum was the capital of Piccnum, and it
1 The epithet distinguishes it from Ascoli Satriano (anc. A uscnium),
whirh lies iom.S. of Foggia by rail.
* it contains a fine polyptych by Carlo Crivelli (1473).
occupied a strong position in the centre of difficult country.
It was taken in 268 B.C. by the Romans, and the Via Salaria was
no doubt prolonged thus far at this period; the distance from
Rome is 120 m. It took a prominent part in the Social War
against Rome, the proconsul Q. Scrvilius and all the Roman
citizens within its walls being massacred by the inhabitants
in 90 B.C. It was captured after a long siege by Pompeius
Strabo in 89 b.c The leader, Judacilius, committed suicide, the
principal citizens were put to death, and the rest exiled. The
Roman general celebrated his triumph on the 25 th of December
of that year. Caesar occupied it, however, as a strong position
after crossing the Rubicon; and it received a Roman colony,
perhaps under the triumvirs, and became a place of some im-
portance. In a.d. 301 it became the capital of Picenum Suburbi-
carium. In 545 it was taken by Totila, but is spoken of by
Paulus Diaconus as the chief city of Piccnum shortly afterward!
From the time of Charlemagne ft was under the rule of its
bishops, who had the title of prince and the right to coin money,
until 1 185, when it became a free republic. It had many struggles
with Fermo, and in the 15th century came more directly under
the papa! sway.
Sec N. Persicnetti in Rdmische MitteUungen (1903), 295 seq.
(T. As.)
ASCOHIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS (9 d.c.-a.d. 76; or a.d.
3-88), Roman grammarian and historian, was probably a native
of Patavium (Padua). In his later years he resided at Rome,
where he died, after having been blind for twelve years, at the
age of eighty-five. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero he
compiled for bis sons, from various sources— t.g. the Gazette (Ada
Publico), shorthand reports or " skeletons " (commtntarit) of
Cicero's unpublished speeches, Tim's life of Cicero, speeches and
letters of Cicero's contemporaries, various historical writers, e.g.
Varro, Atticus, Antias, Tuditanus and Fenestella (a contemporary
of Livy whom he often criticizes) — historical commentaries on
Cicero's speeches, of which only five, viz. in Pisonem, pro Scauro.
pro Uilone, pro Cornelia and in toga Candida, in a very mutilated
condition, are preserved. In a note upon the speech pro Scauro,
he speaks of Longus Caecina (d. aj>. 57) as still living, while his
words imply that Claudius (d. 54) was not alive. This statement,
therefore, must have been written between a.d, 54 and 57.
These valuable notes, written .in good Latin, relate chiefly to
legal, historical and antiquarian matters. A commentary, of
inferior Latinity and mainly of a grammatical character, on
Cicero's Verrine orations, is universally regarded as spurious
Both works were found by Poggio in a MS. at St Gallen in 14 16.
This MS. is lost, but three transcripts were made by Poggio,
Zomini (Sozomenus) of Pistoia and Bartolommeo da Monte-
pulriano. That of Poggio is now at Madrid (Matritensis x. 81),
and that of Zomini is in the Forteguerri library at Pistoia (No. 37).
A copy of Bartolommeo 's transcript exists in Florence (Laur.
liv. 5). The later MSS. are derived from Poggio's copy. Other
works attributed to Asconius- were: a life of Sallust, a defence
of Virgil against his detractors, and a treatise (perhaps a
symposium in imitation of Plato) on health and long life.
Editions by Kiessling-Scholl (1875). »"d A. C. Clark (Oxford,
1906), which contains a previously unpublished collation of Poggio's
transcript. See also Madvig, De Asconio Pediano (1828).
ASCOT, a village in the Wokingham parliamentary division
of Berkshire, England, famous for its race-meetings. Pop. of
parish of Ascot Heath (1901), 1927. The station on the South-
western railway, 29 m. W.S.W. of London, is called Ascot and
SunninghUl; the second name belonging to an adjacent town-
ship with a population (civil parish) of 4719. The race-course is
on Ascot Heath, and was laid out by order of Queen Anne in
j 71 1, and on the nth of August in that year the first meeting
was held and attended by the queen. The course is almost
exactly 2 m. in circumference, and the meetings are held in June.
The principal race is that for the Ascot Gold Cup, instituted in
1807. The meeting is one of the most fashionable in England,
and is commonly attended by members of the royal family.
The royal procession, for which the meeting is peculiarly famous,
was initiated by George IV. in 1820.
See R. Herod, Royal Ascot (London, 1900).
724
ASCU&— ASHANTI
ASCUS (Gr. oVxet, a bag), a botanical term for the mem-
branous sacs containing the reproductive spores in certain
lichens and fungi. Various compounds of the word are used,
e.g. ascophorous, producing asci; asco spore, the spore (or sporule)
developed in the ascus; ascogonium, the organ producing it, &c
ASELLI (Asellius, or Asellxo], QASPARO (i 581-1626),
Italian physician, was born at Cremona about 1581, became
professor of anatomy and surgery at Pavia, and practised at
Milan, where he died in 1626. To him is due the discovery of
the lacteal vessels, published in De Laclibus (Milan, 1627).
ASGILL, JOHN (1650-1738), English writer, was born at
Hanlcy Castle, in Worcestershire, in 1659. He was bred to the
law, and gained considerable reputation in his profession, in-
creased by two pamphlets— the first (1606) advocating the
establishment of some currency other than the usual gold and
silver, the second (1608) on a registry for titles of lands. In
1600, when a commission was appointed to settle disputed claims
In Ireland, he set out for that country, attracted by the hopes
of practice. Before leaving London he put in the hands of the
printer a tract, entitled An Argument proving that, according to
the Covenant of Eternal Life revealed in the Scripture, Man may
be translated from hence into that Eternal Life without passing
through Death (1 700). Coleridge has highly praised the " genuine
Saxon English," the " irony " and " humour " of this extra-
ordinary pamphlet, which interpreted the relation between God
and man by the technical rules of law, and insisted that, Christ
having wiped out Adam's sin, the penalty of death must conse-
quently be illegal for those who claim exemption. How far it
was meant seriously was doubted at the time, and may be
doubted now. But its fame preceded the author to Ireland,
and was of material service in securing his professional success,
so that he amassed money, purchased an estate, and married
a daughter of the second Lord Kenmare. He was returned both
to the Irish and English parliaments, but was expelled from
both on account of bis " blasphemous " pamphlet He was also
Involved in money difficulties, and litigation about his Irish estate,
and these circumstances may have had something to do with his
trouble in parliament. In 1707 he was arrested for debt, and
the remainder of his life was spent in the Fleet prison, or within
the rules of the king's bench. He died in 1738. AsgUl ajso
wrote in 17:4-1715 some pamphlets defending the Hanoverian
•uccession against the claims of the Pretender.
ASH ' (Ger. Esche),a. common name (Fr. frine) given to certain
trees. The common ash {Fraxinus excelsior) belongs to the
natural order Oleaceae, the olive family, an order of trees and
shrubs which includes lilac, privet and jasmine. The Hebrew
word Oren f translated " ash " in Isaiah xliv. 14, cannot refer to
an ash tree, as that is not a native of Palestine, but probably
refers to the .Aleppo pine {Pinus halepensis). The ash is a native
of Great Britain and the greater part of Europe, and also extends
to Asia. The tree is distinguished for its height and contour,
as well as for its graceful foliage. It attains a height of from
50 to 80 ft., and flowers in March and April, before the leaves
are developed. The reddish flowers grow in clusters, but are
not showy. They are naked, that is without sepals or petals,
and generally imperfect, wanting either stamens or pistiL The
large leaves, which are late in appearing, are pinnately compound,
bearing four to seven pairs of gracefully tapering toothed leaflets
on a slender sulk. The dry winged fruits, the so-called keys,
are a characteristic feature and often remain hanging in bunches
long after the leaves have fallen in autumn. The leaves fall
early, but the greyish twigs and black buds render the tree
conspicuous in winter and especially in early spring.
The ash is in Britain next in value to the oak as a timber-tree.
It requires a good deep loam with gravelly subsoil, and a situation
naturally sheltered, such as the steep banks of glens, rivers or
takes; in cold and wet clay it does not succeed. As the value of
the Umber depends chiefly on its toughness and elasticity, it is
best grown in masses where the soil is good; the trunk is thus
1 The homonym, ash or (pi.) ashes, the residue (of a body, Ac.)
after burning. » a common Teutonic word, Ger. Ax he, connected
with the root found in Lat. ardere, to burn.
drawn up free from large aide-branches. The tree is easily
propagated from seeds; it throws up strong root shoots. The
ash requires much light, but grows rapidly, and its terminal
shoots pierce easily through thickets of beech, with which it is
often associated. Unmixed ash plantations are seldom satisfac-
tory, because the foliage does not sufficiently cover the ground.
but when mixed with beech it grows well, and attains great
height and girth. Owing to the dense mass of roots which it
sends out horizontally a little beneath the surface of the ground,
the ash does much harm to vegetation beneath its shade, acd
is therefore obnoxious as a hedgerow tree. Coppice shoots yield
excellent hop-poles, crates, hoops, whip-handles, &c The
timber is much used for agricultural implements, and by concfe-
builders and wheelwrights.
A variety of the common species, known as var. keteropkjIU,
has simple leaves. It occurs wild in woods in Europe and
England. Another variety of ash (pendulo) is met with in which
the branches are pendulous and weeping. Sometimes this
variety is grafted on the tall stem of the common ash, so as to
produce a pleasing effect. It is said that the weeping variety
was first observed at Gamlingay, in Cambridgeshire. A variety
{crispa) occurs with curled leaves, and another with warty stems
and branches, called verrucosa. F. Ornus Is the manna ash (see
Manna), a handsome tree with greenish-white flowers and native
in south Europe. In southern Europe there is a small-leaved
ash, called Fraxinus parvifolia. F. floribunda, a large tree with
terminal panicles of white flowers, is a native of the Himalayas.
In America there are several species — such as Fraxinus americana,
the white ash; F. pubescens, the red ash; and F. sambucifdia^
the black ash.
The " mountain ash " belongs to a totally different family
from the common ash. It is called Pyrus A ucuparia, and belongs
to the natural order Rosaceae, and the tribe Pomeae, which
includes also apples, pears, &c Its common name is probably
due to its resemblance to the true ash, in its smooth grey bark,
graceful ascending branches, and especially the form of the leaf,
which is also pinnately compound but smaller than in the true
ash. Its common name in Scotland is the rowan tree; it a
well known by its dusters of white blossoms and succulent
scarlet fruit. The name of poison ash is given to Rhus venenata,
the North American poison elder or sumach, belonging to the
Anacardiaceae (Cashew family). The bitter ash of the West
Indies is Simaruba excelsa, which belongs to the natural order
Simarubaceae. The Cape ash is Bkebergia capensis, belonging
to the natural order Meliaceae, a large tree, a native of the Cape
of Good Hope. The prickly ash, Xanthoxylon Ctovo-Herculis
(nat. ord. Xanthoxyleae), a native of the south-eastern United
States, is a small tree, the trunk of which is studded with corky
tubercles, while the branches are armed with stout, sharp,
brown prickles.
A'SHA [MaiatCn dn Qaxs], Arabian poet, was born before
Mahomet, and lived long enough to accept the mission of the
prophet. He was born in ManfOha, a village of al-Yemlma in
the centre of Arabia, and became a wandering singer, passing
through all Arabia from Hadramut in the south to al-lflra in
the north, and naturally frequenting the annual fair at Okas
(Ukax). His love poems are devoted to the praise of Huraira,
a black female slave. Even before the time of Mahomet be is
said to have believed in the resurrection and last judgment,
and to have been a monotheist. These beliefs may have been
due to his intercourse with the bishop of Nejran (Najrln) and the
'Ibadites (Christians) of al-HIra. His poems were praised for
their descriptions of the wild ass, for the praise of wine, for their
skill in praise and satire, and for the varieties of metre employed.
His best-known poem is that in praise of Mahomet.
His poems have been collected from various source* in L. Cheikhos
Us Poetes arabes ckrMums (Jesuit press, Beirut,} 890), pp. 357-599-
His eulogy of Mahomet has been edited by H. Thorbecke. At Alt s
Lobgfidiclt omj Muhammad (Letpaig, 1875)- <C W.T.)
ASHANTI. a British possession in West Africa, bounded W.
by the (French) Ivory Coast colony, N. by the British Pro-
tectorate known as Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (sec
A8HANTI
725
Cttft Coast), cad & by the river Volt* (which separate* it from,
the German colony oC Togoland); the southern frontier it
conterminous with the northern frontier of the (British) Gold
Coast colony. It forms an irregular oblong, with a triangular
projection (the country of the Adansi) southward. It has an
area of 23,000 sq..m., and a population estimated (1007) at
JOOiOOOh
Physical Features ; Flora and Fauna.—A great part of Ashanti
is covered with primeval and almost impenetrable forest. 1
Many of the trees, chiefly silk-cotton and hardwood, attain
splendid proportions, the bombax reaching a height of over 200
ft., but the monotony is oppressive, and is seldom relieved by
the sight of flowers, birds or beasts. Ferns are abundant, and
the mimosa rises to heights of from 30 to 60 ft. All over the
forest spread lianas, or monkey-ropes, their usual position being
that of immense festoons hanging from tree to tree. To these
lianas (species of which yield one kind of the robber of commerce)
is due largely the weird aspect of the forest. The country round
the towns, however, is cultivated with care, the fields yielding
in abundance grain, yams, vegetables and fruits. In the north-
eastern districts the primeval forest gives place to park-like
country, consisting of plains covered with high coarse grass,
and dotted with occasional baobabs, as well as with wild plum,
shea-butter, dwarf date, fan palms, and other small trees. Among
the wild animals are the elephant (comparatively rare), the
leopard, varieties of antelope, many kinds of monkeys' and
numerous venomous snakes. Crocodiles and two kinds of
hippopotami, the ordinary and a pygmy variety, are found in
the rivers. Of birds, parrots are the most characteristic Insect
life is abundant.
About 25 m. south-east of Kumasi is Lake Busumchwi, the
sacred lake of the Ashanti. It is surrounded by forest-dad hills
some 800 ft. high, is nearly circular and has a maximum diameter
of 6 m. The Black Yalta, and lower down the Volta (?.».) , form
the northern frontier, and various tributaries of the Volta,
running generally in a northerly direction, traverse the eastern
portion of the country. In the central parts are the upper
courses of the Ofin and of some tributaries of the Prah. Farther
west are the Tano and Bia rivers, which empty their waters into
the Assini lagoon. In their course through Ashanti, the rivers,
apart from the Volta, are navigable by canoes only. The
elevation of the country is generally below 2000 ft., but it rises
towards the north.
Climate.— The climate, although unsuited to the prolonged
residence of Europeans, is less unhealthy than that of the coast
towns of West Africa, The water-supply is good and abundant
The rainy season lasts from the end of May until October;
storms are frequent and violent. The mean temperature at
Kumasi is 76" F., the mean annual rainfall 40 ins.
Inhabitants— The most probable tradition represents the
Ashanti as deriving their origin from bands of fugitives, who in
the 1 6th or 17th century were driven before the Moslem tribes
migrating southward from the countries on the Niger and
Senegal. Having obtained possession of a region of impenetrable
forest, they defended themselves with a valour which, becoming
part of their national character, raised them to the rank of a
powerful and conquering nation. They are of the pure negro
type, and are supposed to be originally of the same race as the
Fanti, nearer the coast, and speak the same language. The
separation of Fanti and Ashanti has been ascribed to a famine
which drove the former south, and led them to live on fan, or
herbs, while the latter subsisted on san y or Indian corn, &c,
whence the names Fanti and Santi The Ashanti are divided
into a large number of tribes, of whom a dozen may be dis-
tinguished, namely, the Bekwai, Adansi, Juabin, Kokofu,
Kumasi, Mampon, Nsuta, Nkwanta, Dadlassi, Daniassi, Ofinsu
and Adjisu. Each tribe has its own king, but from the beginning
of the 1 8th century the king of Kumasi was recognized as king
paramount, and was spoken of as the king of Ashanti. As
paramount king he succeed ed to the " golden stool," the symbol
* The exact area of dense forest land is unknown, but is estimated
at fully 12,000 M). m.
of authority among the Ashanti. After the deposition of
Prempeh (1896) no king of Kumasi was chosen; Prempeh
himself was never " enstooled." The government of Ashanti
was formerly a mixture of monarchy and military aristocracy.
The confederate tribes were originally organised for purposes of
war into six great divisions or clans, this organisation developing
into the main social fabric of the state* The chiefs of the clans,
with a few sub-chiefs having hereditary rights, formed the King's
Council, and the king, unless of exceptionally strong character,
often exercised less power than the council of chiefs, each of
whom kept his little court, making a profuse display of barbaric
pomp. Land is held in common by the tribes, lands unallotted
being attached to the office of head chief or king and called
" stool lands." Polygamy is practised by all who can afford it
It is stated by the early chroniclers that the king of Ashanti was
bound to maintain the " fetish " number of 3333 wives; many
of these, however, were employed in menial services. The
crown descended to the king's brother, or his sister's son, not to
bis own offspring. The queen mother exercised considerable
authority in the state, but the king's wives had no power. The
system of human sacrifices, practised among the Ashanti until
the closing years of the 19th century, was founded on a senti-
ment of piety towards parents and other connexions— the chiefs
believing that the rank of their dead relatives in the future
world would be measured by the number of attendants sent after
them. There were two periods, called the great Adai and little
Adai, at which human victims, chiefly prisoners of war or
condemned criminals, were immolated. There is reason to
believe that the extent of this practice was not so great as was
currently reported.
There are a few Mahommedans in Ashanti, most of them
traders from other countries, and the Basel and Wesleyan
missionaries have obtained some converts to Christianity; but
the great bulk of the people are spirit-worshippers. Unlike many
West African races, the Ashanti in general show a repugnance to
the doctrines of Islam.
Towns and Trade.— Besides the capital, Kumasi (0.*.), with a
population of some 6000, there are few important towns in
Ashanti Obuassi, in the south-west, is the centre of the gold-
mining industry. Warn is on the western border, Nkoranxa,
Atabubu and Kintampo in the north. Kintampo is a town of
some size and is about 130 m. north-east of Kumasi. It is the
meeting-place of traders from the Niger countries and from
the coast- Formerly one of the great slave and ivory marts
of West Africa, it is now a centre of the kola-nut commerce
and a depot for government stores. The Ashanti are skilful in
several species of manufacture, particularly in weaving cotton.
Their pottery and works in gold also show considerable skill.
A large quantity of silver-plate and goldsmiths' work of great
value and considerable artistic elaboration was found in 1874
in the king's palace at Kumasi, not the least remarkable
objects being masks of beaten gold. The influence of Moorish
art is perceptible.
The vegetable products do not differ greatly from those found
on the Gold Coast; the most important commercially is the
rubber tree (Funtumia elastic a). The nut of the kola tree is in
great demand, and since 1005 many cocoa plantations have been
established, especially in the eastern districts. Tobacco is
cultivated in the northern regions. Gum copal is exported.
Part of the trade of Ashanti had been diverted to the French port
of Assini in consequence of the wars waged between England and
the Ashanti, but on the suppression of the revolt of 1000 measures
were taken to improve trade between Kumasi and Cape Coast
Kumasi is the distributing centre for the whole of Ashanti and
the hinterland. Gold exists in the western districts of the
country, and several companies were formed to work the mines
in the period 1805-1901. Most of the gold exported from the
Gold Coast in 190a and following years came from the Obuassi.
mines. The gold output from Ashanti amounted in 1905 to
68,259 °*-» valued at £254,700. The railway to Kumasi from
Sekondi, which was completed in 1903, passes through the
auriferous region. As far as the trade goes through Br' <; ~ w
726
ASHANTI
territory southward, the figures are included in those of the Gold
Coast; but Ashanti does also a considerable trade with its
French and German neighbours, and northwards with the Niger
countries. Its revenue and expenditure are included in those of
the Gold Coast. Revenue is obtained principally from caravan
taxes, liquor licences, rents from government land and con-
tributions from the gold-mining companies.
Communications.— The railway to Kumasi, cut through one
of the densest forest regions, is described under Gold Coast.
The usual means of communication is by tortuous paths through
the forest, too narrow to admit any wheeled vehicle. A wide
road, 141 m. long, has been cut through the bush from Cape
Coast to Kumasi, and from Kumasi ancient caravan routes go
to the chief trading centres farther inland. Where rivers and
swamps have to be crossed, ferries are maintained. A favourite
mode of travelling in the bush is in a palanquin borne on the
heads of four carriers. Telegraph lines connect Kumasi with the
coast towns and with the towns in the Northern Territories.
There is a well-organized postal service.
History. — The Ashanti first came under the notice of Europeans
early in the 18th century, through their successful wars with the
EmHy kingdoms bordering the maritime territory. Osai Tutu
maooam may be considered as the real founder of the Ashanti
wkb Of power. He either built or greatly extended Kumasi;
BrhlMb. ne SUD( j ue< j fche neighbouring state of Denkera (1719)
and the Mahommedan countries of Gaman (Jaman) and Banna,
and extended the empire by conquests both on the east and west.
At last he was defeated and slain (1731); but his successor, Osai
Apoko, made further acquisitions towards the coast. In 1800,
Osai Tutu Quamina, an enterprising and ambitious man, who
appears early to have formed the desire of opening a communica-
tion with white nations, became king. About 1807, two chiefs
of the Assin, whom he had defeated in battle, sought refuge
among the Fanti, the ruling people on the coast. On the refusal
of the Fanti to deliver up the fugitives, Osai Tutu invaded their
country, defeated them and drove them towards the sea. The
Ashanti reached the coast near Anamabo, where there was then
a British fort. The governor exhorted the townsmen to come
to terms and offered to mediate; but they resolved to abide
the contest. The result was the destruction of the town, and the
slaughter of 8000 of the inhabitants. The Ashanti, who lost over
aooo men, failed, however, to storm the English fort, though the
garrison was reduced from twenty-four to eight men. A truce
was agreed to, and the king refusing to treat except with the
governor of Cape Coast, Colonel G. Torrane (governor 1805-1807)
repaired to Anamabo, where he was received with great pomp.
Torrane determined to surrender the fugitive Assin chiefs, but
one succeeded in escaping; the other, on being given up, was
put to death by the Ashanti. Torrane concluded an agreement
with the Ashanti, acknowledging their conquest of Fantiland, and
delivering up to them half the fugitives in Anamabo fort (most
of the remainder were sold by Torrane and the members of his
council as slaves). The governor also agreed to pay rent to the
Ashanti for Anamabo fort and Cape Coast castle. The character
of this man, who died on the coast in 1808, is indicated by Osai
Tutu's eulogy of him. " From the hour Governor Torrane
delivered up Tchibbu {one of the Assin fugitives] I took the
English for my friends," said the king of Ashanti, " because I
saw their object was trade only and they did not care for the
people. Torrane was a man of sense and he pleased me
much."
In consequence of repeated invasions of Fantiland by the
Ashanti, the British in 18 17 sent Frederick James, commandant
of Accra fort, T. E. Bowdich and W. Hutchinson on a mission to
Kumasi After one or two harmonious interviews, the king
advanced a claim for the payment of the quit rents for Anamabo
fort and Cape Coast castle, rents the major part of which the
Fanti had induced the British to pay to them, leaving only a
nominal sum lor transmission to Kumasi. Mr James, the head
of the mission, volunteered no satisfactory explanation, where-
upon the king broke into uncontrollable rage, calling the emis-
saries cheats and liars. Bowdich and Hutchinson, thinking
that British interests and the safety of the mission
dangered, took the negotiation into their own* hands. Mr Ja roes
was recalled, and a treaty was concluded, by which the kind's
demands were satisfied, and the right of the British to control
the natives in the coast towns recognized.
The government at home, though they demurred somewhat
to the course that had been pursued, saw the wisdom of cultivat-
ing intercourse with this powerful African kingdom. Tbey sersi
out, therefore, to Kumasi, as consul, Mr Joseph Dupuis, f onseriy
consul at Mogador, who arrived at Cape Coast in January iS 10.
By that time fresh difficulties had arisen between the ccast
natives, who were supported by the British, and the Ashas:!
Dupuis set out on the 9th of February 1820, and oa the sbih
arrived at Kumasi. After several meetings with the king, a
treaty was drawn up, which acknowledged the sovereignty of
Ashanti over the territory of the Fanti, and left the natives of
Cape Coast to the mercy of their enemies. Mr J. Hope Smith,
the governor of Cape Coast, disowned the treaty, as betraying
the interests of the natives under British protection. Mr Hope
Smith was supported by the government in London, which ia
1821 assumed direct control of the British settlements, g^
Sir Charles M'Carthy, the first governor appointed by c**Hm
the crown, espoused the cause of the Fanti, but was*' CmtksTt
defeated in battle by the Ashanti, the 21st of January ****
1824, at a place beyond the Prah called Fssamako. The Ashanti
bad 10,000 men to Sir Charles's 500. Sir Charles and eight other
Europeans were killed. The skull of the governor was afterwards
used at Kumasi as a royal drinking-cup. It was asserted that
Sir Charles lost the battle through his ordnance-keeper bringing
up kegs filled with vermicelli instead of ammunition. The fact is
that the mistake, if made, only hastened the inevitable cata-
strophe. On the very day of this defeat Osai Tutu Quamina
died and was succeeded by Osai Okoto. A state of chronic
warfare ensued, until the Ashanti sustained a signal defeat at
Dodowah on the 7th of August 1826. From this time the power
of the Ashanti over the coast tribes waned, and in 1831 the king
was obliged to purchase peace from Mr George Maclean, then
administrator of the Gold Coast, at the price of 600 oc of
gold, and to send his son as a hostage to Cape Coast. The
payment of ground rent for the forts held by the British had
ceased after the battle of Dodowah, and by the treaty concluded
by Maclean the river Prah was fixed as the boundary of the
Ashanti kingdom, all the tribes south of it being under British
protection.
The king-(Kwaka Dua I.), who had succeeded Osai Okoto is
1838, was a peace-loving monarch who encouraged trade, but
in 1852 the Ashanti tried to reassert authority over the Far/j
in the Gold Coast protectorate, and in 1863 a war was caused by
the refusal of the king's demand for the surrender by the British
of a fugitive chief and a runaway slave-boy. The Ashanti wire
victorious in two battles and retired unmolested. The governor.
Mr Richard Pine, urged the advisability of an advance 00
Kumasi, but this the British government would not allow-. No
further fighting followed, but the prestige of the Ashanti greatly
increased. " The white men " (said Kwaka Dua) " bring many
cannon to the bush, but the bush is stronger than the cannon, "
In April 1867 Kwaka Dua died, and after an interval of civil
war was succeeded by Kofi Karikari, who on being enstooled
swore, " My business shall be war." Thereafter preparations
were made throughout Ashanti to attack the Fanti tribes, and
the result was the war of 1873-74.
Two distinct events were the immediate cause of the war.
The principal was the transference of Elmina fort from the
Dutch to the British, which took place on the and of
April 1872. The Elmina were regarded by the Ashanti i?«J£
as their subjects, and the king of Ashanti held the jar*
Elmina " custom-note,"-— that is, he received from
the Dutch an annual payment, in its origin a ground rent for
the fort, but looked upon by the Dutch as a present for trade
purposes. The Ashanti greatly resented the occupation by
Britain of what they considered Ashanti territory. Another
but minor cause of the war was the holding in captivity by the
ASHANTI
7*7
Ashanti of four Europeans. An Ashanti force invaded Kxepi, a
territory beyond the Volta, and in June 1869 captured Mr Fritz
A. Ramseyer, his wife and infant son (the child died of privation
shortly afterwards), and Mr J. Ktthne, members of the Basel
mission. Monsieur M. J. Bonnat, a French trader, was also
captured at another place. The captives were taken to Kumasi.
Negotiations for their release were begun, but the Europeans
were still prisoners when the sale of Elmina occurred. The
Ashanti delayed war until their preparations were complete,
-whilst the Gold Coast officials appear to have thought the risk of
hostilities remote. However, on the 22nd of January 1873 an
Ashanti force crossed the Prah and invaded the British pro-
tectorate. They defeated the Fanti, stirred up disputes at
Elmina, and encamped at Mampon near Cape Coast, to the great
alarm of the inhabitants. Measures were taken for the defence
of the territory and the punishment of the assailants, which
culminated in the despatch of Sir Garnet (afterwards Viscount)
.Wolseley as British administrator, £800,000 being voted by
parliament for the expenses of the expedition. On landing
(October 2) at Cape Coast, Wolseley found the Ashanti, who
had been decimated by smallpox and fever, preparing to
return home. He determined, however, to march to Kumasi,
whilst Captain (afterwards Sir) John Glover, R.N., administrator
of Lagos, was with a force of native levies to co-operate from
the east and take the Ashanti in rear. Meanwhile the enemy
broke up camp, and, although harassed by native levies raised
by the British, effected an orderly retreat. The Ashanti army
re-entered Kumasi on the 22nd of December. Wolseley asked
for the help of white troops, and the 2nd battalion Rifle
Brigade, the 23rd Fusiliers and 42nd Highlanders were de-
spatched. Seeing the preparations made by his enemy, Kofi
Karikari endeavoured to make peace, and in response to General
Wolseley's demands the European captives were released
(January 1874). Sir Garnet determined that peace must be
signed in Kumasi and continued his advance. On the 20th of
January the river Prah was crossed by the European troops;
on the 24th the Adansi hills were reached; on the 31st there was
severe fighting at Amoaful; on the xst of February Bekwai was
captured; and on the evening of the 4th the victorious army
was in Kumasi, after seven hours' fighting. The king, who had
led his army, fled into the bush when he saw the day was lost
As the 42nd Highlanders pushed forward to Kumasi, the town
was found full of Ashanti soldiers, but not a shot was fired at the
invaders. Sir Garnet Wolseley sent messengers to the king,
but Kofi Karikari refused to surrender. As his force was small,
provisions scarce, and the rainy season setting in, and as he was
encumbered with many sick and wounded, the British general
decided to retire. On the 6th, therefore, the homeward march
was commenced, the city being left behind in flames. In the
meantime Captain Glover's force had crossed the Prah on the
15th of January, and the Ashanti opposition weakening after
the capture of Kumasi, Glover was able to push forward. On
the nth of February, Captain (later General) R. W. Sartorius,
who had been sent ahead with twenty Hausa only, found Kumasi
still deserted. Captain Sartorius and his twenty men marched
50 m. through the heart of the enemy's country. On the 12th
Glover and his force of natives entered the Ashanti capital.
The news of Glover's approach induced the king, who feared also
the return of the white troops, to sue for peace. On the 9th of
February a messenger from Kofi Karikari overtook Sir Garnet,
who on the 13th at Fomana received the Ashanti envoys. A
treaty was concluded whereby the king agreed, among other
conditions, to pay 50,000 ox. of gold, to renounce all claim to
homage from certain neighbouring kings, and all pretensions of
supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate, to
promote freedom of trade, to keep open a road from Kumasi to
the Prah, and to do his best to check the practice of human
sacrifice. Besides coloured troops, there were employed in this
campaign about 2400 Europeans, who suffered severely from
fever and otherwise, though the mortality among the men was
slight. Seventy-one per cent of the troops were on the sick
list, and more than forty officers died— only six from wounds.
The success of the expedition was facilitated by the exertions of
Captain (afterwards General Sir William) Butler and Captain
(afterwards General W. L.) Dalrymple, who effected diversions
with very inadequate resources.
One result of the war of 1873-74 was that several states
dependent on Ashanti declared themselves independent, and
sought British protection. This was refused, and the a bhubH
inaction of the colonial office contributed to the pm*ctor*
reconsolidation of the Ashanti power. 1 Shortly after £J2?**"
the war the Ashanti deposed Kofi Karikari, and
placed on the golden stool— the symbol of sovereignty— his
brother Mensa. This monarch broke almost every article of
the Fomana treaty, and even the payment of the indemnity
was not demanded. (In all, only 4000 oz. of gold, out of the
50,000 stipulated for, were paid.) Mensa's rule was tyrannous
and stained with repeated human sacrifices. In 1883 a revolution
displaced that monarch, who was succeeded by Kwaka Dua II. —
a young man who died (June 1884) within a few months of his
election. In the same month died the ex-king Kofi JKarikari,
and disruption threatened Ashanti. At length, after a desolating
civil war, Prince Prempeh— who took the name of Kwaka Dua
III.— was chosen king (March 26, 1888), the colonial government
having been forced to intervene in the dispute owing to the
troubles it occasioned in the Gold Coast. The election of
Prempeh took place in the presence and with the sanction of an
officer of the Gold Coast government. Prempeh defeated his
enemies, and for a time peace and prosperity returned to Ashanti
However in 1893 there was fresh trouble between Ashanti and
the tribes of the protectorate, and the roads were closed to
traders by Prempeh's orders. The British government was
forced to interfere, more especially as the country, by inter-
national agreement, had been included in the British sphere of
influence. A mission was despatched to. Prempeh, calling upon
him to fulfil the terms of the 1874 treaty, and further, to accept
a British protectorate and receive a resident at Kumasi. The
king declined to treat with the governor of. the Gold Coast, and
despatched informal agents to England, whom the secretary of
state refused to receive., To the demands of the British mission
relative to the acceptance of a protectorate and other matters,
Prempeh made no reply in the three weeks' grace allowed, which
expired on the 31st of October 1895. To enforce the British
demands, to put an end to the misgovernment and barbarities
carried on at Kumasi, and to establish law, order and security
for trade, an expedition was at length decided upon. The force,
placed under Colonel Sir Francis Scott, consisted of the 2nd West
Yorkshire regiment, a "special service corps," made up of
detachments from various regiments in the United Kingdom,
under specially. selected officers, the and West India regiment,
and the Gold Coast and Lagos Hausa. The composition of the
special service corps was much criticized at the time; but as it
was not called upon for fighting purposes, no inferences as to its
efficiency are possible. The details of the expedition were care-
fully organized. Before the arrival of the staff and contingent
from England (December 1895) the native forces were employed
in improving the road from Cape Coast to Prahsu (70 m.), and
in establishing road stations to serve as standing camps for the
troops. About 12,000 carriers were collected, the load allotted
to each being 50 lb. In addition, a force of native scouts, which
ultimately reached a total of 860 men, was organized in eighteen
companies, and partly armed with Snider rifles, to cover the
advance of the main column, which started on the 27th of
December, and to improve the road. The king of Bekwai having
asked for British protection, a small force was pressed forward
and occupied this native town, about 25 m. from Kumasi, on the
4th of January 1806. The advance continued, and at Ordahsu
a mission arrived from King Prempeh offering unconditional
submission. On the 17th of January Kumasi was occupied, and
Colonel Sir F. Scott received . the king. Effective measures
1 An attempt was made late in 1875, by the despatch of Dr V. S.
Goutdsbury on a mission to Eastern A kirn, Tuabin and Kumasi. to
repair the effects of the previous inaction of the colonial governnu-"*
but without success.
728
ASHANTI
were taken to prevent his escape, and on the 20th Prempeh
made submission to Mr (afterwards Sir W. £.) Maxwell, the
governor of Cape Coast, in native fashion. After this act
of public humiliation, the king and the queen mother
with the principal chiefs were arrested and taken as
prisoners to Cape Coast, where they were embarked on board
H.M.S. " Racoon " for Elmina. The fetish buildings at Bantama
were burned, and on the 22nd of January Bokro, a village 5 m.
from Kumasl, and Mahcer, the king's summer palace, were
visited by the native scouts and found deserted. On the same
day, leaving the Hausa at Kumasi, the expedition began the
return march of 150 m. to Cape Coast. The complete success
of the expedition was due to the excellent organization of the
supply and transport services, while the promptitude with which
the operations were carried out probably accounts in great
measure for the absence of resistance. Although no fighting
occurred, a heavy strain was thrown upon all ranks, and fever
claimed many victims, among whom was Prince Henry of
Battenberg, who had volunteered for the post of military
secretary to Colonel Sir F. Scott.
After the deportation of Prempeh no successor was appointed
to the throne of Ashanti. A British resident, Captain Donald W.
Stewart, was installed at Kumasi, and whilst the
fSHief other statcs °f th e confederacy retained their king and
KammsL tribal system the affairs of the Kumasi were adminis-
tered by chiefs* under British guidance. Mr and Mrs
Ramsey*? (two of the missionaries imprisoned by King Kofi
Karikari for four and a half years) returned to Kumasi, and
other missionaries followed. A fort was built in Kumasi and
garrisoned with Gold Coast constabulary. Though outwardly
submissive, the Kumasi chiefs were far from reconciled to
British rule, and in 1000 a serious rebellion broke out. The
tribes involved were the Kumasi, Adansi and Kokofu; the
other tribes of the Ashanti confederation remained loyal The
rebels were, however, able to command a force reported to
number 40,000. On the 28th of March, before the rebellion had
declared itself, the governor of the Gold Coast, Sir F. Hodgson,
in a public palaver at Kumasi, announced that the Ashanti
chiefs would have to pay the British government 4000 or. of
gold yearly, and he reproached the chiefs with not having
brought to him the golden stool, which the Kumasi had kept
hidden since 1806. Three days afterwards the Kumasi warriors
attacked a party of Hausa sent with the chief object of discovering
the golden stool. (In the previous January a secret attempt to
seize the stool had failed.) The Kumasi, who were longing to
wipe out the dishonour of having let Prempeh be deported
without fighting, next threatened the fort of Kumasi. Mr
Ramseyer and the other Basel missionaries, and Sir F. and
Lady Hodgson, took refuge in the fort, and reinforcements
were urgently asked for. On the x8th of April 100 Gold Coast
constabulary arrived. On the 29th the Kumasi attacked in
force, but were repulsed. The same day a party of 250 Lagos
constabulary reached Kumasi. They had fought their way up,
and came in with little ammunition. On the 1 5th of May Major
A. Morris arrived from the British territory north of Ashanti,
also with 250 men. The garrison now numbered 700. The 29
Europeans in the fort included four women. Outside the fort
were gathered 3000 native refugees. Famine and disease soon
began to tell their tale. Sir F. Hodgson sent out a message on
the 4th of June (it reached the relieving force on the 12th of
June), saying that they could only hold out to the nth of June.
However, it was not till the 23rd of June that the governor and
all the Europeans save three, together with 600 Hausa of all
ranks, sallied out of the fort. Avoiding the main road, held by
the enemy in force, they attacked a weakly held stockade, and
succeeded in cutting their way through, with a loss of two
British officers mortally wounded, 39 Hausa killed, and double
that number wounded or missing. The governor's party reached
Cape Coast safely on the 10th of July.
A force of 100 Hausa, with three white men (Captain Bishop,
Mr Ralph and Dr Hay), was left behind in Kumasi fort with
rations to last three weeks. Meantime a relief expedition had
been organized at Cape Coast by Colonel James Wuleocks. Tim
officer reached Cape Coast from Nigeria on the aottt of M± }
The difficulties before him were appalling. Carriers coda
scarcely be obtained, there were no local food supplies, the raisy
season was at its height, all the roads were deep mire, the ba?A
was almost impenetrable, and the enemy were both brave ar i
cunning, fighting behind concealed stockades. It was not vsU
the 2nd of July that Colonel Willcocks was able to advance ta
Fumsu. On the next day he heard of the escape of the governor
and of the straits of the garrison left at Kumasi. He det timJnrf
to relieve the fort in time, and on the 9th of July reached Bekni.
the king of which place had remained loyal. Making his final
dispositions, the colonel spread a report that on the 13th be
Would attack Kokofu, east of Bekwai, and this drew off severat
thousands of the enemy from Kumasi. After feinting to attack
.Kokofu, Colonel Willcocks suddenly marched west. There was
smart fighting on the 14th, and at 4.30 P.M. on the 15th, after a
march since daybreak through roads "in tadescribnbly bad
condition," the main rebel stockade was encountered. It was
carried at the point of the bayonet by the Yoruba troops, whe
proved themselves fully equal to the Hausa. ''The chant
could not have been beaten in Hen by any soldiers." Kuroaa
was entered the same evening, a bugler of the war-worn garrison
of the fort sounding the "general salute" as the reUerag
column came in view. Most of the defenders were too weak to
stand. Outside the fort nothing was to be seen but burnt-dowr
houses and putrid bodies. Tie relieving force that marched
into Kumasi consisted of xooo fighting men (all West African
with 00 white officers and non-commissioned officers, t-aa
7 5- millimetre guns, four seven*pounder guns and six Maxims.
Kumasi relieved, there remained the task of crushing the
rebellion. Colonel Willcocks's force was increased by Yaos aad
a few Sikhs from Central Africa to a total of 3368 natives. witi
134 British officers and 35 British non-commissioned officers.
In addition there were Ashanti levies. On the 30th 0/ September
the Kumasi were completely beaten at Obassa. Thereafter
many of the rebel chiefs surrendered, and the only two remxia-
ing in the field were captured on the 28th of December. Thss
1 oor opened with peace restored. The total number of casualty
during the campaign (including those who died of disease) was
Z007. Nine British officers were killed in action, forty-three
were wounded, and six died of disease. The commander,
Colonel Willcocks, was promoted and created a K.C.M.G.
By an order in council, dated the 26th of September 1901,
Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions, aac*
given a separate administration under the control of
the governor of the Gold Coast. A chief commissioner
represents the governor in his absence, and is assisted
.by a staff of four commissioners and four assistant
commissioners. A battalion of the Gold Coast re gi ment
is stationed in the country with headquarters at Kumasi. The
order in council mentioned, which may be described as the first
constitution granted Ashanti by its British owners, provides
that the governor, in issuing ordinances respecting the adminis-
tration of justice, the raising of revenue, or any other matter,
shall respect any native laws by which the civil relations of any
chiefs, tribes or populations are regulated, " except so far as
they may be incompatible with British sovereignty or dearly
injurious to the welfare of the natives themselves." After ike
annexation of the country in xoox the relations between the
governing power and the governed steadily improved. Mr F. C
Fuller, who succeeded Sir Donald Stewart as chief commissioner
early in 1005, was able to report in the following year that
among the Ashanti suspicion of the " white man's " ulterior
motives was speedily losing ground. The marked prefereocr
shown by the natives to resort to the civil and criminal courts
established by the British demonstrated their faith in the in-
partial treatment awarded therein. Moreover, the maintenance
of the tribal system and the support given to the lawful cfcjen
did much to win the confidence and respect of a people naturally
suspicious, and mindful of their exiled king.
Bibliography.— For a general survey of the country, see Trtmk
ASH'ARl— ASHBURTON
729
m Askanti and /anion, by R. A. Freeman (London, 1898) : Historical
Geograpky of the British Colonies, vol. iii. " West Africa/' by C. P.
Lucas (Oxford. 1900) ; and the Annual Rgports, Askanti, issued from
1906 onward by the. Colonial Office, London. The Tski-spoaking
Peoples of Uu Gold Coast, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London. 1887). deab
with ethnology. Of early works on the country the mort valuable
are A Mission from Copt Coast Castle to Askanlee, by T. E. Bowdich
(London, 1819); and Journal of a Residence in Ashantee (London,
1824), by J. Dupuis. For history generally, see A History of Ike
Cold Coast of West Africa, by Col. A. B. Elfis (London, 1893) ; and
History of the Gold Coast. and Asante . . . from about 1500 to i860,
by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor of the Basel mission (Basel, 1895).
For the British military campaigns, in addition to the official blue-
tokm, consult: NarraHot of the Askantos War, 2 vols., by (Sir)
Henry Brackenbury (London, 1874): Tho Story of a Soldier's Life
by Viscount Wotsetey, vol. ii. chs. xliii.-L (London, 1903) ; Coomasste,
by (Sir) H. M. Stanley, being the story of the 1873-74 expedition
(new ed.. London, 1896) : Life of Sir John Hartley Glover, by Lady
Glover, chs. iti.-x. (London, 1807); The Downfall of Prempeh, by
(General) R. S. S. Baden-Powell, an account of the 1895-96 expedi-
tion (London, 1896) ; Prom Kabul to Kumassi (chs. xv. to end), by
Sir James Wflfcocks, (London, 1904); The Askanti Campaign of
1000, by Capt. C. H. Armitage and Lieut.-Col. A. F. Montanaro
(London. 190: >; The Relief of Kumasi, by Capt. H. C. J. Biss
(London, 1901). The two books following are by besieged residents
in Kumasi: The Siege of Kumasi. by Lady Hodgson (London,
1001); Dark and Stormy Days at Kumasi, 1900, from the diary of
the Rev. Friti Ramseyer (London; 1901). Many of the works
quoted under Gold Coast deal also with Ashanti. (F. R. C.)
ASH' AM [AbQ-1 Hasan *Ali ibn Ismail ul-Ash'arl], (873-935),
Arabian theologian, was bom of pure Arab stock at Basra, but
spent the greater part of his life at Bagdad. Although belonging
to an orthodox family, he became a pupil of the great Mu'tazahte
teacher al-Jubbt'I, and himself remained a Mu'taaalite until
his fortieth year. In 91s he returned to the faith of his fathers
and became its most distinguished champion, using the philo-
sophical methods he had learned in the school of heresy. His
theology, which occupied a mediate position between the
extreme views on most points, became dominant among the
ShatVites. He is said to have written over a hundred works,
of which only four or five are. known to be extant.
See W. Spitta. Zur Geschichte Abu 'l-Hasa* al Aran's (Leipziff,
1876) ; A. F. Mehren, Expose" de la reforme de I'Tslamisme commence*
par Abou 'I -Hasan Alt el-Ask'ari (Leiden, 1878); and D. B. Mac-
donald's Muslim Theology (London, 1903), especially the creed of
Ash'ari in Appendix iii. (G. VV. T.)
ASHBOURNE, a market-town in the western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. of Derby, on
the London 8c North-Western and the North Staffordshire
railways. Pop. of urban district (1001) 4039. It is pleasantry
situated on rising ground between two small valleys opening
into that of the Dove, and the most beautiful scenery of Dovedale
is not far distant The church of St Oswald is cruciform, Early
English and later; a fine building with a central tower and
lofty octagonal spire. Its monuments and brasses are of much
interest. The town has a large agricultural trade and a manu-
facture of corsets. The streams in the neighbourhood are in
favour with trout fishermen. Ashbourne Hall, an ancient
mansion, has associations with " Prince Charlie," who occupied
it both before and after bis advance on Derby in 174 s. There
are also many connexions with Dr Johnson, a frequent visitor
here to his friend Dr Taylor, who occupied a house opposite
the grammar school
ASHBURNHAM, JOHN (c. 1603-1671), English Royalist, was
the son of Sir John Ashburnham of Ashburnham in Sussex.
He early entered the king's service. In 2627 he was sent to
Paris by his relative the duke of Buckingham to make overtures
for peace, and in 1628 he prepared to join the expedition to
Rochelle interrupted by the duke's assassination. The same
year he was made groom of the bedchamber and elected member
of parliament for Hastings, which borough he also represented
in the Long Parliament of 1640. In this capacity he rendered
services by reporting proceedings to the king. He made a
considerable fortune and recovered the Ashburnham estates
alienated by his father. He became one of the king's chief
advisers and had his full confidence. He attended Charles at
York on the outbreak of the war with Scotland. In the Civil
War he was made treasurer of the royal army, in which capacity
he aroused Hyde's jealousy and remonstrances by infringing
on his province as chancellor of the exchequer. In 1644 he was
a commissioner at Uxbridge. He accompanied Charles in his
flight from Oxford in April 1646 to the Scots, and subsequently
escaped abroad, joining the queen at Paris, residing afterwards
at Rouen and being sent to the Hague to obtain aid from the
prince of Orange. After, the seizure of Charles by the army,
Ashburnham joined him at Hampton Court in 1647, where he
had several conferences with Cromwell and other army officers.
When Charles escaped from Hampton Court on the nth of
November, he followed Ashburnham's advice in opposition to
that of Sir John Berkeley, who urged the king to go abroad, and
took refuge in the Isle of Wight, being placed by Ashburnham
in the hands of Robert Hammond, the governor. " Oh, Jack,"
the king exclaimed when he understood the situation, ' thou
hast undone mel " when Ashburnham, " falling into a great
passion of weeping, offered to go and kill Hammond." By this
fatal step Ashburnham incurred the unmerited charge of
treachery and disloyalty. Clarendon, however, who censures
his conduct, absolves him from any crime except that of folly
and excessive self-confidence, and he was acquitted both by
Charles I. and Charles IL He was separated with Berkeley from
Charles on the xst of January 1648, waited on the mainland in
expectation of Charles's escape, and was afterwards taken and
imprisoned at Windsor, and exchanged during the second Civil
War for Sir W. Masham and other prisoners. He was one of the
delinquents specially exempted from pardon in the treaty of
Newport. In November he was allowed to compound for his
estates, and declared himself willing to take the covenant. After
the king's death he remained in England, an object of suspicion
to all parties, corresponded with Charles II., and underwent
several terms of imprisonment in the Tower and in Guernsey.
At the Restoration he was reinstated in his former place of
groom of the bedchamber and was compensated for his losses.
He represented Sussex In parliament from 1661 till the 22nd of
November 1667, when he was expelled the House for taking a
bribe of £500 from French merchants for landing their wines.
He died on the 15th of June 1671.
He had eight children, the eldest of whom, William, left a
son John (1656-1710), who in 1689 was created Baron Ashburn*
ham. John's second son, John (1687-1737), who became 3rd
Baron Ashburnham on his brother's death in 17x0, was created
Viscount St Asaph and earl of Ashburnham in 1730. The 5th
earl (b. 1840) was his direct descendant. Bertram (1 797-1878),
the 4th earl, was the collector of the famous Ashburnham
library, which was dispersed in 1883 and 1884.
A Letter from Mr Ashburnham to a Friend, defending John Ash*
burnham's conduct with regard to the king, was published in 1648.
His longer Narrative was published in 1830 by George, 3rd earl of
Ashburnham (the latter's championship of his ancestor, however,
being entirely uncritical and unconvincing) ; A Letter to W. LenlhaU
(1647) repudiates the charge brought against the king of violating
his parole {Tkomason Tracts, Brit. Museum, E 418 [4]).
ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, xst Baron 1 (1774-
1848), English politician and financier, and son of Sir Francis
Baring (the founder of the house of Baring Brothers & Co.)
and of Harriet, daughter of William Herring, was born on the
27th of October 1774, and was brought up in his father's business.
He was sent by the latter to the United States; married Anne,
daughter of William Bingham, of Philadelphia, and formed wide
connexions with American houses. In. x8xo, by his father's
death, he became head of the firm. He sat in parliament for
Taunton (i8o6-x826),Callington (1826-1831), Thetford (1831-
X832), North Essex (1832-1835). He regarded politics from the
point of View of the business man, opposed the orders in council,
and the restrictions on trade with the United States in x8x2,
and in 1826 the act for the suppression of small bank-notes.
He was a strong antagonist of Reform. He accepted the post
of chancellor of the exchequer in the duke of Wellington's
projected ministry of X832; but afterwards, alarmed at the
scene in parliament, declared " he would face a thousand devils
rather than such a House of Commons," and advised the recaD
»f. e. in the existing line; see below for the earlier creation.
730
ASHBURTON— ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH
of Lord Grey. In 1834 be was president of the board of trade
and master of the mint in Sir Robert Peel's government, and on
the latter's retirement was created Baron Ashburton on the 10th
of April 1835, taking the title previously held by John Dunning,
his aunt's husband. In 1842 he was despatched to America,
and the same year concluded the Ashburton or Webster-Ash-
burton treaty. A compromise was settled concerning the
north-east boundary of Maine, the extradition of certain criminals
was arranged, each state agreed to maintain a squadron of at
least eighty guns on the coast of Africa for the suppression of the
slave trade, and the two governments agreed to unite in an effort
to persuade other powers to close all slave markets within their
territories. Despite his earlier attitude, Lord Ashburton dis-
approved of Peel's free-trade projects, and opposed the Bank
Charter Act of 1844. He was a trustee of the British Museum
and of the National Gallery, a privy councillor and D.C.L. of
Oxford. He published, besides several speeches, An Enquiry
into the Causes and Consequences of the Orders in Council (1808),
and The Financial and Commercial Crisis Considered (1847).
He died on the 13th of May 1848, leaving a large family, his
eldest son becoming 2nd baron. The 5th baron (b. 1866) suc-
ceeded to the title in 1889.
ASHBURTON, JOHN DUNNING, ist Bason* (1731-1783).
English lawyer, the second son of John Dunning of Ashburton,
Devonshire, an attorney, was born at Ashburton on the 18th of
October 1731, and was educated at the free grammar school of
his native place. At first articled to his father, he was admitted,
at the age of nineteen, to the Middle Temple, and called to the bar
in 1756, where he came very slowly into practice. He went the
western circuit for several years without receiving a single brief.
In 1 762 he was employed to draw up a defence of the British East
India Company against the Dutch East India Company, which
had memorialized the crown on certain grievances, and the
masterly style which characterized the document procured him
at once reputation and emolument. In 1763 he distinguished
himself as counsel on the side of Wilkes, whose cause he conducted
throughout. His powerful argument against the validity of
general warrants in the case of Leach v. Money (June 18, 1763)
established his reputation, and his practice from that period
gradually increased to such an extent that in 1776 he is said to
have been in the receipt of nearly £10,000 per annum. In 1766
he was chosen recorder of Bristol, and in December 1767 he was
appointed solicitor-general. The latter appointment he held till
May 1770, when he retired with his friend Lord Shelburne. In
1 77 1 he was presented with the freedom of the city of London.
From this period he was considered as a regular member of the
opposition, and distinguished himself by many able speeches in
parliament. He was first chosen member for Calnc in 1768, and
continued to represent that borough until he was promoted to
the peerage. In 1780 he brought forward a motion that the
" influence of the crown had increased, was increasing, and ought
to be diminished," which he carried by a majority of eighteen.
He strongly opposed the system of sinecure officers and pensions;
but his probity was not strong enough to prevent his taking
advantage of it himself. In x 782, when the marquis of Rocking-
ham became prime minister, Dunning was appointed chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster, a rich sinecure; and about the same time
he was advanced to the peerage, with the title of Lord Ashburton.
Under Lord Shclburnc's administration he accepted a pension of
£4000 a year. He died at Exmouth on the 18th of August 1783.
Though possessed of an insignificant person, an awkward
manner and a provincial accent, Lord Ashburton was one of
the most fluent and persuasive orators of his time. He had
married Elizabeth Baring, and was succeeded as 2nd baron by
his son Richard, at whose death in 1823 the title became extinct,
being revived in 1835 by Alexander Baring.
Besides the answer to the Dutch memorial, Lord Ashburton is
supposed to have assisted in writing a pamphlet on the taw of libel,
and to have been the author of A Letter to the Proprietors of East
India Stock, on the: subject of Lord Give's Jaghire, occasioned by his
Lordship's Ltiier on thai Subject (1764, 8vo). He was At one time
su spected of being the auth o r of the Le tters of Junius.
1 m. of the fir*t creation ; for the present title see above.
ASHBURTON, a river of Western Australia, rising in the
mountains west of the Great Sandy Desert, and following 1
course north-westward for 400 m., into Exmouth Gulf. la 's
upper reaches it flows through a rich gold-bearing district :c
which it gives name, and nearer its mouth it traverses a v — :
tract of fine pastoral country. The outlet for both these districts
is the port of Onslow, at the month of the river, near which the -t
are several pearl-fishing stations. The river is not navigabk
ASHBURTON* a market-town in the Ashburton parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, 44 m. N. W. by W. of Ply tnotth.
on a branch of the Great Western railway: Pop. of ur*^
district (1901) 2628. It lies in a valley surrounded by hll
at a short distance from the river Dart ; the scenery, towards
Dartmoor and. in the neighbourhood of Buckland and Hu t
Chase, being unsurpassed in the county. The church of 5:
Andrew is cruciform with a lofty tower. It was built early ;a
the x 5th century, and contains a fine old oak roof over the nor.h
aisle, and a tablet in memory of John Dunning, solicitor-sencr^
and ist Baron Ashburton (1731-1783). The inscription is br
Dr Johnson. Lord Ashburton was educated at the gramn^r
school, which was founded as a chantry in 13x4. Serge is
manufactured in Ashburton, and there are breweries, pairt
factories and saw-mills. A large deposit of umber is worked in
the neighbourhood. Slate quarries and copper and tin mires
were formerly valuable. A neighbouring centre of the serge
industry is the urban district of Bucktastleigh (pop. 252c'',
3 m. SS.W. Between the two towns is Buckfast AbU>.
said to have been, before the Conquest, a Benedictine house, srd
rcf ounded for Cistercians in 1 1 3 7. It was restored to use in : ; : 2
by a French Benedictine community, the fine Perpendicuiir
abbot's tower remaining, while other parts have been rebuilt on
the original lines
Ashburton (Essebretona, Asperton, Ashperton) is a borough hv
prescription and an ancient stannary town. It was governed t a
portreeve and bailiff, elected annually at the court wet held by ' k e
lord of the manor. According to Domesday, Ashburtoa »a* frr i
in chief by Osbern, bishop oT Exeter, and rendered geld f or «• *
hides. In 1352, as the two manors of Ashburton Borough 2-4
Ashburton Foreign, it was sold by the bishop, and subsequer >*
became crown property. Finally, it was acquired in moieties b> 1 re
Clinton family, and the present Lord Clinton is joint lord oi t&e
manor with Sir Robert Jardine. In 1298 and 1407 Ashbu- .5
returned two members, from 1407 until 1640 one member c~\-
and then again two members, until deprived of one by the Refr m
Act of 1832 and of the other by the Reform Act of 1885. I" f **
reign of Edward II. Bishop Staptedon obtained a Saturday mark-.:,
and two annual fairs lasting three days at the feasts of St Latin:-. <.
(August 10) and St Martin in winter (November 1 1). In 1677 J v -
Ford was granted a Tuesday market for the sale of moot &--».'
woollen goods made from English yarn, and in 1705 Andrew Q\m »:
obtained two annual fairs, on the first Thursdays in March *r.d
June, for the sale of cattle, corn and merchandise.
ASHBY, TURNER (1824-1862), American cavalry leader in
the Confederate army, was born in Fauquier county, Virgin*,
in 1824. Before the Civil War he was a planter in Markha-,
Fauquier county, and a local politician. When host II • r-s
began he raised a regiment of cavalry, which he led with c* --
spicuous success in the Valley campaigns of 1861-62, u: :rr
Joseph Johnston and Stonewall Jackson. He was promoted s
brigadier-general shortly before bis death, which took place in
a cavalry skirmish at Harrisonburg, Va., on the 6th of Jure
1862. By bis early death the Confederates lost one of the U*t
cavalry officers in their service.
ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a market-town in the Bos^crtb
parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England; ixS m.
N.W. by N. from London by the Midland railway, on the
Leicester-Burton branch. Pop. of urban district (1901) 47*
The church of St Helen is a fine Perpendicular building, restci 1
and enlarged (1880); it contains monuments of the Hunting 1
family, and an old finger-pillory for the punishment of rr:<-
behaviour in church. The Ivanhoe baths, erected in 1826. it
frequented for their saline waters, which, as containing brorr nc.
are found useful in scrofulous and rheumatic complaints. Tie
springs are at Moira, 3 m. west. There is a Queen Eleanor ct>-s»
commemorating the countess of Loudoun, by Sir Gilbert ScotL
To the south of the town are the extensive remains of Ashby
A-SHE-HO— ASHEVILLE
731
Castle. There are extensive coal-mines in the neighbouring
district, as at Moira, whence the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal runs
south to the Coventry canal.
At the time of the Domesday survey Ashby-de-la-Zouch formed
part of the estates of Hugh de Grcntmatsnel. Soon after It was held
by Robert Beaumeis, from whom it passed by female descent to the
family of la Zouch, whence at derived the adjunct to its name,
having been hitherto known as Ashby or Essebi.- The earliest record
of a grant of market rights is in 1219, when Roger la Zouch obtained
a grant of a weekly market and a two days fair at the feast of
St Helen, in consideration of a fine of one palfrey. In the i«h
century the manor was held by James Butler, earl of Ormond, after
whose attainder it was granted in 1461 to Lord Hastings, who in
1474 obtained royal licence to empark 3000 acres and to build and
fortify a castle. At this castle Nlary queen of Scots was detained
1648, at the. close of the war, it was dismantled by order of parlia-
ment. It plays a great part in Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe. In the
1 8th century Ashby was celebrated as one of the best markets for
horses in England, and had besides prosperous factories for woollen
and cotton stockings and for hats.
Sec Victoria County History — Leicestershire; History of Ashby-
de-ta-Zouch (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1852).
A-SHB-HO (Manch. Alchuhu), a town of Manchuria, China,
x 25 m. N.E. of Kirin, and 30 m, S. of the Sungari. It is governed
by a mandarin of the second class. Pop. about 60,000.
ASHER, a tribe of Israel, called after the son of Jacob and
Zilpah, Leah's maid. The name is taken by the narrator of
Gen. xxz. 12 seq. (J) to mean happy or propitious, possibly an
allusion to the fertility of the tribe's territory (with which cf.
Gen. xhx. 20, Deut xxxiii. 24); on the other hand, like Gad, it
may have been originally a divine title. The district held by this
tribe bordered upon Naphtali, and lay to the north of Issachar
and Zebulun, and to the south of Dan. But the boundaries are
not definite and the references to its territory arc obscure.
Ashex is blamed for taking no part in the fight against Sisera
(Judg. v. 17). and although it shares with Zebulun and Naphtali
in Gideon's defeat of the Midianites (Judg. vi. 35, vii. 23), the
narrative in question is not the older of the two accounts of the
event, and the incorporation of the name is probably due to a
late redactor. Lying as it did in the closest proximity to
Phoenicians and Aramaeans, its population must have been
exceptionally mixed, and the description of the occupation of
Palestine in Judg. L 31 seq. shows that it contained a strong
Canaanite element. In the Blessing of Moses it is bidden to
defend itself — evidently against invasion (Deut. xxxiii. 25).
Even in the time of Seti I. and Rameses II. (latter half of 14th
cent B.c.) the district to the west of Galilee appears to have been
known to the Egyptians as Aser(u), so that it is possible to infer
either (a) that Asher was an Israelite tribe which, if it ever went
down into Egypt, separated itself from its brethren in Egypt
and migrated north, " an example which was probably followed
by some of the other tribes as well " (Hommcl, Ancient Hebrew
Tradition, p. 228); or (6) it was a district which, if never closely
bound to Israel, was at least regarded as part of the national
kingdom, and treated as Israelite by the genealogical device of
making it a " son " of Jacob. It is possible that some of its
Israelite population had followed the example of Dan and moved
from an earlier home in the south. Two of the clans of Asher,
Heber and Makhicl, have been associated with Milk-ili and
Habiri, the names of a hostile chief and people in the Amarna
Tablets Gas^ow, Journal BiM. Lit. xi. pp. 118 seq., xii.
pp. 61 seq., Hommel), but it is scarcely probable .that events of
febout 1400 B.C. should have survived only in this form. This
applies also to the suggestion that the name Asher has been
derived from a famous Abd-ashirta of the same period (Barton,
ib. xv. p. 174). Some connexion with the goddess Ashir(t)a,
however, is not unlikely.
See further H. W. Hogg, Eney. Bibl. coL 327 seq.: E. Meyer,
TsraelUen, pp. 540 sqq. (S. A. C.)
'ASHER BEN YEHIEL (known as Rosh), Jewish rabbi and
codiner, was bom in the Rhine district c. 1250, and died in
Toledo 132.7. Endangered by the persecutions inflicted on the
German Jews in the 13th century, 'Asher fled to Spain,, where
he was made zabbi of Toledo. His enforced exile impoverished
him, and from this date begins an important change in the
status of medieval rabbis. Before the 14th century, rabbis had
obtained a livelihood by the exercise of some secular profession,
particularly medicine, and received no salary for performing
the rabbinic function. This was now changed. A disciple of
Meir of Rothenburg, 'Asher's sole interest was in the Talmud.
He was a man of austere piety, profound and narrow. He was
a determined opponent of the study of philosophy, and thus was
antipathetic to the Spanish spirit. The Jews of Spain continued,
nevertheless, devotees of secular sciences as well as of rabbinical
lore. 'Asher was the first of the German rabbis to display strong
talent for systematization, and his chief work partook of the
nature of a compendium of the Talmud. Compiled between
1307 and 1314, 'Asher's Compendium resembled, and to a large
extent superseded, the work of 'Al-phasi (q.v.). 'Asher's Com-
pendium is printed in most editions of the Talmud, and it differed
from previous Compendia in greater simplicity and in the
deference shown to German authorities. 'Asher's son Jacob,
who died at Toledo before 1340, was the author of the four Turim,
a very profound and popular codification of rabbinical law.
This work was the standard code until Joseph Qaro directly
based on it his widely accepted Code of Jewish law, the Shu than
% Arukh. (I. A.)
ASHEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Buncombe county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., in the mountainous Blue Ridge region in
the west part of the state, about 210 m. W. of Raleigh. Pop.
(1890) 10,235; (1900) 14.604, of whom 4724 were negroes;
(1910, census) 18,762. Asheville is situated at the junction
of three branches of the Southern railway, on a high terrace on
the east bank of the French Broad river, at the mouth of the
Swannanoa, about 2300 ft. above the sea. The city is best known
as one of the most popular health and pleasure resorts in the
south, being a summer resort for southerners and a winter
resort for northerners. It has a dry and equable climate and
beautiful scenery. Among its social clubs are the Albemarle,
the Asheville, the Elks, the Tahkeeostec and the Swannanoa
Country clubs. An extensive system of city and suburban
parks, connected by a series of beautiful drives, adds to the
city's attractiveness. There are great forests in the vicinity.
Among the public buildings are the city hall, the court house,
the Federal building, the public library and an auditorium.
In or near Asheville are a normal and collegiate institute for
young women (1892), and, occupying the same campus,, a
home industrial school (1887) for girls, both under the control
of the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian
Church; the Asheville farm school for boys; an industrial
school for negroes; the Asheville school for boys (5 m. west of
Asheville); and the Bingham school (1793)1 founded at Pittsboro,
N.C., by William Bingham (d. 1826), and removed to its present
site (3 m. north-west of Asheville) in 1891. About 2 m. south-
east of the city is Biltmore, the estate of George W. Vanderbilt,
its 125,000 acres constituting what is probably the finest country
place in the United States. The central feature of the estate is
a chateau (375X150 ft) of French Renaissance design, after the
famous chateau at Blois, France. In the neighbourhood is a
model village, with an elementary school, an industrial school
for whites, a hospital and a church, maintained by Mr Vanderbilt.
Both the chateau and the village were designed by Richard M.
Hunt; the landscape gardening was done by Frederick Law
Olmsted. A collection of woody plants, one of the largest and
finest in the world, and a broad forest and hunting preserve,
known as Pisgah Forest (100,000 acres), are also maintained by
the owner. Asheville is a market for live-stock, dairy products,
lumber and fruits, .and has various manufactories (in which a
good water-power is utilized), including tanneries, cotton mills,
brick and tile factories, and a wood-working and veneer plant.
The value of the city's factory products increased from $1 ,3oo,6q8
in 1900 to $1,918,362 in 1905, or 47*5%- The city was named
in honour of Samuel Ashe (1725-1813), chief- justice of North
Carolina from 1777 to 1796, and John Ashe (1720-1781), a
North Carolina soldier who distinguished himself in the V
733
ASHFORD— ASHLAND
Independence, was settled about 1790, and was incorporated in
1835. The city's boundaries were enlarged in 1905.
ASHFORD* a market-town in the Southern or Ashford par-
liamentary division of Rent, England, 56 m. S.E. of London by
the South-Eastern ft Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 12,808. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence
near the confluence of the upper branches of the river Stour. It
has a fine Perpendicular church dedicated to St Mary, with a
lofty, well-proportioned tower and many interesting monuments.
The grammar school was founded by Sir Norman Knatchbull in
the reign of Charles I. Ashford has agricultural implement
works and breweries; and the large locomotive and carriage
works of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway are here. At
Bethersden, between Ashford and Tenterden, marble quarries
were formerly worked extensively, supplying material to the
cathedrals of Canterbury and Rochester, and to many local
churches. At Charing, north-west of Ashford, the archbishops
of Canterbury had a residence from pre-Conquest times, and
ruins of a palace, mainly of the Decorated period, remain. On
the south-eastern outskirts of Ashford is the populous village of
Willesborough (3602).
Ashford (Essclesford, Atshatisforde, Essheford) was held at the
time of the Domesday survey by Hugh de Montfort, who came to
England with William the Conqueror. A Saturday market and an
annual fair were granted to the lord of the manor by Henry III. in
1243. Further annual fairs were granted by Edward HI. in 1349
and by Edward IV. in 1466. In 1672 Charles II. granted a market
on every second Tuesday, with a court of pie-powder. James I.
in 1607, at the petition of the inhabitants of Ashford, gave Sir John
Smith, iCt., the right of holding a court of record in the town on every
third Tuesday. The fertility of the pasture-land in Romney Marsh
to the south and east of Ashford caused the cattle trade to increase
in the latter half of the 18th century, and led to the establishment
of a stock market in 1784- The town has never been incorporated.
See Edward Hasted, History and Survey of Kent (Canterbury,
1 778-1 799. 2nd ed. 1 797-1801); Victoria County History— Kent.
»ASHI (352-427), Jewish 'amoro, the first editor of the Talmud,
was born at Babylon. He was head of the Sura Academy, and
there began the Babylonian Talmud, spending thirty years of his
life at it. He left the work incomplete, and it was finished by his
disciple Rabina just before the year 500 a.d. (See Talmud.)
ASHINGTON, an urban district in the Wansbeck parliamentary
division of Northumberland, England, 4 m. E. of Morpeth, on the
Ncwbiggin branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
13 ,956. The district, especially along the river Wansbeck, is not
without beauty, but there are numerous collieries, from the
existence of which springs the modern growth of Ashington. At
Bothal on the river (from which parish that of Ashington was
formed) is the castle originally belonging to the Bertram family,
of which Roger Bertram probably built the gatehouse, the only
habitable portion remaining, in the reign of Edward III. The
ruins of the castle are fragmentary, but of considerable extent.
The church of St Andrew here has interesting details from Early
English to Perpendicular date, and in the neighbouring woods
is a ruined chapel of St Mary. The mining centre of Ashington
lies 2 m. north-east, on the high ground north of the Wansbeck.
'ASHKENAZI, SEBI (1656-1718), known as tfakham §ebi,
for some time rabbi of Amsterdam, was a resolute opponent of
the followers of the pseudo-Messiah, Sabbatai Sebi (?.«.). He had
a chequered career, owing to his independence of character. He
Visited many lands, including England, where he wielded much
influence. His Response are held in high esteem.
ASHLAND, a city of Boyd county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the
Ohio river, about 130 m. E. by N. of Frankfort. Pop. (1890)
4195; (1900) 6800 (489 negroes); (1910) 8688. It is served "by
the Chesapeake ft Ohio (being a terminal of the Lexington and
Big Sandy Divisions) and the Norfolk 8c Western railways, and
is connected with Huntington, West Virginia, by an electric line.
The city has a fine natural park (Central Park) of about 30
acres; and Clyffeside Park (maintained by a private corporation),
of about 75 acres, just east of the city, is a pleasure resort and a
meeting-ground (with a casino seating 3000 people) for the
Tri-Stale u Chautauqua " (for certain parts of Kentucky, Ohio
and West Virginia). The surrounding country abounds in coal,
iron ore, oil, day, atone and timber, for which the dry rs a
distributing centre. Ashland has considerable river trafTic
and various manufactures, including pig iron, nails, wire rods,
steel billets, sheet steel, dressed lumber (especially poplar),
furniture, fire brick and leather. Ashland was settled in 1854,
and was chartered as a city in 1870.
ASHLAND, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 50 m. N.E. of Harrisburg and about 100 m. N W.
of Philadelphia. Pop. (1800) 7346; (1900) 6438 (969 forrura-
bom); (1910) 6855. It is served by the Lehigh Valley and the
Philadelphia 8c Reading railways, and by the electric lines of
the Schuylkill Railway Company and the Shamokin & Motict
Carmel Transit Company. The borough is built on the slcoe
of Locust Mountain, about 885 ft. above sea-level Its ch.H
industry is the mining of anthracite coal at several colliencs
in the vicinity; and at Fountain Springs, 1 m. south-east. 3
a state hospital for injured persons of the Anthracite Coal
Region of Pennsylvania, opened in 1883. The municipality
owns and operates the waterworks. Ashland was laid out as a
town in 1847, and was named in honour of Henry Clay's home
at Lexington, Ky.; in 1857 it was incorporated.
ASHLAND, a village of Hanover county, Virginia, C.S A.,
17 m. N.W. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 1147; (19x0) ijj.m
It is served by the Richmond, Fredericksburg 8r Potorr.. :
railway, and is a favourite resort from Richmond. Here is
situated the Randolph-Macon College (Methodist Episcoj^ 1
South), one of the oldest Methodist Episcopal colleges in t v ;
United States. In 1833, two years after receiving its charter.
it opened near Boydton, Mecklenburg county, Virginia, and n
1868 was removed to Ashland. The college in 1007-1008 h: i
150 students and a faculty of 16; it publishes an endovrl
historical series called The John P. Branch Historical Pcpm
of Randolph-Macon College] and it is a part of the " Raadorpb-
Macon System of Colleges and Academies," which incrudes.
besides, Randolph-Macon Academy (1890) at Bedford Car.
Virginia, and Randolph- Macon Academy (1892) at Frcr.t
Royal, Virginia, both for boys; Randolph-Macon Woman's
College (1893) at Lynchburg, Virginia, which in 100 7- 1008 had
an enrolment of 300; and Randolph-Macon Institute, for gr!*.
Danville, Virginia, which was admitted into the " Sysuc '
in 1897. These five institutions are under the control of a single
board of trustees', the work of the preparatory schools is ifcu*
correlated with that of the colleges. About 7 m. out of Ashlar i
is the birthplace of Henry Clay, and about 15 m. distant is tSr
birthplace of Patrick Henry. Ashland was settled in 1845 acd
was incorporated in 1856.
ASHLAND, a city and the county-seat of Ashland county.
Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated about 315 m. N.W. of Milwaukee
and about 70 m. E. of Superior and Duluth, in the N. part ct
the state, at the head of Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Like
Superior. Pop. (1890) 9956; (1900) 13,074, of whom 441 s
were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,594- It is served by
the Chicago & North- Western, the Northern Pacific, the Chicago
St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the Wisconsin Centra
railways, and by several steamboat lines on the Great Lakes
The city is attractively situated, has a dry, healthful climctr
and is a summer resort. It has a fine Federal building, one "!
the best high-school buildings in Wisconsin, the Vaughn puM .
library (1895), a Roman Catholic hospital, and the Rinehart
hospital, and is the seat of the Northland College and Acadcm>
(Congregational). Ashland has an excellent harbour, has la*gr
iron-ore and coal docks, and is the principal port for the sniprrr ~i
of iron ore from the rich Gogebic Range, the annual ore sh r-
ment approximating 3,500,000 tons, valued at $13,000,000, acd
it has also an extensive export trade in lumber. Brownstorc
quarried in the vicinity is also an important export. The lake
trade amounts to more than $35,000,000 annually. Ashlini
has large saw-mills, iron and steel rolling mills, foundries and
machine shops, railway repair shops (of the Chicago ft North-
western railway), knitting works, and manufactories of
dynamite, sulphite fibre, charcoal and wood-alcohol. In 1005
its total factory product was valued -t $4,110,165. Settled
ASHLAR— ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE
733
•bout 1854, Ashland was incorporated as a village in 1863 and
received a city charter in 18*7.
ASHLAR, also written Asmxa, Ashelere, &c (probably
from Lat. axilla, diminutive of axis, an axle), hewn or squared
stone, generally applied to that used for facing walls. In a
contract of date X398 we read — " Munis erit exterius de puro
lapide vocato achilar, plane tndsso, interius vero de lapide fracto
vocato roghwaU." " Clene hewen ashler " often occurs in medi-
eval documents; this no doubt means tooled or finely worked,
in contradistinction to rough-axed faces.
An " ashlar piece " in building is an upright piece of timber
framed between the common rafters and the wall plate.
ASHLEY, WILLIAM JAMBS (i860- ), English economist,
was born in London on the 25th of February i860 He was
educated at St Olave's grammar school and Balliol College,
Oxford, and became a fellow of Lincoln College. In 1 888 he was
appointed professor of political economy and constitutional
history in Toronto University, a post which he resigned in 1892,
in order to become professor of economic history at Harvard
University. In xooi he was appointed professor of commerce
and finance in Birmingham University and in 1002 dean of the
faculty of commerce. Professor Ashley became well known for
his work on the early history of English industry, and for his
prominence among those English economists who . supported
Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. His most important
works are Early History of the English Woollen Industry (1887);
Introduction to English Economic History and Theory (2 parts,
188&-1893); Surveys, Historic and Economic (xooo); Adjustment
cf Wages (1903); the Tariff Problem (2nd ed. xoo*); Progress
of the German Working Classes (1904).
ASHMOLB, BUA8 (1617-1692), English antiquarian, and
founder of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, was born at
Lichfield on the 23rd of May 161 7, the son of a saddler. In 1.638
he became a solicitor, and in 1644 was appointed commissioner
of exdse. At Oxford, whither this brought him when the
Royalist Parliament was sitting there, he made friends with
Captain (afterwards Sir) George Wharton, through whose
influence he obtained the king's commission as captain of horse
and comptroller of the ordnance. In 1646 he was initiated as a
Freemason— the first gentleman, or amateur, to be " accepted."
In 1649 he married Lady Mainwaring, some twenty years his
senior and a relative of his first wife who had died eight years
before. This marriage placed him in a position of affluence that
enabled him to devote his whole* time to his favourite studies.
His interest in astrology, aroused by Wharton, and by William
Lilly, — whom with other astrologers he met in London in 1646,—
seems, in the following years, to have subsided in favour of
heraldry and antiquarian research. In 1657 his wife petitioned
for a separation, but failing to gain her case returned to live with
him. Between this crisis in his domestic life and the time of her
death in 1668, Ashmole was in high favour at court He was
made successively Windsor herald, commissioner, comptroller
and accountant-general of excise, commissioner for Surinam and
comptroller of the White Office. He afterwards refused the
office of Garter king-at-arms in favour of Sir William Dugdale,
whose daughter he had married in 1668. In 1672 he published
his Institutions, Laws and Ceremonies of the Order of-the Carter,
a work which was practically exhaustive, and is an example of
his diligence and years of patient antiquarian research. Five
years later he presented the Ashmolean Museum, the first public
museum of curiosities in the kingdom, the larger part of which
he bad inherited from a friend, John Tradescant, to thenniversity
of Oxford. He made it a condition that a suitable building
should be erected for its reception, and the collection was not
finally installed until 1683. Subsequently he made the further
gift to the university of his library. He died on the x8th of
May 1692.
ASHRAF (Shttxeta, Shekxts), a small scattered tribe of
African " Arabs " settled near Tokar, in the valleys of the Gash
and Baraka, and in the Amarar country north of Suakin. They
call themselves Beni Hashin, and claim descent from Mahomet;
hence their name, sherif (plural ashraf) being the title applied to
descendants of the prophet In the time of the khalifa Abdulla
(188 5-1808), Ashraf was the name by which the family and
adherents of his late master the mahdi were known, the mahdi's
family claiming to be Ashraf. The Ashraf of Tokar remained
loyal to Egypt during the Sudan troubles.
ASHREF, a town of Persia in the province of Mazandaran,
about 50 m. W. of Astarabad and s m. inland from the Caspian
Sea, in 36° 42' N. and 53° 42' E. The population is about 6000*
comprising descendants of some Georgians introduced by Shah
Abbas I. (1587-1629) and a number of Gudars, a peculiar pariah
race, probably of Indian origin. The place was without import-
ance until 16x2, when Shah Abbas began building and laying
out the palaces and gardens in the neighbourhood now col-
lectively known as Bagh i Shah (the garden of the shah). The
palaces, completed in 1627, are now in ruins, but the gardens with
their luxuriant vegetation and gigantic cypress and orange trees
are well worth a visit There were originally six separate gardens,
all contained within one large wall but separated one from
another by high walls. The principal palace was the Chehel
Situn (forty pillars), destroyed by the Afghans in 1723. and,
although rebuilt by Nadir Shah in 1731, already in ruins in 1743.
About ] m. north of the town is the Safi-abad garden, with a
palace built by Shah Safi (1620-1642) for his daughter. It is
situated on a lovely wooded hill, and was repaired and in part
renovated about 1870 by Nasiru'd-Din Shah.
ASHTABULA, a city of Ashtabula county, Ohio, U.S.A., ic
Ashtabula township, on the Ashtabula river and Lake Erie,
and 54 m. N.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 8338; (1000) 12,940,
of whom 3688 were foreign-born; (19x0, census) 18,266.
There is a large Finnish-born population in the city and in Ash-
tabula county, and the Amerikan Sanomat, established here in
1897, is one of the most widely read Finnish weeklies in the
country. Ashtabula is served by the Pennsylvania, the Lake.
Shore & Michigan Southern, "and the New York, Chicago & St
Louis railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The city is
built on the high bank of the river about 75 ft above the lake,
and commands good views of diversified scenery. There is a
public library. Ashtabula has an excellent harbour, to and from
which large quantities of iron ore and coal are shipped. More
iron ore is received at this port annually than at any other port
in the country, or, probably, in the world; the ore is shipped
-thence by rail to Pittsburg, Youngstown and other iron manu-
facturing centres. In 1907 the port received 7,542,149 gross tons
of iron ore, and shipped 2,632,027 net tons of soft coal. Among
the city's manufactures are leather, worsted goods, agricultural
implements, and foundry and machine shop products; in 1905
the total value of the factory product was $1,895,454, an increase
of 114-3 % m nve years. There are large green-houses in and
near Ashtabula, and quantities of lettuce, cucumbers and
tomatoes are raised under glass and shipped to Pittsburg and
other, large cities. The first settlement here was made about
x8ox. Ashtabula township was created in x8o8, and from it
the townships of Kingsville, Plymouth and Sheffield have sub-
sequently been formed. The village of Ashtabula was incor-
porated in 1 831, and received a city charter in 1891. The name
Ashtabula is an Indian word first applied to the river and said
to mean " fish ri ver."
ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD. an urban district in the Newton
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. S. of Wigan,
on the Great Central railway. Pop. (1001) 18,687. The district
is rich in minerals, and has large collieries, and a colliery com-
pany's institute; iron goods are manufactured
ASHTON-UNDER-LYNB, a market-town and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, on the river
Tame, a tributary of the Mersey, X85 m. N.W. by N. from London
and 6| E< from Manchester. Area, X346 acres. Pop. (1891)
40,486; (1901) 43.890. It is served by the London & North-
western and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Charlf
town station), and by the Great Central (Park Parade stati
734
ASH WEDNESDAY— ASIA
The church of St Michael is Perpendicular, but almost wholly
rebuilt. In the vicinity are barracks. The Old Hall, or manor
house of the Asshetons, remains in an- altered form, with an
ancient prison adjoining, and the name of Gallows Meadow, still
preserved, recalls the summary execution of justice by the lords
of the manor. In the vicinity of Ashton a few picturesque old
houses remain among the numerous modern residences. Stam-
ford Park, presented by Lord Stamford, is shared by the towns
of Ashton and Stalybridge, which extends across the Tame into
Cheshire. A technical school, school of art and free library, and
several hospitals are maintained. Chief among industries are
cotton-spinning, hat-making and iron-founding and machinery
works; and there are Jarge collieries in the neighbourhood.
The parliamentary borough, which returns one member, extends
into Cheshire. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
and 24 councillors.
The derivation from the Saxon esc (ash) and tun (an enclosed
place) accounts for the earliest orthography Estun. The addition
subtus lineam is found in ancient deeds and is due to the position
of the place below the line or boundary of Cheshire, which once
formed the frontier between the kingdoms of Northumbria and
Mercia. The manor was granted to Roger de Poictou by
William I., but before the end of his reign came to the Greslets
as part of the barony of Manchester. It was held by the
Asshetons from 1335 to 15x5, when it passed by marriage to the
Booths of Dunham Masscy, and is now held by the earl of
Stamford, the representative of that family. The lord of the
manor still holds the ancient court-leet and court-baron half-
yearly in May and November, in which cognizance is taken of
breaches of agreement among the tenants, especially concerning
the repair of roads and cultivation of lands. The place had long
enjoyed the name of borough, but it was not till 1847 that a
charter of incorporation was granted. Under the Reform Act
(1832) it returns one member. One of the markets dates back
to 1436. The ancient industry was woollen, but soon after the
invention of the spinning frame the cotton trade was introduced,
and as early as- 1760 the weaving of ginghams, nankeens and
calicoes was carried on, and the weaving of cotton yarn by
machinery soon became the staple industry. A chapel or church
existed here as early as x 261-1262.
ASH WEDNESDAY, in the Western Church, the first day of
Lent (q.v.), so called from the ceremonial use of ashes, as a symbol
of penitence, in the service prescribed for the day. The custom,
which is ultimately based on the penance of " sackcloth and
ashes " spoken of by the prophets of the Old Testament, has been
dropped in those of the reformed Churches which still observe
the fast; but it is retained in the Roman Catholic Church, the
day being known as dies cinerum (day of ashes) or dies cineris el
cilicii (day of ash and sackcloth). The ashes, obtained by burning
the palms or their substitutes used in the ceremonial of the
previous Palm Sunday, are placed in a vessel on the altar before
High Mass. The priest, vested in a violet cope, prays that God
may send His angel to hallow the ash, that it become a remedium
salubre for all penitents. After another prayer the ashes are
thrice sprinkled with holy water and thrice censed. Then the
priest invites those present to approach and, dipping his thumb
in the ashes, marks them as they kneel with the sign of the cross
on the forehead (or in the case of clerics on the place of tonsure),
with the words: Memento, homo, quia pulvis es et in pulverem
reverterir (Remember, man, that thou art dust and unto dust thou
•halt return). The celebrant himself either sprinkles the ash on
his own head in silence, or. receives it from the priest of highest
dignity present.
This ceremony is- derived from the custom of pubuc penance
In the early Church, when the sinner to be reconciled had to
appear in the congregation clad in sackcloth and covered with
ashes (cf. Tertulh'an, De Pudicitia, 13). At what date this use
was extended to the whole congregation is not known. The
phrase dies cinerum appears in the earliest extant copies of the
Gregorian Sacramentary, and it is probable that the custom
was already established by the 8th century. The Anglo-Saxon
honulist jElfric, in his Lives of the Saints (996 or 997), refers to
it as in common use; but the earliest evidence of its j
tative prescription is a decree of the synod ol T
x.091.
Of the reformed Churches the Anglican Church alone 1
the day by any special service. This is known as the <
tion service, its distinctive element being the solemn reading ol
" the general sentences of God's cursing against sinners, gathered
out of the seven and twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy, ax4
other places of Scripture." The lections for the day are the
same as in the" Roman Church (Joel ii. 12, &c., and Matt, vi 1*,
&c). In the American .Prayer Book the office of Coouninaxiun
is omitted, with the exception of the three concluding pea> e *s.
which are derived, from the prayers and anthems said or sna*
during the blessing and distribution of the ashes according to
the Sarum Missal The ceremonial of the ashes was not pro-
scribed in England at the Reformation; it was indeed enjoined
by a proclamation of Henry VUL (February 26, 153$) and
again in 1550 under Edward VI., but it had fallen into onrnpkrr
disuse by the beginning of the 17 th century.
See Wetter and Welte, Kirckeulexikon, and Heragg-Haacfc,
Realencyklopddie (3rd ed.), s. " Aschermittvock " ; L. Ducheaas,
Christian Worship, trans, by M. L. McCIure (London, 1904).
A8HWELL, LENA (1872- ), English actress, was the
daughter of Commander Pocock, R.&L In 1896 she married
the actor Arthur. Playtair, whom she divorced in 1008; later is
the latter year she married Dr Simson. In 2895 she played
Elaine in "Sir Henry Irving's production of King Arikmr at
the Lyceum, and again acted with him in 1903 in Domk.
She made her first striking success, however, on the London
stage in Mrs Dane's Defence with Sir Charles Wyndhaxn in 1000,
and a few years later her acting in Leah Klesckna confn n ttti her
position as one of the leading actresses in London. In 1007 she
started under her own management at the Kingsway theatre.
ASIA, the name of one of the great continents into which the
earth's surface is divided, embracing the north-eastern portion
of the great mass of land which constitutes what is general)?
known as the Old World, of which Europe forms the north*
western and Africa the south-western region.
Much doubt attaches to the origin of the name. Some of the
earliest Greek geographers divided their known world into twv
portions only, Europe and Asia, in which last Libya (the Greek
name for Africa) was included. Herodotus, who ranks Libya
as one of the chief divisions of the world, separating it from Asia,
repudiates as fables the ordinary explanations assigned to the
names Europe and Asia, but confesses his inability to say whence
they came. It would appear probable, however, that the former
of these words was derived from an Assyrian or Hebrew root,
which signifies the west or setting sun, and the latter from a
corresponding root meaning the east or rising sun, and that they
were used at one time to imply the west and the east, There
is ground also for supposing that they may at first have bees
used with a specific or restricted local application, a more
extended signification having eventually been given to them.
After the word Asia had acquired its larger sense, it was still
specially used by the Greeks to designate the country around
Ephesus. The idea of Asia as originally formed was necessarily
indefinite, and long continued to be so; and the area to which
the name wa* finally applied, as geographical knowledge increased,
was to a great extent determined by arbitrary and not very
precise conceptions, rather than on the basis of natural relations
and differences subsisting between it and the surrounding
regions.
Geoctaphy
The northern boundary of Asia is formed by the Arctic
Ocean; the coast-line falls between 70° and 75° N., and so lies
within the Arctic circle, having its extreme northern m tm +
point in Cape Sivero-Vostochnyi (t.e. north-east) -Bfcfc
or Chelyuskin, in 78° N. On the south the coast-line
is far more irregular, the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and
the China Sea reaching about to the northern tropic at the
mouths of the Indus, of the Ganges and of the Canton river.
GEOGRAPHY]
ASIA
735
while the great peninsulas of Arabia, Hindostan and Cambodia
descend to about io° N., and the Malay peninsula extends
within a degree and a half of the equator. On the west the
extreme point of Asia is found on the shore of the Mediterranean,
at Cape Baba, in 26° £., nor far from the Dardanelles. Thence
the boundary passes in the one direction through the Mediter-
ranean, and down the Red Sea to the southern point of Arabia,
at the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, in 45° £.; and in the other
through the Black Sea, and along the range of Caucasus, following
approximately 40° N. to the Caspian, whence it turns to the
north on a line not far from the 60th meridian, along the Ural
Mountains, and meets the Arctic Ocean nearly opposite the
island of Novaya Zemlya. The most easterly point of Asia is
East Cape (Vostochnyi, i.e. east, or Dezhnev), in ioo° £., at the
entrance of Bering Strait The boundary between this point
and the extremity of the Malay Peninsula follows the coast of
the Northern Pacific and the China Sea, on a line deeply broken
by the projection of the peninsulas of Kamchatka and Korea,
and the recession of the Sea of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea, and the
Gulfs of Tongking and Siam.
On the east and south-east of Asia are several important
groups of islands, the more southern of which link this continent
m _ m __^ to Australia, and to the islands of the Pacific. The
Kurile Islands, the Japanese group, Luchu, Formosa
and the Philippines, may be regarded as unquestionable outliers
of Asia. Between the islands of the Malay archipelago from
Sumatra to New Guinea, and the neighbouring Asiatic continent,
no definite relations appear ever to have existed, and no dis-
tinctly marked boundary for Asia has been established by the
old geographers in this quarter. Modern science, however, has
indicated a line of physical separation along the channel between
Borneo and Celebes, called the Straits of Macassar, which
follows approximately 120° £., to the west of which the flora
and fauna are essentially Asiatic in their type, while to the south
and east the Australian element begins to be distinctly marked,
soon to become predominant To this boundary has been given
the name of Wallace's line, after the eminent naturalist, A. R.
Wallace, who first indicated its existence.
Owing to the great extent of Asia, it is not easy to obtain a
correct conception of the actual form of its outline from ordinary
maps, the distortions which accompany projections of
^H^t. ^Hf* 'Pb^ ** area * on a flat surface being necessarily
great and misleading. Turning, therefore, to a globe,
Asia, viewed as a whole, will be seen to have the form of a great
isosceles spherical triangle, having its north-eastern apex at
East Cape (Vostochnyi), in Bering Strait; its two equal sides,
in length about a quadrant of the sphere, or 6500 m., extending
on the west to the southern point of Arabia, and on the east to
the extremity of the Malay peninsula; and the base between
these points occupying about 6o° of a great circle, or 4500 m.,
and being deeply indented by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal on either side of the Indian peninsula. A great circle,
drawn through East Cape and the southern, point of Arabia,
passes nearly along the coast-line of the Arctic Ocean, over the
Ural Mountains, through the western part of the Caspian, and
nearly along the boundary between Persia and Asiatic Turkey.
Asia Minor and the north-western half of Arabia lie outside such
a great circle, which otherwise indicates, with (air accuracy, the
north-western boundary of Asia. In like manner a great circle
drawn through East Cape and the extremity of the Malay
peninsula, -passes nearly. over the coasts of Manchuria, China
and Cochin-China, and departs comparatively little from the
eastern boundary.
Asia is divided laterally along the parallel of 40° north by a
depression which, beginning on the east of the desert of Gobi, extends
_. westwards through Mongolia to Chinese Turkestan. To
Of**?™ the west of Kashgar the central depression is limited by
*^!*T ^ e me "d!ional ranee of Sariko! and the great elevation
* r "* r * of the Pamir, of which the Sarikol is the eastern face.
The level of this depression (once a vast inland sea) between the
mountains which enclose the sources of the Hwang-ho and the
Sarikol range probably never exceeds 2000 ft. above sea, and modern
researches tend to prove that in the central portions of the Gobi
(about Lop Nor) it may be actually below sea-level. A vast pro-
portion of the continent north of this central line is but a few hundred
feet in altitude. Shelving gradually upward from the low flats of
Siberia the general continental level rises to a great central water-
parting, or divide, which stretches from the Black Sea through the
Elburz and the Hindu Kush to the Tian-shan mountains to the
Pamir region, and hence to Bering Strait on the extreme nortb-eaet.
This great divide is not always marked by well-defined ranges fating
steeply either to the north or south. There are considerable spate*
where the strike, or axis, of the main ranges b transverse to the
water-parting, which is then represented by intermediate highlands
forming lacustrine regions with an indefinite watershed. Only a
Birt of this great continental divide (including such ranges a* the
indu Kush, Tian-shan, Altai or Khangai) rises to any great height,
a considerable portion of it being below 5000 ft. in altitude. South
of the divide the level at once drops to the central depression of
Gobi, which forms a vast interior, almost waterless space, where
the local drainage is lost in deserts or swamps. South of this
enclosed depression is another great bydrographic barrier which
parts it from the low plains of the Amur, of China, Siam and India,
bordered by the shallows of the Yellow Sea and the shoals which
enclose the islands of Japan and Formosa, all of them once an in-
tegral part of the continent. This second barrier is one of the most
mighty upheavals in the world, by reason both of its extent and
its altitude. Starting from the Amur river and reaching along the
eastern margin of the Gobi desert towards the source* of the Hwang-
ho, it merges into the Altyn-tagh and the Kucn-Iun, forming the
northern face of the vast Tibetan highlands which are bounded on
the south by the Himalaya. The Pamir highlands between the base
of the Tian-shan mountains and the eastern buttresses of the Hindu
Kush unite these two great divides, enclosing the Gobi deprewtion
on the west; and they would again be united on the east but for
the transverse valley of the Amur, which parts the Khingan moun-
tains from the Yablonoi system to the east of Lake Baikal.
If wc consider the whole continent to be divided into three sections,
viz. a northern section with an average altitude of less than 5000 ft.
above sea, where all the main rivers now northward to the Mediter-
ranean, the Arctic Sea, or the Caspian; a central section of depres-
sion, where the drainage is lost in swamps or kamuns, and of which
the average level probably does not exceed 2000 ft. above sea ; and
a southern section divided between highly elevated table-lands from
15.000 to 16,000 ft. in altitude, and lowlands of the Arabian, Indian,
Siamese and Chinese peninsulas, with an ocean outlet for its drainage ;
we find that there is only one direct connexion between northern
and southern sections which involves no mountain passes, and no
formidable barrier of altitudes. That one is afforded by the narrow
valley of the Hari Rud to the west of Herat. From the Caspian to
Karachi it is possible to pass without encountering any orographic
obstacle greater than the divide which separates the valley of the
Hari Rud from the Hclmund hamun basin, which may be repre-
sented by an altitude of about 4000 ft. above sea-level. This fact
possesses great significance in connexion with the development of
Asiatic railways.
If we examine the bydrographic basins of the three divisions of
Asia thus indicated we find that the northern division, w
incl uding the drainage falling into the Arctic Sea, the Aralo- ffiS^
Caspian depression, or the Mediterranean, embraces an * r W fc
area of about 6494,500 sq. m., as follows: —
Area of Arctic river basins .
„ Aralo-Caspian basin
„ Mediterranean
Sq. m.
4,367,000
1,759.000
268,500
Total . 6,394,500
The southern.drvision is nearly equal in extent —
Sq. ra.
Pacific drainage 3,641,000
Indian Ocean 2,873,000
Total
6,514,000
The interior or inland basins, Including the lacustrine regions south
of the Arctic watershed, the Gobi depression, Tibetan plateau, the
Iranian (or Perso-Afghan) uplands, the Syro-Arabian inland basin,
and that of Asia Minor, amount to 3,141,500 sq. m. or about half
the extent of the other two.
By far the largest Asiatic river basin is that of the Ob, which
exceeds 1 ,000,000 sq. m. in extent. On the east and south the Amur
embraces no less than 776,000 sq. m., the Yang-tsxe-kiang including
685.000. the Ganges 409,500, and the Indus 370,000 sq. m. 1
The lakes of Asia are innumerable, and vary in size from an inland
sea (such as Lakes Baikal and Balkash) to a highland loch, or the
indefinitely extended swamps of Persia. Many of them are at high
elevations (Lake Victoria, 13.400 ft., being probably the most ele-
vated), and are undoubted vestiges of an ancient period of glaciation.
Such lakes, as a rule, show indications of a gradual decrease in size.
Others are relics of an earlier geological period, when land areas
1 Authorities differ in their methods and results of compu*
of these and other similar measurements.
73*
ASIA
[GEOGRAPHY
recently upheaved from the tea were spread at low levels with alter-
nate inundations of salt and fresh water. Of these Lop Nor and the
Helmund kamUns are typical. Such lakes (in common with all the
{rtateau hamQns of south-west Baluchistan and Persia) change their
orm and extent from season to season, and many of them are
impregnated with saline deposits from the underlying strata. The
kavirs, or salt depressions, of the Persian desert are more frequently .
widespread deposits of mud and salt than water-covered areas.
Although for the purposes of geographical nomenclature, bound-
aries formed by a coast-line — that is, by depressions of the earth's
solid crust below the ocean level — are most easily recog-
nized and are of special convenience; and although such
boundaries, from following lines on which the continuity of
the land is interrupted, often necessarily indicate important differences
in the conditions of adjoining countries, and of their political and
physical relations, yet variations of the elevation of the surface above
the sea-level frequently produce effects not leas marked. The changes
of temperature and climate caused by difference of elevation are
quite comparable in their magnitude and effect on all organized
creatures with those due to differences of latitude; and the relative
position of the high and low lands on the earth's surface, by modify-
ing the direction of the winds, the fall of rain, and other atmospheric
Shenomena, produce effects in no sense less important than those
ue to the relative distribution of the land and sea. Hence the study
of the mountain ranges of a continent is, for a proper apprehension
of its physical conditions and characteristics, as essential as the
examination of its extent and position in relation to the equator
and poles, and the configuration of its coasts.
From such causes (he physical conditions of a large part of Asia,
and the history of its population, have been very greatly influenced
_ by the occurrence of the mass of mountain above de-
r~* scribed, which includes the Himalaya and the whole
y?*. elevated area having true physical connexion with that
isasosij . ran g Vi an( j occupies an area about 2000 m. in length and
varying from 100 to 500 m. in width, between 65°and lOoVast and
between 28* and 35* north. These mountains, which include the
highest peaks in the world, rise, along their entire length, far above
the line of perpetual snow, and few of the passes across the main
ridges are at a less altitude than 15,000 or 16,000 ft. above the sea.
Peaks of 20,000 ft. abound along the whole chain, and the points
that exceed that elevation are numerous. A mountain range such
as this, attaining altitudes at which vegetable life ceases, and the
support of animal life is extremely difficult, constitutes an almost
impassable barrier against the spread of all forms of living creatures.
The mountain mass, moreover, is not less important in causing a com-
plete separation between the atmospheric conditions on its opposite
flanks, by reason of the extent to which it penetrates that stratum
of the atmosphere which is in contact with the earth's surface and
is effective in determining climate. The highest summits create
serious obstructions to the movements of nearly three-fourths of the
mass of the air resting on this part of the earth, and of nearly the
whole of the moisture it contains; the average height of the entire
chain is such as to make it an almost absolute barrier to one-half of
the air and three-fourths of the moisture; while the lower ranges
also produce important atmospheric effects, one-fourth of the air
and one-half of the watery vapour it carries with it lying below
9000 ft.
This great mass of mountain, constituting as it does a complete
natural line of division across a large part of the continent, will form
a convenient basis from which to work, in proceeding, as will now
be done, to give a general view of the principal countries contained
in Asia.
The summit of the great mountain mass is occupied by Tibet, a
country known by its inhabitants under the name of Bod or Bodytd.
__. Tibet is a rugged table-land, narrow as compared with its
, "* t length, broken up by a succession of mountain ranges,
which follow as a rule the direction of the length of the table-land,
and commonly rise into the regions of perpetual snow; between the
flanks of these lie valleys, closely hemmed in, usually narrow, having
a very moderate inclination, but at intervals opening out into wide
plains, and occupied either by rivers, or frequently by lakes from
which there is no outflow and the waters of which are salt. The
eastern termination of Tibet is in the line of snowy mountains which
flanks China on the west, between the 27th and 35th parallels of
latitude, and about lot* east. On the west the table-land is prolonged
beyond the political limits of Tibet, though with much the same
physical features, to about 70 "east, beyond which it terminates; and
the ranges which are covered with perpetual snow as far west as
Samarkand, thence rapidly diminish in height, and terminate in low
hills north of Bokhara.
The mean elevation of Tibet may be taken as 15,000 ft. above the
tea. The broad mountainous slope by which it is connected with
the lower levels of Hindostan contains the ranges known as the
Himalaya; the name Kuen-lun is generally applied to the northern
•lope that descends to the central plains of the Gobi, though these
mountains arc not locally known under those names, Kuen-lun
being apparently a Chinese designation.
The extreme rigour of the climate of Tibet, which combines great
cold with great drought, makes the country essentially very poor,
and the chief portion of it little better than desert. The vegetation
is everywhere most scanty, and scarcely anything deserving the nam
of a tree is to be found unless in the more sheltered spots, and thes
artificially planted. The population in the lower and wanner vaJkrr*
live in houses, and follow agriculture; in the higher region* they &re
nomadic shepherds, thinly scattered over a lame area-
China lies between the eastern flank of the Tibetan jplateno sad
the North Pacific, having its northern and southern limits •bom.
on 40* and ao* N. respectively. The country, though — .
generally broken up with mountains of moderate elevation, ~^
possesses none of very great importance apart from those of its
western border. It is well watered, populous, and, aa a rule. high 5 *
cultivated, fertile, and well wooded; the climate is analogous to
that of southern Europe, with hot summers, and winters e«ej>* best
cold and in the north decidedly severe.
From the eastern extremity of the Tibetan mountains, bct w eu
the 95th and 100th meridians, high ranges extend from about 35* S.
in a southerly direction, which, spreading outwards aa
they go south, reach the sea at various points in Cochin- *?***
China, the Malay peninsula, and the east flank of Bengal. ' * !"'"
Between these ranges, which are probably permanently ■*"■■•
snowy to about 27* N., flow the great nvers of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula, the Mekong, the Menam, the Salween, and the Irrawandv.
the valleys of which form the main portions of the states of Cochin-
China (including Tongldng and Cambodia), of Stain (including Lao*.
and of Burma. The people of Cochin-China are called Anam. c
is probably from a corruption of their name for the capital of Tonf-
king, Kecnao, that the Portuguese Cochin has been d eri v ed . AS
these countries are well watered, populous and fertile, with a
climate very similar to that of eastern Bengal. The geography <d
the region in which the mountains of Cochin-China and Ssam jobs
Tibet is still imperfectly known, but there is no ground left for doubt-
ing that the great river of eastern Tibet, the Tsanpo, supplies the
main stream of the Brahmaputra. The two great rivers of Chu
the Hwang-ho and the Yang-tsse-kiang take their rise from the
eastern face of Tibet, the former from the north-east angle. Ov
latter from the south-east. The main stream of this last is called
Dichu in Tibet, and its chief feeder is the Ya-lung-kUng, <
not far from the Hwang-ho, and is considered the t e mtosia
between China and Tibet.
British India comprises approximately the area bet w een the 05th
and 70th meridians, and between the Tibetan table-land and the
Indian Ocean. The Indian peninsula from 25* N. south-
wards is a table-land, having its greatest elevation on the IzTr
west, where the highest points rise to over 8000 ft., though *■•*■
the ordinary altitude of the higher hills hardly exceeds 4000 ft ;
the general level of the table- land lies between 3000 ft. as a majciacsi
and 1000 ft.
From the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra on the east to
that of the Indus on the west, and intervening between the table-
land of the peninsula and the foot of the Himalayan slope of is*
Tibetan plateau, lies the great plain of northern India, which rises
at its highest point to about 1000 ft., and includes altogether. *"-i
its prolongation up the valley of Assam, an area of about son/*©
sq. m., comprising the richest, the most populous and most crvifcn-*
districts of India. The great plain extends, with an almost unbroars
surface, from the most western to the most eastern extremity of
British India, and is composed of deposits so finely <
that it is no exaggeration to say that it is possible to go from the
Bay of Bengal up the Ganges, through the Punjabi and down the
Indus again to the sea, over a distance of 2000 m. and more, withed
finding a pebble, however small.
The great rivers of northern India— the Ganges, the Bimhxss-
putra and the Indus— all derive their waters tram the Tibet**
mountain mass; and it is a remarkable circumstance that tat
northern water-parting of India should lie to the north of the Hima-
laya in the regions of central Tibet.
The population of India is very large, some of its districts bene.
among the most densely peopled in the world. The country a
generally well cleared, and forests are, as a rule, found only slug
the flanks of the mountains, where the fall of rain is most abundant.
The more open parts arc highly cultivated, and large cities abound.
The climate is generally such as to secure the population the aece>
sarics of life without severe labour; the extremes of bene and
drought are such as to render the land unsuitable for pasture, and
the people everywhere subsist by cultivation of the soil or "*«th"
and live in settled villages or towns.
The island of Ceylon is distinguished from the neighbouring pant
of British India by little more than its separate adanintstratxa
and the Buddhistic religion of its population. The highest poiac ia
Ceylon rises to about 9000 ft. above the sea, and the mountain slopes
are densely covered with forest. The lower levels are in chmatt
and cultivation quite similar to the regions in the same latitude «a
the Malay peninsula.
Of the islands in the Bay of Bengal the Nkobar and Andsmaa
groups are alone worth notice. They are placed on a line jeisasg
the north end of Sumatra, and Cape Negrais. the south-westers
extremity of Burma. They possibly owe their existence to the
volcanic agencies which are known to extend from Sumatra across
this pan 01 the Indian Ocean.
The Laccadives and Maldives are groups of small coral islands.
1
GEOGRAPHY} ASIA
situated along the 73rd meridian, at no treat distance from the
Indian peninsula, on which they have a political dependency.
The portion of Asia west of British India, excluding Arabia and
Syria, forms another extensive plateau covering an area as large
Tbm as that of Tibet, though at a much lower altitude. Its
NiMimr southern border runs along the Arabian Sea, the Persian
„,., Gulf, the Tigris, and thence westward to the north-east
angle of the Levant; on the north the high land follows
nearfy 36* N. to the southern shore of the Caspian, and thence to
the Black Sea and Sea of Marmora. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran
or Persia, Armenia and the provinces of Asia Minor occupy this
high region, with which they are nearly conterminous. The eastern
flank of this tableland follows a line of hills drawn a short distance
from the Indus, between the mouth of that river and the Himalaya,
about on the 72nd meridian; these hills do not generally exceed
4000 or 5000 ft. in elevation, but a few of the summits reach 10,000 ft.
or more. The southern and south-western face follows the coast
closely up the Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Indus, and is
formed farther west by the mountain scarp, which, rising in many
points to 10,000 ft., flanks the Tigris and the Mesopotamian plains,
and extends along Kurdistan and Armenia nearly to the 40th
meridian; beyond which it turns along the Taurus range, and the
north-eastern angle of the Mediterranean. The north -eastern
portion of the Afghan tableland abuts on the Himalaya and Tibet,
with which it forms a continuous mass of mountain between the
71st and 72nd meridians, and 34* and 36* N. From the point of
intersection of the 71st meridian with the 36th parallel of latitude,
an unbroken range of mountain stretches on one side towards the
north-cast, up to the crest of the northern slope of the Tibetan
plateau, and on the other nearly due west as far as the Caspian.
The north-eastern portion of this range is of great altitude, and
separates the headwaters of the Oxus, which run off to the Aral Sea,
from those of the Indus and its Kabul tributary, which, uniting
below Peshawar, are thence discharged southward into the Arabian
Sea. The western part of the range, which received the name of
Paropamisus Mons from the ancients, diminishes in height west of
the 65th meridian and constitutes the northern face of the Afghan
and Persian plateau, rising abruptly from the plains of the Turkoman
desert, which lies between the Oxus and the Caspian. These moun-
tains at some points attain a height of 10,000 or 12,000 ft. Along
the south coast of the Caspian this line of elevation is prolonged as
the Elburz range (not to be confused with the Elburz of the Caucasus),
and has its culminating point in Dcmavcnd, which rises to 19,400 ft.
above the sea; thence it extends to the north-west to Ararat, which
rises to upwards of 17.000 ft., from the vicinity of which the Euph-
rates flows off to the south-west, across the high lands of Armenia.
Below the north-east declivity of this range lies Georgia, on the other
side of which province rises the Caucasus, the boundary of Asia and
Europe between the Caspian and Black Seas, the highest points of
which reach an elevation of nearly 19,000 ft. West of Ararat high
hills extend along the Black Sea, between which and the Taurus
range lies the plateau of Asia Minor, reaching to the Aegean Sea;
the mountains along the Black Sea, on which arc the Olympus and
Ida of the ancients, rise to 6000 or 7000 ft.; the Taurus is more
lofty, reaching 8000 and 10,000 ft. ; both ranges decline in altitude
as they approach the Mediterranean.
This great plateau, extending from the Mediterranean to the
Indus, has a length of about 2500 m. from east to west, and a breadth
of upwards of 600 m. on the west and nowhere of less than 250 m.
It lies generally at altitudes between 2000 ft. and 8000 ft. above
the sea-level. Viewed as a whole, the eastern half of this region,
comprising Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan, is poor and un-
productive. The climate is very severe in the winter and extremely
hot in summer. The rainfall is very scanty, and running waters
are hardly known, excepting among the mountains which form the
scarps of the elevated country. The population is sparse, frequently
nomadic and addicted to plunder; progress in the arts and habits
of civilization is small. The western part of the area falls within
the Turkish empire. Its climate is less hot and arid, its natural
productiveness much greater, and its population more settled and
on the whole more advanced.
The peninsula of Arabia, with Syria, its continuation to the north-
west, has some of the characteristics of the hottest and driest parts
Ariltfa, of Persia and Baluchistan. Excepting the northernpart
of this tract, which is conterminous with the plain of
Mcsopotamia(which at its highest point reaches an elevation of about
700 ft. above the sea), the country is covered with low mountains,
rising to 3000 or 4000 ft. in altitude, having among them narrow
valleys in which the vegetation is scanty, with exceptional regions
of greater fertility in the neighbourhood of the coasts, where the
rainfall is greatest. In northern Syria the mountains of Lebanon
rise to about 10,000 ft., and with a more copious water supply
the country becomes more productive. The whole tract, excepting
south-eastern Arabia, is nominally subject to Turkey, but the people
are to no small extent practically independent, living a nomadic,
pastoral and freebooting life under petty chiefs, in the more arid
districts, but settled in towns in the more fertile tracts, where agricul-
ture becomes more profitable and external commerce is established.
The area between the northern border of the Persian high lands
and the Caspian and Aral Seas is a nearly desert low-lying plain.
737
extending to the foot of the north-western extremity of the
great Tibet o- Himalayan mountains, and prolonged east- r
ward up the valleys of the Oxus (Amu- Darya) and CMutlmm
Jaxartes (Syr-Darya), and northward across the country -»JL_ mm ^
of the Kirghiz to the south-western border of Siberia. 'ZjLll*
It includes Bokhara, Khiva and Turkestan proper, in Aatam
which the Uzbeg Turks arc dominant, and for the most
part is inhabited by nomadic tribes, who are marauders, enjoying
the reputation of being the worst among a race of professed robbers.
The tribes to the north, subject to Russia, are naturally more peace-
able, and have been brought into some degree of discipline. In this
tract the rainfall is nowhere sufficient for the purposes of agriculture,
which is only possible by help of irrigation; and the fixed popula-
tion (which contains a non-Turkish element) is comparatively small,
and restricted to the towns and the districts near the rivers.
The north-western extremity of the elevated Tibeto- Himalayan
mountain plateau is situated about on 73* E. and 39 ° N. This
region is known as Pamir; it has all the characteristics of the highest
regions of Tibet, and so far fitly receives the Russian designation
of steppe; but it seems to have no special peculiarities, and the
reason of its having been so long regarded as a geographical enigma
is not obvious. From it the Oxus, or Amu, flows oft to the west,
and the laxartcs, or Syr, to the north, through the Turki state of
Khokand, while to the cast the waters run down past Kashgar to
the central desert of the Gobi, uniting with the streams from the
northern slope of the Tibetan plateau that traverse the principalities
of Yarkand and Khotan, which are also Turki. Here the Tibetan
mountains unite with the line of elevation which stretches across
the continent from the Pacific, and which separates Siberia from
the region commonly spoken of under the name of central Asia.
A* range of mountains, called Stanovoi, rising to heights of 4000
or 5000 ft., follows the southern coast of the eastern extremity of
Man-
Asia from Kamchatka to the borders of Manchuria, as far
as the 135th meridian, in lat. 55 N. Thence the Yablonoi
range, continuing in the same direction, divides the
waters of the river Lena, which flows through Siberia into the
Arctic Sea, from those of the river Amur, which falls into the North
Pacific; the basin of this river, with its affluents, constitutes Man-
churia. From the north of Manchuria the Khingan range stretches
southward to the Chinese frontier near Peking, cast of which the
drainage falls into the Amur and the Yellow Sea, while to the west
is an almost rainless region, the inclination of which is towards the
central area of the continent, Mongolia.
From the western end of the Yablonoi range, on the 115th
meridian, a mountainous belt extends along a somewhat irregular
line to the extremity of Pamir, known under various names Mongolia.
in its different parts, and broken up into several branches,
enclosing among them many isolated drainage areas, from which
there is no outflow, and within which numerous lakes are formed.
The most important of these ranges is the Tian-shan or Celestial
Mountains, which form the northern boundary of the Gobi desert;
they lie between 40 and 43 ° N., and between 75* and 95° E., and
some of the summits are said to exceed 20,000 ft. in altitude; along
the foot of this range are the principal cultivated districts of central
Asia, and here too are situated the few towns which have sprung
up in this barren and thinly peopled region. Next may be named
the Ala-tau, on the prolongation of the Tian-shan, flanking the Syr on
the north, and rising to 14,000 or 15,000 ft. It forms the barrier
between the Issyk-kul and Balkash lakes, the elevation of which is
about 5000 ft. Last is the Altai, near the 50th parallel, rising to
10,0c '- " u ich separates the waters of the great rivers
of w< those that collect into the lakes of north-
west ria and Kalka. A line of elevation is con-
tinue i to the Ural Mountains, not rising to con-
sider divides the drainage of south-west Siberia
from r „ ing north-east of the Aral Sea.
The central area bounded on the north and north-west by the
Yablonoi Mountains and their western extension in the Tian-shan,
on the south by the northern face of the Tibetan plateau, and on the
cast by the Khingan range before alluded to, forms the great desert
of central Asia, known as the Gobi. Its eastern part is nearly con-
terminous with south Mongolia, its western forms Chinese or eastern
Turkestan. It appears likely that no part of this great central
Asiatic desert is less than 2000 ft. above the sea-level. The elevation
of the plain about Kashgar and Yarkand is from 4000 to 6000 ft.
The more northern parts of Mongolia are between 4000 and 6000 ft.,
and no portion of the route across the desert between the Chinese
frontier and Kiakhta is below 3000 ft. The precise positions of the
mountain ridges that traverse this central area are not properly
known; their elevation is everywhere considerable, and many points
are known to exceed 10,000 or 12,000 ft.
In Mongolia the population is essentially nomadic, its wealth con-
sisting in nerds of horned cattle, sheep, horses and camels. The
Turki tribes, occupying western Mongolia, are among the least
civilized of human beings, and it is chiefly to their extreme barbarity
and cruelty that our ignorance of central Asia is due. The climate is
very severe, with great extremes of heat and cold. The drought is
very great ; rain falls rarely and in small quantities. The surface
is for the most part a hard stony desert, areas of blown sand occurring
but exceptionally. There are few towns or settled villages, except
738
along the dopes of the higher mountains, on which the rain falls
more abundantly, or the melting snow supplies streams for irrigation.
It is only in such situations that cultivated lands are found, and
beyond them trees are hardly to be seen.
The portion of Asia which lies between the Arctic Ocean and the
mountainous belt bounding Manchuria, Mongolia and Turkestan
5Jftsrls- on tne nortn '* Siberia. It includes an immense high
and broken plateau which spreads from south-west to
north-east, losing in width and altitude as it advances north-east.
It is fringed on either side by high border ridges, which subside on
the north-west into a stretch of high plains, 1500 to 2000 ft. high,
finally dropping to lowlands a few hundred feet above sea-level.
The extremes of heat and cold are very great. The rainfall, though
not heavy, is sufficient to maintain such vegetation as is compatible
with the conditions of temperature, and the surface is often swampy
or peaty. The mountain-sides are commonly clothed with pine
forests, and the plains with grasses or shrubs. # The population is
very scanty; the cultivated tracts are comparatively small in extent
and restricted to the more settled districts. The towns are entirely
Russian. The indigenous races are nomadic Mongols, of a peaceful
character, but in a very backward state of civilization. The Ural
Mountains do not exceed 2000 or 3000 ft. in average altitude, the
highest summits not exceeding 6000 ft., and one of the passes being
as low as 1400 ft. In the southern half of the range are the chief
mining districts of Russia. The Ob, Yenisei and Lena, which traverse
Siberia, are among the largest rivers in the world.
The southern group of the Malay Archipelago, from Sumatra to
Java and Timor, extends in the arc of a circle between 95 and
MmIm* ,2 7* E - and from 5° to ,0 ° s - The central part of the
Arvhh group ■* * volcanic region, many of the volcanoes being
~, f still active, the summits frequently rising to 10,000 ft.
*^^ or more.
Sumatra, the largest of the islands, is but thinly peopled; the
greater part of the surface is covered with dense forest, the cultivated
area being comparatively small, confined to the low lands, and chiefly
in the volcanic region near the centre of the island. Java is the most
thickly peopled, oest cultivated and most advanced island of the
whole Eastern archipelago. It has attained a high degree of wealth
and prosperity under the Dutch government. The people are peace-
ful and industrious, and chiefly occupied with agriculture. The
highest of the volcanic peaks rises to 12,000 ft. above the sea. The
eastern islands of this group arc less productive and less advanced.
Borneo, the most western and the target* of the northern group
of islands which extends between no° and 150 E., as far as New
Guinea or Papua, is but little known. The population is small, rude
and uncivilized; and the surface is rough and mountainous and
generally covered with forest except near the coast, to the alluvial
nds on which settlers have been attracted from various surround-
ing countries. The highest mountain rises to nearly 14,000 ft., but
the ordinary elevations do not exceed 4000 or 5000 ft.
Of Celebes less is known than of Borneo, which it resembles in
condition and natural characteristics. The highest known peaks
rise to 8000 ft., some of them being volcanic.
New Guinea extends almost to the same meridian as the eastern
coast of Australia, from the north point of which it is separated by
omduc Torres Straits. Very little is known of the interior. The
IslMtfs. mountains are said to rise to 20,000 ft., having the appear-
ance of being permanently covered with snow ; the surface
seems generally to be clothed with thick wood. The inhabitants arc
of the Negrito type, with curly or crisp and bushy hair; those of
the west coast have come more into communication with the traders
of other islands and are fairly civilized. Eastward, many of the
tribes are barbarous savages.
The Philippine Islands lie between 5° and 20° N., between Borneo
and southern China. The highest land docs not rise to a greater
height than 10,250 ft.; the climate is well suited for agriculture,
and the islands generally arc fertile and fairly cultivated, though not
coming up to the standard of Java cither in wealth or population.
Formosa, which is situated under the northern tropic, near the coast
of China, is traversal by a high range of mountains, reaching nearly
13,000 ft. in elevation. On its western side, which is occupied by
an immigrant Chinese population, are open and well-cultivated
plains; on the cast it is mountainous, and occupied by independent
indigenous tribes in a less advanced state.
The islands of Japan, not including Sakhalin, of which half is
Japanese, lie between the 30th and 45th parallels. The whole group
is traversed by a line of volcanic mountains, some of which are in
activity, the highest point being about 13,000 ft. above the sea.
The country is generally well watered, fertile and well cultivated.
The Japanese people have added to their ancient civilization and
their remarkable artistic faculty, an adaptation of Western methods,
and a capacity for progress in war and commerce, which single them
out among Eastern races as a great modern world-force.
Exploration
The progress of geodetic surveys in Russia had long ago extended
across the European half of the great empire, St Petersburg being
connected with Tirlis on the southern slopes of the Caucasus by a
direct system of triangulation carried out with the highest scientific
precision. St Petersburg, again, is connected with Greenwich by
ASIA (EXPLORATION
European systems of triangulation; and the Greenwich mokfiaa
is adopted by Russia as the zero for all her longitude values. Bit
beyond the eastern shores of the Caspian no system of direct geode; - _
measurements by first-class triangulation has been possible, and is*
surveys of Asiatic Russia are separated from those of Europe by the
width of that inland sea. The arid nature of the traits-Caspiiis
deserts has proved an insuperable obstacle to those rigorous nsrrf- -1*
of geodetic survey which distinguish Russian methods in Europe
so that Russian geography in central Asia is dependent 00 other
means than that of direct measurement for the co-ordinate valur*
in latitude and longitude for any given point. The astronomic^
observatory at Tashkent is adopted for the initial starting- point ci
the trans-Caspian triangulation of Russia; the triangulation ranks
as second-class only, and now extends to the Pamir frontier be-yuod
Osh. The longitude of the Tashkent observatory has been deter-
mined by telegraph differentially with Pulkova as follows: —
H. M. &.
In 1875 via Ekaterinburg and Omsk .2 35 53*151
„ 1 89 1 „ Saratov „ Orenburg . 2 35 52-228
„ 1895 „ Kiev „ Baku . '. 2 35 5 ••997
With these three independent values, all falling within a range of o* 25.
it is improbable that the mean value has an error as large as o*to
Exact surveys in Russia, based upon triangulation, extend as
far east as Chinese Turkestan in longitude about 75* E. p,^ itf ^
of Greenwich. In India geodetic triangulation furnishes >rartw .
the basis for exact surveys as far east as the eastern t^**,
boundaries of Burma in longitude about too 9 E. Ami*.
The close of the 19th century witnessed the forging
of the final links in the great geodetic triangulation of India, so far
as the peninsula is concerned. Further geodetic connexion with the
European systems remains to be accomplished. Since 1890 furtbn
and more rigorous application of the telegraphic method of deter-
mining longitudes differentially with Greenwich has resulted in a
slight correction (amounting to about 2' of arc) to the previ>vs
determination by the same method through Suez. This last deter-
mination was effected through four arcs as follows: —
I. Greenwich— Potsdam.
II. Potsdam—Teheran.
III. Teheran — B ushire.
IV. Bushire— Karachi.
Each arc was measured with every precaution and a multitude of
observations. The only element of uncertainty was caused by the
retardation of the current, which between Potsdam and Teheran
(3000 m.) took o--20 to travel; but it is probable that the final value
can be accepted as correct to within o'-os.
The final result of this latest determination is to place the Madrid
observatory 2' 27* to the west of the position adopted for it cm the
strength 01 absolute astronomical determinations.
But while wc have yet to wait for that expansion of principal trian-
gulation which will bring Asia into connexion with Europe r .
by the direct process of earth measurement, a topo- T~f~*^
graphical connexion has been effected between Russian g m ^ mm
ana Indian surveys which sufficiently proves that the mmt
deductive methods employed by both countries for the j m ^ mm
determination of the co-ordinate values of fixed points so amfinjB
far agree that, for all practical purposes of future Asiatic
cartography, no difficulty in adjustment between Indian and Russian
mapping need be apprehended.
In connexion with the Indian triangulation minor extendi' mi
carried out on systems involving more or less irregularity have
been pushed outwards on all sides. They reach through g^ tma t am
Afghanistan and Baluchistan to the eastern districts of of—^.
Persia, and along the coast of Malcran to that of Arabia.
They have long ago included the farther mountain
peaks of Nepal, and they now branch outwards towards
western China and into Siam. These far extensions furnish the
basis for a vast amount of exploratory survey of a strictly geo-
graphical character, and they have contributed largely towanS
raiding the standard of accuracy in Asiatic geographical survey* to
a level which was deemed unattainable fifty years ago. There a
yet a vast field open in Asia for this class of surveys. While at
the close of the 19th century western Asia (exclusive of Arabia'
may be said to have been freed from all geographical perplexm.
China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia still include enormous areas <4
which geographical knowledge is in a primitive stage of nebulous
uncertainty.
Of scientific geographical exploration in Asia (beyond the limit* of
actual surveys) the modern period has been so prolific that it is orUy
possible to refer in barest outline to some of the principal j^gsj^
expeditions, most of which have been directed either to # ^,ws
the great elevated tableland of Tibet or to the central
depression which exists to the north of it. In southern Tibet the
trans- Himalayan explorations of the native surveyors attached to
the Indian survey, notably Pundits Nain Singh ana Krishna, ad-*ed
largely to our knowledge of the great plateau. Nain Singh explored
the sources of the Indus and of the Upper Brahmaputra in the >rar»
1865-1867; and in 1874-1875' he followed a line from the eastern
frontiers of Kashmir to the Tcngri Nor lake and thence to Lhavi. in
which city he remained for some months. Krishna's remarksbte
journey in 1879-1882 extended from Lhasa northwards ibroujh
EXPLORATION!
Tsaidam to Sachu, or Saitu, in Mongolia. He subsequently passed
through eastern Tibet to the town of Darchcndo, or Tachienlu, on
the high road between Lhasa and Peking, and on the borders of
China. Failing to reach India through Upper Assam he returned
to the neighbourhood of Lhasa, and crossed the Himalayas by a more
westerly route. Both these explorers visited Lhasa.
In 1871-1873 the great Russian explorer, Nicolai Prjevalsky,
crossed the Gobi desert from the north to Kansu in western China.
Raasiaa **e * rst defined tne geography of Tsaidam, and mapped
txptonf*. tnc hydrography of that remarkable region, from which
emanate the great rivers of China, Siam and Burma.
He penetrated southwards to within a month s march of Lhasa.
In 1876 he visited the Lop Nor and discovered the Altyn Tagh range.
In 1879 he followed up the Urangi river to the Altai Mountains, and
demonstrated to the world the extraordinary physical changes which
have passed over the heart of the Asiatic continent since Jenghiz
Khan massed his vast armies in those provinces. He crossed, and
named, the Dzungarian extension of the Gobi desert, and then
traversed the Gobi itself from Hami to Sachu, which became a point
of junction between his journeys and those of Krishna. He visited
the sources of the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) and the Sal ween, and
then returned to Russia. His fourth journey in 1883-1885 was to
Sining (the great trade centre of the Chinese borderland), and thence
through northern Tibet (crossing the Altyn Tagh to Lop Nor), and
by the Cherchen-Keriya trade route to Khotan. From Khotan he
followed the Tarim to Aksu.
Following Prjevalsky the Russian explorers, Pevtsov and Robor-
ovski, in 1889-1890 (and again in 1894), added greatly to our know-
ledge of the topography of western Chinese Turkestan and the
northern borders 01 Tibet ; all these Russian expeditions being con-
ducted on scientific principles and yielding results of the highest
value. Among other distinguished Russian explorers in Asia, the
names of Lessar, Annentkov (who bridged the Trans-Caspian deserts
by a railway), P. K. Kozlov and Potamn arc conspicuous during the
19th century.
Although the establishment of a lucrative trade between India
and central Asia had been the dream of many successive Indian
__ viceroys, and much had been done towards improving
""V^^ the approaches to Simla from the north, very little was
UooMlm rca "y known of the highlands of the Pamirs, or of the
central regions of the great central depression, before the mission of
Aaitu Sir Douglas Forsyth to Yarkand in 187a Robert Barklcy
Shaw and George Hayward were the European pioneers
of geography into the central dominion of Kashgar, arriving at
Yarkand within a few weeks of each other in 1868. Shaw subse-
quently accompanied Forsyth's mission in 1870, when Henry Trotter
made the first maps of Chinese Turkestan. The next great accession
to our knowledge of central Asiatic geography was gained with the
Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886, when Afghan
Turkestan and the Oxus regions were mapped by Colonel Sir T. H.
Holdich, Colonel St George Gore and Sir Adelbert Talbot : and when
Ney Elias crossed from China through the Pamirs and Badakshan
to the camp of the commission, identifying the great " Dragon
Lake," Rangkul. on his way. About the same time a mission,
under Captain (afterwards Sir Willaim) Lockhart, crossed the Hindu
Kush into Wakhan, and returned to India by the Bashgol valley
of Kafiristan. This was Colonel Woodthorpe's opportunity, and he
was then enabled to verify the results of W. W. M'Nair's previous
explorations, and to determine the conformation of the Hindu Kush.
In 1885 Arthur Douglas Carey and Andrew Dalgleish, following
more or less the tracks of Prjevalsky, contributed much that was
new to the map of Asia ; and in 1886 Captain (afterwards Sir Francis)
Younghusband completed a most adventurous journey across the
heart of the continent by crossing the Muztagh, the great mountain
barrier between China and Kashmir.
It was in 1886-1887 that Pierre G. Bonvalot, accompanied by
Prince Henri d'Orlcans, crossed the Tibetan plateau from north
TfbeUa to south, but failed to enter Lhasa. In 1889- 1891 the
#x*fer»- American traveller, W. W. Rockhill, commenced his
tkonu Tibetan journeys, and also attempted to reach Lhasa,
without success. By his writings, as much as by his
explorations', Rockhill has made his name great in the annals of
Asiatic research. In 1891 Hamilton Bower made his famous journey
from Leh to Peking. He, too, failed to penetrate the jealously-
guarded portals of Lhasa; but he secured (with the assistance of
a native surveyor) a splendid addition to our previous Tibetan
mapping. In 1891-1892-1893 the gallant French explorer, Dutreuil
de Rhins, was in the field of Tibet, where he finally sacrificed his life
to his work; and the same years saw George N. (afterwards Lord)
Curzon in the Pamirs, and St George Littlcdale on his first great
Tibetan journey, accompanied by his wife. Littledale's first journey
ended at Peking; his second, in 1894-1895. took him almost within
sight of the sacred walls of Lhasa, but he failed to pass inside. Great-
est among modern Asiatic explorers (if we except Prjevalsky) is the
brave Swede, Professor Sven Hedin. whose travels through the deserts
of Takla Makan and Tibet, and whose investigations in the glacial
regions of the Sarikol mountains, occupied him from 1894 to 1896.
His is a truly monumental record. From 1896 to 1898 we find* two
British cavalry officers taking the front position in the list of Tibetan
travellers— Captain M. S. VV'eiJby of the 18th Hussar i and Captain
ASIA 739
H 1 Lancers, each striking out a new line, and
re 1c service to geography. The latter continued
th on, which had been carried across the Hindu
K T. H. Holdich and R. A. Wahab during the
Pi imission of 1895, into the plains of Kashgar
ar the Zarafshan.
of the century the work of Deasy in western
Ti xtended by Dr M. A. Stein and Captain C.
G re increased our knowledge of ancient fields
of imcrcc in Turkestan ana Tibet. Ellsworth
H „„ ... v light on the Tian-shan plateau and the Alai
range by his explorations of 1903; and Sven Hedin, between 1809
and 1902, was collecting material in Turkestan and Tibetan fields,
and resumed his journeys in 1905-1908, the result being to revolu-
tionize our knowledge of the region north of the upper Tsanpo
(see Tibet). The mission of Sir Francis Younghusband to Lhasa in
1904 resulted in an extension of the Indian system of triangulation
which finally determined the geographical position of that city, and in
a most valuable reconnaissance of the valleys of the Upper Brahma-
putra and Indus by Captains C. H. D. Ryder and C. G. Rawling.
Meanwhile, in the Farther East so rapid has been the progress of
geographical research since the first beginnings of investigation into
the route connexion between Burma and China in 1874 Chla—
(when the brave Augustus Margary lost his life), that. a #Jrp fer»-
gradually increasing tide of exploration, setting from aoag.
east to west and back again, has culminated in a flood
of inquiring experts intent on economic and commercial develop-
ment in China, essaying to unlock those doors to trade which are
hereafter to be propped open for the benefit of humanity. Captain
William Gill, of the Indian survey, first made his way across China
to eastern Tibet and Burma, ana subsequently delighted the world
with his story of the River of Golden Sand. Then followed another
charming writer, E. C. Baber, who, in 1877-1878, unravelled the
geographic mysteries of the western provinces of the Celestial
empire. Mark Bell crossed the continent in 1887 and illustrated
its ancient trade routes, following the steps of Archibald Colquhoun.
who wandered from Peking to Talifu in 1881. Meanwhile, the
acquisition of Burma and the demarcation of boundaries had opened
the way to the extension of geographical surveys in directions
hitherto untraversed. Woodthorpe was followed into Burmese
fields by many others; and amongst the earliest travellers to those
mysterious mountains which hide the sources of the Irrawaddy, the
Salween and the Mekong, was Prince Henri d 'Orleans Burma
was rapidly brought under survey; Siam was already in the -map-
making hands of lames M'Carthy, whilst Curzon and Warrington
Smyth added much to our knowledge of its picturesque coast districts.
No more valuable contribution to the illustration of western Chinese
configuration has been given to the public than that of C. C. Manifold
who explored and mapped the upper basin of the Yang-tsze river
between the years 1900 and 1904, whilst our knowledge of the
geography of 'the Russo-Chinesc borderland on the north-cast has
been largely advanced by the operations attending the Russo-
Japanese war which terminated in 1905.
Turning our attention westwards, no advance in the progress of
scientific geography is more remarkable than that recorded on the
northern and north-western frontiers of India. Here ladta
there is little matter of exploration. It has rather been a f™ bt jg n —
wide extension of scientific geographical mapping. The Atghanm
Afghan war of 1878-80; the Russo-Afghan Boundary J* B
Commission of 1884-1885: the occupation of Gilgit and &!„&.
Chitral; the extension of boundaries east and north of / tlMOr
Afghanistan, and again, between Baluchistan and Persia pfnfa
— these, added to the opportunities afforded by the
systematic survey of Baluchistan which has been steadily progress-
ing since 1880 — combined to produce a series of geographical maps
which extend from the Oxus to the Indus, and from the Indus
to the Euphrates.
In these professional labours the Indian surveyors have been
assisted by such scientific geographers as General Sir A. Houtum
Schindler, Captain H. B. Vaughan and Major Percy M. Sykes in
Persia, and by Sir George Robertson and Cockerill in Kafiristan and
the Hindu Kush.
In still more western fields of research much additional light hat
been thrown since 1875 on the physiography of the great deserts and
oases of Arabia. The labours of Charles Doughty and Artbi*.
Wilfrid S. Blunt in northern Arabia in 1877-1878 were
followed by those of G. Schweinfurth and E. Glaser in the south-west
about ten years later. In 1884-1885 Colonel S. B. Miles made his
adventurous journey through Oman, while Theodore Bent threw
searchlights backwards into ancient Semitic history by his investi-
gations in the Bahrein Islands in 1888 and in Hadramut in 1894-
1895.
In northern Asia it is impossible to follow in detail the results
of the organized Russian surveys. The vast steppes and forest-clad
mountain regions of Siberia have assumed a new geo- ftorthen
graphical aspect in the light of these revelations, and AMUf
already promise a new world of economic resources Siberia,
to Russian enterprise in the near future. A remarkable ax.
expedition by Baron Toll in 1892 through the regions
watered by the Lena, resulted in the collection of materia'
740
ASIA
(EXPLORATION
will greatly help to elucidate some of the problems which beset
the geological history of the world, proving infer alia the primeval
existence of a boreal zone of the J urassic sea round the North Pole.
In no other period of the world's history, of equal length of time,
has so much scientific enterprise been directed towards the field of
. Asiatic inquiry. The first great result of recent geogra-
<a ""JT"v # phical research has been to modify pre-existing ideas of
Jm IS Smu tne orography of the vast central region represented by
■wwisj*- Tibet an( j Mongolia. The great highland plateau which
stretches from the Himalaya northwards to Chinese
Turkestan, and from the frontier of Kashmir eastwards to China,
has now been defined with comparative geographical exactness.
The position of Sachu (or Saitu) in Mongolia may be taken as an
obligatory point in modern map construction. The longitude value
now adopted is 94° 54' E. of Greenwich, which is the revised value
Even by Prjcvalsky in the map accompanying the account of his
iuth exploration into central Asia. Other values are as follows : —
Prjcvalsky, by his second and third explorations 94° 26'
Krishna 94° 23'
Carey and Dalglcish 94° 4»'
LiUlcdale . 94° 49'
Krcitner (with Szccheny's expedition) . 94 ° 58'
The longitude of Darchcndo. or Tachienlu, on the extreme cast,
may be accepted as another obligatory point. The adopted value
by the Royal Geographical Society is 102° 12*. Krishna gives
ioa* I5 r , Kreitner 102 6 5', Baber 102° i8\
South and west the bounding territories are well fixed in geo-
graphical position by the Indian survey determinations of the value
of Himalayan peaks. On the north the Chinese Turkestan explora-
tions are now brought into survey connexion with Kashmir and
India.
No longer do we regard the Kuen-lun mountains, which extend
from the frontiers of Kashmir, north of Leh, almost due cast to the
Chinese province of Kansu, as the southern limit of the Gobi or
Turkestan depression. This very remarkable longitudinal chain is
undoubtedly the northern limit of the Chang Tang, the elevated
highland steppes of Tibet; but from it there branches a minor
system to the north-east from a point in about 83 ° £. longitude,
which culminates in the Altyn Tagh, and extends eastwards in a
continuous water-divide to the Nan Shan mountains, north of the
Koko Nor basin. Thus between Tibet arid the low-lying sands
of Gobi wc have, thrust in, a system of elevated valleys (Tsaidam),
8000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, forming an intermediate steppe
between the highest regions and the lowest, east of Lop Nor. All
this is comparatively new geography, and it goes far to explain why
the great trade routes from Peking to the west were pushed so far
to the north.
On the western edge of the Kashgar plains, the political boundary
between Russia and China a defined by the meridional range of
B MBOm Sarikol. This range (known to the ancients as Taurus
ChlotM ano> m medieval times as Bolor) like many others of the
sowarfan- most important great natural mountain divisions of the
mwm ^' world, consists of two parallel chains, of which the western
is the water-divide of the Pamirs, and the eastern (which has been
known as the Kashgar or Kandar range) is split at intervals by
lateral gorges to allow of the passage of the main drainage from the
eastern Pamir slopes.
In western A«ia we have learned the exact value of the mountain
barrier which lies between Merv and Herat, and have mapped
its connexion with the Elburz of Persia. We can now
fully appreciate the factor in practical politics which
A/rtma- tnat definite but somewhat irregular mountain system
faSSl Zg. represents which connects the water-divide north of
^^' Herat with the southern abutment of the Hindu Kush,
near Bamian. Every pass of importance is known and recorded;
every route of significance has been explored and mapped; Afghan-
istan has assumed a new political entity by the demarcation of
a boundary; the value of Herat and of the Pamirs as bases of
aggression has been assessed, and the whole intervening space of
mountain and plain thoroughly examined.
Although within the limits of western Asiatic states, still under
Asiatic government and beyond the active influence of European
n n i m interests, the material progress of the Eastern world has
appeared to remain stationary, yet large accessions to
geographical knowledge have at least been made, and in some in-
stances a deeper knowledge of the surface of the country and modern
conditions of life has led to the straightening of many crooked paths
in history, and a better appreciation of the slow pi
r processes of ad*
vancing civilization. The steady advance of scientific inquiry into
every corner of Persia, backed by the unceasing efforts of a new
school of geographical explorers, has left nothing unexamined that
can be subjected to superficial observation. The geographical map
of the country is fairly complete, and with it much detailed in-
formation is now accessible regarding the coast and harbours of the
Persian Gulf, the routes and passes of the interior, and the possi-
bilities of commercial development by the construction of trade
roads uniting the Caspian, the Kanin. the Persian Gulf, and India,
via Seistan. Persia has .assumed a comprehensible position as a
factor in future Eastern politics.
In Arabia progress has been slower, although the surveys carrie*
out by Colonel wahab in connexion with the boundary determined
in the Aden hinterland added more exact geographical Aim**.
knowledge within a limited area. Little more is known
of the wide spaces of interior desert than has already been given t-->
the world in the works of Sir Richard F. Burton, Wm. Gifi.rd
Palgrave and Sir Lewis Pelly amongst Englishmen, and Kax&trTi
Niebuhr, John Lewis Burckhardt, Visconte, Joseph Halevy *-<d
others, amongst foreign travellers. Charles Doughty and Wilfrid
S. Blunt have visited and illustrated the district of Nejd. and <V
scribed the waning glories of the Wahabi empire. But exteo-V'i
geographical knowledge does not point to any great practical i&**£
Commercial relations with Arabia remain much as they were in 187 c
In Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia there is little to roc- ■*
of progress in material development beyond the pro m ises held
out by the Euphrates Valley railway concession to a . ft
German company. The exact information obtained by ^ § mmr ^ f
the researches of English surveyors in Palestine and
beyond Jordan, or by the efforts of explorers in the regions thai be
between the Mediterranean and the Caspian, have so tar led rather
to the elucidation of history than to fresh commercial enterprise or
the possible increase of material wealth.
Asiatic Russia, especially eastern Siberia and Mongolia, have
been brought within the sphere of Russian exploration, with results
so surprising as to form an epoch in the history of Asia. — . ^
Here there has been a development of the resources m
of the Old World which parallels the best records of the
New.
The great central depression of the continent which reaches from
the foot of the Pamir plateau on the west through the Tarim desert
to Lop Nor and the Gobi has yielded up many interesting rwj-,,.
secrets. The remarkable phenomenon of the periodic - - ^^
shifting of the Lop Nor system has been revealed by the tffr
researches of Sven Hedin, and the former existence of tmtm
highly civilized centres of Buddhist art and industry in
the now sand-strewn wastes of the Turkestan desert has been clearly
demonstrated by the same great explorer and by Dr M. A. Stein.
The depression westward of the Caspian and Aral basins, and the
original connexion of these seas, have also come under the ckxr
investigation of Russian scientists, with the result that the thcrry
of an ancient connexion between the Oxus and the Caspian has Um
displaced by the more recent hypothesis of an extension of the
Caspian Sea eastwards into Trans-Caspian territory within the po*»-
Plciocenc age. The discovery of shells (now living in the Caspum
at a distance of about 100 m. inland, at an altitude of 140 to 3 So ft.
above the present level of the Caspian, gives support to this hypo-
thesis, which is further advanced by the ascertained nature of ihe
Kara-kum sands, which appear to be a purely marine formatk-s
exhibiting no traces of fluviatile deposits which might be considered
as delta deposits of the Oxus.
In the discussion of this problem we find the names of Baron A.
Kaulbars, Annentkov, P. M. Lessar, and A. M. Konshin prominent.
Further matter of interest in connexion with the Oxus basin mas
elucidated by the researches of L. Griesbach in connexion with the
Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission. He reported the gradual
formation of an anticlinal or ridge extending longitudinally through
the great Balkh plain of Afghan Turkestan, which effectually shots
off the northern affluents of that basin from actual junction with the
river. This evidence of a gradual process of upheaval still in actios
may throw some light on the physical (especially theclimatic) changes
which must have passed over that part of Asia since Balkh was the
" mother of cities, the great trade centre of Asia, and the plains of
Balkh were green with cultivation. In the restoration of the out-
lines of ancient and medieval geography in Asia Sven Hedin's ti>^
coveries of the actual remains of cities which have long been buned
under the advancing waves of sand in the Takla Ma lean desert,
cities which flourished in the comparatively recent period of Buridb
ist ascendancy in High Asia, is of the very highest interest. nll-eg
up a blank in the identification of sites mentioned by early geo-
graphers and illustrating more fully the course of old pilgrim route*.
\vith the completion of the surveys of Baluchistan and Makraa
much light has also been thrown on the ancient connexion
east and west; and the final settlement of the southern
boundaries of Afghanistan has led to the reopening of
one at least of the old trade routes between Seistan
and India.
Farther east no part of Asia has been brought under more care*
ful investigation than the hydrography of the strange mouataia
wilderness that divides Tibet and Burma from China. -
In this field the researches of travellers already men- .
Honed, combined with the more exact reconnaissance
of native surveyors and of those exploring parties which have
recently been working in the interests of commercial projects, have
left little to future inquiry. We know now for certain that the great
Tsanpo of Tibet and the Brahmaputra are one and the same nver:
that north of the point where the great countermarch of that rivrr
from east to west is effected arc to be found the source* of the
Salween, the Mekong, the Yang-tsce-kiang and the Hwang-ho, or
Yellow river, in order, from west to east ; and that south of it. thrust
ia between the extreme eastern edge of the Brahmaputra bssia
EXPLORATION)
ASIA
741
and the Salween, roe the dual sources of the Irrawaddy. From the
water-divide which separates the moat eastern affluent of the
Brahmaputra, eastwards to the deep gorges which enclose the most
westerly branch of the upper Yang-tsse-lriang (here running from
north to sooth), is a short space of 100 m. ; and within that space
two mighty rivers, the Salween and the Mekong, send down their
torrents to Burma and Siam. These three rivers flow parallel to each
other for some 300 m., deep hidden in narrow and precipitous troughs,
amidst some of the grandest scenery of Asia; spreading apart
where the Yank-tsze takes its course eastwards, not far north of
the parallel of 25*.
The comparatively restricted area which still remains for close
investigation includes the most easterly sources of the Brahmaputra,
the most northerly sources of the Irrawaddy, and some 300 in. of
the course of the upper Salween.
Modern Boundary Demarcation. — The period from about 1880
has been an era of boundary-making in Asia, of defining the politico-
geographical limits of empire, and or determining the responsibilities
of government. Russia, Persia. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, India
and China have all revised their borders, and with the revision the
political relations between these countries have acquired a new
and more assured basis. See also the articles on the different
countries. We are not here concerned with understandings as to
" spheres of influence," or with arrangements such as the Anglo-
Russian Convention of 1907 concerning Persia.
The advance of Russia to the Turkoman deserts and the Oxus
demanded a definite boundary between her trans-Caspian conquests
and the kingdom of Afghanistan. This was determined
on the north-west by the Russo-Afghan Boundary Com-
mission of 1884^-1886. A boundary was than fixed
imAsiu. between the Han Rud (the river of Herat) and the Oxus,
which is almost entirely artificial in its construction.
Zulfikar, where the boundary leaves the Hari Rud, b about 70 m.
south of Sarakhs, and the most southerly point of the boundary
(where it crosses the Kushk) is about 60 m. north of Herat. From
the junction of the boundary with the Oxus at Khamiab about
150 m. above the crossing-point of the Russian Trans-Caspian
ailway at Chariui, the main channel of the Oxus river becomes the
northern boundary of Afghanistan, separating that country from
Russia, and so continues to its source in Victoria Lake of the Great
Pamir. Beyond this point the Anglo-Russian Commission of 1805
demarcated a line to the snowfields and glaciers which overlook the
Chinese border. Between the Russian Pamirs and Chinese Turkes-
tan the rugged line of the Sarikol range intervenes, the actual
dividing line being still indefinite. Beyond Kashgar the southern
boundary of Siberia follows an irregular course to the north-east,
partly defined by the Tian-shan and Alatau mountains, till it attains
m northerly point in about 53° N. lat. marked by the Sayan range
to the west of Irkutsk. It then deflects south-east till it touches
the Kerulcn affluent of the Amur river at a point which is shown
in unofficial maps as about 117° 30* E. long, and 49° 20' N. lat.
From here it follows this affluent to its junction with the Amur river,
and the Amur river to its junction with the Usuri. It follows the
Usuri to its head (its direction now being a little west of south),
and finally strikes the Pacific coast on about 42° 30' N. lat. at the
mouth of the Tumcn river 100 m. south of the Amur bay, at the head
of which lies the Russian port of Vladivostok. At two points the
Russian boundary nearly approaches that of provinces which are
directly under British suzerainty. Where the Oxus river takes its
great bend to the north from lshkashim, the breadth of the Afghan
territory intervening between that river and the main water-divide
of the Hindu Kush is not more than 10 or 12 m.; and east of the
Pamir extension of Afghanistan, where the Bcyik Pass crosses
the Sarikol range and drops into the Taghdumbash Pamir, there
is but the narrow width of the Karachukar valley between the
Sarikol and the Muztagh. Here, however, the boundary is again
undefined. Eastwards of this the great Kashgar depression, which
includes the Tarim desert, separates Russia from the vast sterile
highlands of Tibet; and a continuous series of desert spaces of low
elevation, marking the limits of a primeval inland sea from the
Sarikol meridional watershed to the Khiogan mountains on the
western borders of Manchuria, divide her from the northern pro-
vinces of China. From the Khingan ranges to the Pacific, south
of the Amur, stretch the rich districts of Manchuria, a province
which connects Russia with the Korea by a scries of valleys formed
by the Sungari and its affluents — a land of hill and plain, forest
and swamp, possessing a delightful climate, and vast undeveloped
agricultural resources. Throughout this land of promise Russian
influence was destroyed by Japan in the war of 1904. The posses-
sion of Port Arthur, and direct political control over Korea, place
Japan in the dominant position as regards Manchuria.
Coincident with the demarcation of Russian boundaries in Turkes-
tan was that of northern Afghanistan. From the Hari Rud on the
AtuhM west to the Sarikol mountains on the east her northern
**zff. limits were set by the Boundary Commissions of 1884-
V . 1 886 and of 1 895 respectively. Her southern and eastern
"r" boundaries were further defined by a scries of minor
commissions, working on the basts of the Kabul agreement
of 1893. which lasted for nearly four years, terminating with the
Mohmand settlement at the close of an expedition in 1897.
The Pamir extension of Afghan territory to the north-east reaches
to a point a little short of 75 E., from whence ft follows the water-
divide to the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, and is thenceforward
defined by the water-parting of the Hindu Kush. It leaves the
Hindu Kush near the Dorah Pass at the head of one of the minor
Chitral affluents, and passing south-west divides Kafiristan from
Chitral and Bajour, separates the sections of the Mohmands who
are within the respective spheres of Afghan and British sovereignty,
and crosses the Peshawar-Kabul route at Lundi-Khana. It thus
places a broad width of independent territory between the bound-
aries of British India (which have remained practically, though not
absolutely, untouched) and Afghanistan; and this independent
belt includes Swat, Bajour and a part of the Mohmand territory
north of the Kabul river. The same principle of maintaining an
intervening width of neutral territory between the two countries
is definitely established throughout the eastern borders of Afghanis-
tan, along the full length of which a definite boundary has been
demarcated to the point where it touches the northern limits of
Baluchistan on the Gomal river. From the Coma! Baluchistan
itself becomes an intervening state between British India and
Afghanistan, and the dividing line between Baluchistan and
Afghanistan is laid down with all the precision employed on the more
northerly sections of the demarcation.
Baluchistan can no longer be regarded as a distinct entity amongst
Asiatic nations, such as Afghanistan undoubtedly is. Baluchistan
independence demands qualification. There is British
Baluchistan par excellence, and there is the rest of Baluch- ,„ M
istan which exists in various degrees of independence, but 7^
is everywhere subject to British control. British Baluchistan officially
includes the districts of Peshin, Sibi and of Thal-Chotiali. As these
districts had originally been Afghan, they were transferred to British
authority by the treaty of Gandamak in 1879, although nominally
they had been handed over to Kalat forty years previously. Now
they form an official province of British Baluchistan within the
Baluchistan Agency; and the agency extends from the Gomal to
the Arabian Sea and the Persian Tronticr. Within this agency there
are districts as independent as any in Afghanistan, but the political
status of the province as a whole is almost precisely that of the native
states of the Indian peninsula. The agent to the governor-general
of India, with a staff of political assistants, practically exercises
supreme control.
The increase of Russian influence on the northern Persian border
and its extension southwards towards Seistan led to the appoint-
ment of a British consul at Kirman, the dominating tormmn.
town of southern Khorasan, directly connected with
Meshed on the north; and the acquisition of rights of adminis-
tration of the Nushki district secured to Great Britain the trade
between Seistan and Quetta by the new Hclmund desert route.
While British India nas so far avoided actual geographical contact
with one great European power in Asia on the north and west,
she has touched another on the east. The Mekong river
which limits British interests in Burma limits also those
of France in Tongking. The eastern boundaries of
Burma are not yet fully demarcated on the Chinese
frontier. At a point level in latitude with Mogaung,
near the northern termination of the Burmese railway
system, this boundary is defined by the eastern watershed of the
Nmaikha, the eastern of the two great northern affluents of the
Irrawaddy. Then it follows an irregular course southwards to a
position south-east of Bhamo in lat. 24*. It next defines the northern
edge of the Shan States, and finally strikes the Mekong river in
lat. 21* 45' (approximately). From that point southwards the river
becomes the boundary between the Shan States and Tongking for
some 200 m., the channel of the river defining the limits of occupation
(though not entirely of interest) between French and British subjects.
Approximately on the parallel of 20° N. lat. the Burmese boundary
leaves the Mekong to run westwards towards the Salween. and there-
after following the eastern watershed of the Salween basin it divides
the Lower Burma provinces from Siam.
The following table shows the areas of territories in Asia Anm —4
(continental and insular) dependent on the various extra- — UHKmt
Asiatic powers, and of those which are independent or
nominally tot—
Territory. Sq. m.
Russian 6,495.970
British i.99«,"0
Dutch 586,980
French 347.5*o
U.S.A. "4.370
German '93
Turkish 681,980
Chinese 4*99.6°o
Japanese 161,110
Other independent territories . . 2,232,270
The total area of Asia, continental and insular, is therefore some-
what over 16,819.000 sq. m. (but various authorities differ consider-
ably in their detailed estimates). The population may be set down
roughly as 823.000,000, of which 330,000,000 inhabit Chinese terri-
tory, 302,000,000 British, and 25.000,000 Russian* (T. H. H.*)
Prtmcb
7+2
ASIA
(GEOLOGY
Geology
The geology of Asia is so complex and over wide areas so little
known that it is difficult to give a connected account of either the
structure or the development of the continent, and only the broader
features can be dealt with here.
In the south, in Syria, Arabia and the peninsula of India, none
but the oldest rocks are folded, and the Upper Palaeozoic, the Meso-
zoic and the Tertiary beds lie almost horizontally upon them. It is
a region of quiescence or of faulting, but not of folding. North of
this lies a broad belt in which the Mesozoic deposits and even the
lower divisions of the Tertiary system arc thrown into folds which
extend in a scries of arcs from west to east and now form the principal
mountain ranges of central Asia. This belt includes Asia Minor,
Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Himalayas, the Tian-shan,
and, although they are very different in direction, the Burmese
ranges. The Kuen-lun. Nan-shan and the mountain ranges of
southern China are, perhaps, of earlier date, but nevertheless they
lie in the same belt. It is not true that throughout the whole width
of this zone the beds arc folded. There arc considerable tracts
which arc but little disturbed, but these tracts are enclosed within
the arcs formed by the folds, and the zone taken as a whole is dis-
tinctly one of crumpling. North of the folded belt, and including
the greater part of Siberia, Mongolia and northern China, lies a no- v t
area which is, in general, free from any important folding of Mr* ..*• » -
or Tertiary age. There are, it is true, mountain ranges which *v
formed of folded beds; but in many cases the direction of the ch i -<•
is different from that of the folds, so that the ranges must owe tVr
elevation to other causes; and the folds, moreover, are of ar*rc-:
date, for the most part Archaean or Palaeozoic. The configura: • a
of the region is largely due to faulting, trough-like or tray-! We
depressions being formed, and the intervening strips, which ru*«
not been depressed, standing up as mountain ridges. Over a !a.?t
part of Siberia and in the north of China, even the Cambrian Uv-j
•till lie as horizontally as they were first laid down. In the eirrr-K
north, in the Verkhoyansk range and in the mountains of the Ta ; -r\r
peninsula, there are indications of another zone of folding of Mr-»^
zoic or later date, but our information concerning these ranpr> is
very scanty. Besides the three chici regions into which the mainb n<4
is thus seen to be divided, attention should be drawn to the festoon*
of islands which border the eastern side of the continent, and wharb
are undoubtedly due to causes similar to those which produced the
folds of the folded belt.
Of all the Asiatic ranges the Himalayan is, geologically, the bc*t
known; and the evidence which it affords shows clearly that t.Sr
folds to which it owes its elevation were produced by an overt hrust
GEOLOGY ; CLIMATE] ASIA
from the north. It is, indeed, m If the high land of central Ann bad
been pushed southward against and over the unyielding mass formed
by the old rocks of the Indian peninsula, and in the process the edges
of the over-riding strata had been crumpled and folded. Overlooking
nil smaller details, we may consider Asia to consist of a northern
mass and a southern mass, too rigid to crumple, but not too strong
to fracture, and an intermediate belt of softer rock which was capable
of folding. If then by the contraction of the earth's interior the outer
crust were forced to accommodate itself to a smaller nucleus, the
central softer belt would yield by crumpling; the more rigid
743
to the north and south, if they gave way at all. would yield by
faulting. It is interesting to observe, as will be shown later, that
during the Mesozoic era there was a land-mass in the north of Asia
and another in the south, and between them lay the sea in which
ordinary marine sediments were deposited. The belt of folding
does not precisely coincide with this central sea, but the correspond-
ence is fairly close.
The present outline of the eastern coast and the nearly enclosed
seas which lie between the islands and the mainland, are attributed
by Richthofcn chiefly to simple faulting.
Little is known of the early geological history of Asia beyond the
fact that a large part of the continent was covered by the sea during
the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. But there is positive evidence
that much of the north and cast of Asia has been land since the
Palaeozoic era, and it has been conclusively proved that the peninsula
of India has never been beneath the sea since the Carboniferous
period at least. Between these ancient land masses lies an area in
which marine deposits of Mesozoic age are well developed and which
wa*cvidcntly beneath the sea during the greater part of the Mesoaoic
era. The northern land-mass has been named Angaraland by
E. Suess; the southern, of which the Indian peninsula is but a
fragment, is called Gondwana land by Neumayr, Suess and others;
while the intervening sea is the central Mediterranean sea of
Neumayr and the Tethys of Suess. The greater part of western
Asia, including the basin of the Obi. the drainage area of the Aral
Sea, together with Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia and Arabia, was
covered by the sea during the later stages of the Cretaceous period ;
but a considerable part of this region was probably dry land in
Jurassic times.
The northern land-mass begins in the north with the area which
lies between the Yenisei and the Lena. Here the folded Archean
rocks are overlaid by Cambrian and Ordovician beds, which still
lie for the most part Bat and undisturbed. Upon these rest patches
of freshwater deposits containing numerous remains of plants.
They consist chiefly of sandstone and conglomerate, but include
workable seams of coal. Some of the deposits appear to be of
Permian age, but others are probably Jurassic; and they are all
included under the general name of the Angara series. Excepting
in the extreme north, where marine Jurassic and Cretaceous fossils
have been found, there is no evidence that this part of Siberia has
been beneath the sea since the early part of the Palaeozoic era.
Besides the plant beds extensive outflows of basic lava rest directly
upon the Cambrian and Ordovician strata. The date of these
eruptions is still uncertain, but they probably continued to a very
recent period.
South and east of the Palaeozoic plateau is an extensive area
consisting chiefly of Archean rocks, and including the greater part
of Mongolia north of the Tian-shan. Here again there are no marine
beds of Mesozoic or Tertiary* age, while plant-bearing deposits
belonging to the Angara series are known. Structurally, the folds
of this region are of ancient date; but the area is crossed by a series
of depressions formed by faults, and the intervening strips, which
have not been depressed to the same extent, now stand up as moun-
tain ranges. Fart her south, in the Chinese provinces of Shansi and
Shensi, the geological succession is similar in some respects to that
of the Siberian Palaeozoic plateau, but the sequence is more complete.
There is again a floor of folded Archean rocks overlaid by nearly
horizontal strata of Lower Palaeozoic age; but these are followed
by marine beds belonging to the Carboniferous period. From the
Upper Carboniferous onward, however, no marine deposits are
known; and, as in Siberia, plant-bearing beds are met with.
Southern China is very different in structure, consisting largely of
folded mountain chains, but the geological succession is very similar,
and excepting near the Tibetan and Burmese borders, there are no
marine deposits of Mesozoic or Tertiary age.
Thus it appears that from the Arctic Ocean there stretches a broad
area as far as the south of China, in which no marine deposits of
later date than Carboniferous have yet been found, except in the
extreme north. Freshwater and terrestrial deposits of Mesozoic age
occur in many places, and the conclusion is irresistible that the
greater part of this area has been land since the close of the Palaeo-
zoic era. The Triassic deposits of the Verkhoyansk Range show that
this land did not extend to the Bering Sea ; while the marine Mesozoic
deposits of Japan on the cast, the western Tian-shan on the west and
Tibet on the south give us some idea of its limits in other directions.
In the same way the entire absence of any marine fossils in the
peninsula of India, excepting near its borders, and the presence of
the terrestrial and freshwater deposits of the Gondwana series,
representing the whole of the geological scale from the top of the
Carboniferous to the top of the Jurassic, show that this region also
has been land since the Carboniferous period. It was a portion
of a great land-mass which probably extended across the Indian
Ocean and was at one time united with the south of Africa.
But these two land-masses were not connected. Between India
and China there is a broad belt in which marine deposits of Mesozoic
and Tertiary age are well developed. Marine Tertiary beds occur
in Burma; in the Himalayas and in south Tibet there is a nearly
complete series of marine deposits from the Carboniferous to the
Eocene; in Afghanistan the Mesozoic beds are in part marine and
in part fluviatUe. The sea in which these strata were deposited
seems to have attained its greatest extension in Upper Cretaceous
times, when its waters spread over the whole of western Asia and
even encroached slightly upon the Indian land. The Eocene sea,
however, cannot have been much inferior in extent.
It was after the Eocene period that the main part of the elevation
of the Himalayas took place, as is shown by the occurrence of
nummulitic limestone at a height of 20,000 ft. The formation of this
and of the other great mountain chains of central Asia resulted in
the isolation of portions of the former central sea; and the same
forces finally led to the elevation of the whole region and the union
of the old continents of Angara and Gondwana. Gondwanaland,
however, did not long survive, and the portion which lay between
India and South Africa sank beneath the waves in Tertiary times.
Leaving out of consideration all evidence of more ancient volcanic
activity, each of the three regions, into which, as we have seen, the
continent may be divided, has been, during or since the Cretaceous
period, the seat of great volcanic eruptions. In the southern region
of unfolded beds are found the lavas of the " harras " of Arabia,
and in Indi2 the extensive flows of the Deccan Trap. In the central
folded belt lie the great volcanoes, now mostly extinct, of Asia Minor,
Armenia, Persia and Baluchistan. In Burma also there is at least
one extinct volcano, in the northern unfolded region great flows
of basic lava lie directly upon the Cambrian and Ordovician beds
of Siberia, but are certainly in part of Tertiary age. Similar flows
on a smaller scale occur in Manchuria, Korea and northern China.
In all these cases, however, the eruptions have now almost ceased ;
and the great volcanoes of the present day lie in the islands off the
eastern and south-eastern coasts.
References.— E. Suess, Das Antiitz der Brde (see, especially,
vol. iii. part i.) ; F. V. Richthofen, " Uebcr Gestalt und Gliedening
einer Grundlinie in der Morphologie Ost-Asiens," Sits. ft. premss.
Akad. Wiss. (Berlin. 1900), pp. 888-025. and " Geomorphologiscbe
Studien aus Ostasien," ibid., 1 001, pp. 782-808, 1 902, pp. 944-975,
1903. PP- 867-918. (P. La.)
Climate
Among the places on the globe where the temperature falls lowest
are some in northern Asia, and among those where it rises highest
are some in southern Asia. The mean temperature of j 9m ~
the north coast of eastern Siberia is but a few degrees tun.
above the zero of Fahrenheit; the lowest mean tem-
perature anywhere observed is about 4* Fahr., at Melville Island,
north of the American continent. The isothermals of mean annual
temperature lie over northern Asia on curves tolerably regular in
their outline, having their western branches in a somewhat higher
latitude than their eastern ; a reduction of 1 ° of latitude corresponds
approximately- and irrespective of modifications due to elevation
— to a rise of 4° Fahr., as far say as 30° N., where the mean tempera-
ture is about 75* Fahr. Farther south the increase is slower, and
the highest mean temperature anywhere attained in southern Asia
is not much above 82* Fahr.
The variations of temperature are very great in Siberia, amounting
near the coast to more than ioo° Fahr., between the mean of the
hottest and coldest months, and to still more between the extreme
temperatures of those months. In southern Asia, and particularly
near the sea, the variation between the hottest and coldest monthly
means is very much less, and under the equator it is reduced to about
5*. In Siberia the difference between the means of the hottest and
coldest months is hardly anywhere less than 6o° Fahr. On the Sea
of Aral it is 80* Fahr.; and at Astrakhan, on the Caspian, more
than 50*. At TiAis it is 45*. In northern China, at Peking, it is
55°, reduced to 30 at Canton, and to 20° at Manila. In northern
India the greatest difference does not exceed 40*; and it falls off to
about !5°atCalcutta,andto about io*ori2°at Bombay and Madras.
The temperatures at the head of the Persian Gull approximate
to those of northern India, and those of Aden to Madras. At Singa-
pore the range is less than 5°; and at Batavia in Java, and Galle
in Ceylon, it is about the same. The extreme temperatures in
Siberia may be considered to lie between 8o° and 90° Fahr. for
maxima, and between ~40°and — 70* Fahr. for minima. The extreme
of heat near the Caspian and Aral Seas rises to nearly ioo° Fahr.,
while that of cold falls to— 20* Fahr. or lower. Compared with these
figures, we find in southern Asia no° or 112° Fahr. as a maximum
hardly ever exceeded. The absolute minimum in northern India,
in lat. 30*, hardly goes below 32 ; at Calcutta it is about 40°, though
the thermometer seldom fails to 50 s . At Madras it rarely falls as
low as 65°, or at Bombay below 60°. At Singapore and Batavia the
thermometer very rarely falls below 70°, or rises above oo*. At Aden
the minimum is a few degrees below 70*. the maximum not m*
exceeding 90*.
744
ASIA
(METEOROLOGY
These figure* sufficiently indicate the main characteristics of the
air temperatures of Asia. Throughout its northern portion the
winter is long and cf extreme severity; and even down to the circle
of 35 N. lat., the minimum temperature is almost as low as zero of
Fahrenheit. The summers are hot, though short in the northern
latitudes, the maximum of summer heat being comparatively little
less than that observed in the tropical countries farther south. The
moderating effect of the proximity of the ocean is felt in an im-
portant degree along the southern and eastern parts of Asia, where
the land is broken up into islands or peninsulas- The great elevations
above the sea-level of the central part of Asia, and of the table-lands
of Afghanistan and Persia, tend to exaggerate the winter cold;
while the sterility of the surface, due to the small rainfall over the
same region, operates powerfully in the opposite direction in increas-
ing the summer heat. In the summer a great accumulation of solar
heat takes place on the dry surface soil, from which it cannot be
released upwards by evaporation, as might be the case were the soil
moist or covered with vegetation, nor can it be readily conveyed
away downwards as happens on the ocean. In the winter similar
consequences ensue, in a negative direction, from the prolonged loss
of heat by radiation in the long and clear nights — an effect which is
intensified wherever the surface is covered with snow, or the air little
charged with vapour. In illustration of the very slow diffusion of
heat in the solid crust of the earth, and as affording a further in-
dication of the climate of northern Asia, reference may here be made
to the frozen soil of Siberia, in the vicinity of Yakutsk. In this
region the earth is frozen permanently to a depth of more than 380 ft.
at which the temperature is still 5° or 6° Fahr. below the freezing
point of water, the summer heat merely thawing the surface to a
depth of about 3 ft. At a depth of 50 ft. the temperature is about
15 Fahr. below the freezing point. Under such conditions of the
soil, the land, nevertheless, produces crops of* wheat and other
grain from fifteen to forty fold."
The very high summer temperatures of the area north of the
tropic of Cancer are sufficiently accounted for, when compared with
those observed south of the tropic, by the increased length of the
day in the "higher latitude, which more than compensates for the
loss of heat due to the smaller mid-day altitude of the sun. The
difference between the heating power of the sun's rays at noon on the
21st of lune, in latitude 20° and in latitude 45°, is only about 2%;
while the accumulated heat received during the day, which is
lengthened to 1 5 J hours in the higher latitude, is greater by about 1 1 %
than in the lower latitude, where the day consists only of 13 J hours.
Although the foregoing account of the temperatures of Asia
supplies the main outline of the observed phenomena, a very im-
portant modifying cause, of which more will be said hereafter, comes
into operation over the whole of the tropical region, namely, the
periodical summer rains. These tend very greatly to arrest the
increase of the summer heat over the area where they prevail, and
otherwise give it altogether peculiar characteristics.
The great summer heat, by expanding the air upwards, disturbs
the level of the planes of equal pressure, and causes an outflow
Pnumn °* tne "PP 01 " «trata from the heated area. The winter
ma j cold produces an effect of just an opposite nature, and
ItVsws. causes an accumulation of air over the cold area. The
diminution of barometric pressure which takes place all
over Asia during the summer months, and the increase in the winter,
are hence, no doubt, the results of the alternate heating and cooling
of the air over the continent.
The necessary and immediate results of such periodical changes
of pressure arc winds, which, speaking generally, blow from the area
of greatest to that of least pressure — subject, however, to certain
modifications of direction, arising from the absolute motion of the
whole body of the air due to the revolution of the earth on its axis
from west to east. The south-westerly winds which prevail north
of the equator during the hot half of the year, to which navigators
have given the name of the south-west monsoon (the latter word
being a corruption of the Indian name for season), arise from the
great diminution of atmospheric pressure over Asia, which begins
to be strongly marked with the great rise of temperature in April
and May, and the simultaneous relatively higher pressure over the
equator and the regions south of it This diminution of pressure,
which continues as the heat increases till it reaches its maximum in
July soon after the solstice, is followed by the corresponding develop-
ment of the south-west monsoon; and as the barometric pressure
is gradually restored, and becomes equalized within the tropics soon
after the equinox in October, with the general fall of temperature
north of the equator, the south-west winds fall off, and are succeeded
by a north-east monsoon, which is developed during the winter
months by the relatively greater atmospheric pressure which then
occurs over Asia, as compared with the equatorial region.
Although the succession of the periodical winds follows the progress
of the seasons as just described, the changes in the wind's direction
everywhere take place under the operation of special local influences
which often disguise the more general law, and make it difficult to
trace. Thus the south-west monsoon begins in the Arabian Sea with
west and north-westerly winds.which draw round as the year advances
to south-west and fall back again in the autumn by north-
west to north. In the Bay of Bengal the strength of the south-
west monsoon is rather from the south and south-east, being
succeeded by north-east winds after October, which give place •©
northerly and north-westerly winds at the vear advances. Ank^
the islands of the Malay Archipelago the force of the moosooib »
much interrupted, and the position of this region 00 the equator
otherwise modifies the directions of the prevailing winds. T*
southerly summer winds of the Asiatic seas between the eqas*^
and the tropic do not extend to the coasts of Java, and the soc*'
easterly trade winds are there developed in the usual manner. T se
China Sea is fully exposed to both monsoons, the normal direct*— ..
of which nearly coincide with the centre of the channel b etw e en tax
continent of Asia and the eastern islands.
The south-west monsoon does not generally extend, in its character
of a south-west wind, over the land. The current of air flowing a
from over the sea is gradually diverted towards the area of 'r.u
pr ' at the same time is dissipated and loses much c: m
ori The winds which pass northward over India bl >* **
soi and easterly winds over the north-eastern parr *
th plain, and as south winds up the Indus. They scr-a
all y to have exhausted their northward velocity by *•*
tir e reached the northern extremity of the great Im^-s
pfc re not felt on the table-lands of Afghanistan, a->J
ha ite into the Indus basin or the ranges of the HimaLr ».
by ntains, and those which branch off from them into t ~i
M ula, they are prevented from continuing their progrt*
in m originally imparted to them.
more remarkable phenomena of the hotter seas of A&u
mi ced the revolving storms or cyclones, which are <*
frequent occurrence in the hot months in the Indian Ocean auj
China Sea, in which last they are known under the name of typhouo-
The cyclones of the Bay of Bengal appear to originate over tbr
Andaman and Nicobar islands, and are commonly propagated ta
a north-westward direction, striking the east coast of the Indus
peninsula at various points, and then often advancing with as
easterly tendency over the land, and passing with extreme violence
across the delta of the Ganges. They occur in alt the hot mem 1 --.
from June to October, and more rarely in November, and appear »
be originated by adverse currents from the north meeting thow 4
the south-west monsoon. The cyclones of the China Sea also occs
in the hot months of the year, but they advance from north-ea<t tu
south-west, though occasionally from cast to west; they onginv?
near the island of Formosa, and extend to about the 10th degree d
N. lat. They are thus developed in nearly the same latitudes arvl *
the same months as those of the Indian Sea, though their progress l.« *
a different direction. In both cases, however, the storms appear :o
advance towards the area of greatest heat. In these storms the
wind invariably circulates from north by west through south to cast
The heated body of air carried from the Indian Ocean o-.rr
southern Asia by the south-west monsoon comes up highly chan^
with watery vapour, and hence in a condition to release a Ui(t
body of water as rain upon the land, whenever it is abm*
brought into circumstances which reduce its temperature
in a notable degree. Such a reduction of temperature is broucHt
about along the greater part of the coasts of India and of the Burrow
Siamese peninsula by tne interruption of the wind current by ot-
tinuous ranges of mountains, which force the mass of air to r-«
over them, whereby the air being rarefied, its specific capacity I *
heat is increased and its temperature falls, with a correspoodiaf
condensation of the vapour originally held in suspension.
This explanation of the principal efficient cause of the summer
rains of south Asia is immediately based on an analysis of the c-'»-
ftlicated phenomena actually observed, and it serves to acmof
or many apparent anomalies. The heaviest falls of rain occur alu i
lines of mountain of some extent directly facing the vapour-bea r.r$
winds, as on the Western Ghats of India and the west coast of t*
Malay peninsula. The same results are found along the mountum
at a distance from the sea. the heaviest rainfall known to occur ar>
where in the world (not less than 600 in. in the year) being recor V.
on the Khasi range about 100 m. north-east of Calcutta, wr»:h
presents an abrupt front to the progress of the moist winds flo« m;
up from the Bay of Bengal. The cessation of the rains on <Se
southern border of Baluchistan, west of Karachi, obviously arm
from the projection of the south-east coast of Arabia, which Iirn.:»
the breadth of the south-west monsoon air current and the Irtish
of the coast-line directly exposed to it. The very small and irrcg uUr
rainfall in Sind and along the Indus is to be accounted for by is*
want of any obstacle in the path of the vapour-bearing »mU
which, therefore, carry the uncondenscd rain up to the Punjab
where it falls on the outer ranges of the western Himalaya *n4
of Afghanistan.
The diurnal mountain winds are very strongly marked on the
Himalaya, where they probably are the most active agents in deter
mining the precipitation of rain along the chain— the momocs
currents, as before stated, not penetrating among the mountain*
The formation of dense banks of cloud in the afternoon, when the
up wind is strongest, along the southern face of the snowy rsafv*
of the Himalaya, is a regular daily phenomenon during the hotter
months of the year, and heavy rain, accompanied by eiectrkaJ
discharges, is the frequent result of such condensation.
Too Tittle is known of the greater part of Asia to admit of say
more being mid with reference to this part of the subject, than to
FLORA] ASIA
mention a few (acts bearing on the rainfall In northern Asia there
is * generally equal rainfall of 19 to 29 in. between the Volga and
the Lena in Manchuria and northern China, rather inore considerable
increase in Korea. Siam and Japan. At Tiflis the yearly fall b
22 in. ; on the Caspian about 7 or 8 in.; on the Sea of Aral 5 or 6 in.
In south-western Siberia it is ia or 14 in., diminishing as we proceed
eastward to 6 or 7 in. at Barnaul, and to 5 or 6 in. at Uirga in northern
Mongolia. In eastern Siberia it is about 15 to 20 in. In China we
find about 23 in. to be the fall at Peking ; while at Canton, which lies
nearly on tie northern tropic and the region of the south-west
monsoon is entered, the quantity is increased to 78 in. At Batavia
in Java the fall is about 78 in.; at Singapore it is nearly 100 in.
The quantity increases considerably on that part of the coast
of the Malay peninsula which ia not sheltered from the south-west
by Sumatra. On the Tenasserim and Burmese coast falb of more
than 200 in. are registered, and the quantity is here nowhere lest.
than 75 or 80 in., which is about the average of the eastern part
of the delta of the Ganges, Calcutta standing at about 64 in. On the
hills that flank Bengal on the east the fall is very great. On the
Khasi hills, at an elevation of about 4500 ft., the average of ten
years is more than 550 in. As much as 150 in. haa been measured
in one month, and 610 in. in one year. On the west coast of the
Indian peninsula the fall at the sea-level varies from about 75 to
100 in., and at certain elevations on the mountains more than
250 in. is commonly registered, with intermediate quantities at inter-
vening localities. On the east coast the fall is far less, nowhere rising
to 50 in., and towards the southern apex of the peninsula being
reduced to 2$ or 30 in. Ceylon shows from 60 to 80 in. As we
recede from the coast the fall diminishes, till it is reduced to about
25 or 30 in. at the head of the Gangetic plain. The tract along the
Indus to within 60 or 80 m. of the Himalaya is almost rainless. 6 or
8 in. being the fall in the southern portion of the Punjab. On the
outer ranges of the Himalaya the yearly fall amounts to about 200 in.
on the east in Sikkim, ana gradually diminishes on the west, where
north of the Punjab it is about 70 or 80 in. In the interior of the
chain the rain is far less, and the quantity of precipitation is so small in
Tibet that it can be hardly measured. It is to the greatly reduced
fad of snow on the northern faces of the highest ranges of the Hima-
laya that is to be attributed the higher level of the snow-line, a
phenomenon which was long a cause of discussion.
In Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor and Syria, winter and spring
appear to be the chief seasons of condensation. In other parts of
Asia the principal part of the rain falls between May and September,
that is, in the hottest half of the year. In the islands under the
equator the heaviest fall is between October and February. (R. S.)
Flora and Fauna
The general assemblage of animals and plants found over northern
Asm resembles greatly that found in thejxms of Europe which are
adjacent and have a similar climate. Siberia, north of the 50th
parallel, has a climate not much differing from a similarly situated
portion of Europe, though the winters are more severe and the
summers hotter. The rainfall, though moderate, is still sufficient
to maintain the supply of water in the great rivers that traverse
the country to the Arctic Sea, and to support an abundant vege-
tation. A similar affinity exists between the life of the southern
Brts of Europe and that in the cone of Asia extending from the
editerranean across to the Himalaya and northern China. This
belt, which embraces Asia Minor, northern Persia, Afghanistan, and
the southern slopes of the Himalaya, from its elevation has a tem-
perate climate, and throughout it the rainfall is sufficient to main-
tain a vigorous vegetation, while the summers, though hot, and the
winters, though severe, are not extreme. The plants and animals
ftlong it are found to have a marked similarity of character to
those of south Europe, with which region the aone b virtually
continuous.
The extremely dry and hot tracts which constitute an almost
unbroken desert from Arabia, through south Persia and Baluchistan,
to Sind, are characterised by considerable uniformity in the types
of life, which closely approach to those of the neighbouring hot and
dry regions of Africa. The region of the heavy periodical summer
rains and high temperature, which comprises India, the Indo-
Chinese peninsula, and southern China, as well as the western part
of the Malay Archipelago, is also marked by much similarity in the
plants and animals throughout its extent. The area between the
southern border of Siberia and the margin of the temperate alpine
xone of the Himalaya and north China, comprising what are
commonly called central Asia. Turkestan, Mongolia and western
Manchuria, b an almost rainless region, having winters of extreme
severity and summers of intense heat. Its animals and plants have
a special character suited to the peculiar climata! conditions, more
closely allied to those of the adjacent northern Siberian tract than
of the other bordering regions. The south-eastern parti of the Malay
Archipelago have much in common with the Australian continent,
to which they adjoin, though their affinities are chiefly Indian.
North China and Japan also have many forms of life in common.
Much still remains to be done in the exploration of China and eastern
Asia; but It is known that many of the special forms of this region
extend to the Himalaya, while others clearly indicate a connexion
with North America.
7+5
The foregoing brief review of the principal territorial divisions
according to which the forms of !if» are distributed in Asia, indicates
how close is the dependence of this attribution on climatic con-
ditions, and this will be made more apparent by a somewhat fuller
account of the main features of the flora and fauna.
flora.— The flora of the whole of northern Asia is in essentials
the same as that of northern Europe, the differences being due rather
to variations of species than of genera. The absence of rttuthmm
the oak and of all heaths east of the Ural may be noticed. aZsT^
Pines, larch, birch are the principal trees on the moun-
tains; willow, alders and poplars on the lower ground. The
northern limit of the pine in Siberia b about 70° N.
Along the warm temperate lone, from the Mediterranean to the
Himalaya, extends a flora essentially European in character. Many
European species reach the central Himalaya, though few are known
in its eastern parts. The genera common to the Himalaya and
Europe are much more abundant, and extend throughout the chain,
and to all elevations- There b also a corresponding diffusion of
Japanese and Chinese forms along this cone, these being most numer-
ous in the eastern Himalaya, and less frequent in the west.
The truly tropical flora of the hotter and wetter regions of eastern
India is continuous with that of the Malayan peninsula and islands,
and extends along the lower ranges of the Himalaya, gradually
becoming leas marked and rising to lower elevations as we go
westward, where the rainfall diminishes and the winter cold
The vegetation of the higher and therefore cooler and less rainy
ranges of the Himabya has greater uniformity of character along the
whole chain, and a closer general approach to European forms b
maintained; an increased number of species b actually identical,
among these being found, at the greates t elevations, many alpine
plants believed to be identical with species of the north Arctic regions.
On reaching the Tibetan pbteau, with the increased dryness the
flora assumes many features of the Siberian type. Many true
Siberian species are found, and more Siberian genera. Some of the
Siberian forms, thus brought into proximity with the Indbn.flora,
extend to the rainy parts of the mountains, and even to the plains of
upper Indb. Assembbges of marine pbnts form another remark-
able feature of Tibet,. these being frequently met with growing at
elevations of 14,000 to 15,000 ft. above the sea, more especially in
the vicinity of the many salt bkes of those regions.
The vegetation of the hot and dry region of the south-west of the
continent consists largely of plants which are diffused over Africa,
Baluchistan and Sind; many of these extend into the hotter parts
of Indb. and not a few common Egyptian plants are to be met with
in the Indbn peninsula.
The whole number of species of pbnts indigenous in the region of
south-eastern Asb, which includes India and the Malayan peninsub
and bbnds, from about the 65th to the 105th meridbn,
was estimated by Sir J. D. Hooker at 12,000 to 15,000.
The principal orders, arranged according to their numerical
importance, are as follows j—LeguminosacRubbceae, Orchidaceae,
Compositae, Gramineae, Euphorbbceae, Acanthaceae, Cyperaceae
and Labiatae. But within tnb region there b a very great variation
between the vegetation of the more humid and the more arid regions,
while the characteristics of the flora on the higher mountain ranges
differ wholly from those of the plains. In short, we have a somewhat
heterogeneous assembbge of tropical, temperate and alpine plants,
as has been already briefly indicated, of which, however, the tropical
are so far dominant as to give their character to the flora viewed as a
whole. The Indbn flora contains a more general and complete
illustration of almost all the chief natural families of all parts ot the
world than any other country. Compositae are comparatively rare ;
so also Gramineae and Cyperaceae are in some places deficient, and
Labiatae, Leguminosae and ferns in others. Eupborbbceae and
Scrophulariaceae and Orchidaceae are universally present, the last
in specially large proportions.
The perennially humid regions of the Malayan peninsub and
western portion of the archipelago are everywhere covered with
dense forest, rendered difficult to traverse by the thorny cane, a
palm of the genus Calamus, which has its greatest development in
this part of Asia. The chief trees belong to the orders of Terebinth-
aceae, Sapindaceae, Melbceae, Clusbceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Tern-
stroembceae. Leguminosae, burets, oaks and figs, with Dillemaeeae,
Sapotaceae and nutmegs. Bamboos and palms, with Pandanui and
Dracaena, are also abundant. A similar forest flora, extends along
the mountains of eastern Indb to the Himabya, where it ascends to
elevations varying from 6000 to 7000 ft. on the east to 3000 or 4000
ft. on the west.
The' arboreous forms which least require the humid and equable
heat of the more truly tropical and equatorial climates, and are best
able to resist the high temperatures and excessive drought of the
northern Indbn hot months from April to June, are certain Legu-
minosae. Baukinia, Acacia, Bulta and Dalberrta, Bombax, Sharea,
Naucka. Laierstraemia, and Bignonia, a few bamboos and palms,
with others which extend far beyond the tropic, and give a tropical
aspect to the forest to the extreme northern border of the Indbn
plain.
Of the herbaceous vegetation of the more rainy regions mav be
noted the Orchidaceae, Orontbceae. Scitamtneae, with fernsaiv'
7+6
Cryptogams, beside* Gramineae and Cyperaceae* Among these
some forms, as among the trees, extend much beyond the tropic and
ascend into the temperate cones on the mountains, of which may be
mentioned Begonia, Osbechia, various Cyrtandraceae, Scitamincae,
and a few epiphytical orchids.
Of the orders most largely developed in south India, and more
Stringly elsewhere, may be named Aurantiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
Isaminaceae, Ebenaceae, Jasmineae, and Cyrtandraceae; but
of these few contain as many as loo peculiar Indian species.
Nepenthes may be mentioned as a genus specially developed in the
Malayan area, and extending from New Caledonia to Madagascar;
it is found as far north as the Khasi hills, and in Ceylon, but does
not appear on the Himalaya or in the peninsula of India. The
Balsamifiaceae may be named as being rare in the eastern region
and very abundant in the peninsula. A distinct connexion between
the flora of the peninsula and Ceylon and that of eastern tropical
Africa is observable not only in the great similarity of many of the
more truly tropical forms, and the identity of families and genera
found in both regions, but in a more remarkable manner in the
likeness of the mountain flora of this part of Africa to that of the
peninsula, in which several species occur believed to be identical
with Abyssinian forms. This connexion is further established by
the absence from both areas of oaks, conifers and cycads, which,
as regards the first two families, is a remarkable feature of the flora
of the peninsula and Ceylon, as the mountains rise to elevations in
which both of them are abundant to the north and east. With these
facts it has to be noticed that many of the principal forms of the
eastern flora are absent or comparatively rare in the peninsula and
Ceylon.
The general physiognomy of the Indian flora is mainly determined
by the conditions of humidity of climate. The impenetrable shady
forests of the Malay peninsula and eastern Bengal, of the west
coast of the Indian peninsula, and of Ceylon, offer a strong con-
trast to the more loosely-timbered districts of the drier regions of
central India and the north-western Himalaya. The forest areas of
India include the dense vegetation and luxuriant growth of the
Tarsi jungles at the foot of the eastern Himalaya, and wide stretches
of loosely-timbered country which are a prevailing feature in the
Central Provinces and parts of Madras. Where the lowlands are
highly cultivated they are adorned with planted wood, and where
they are cut off from rain they are nearly completely desert.
The higher mountains rise abruptly from the plains; on their
sldpes, clothed below almost exclusively with the more tropical forms,
a vegetation of a warm temperate character, chiefly evergreen, soon
begins to prevail, comprising Magnoliaceae, Ternstroemiaceac, sub-
tropical Kosaceae, rhododendron, oak, Ilex, Symplcxos, Lauraccae.
Pinus longifolia, with mountain forms of truly tropical orders, palms,
Pandanus, Musa, Viiis, Vernonia, and many others. On the cast
the vegetation of the Himalaya is most abundant and varied. The
forest extends, with great luxuriance, to an elevation of 12,000 ft.,
above which the sub-alpine region may be said to begin, in which
rhododendron scrub often covers the ground up to 13,000 or 14,000 ft.
Only one pine is found below 8000 ft., above which several other
Coniferae occur. Plantains, tree-ferns, bamboos, several Calami,
and other palms, and Pandanus, are abundant at the lower levels.
Between 4000 and 8000 ft. epiphytal orchids are very frequent, and
reach even to 10,000 ft. Vegetation ascends on the drier and less
snowy mountain slopes at Tibet to above 18,000 ft. On the west,
with the drier climate, the forest is less luxuriant and dense, and the
hill-sides and the valleys better cultivated. The warm mountain
slopes are covered with Pinus longifolia, or with oaks and rhododen-
dron, and the forest is not commonly dense below 8000 ft., excepting
in some of the more secluded valleys at a low elevation. From
8000 to 12,000 ft., a thick forest of deciduous trees is almost universal,
above which a sub-alpine region is reached, and vegetation as on the
east continues up to 18,000 ft. or more. The more tropical forms
of the east, such as the tree-ferns, do not reach west of Nepal. The
cedar or deodar is hardly indigenous east of the sources of the
Ganges, and at about the same point the forms of the west begin
to be more abundant, increasing in number as we advance towards
Afghanistan.
The cultivated plants of the Indian region include wheat, barley,
rice and maize; various millets, Sorghum, Penicillaria, Panicum
and Eieusine; many pulses, peas and beans; mustard and rape;
ginger and turmeric; pepper and capsicum; several Cucurbitaccae;
tobacco, Sesamum, poppy, Crotdaria and Cannabis ; cotton, indigo
and sugar; coffee and tea; oranges, lemons of many sorts; pome-
granate, mango, figs, peaches, vines and plantains. The more
common palms are Cocos, Phoenix and Borassus, supplying cocoa-nut
and toddy. Indian agriculture combines the harvests of the tropical
and temperate zones. North of the tropic the winter cold is sufficient
to admit of the cultivation of almost all the cereals and vegetables
of Europe, wheat being sown in November and reaped early in April.
In this same region the summer heat and rain provide a thoroughly
tropical climate, in which rice and other tropical cereals are freely
raised, being as a rule sown early in July and reaped in September
or October. In southern India, and the other parts of Asia and of
the islands having a similar climate, the difference of the winter and
summer half-years is not sufficient to admit of the proper cultivation
of wheat or barley. The other cereals may be seen occasionally,
ASIA IFUWA
where artificial irrigation is practised, in all stages of umgiiss at
all seasons of the year, though the operations of agriculture ans.
as a general rule, limited to the rainy months, when aJoae Is the
requisite supply of water commonly forthcoming.
The trees of India producing economically useful timber «
comparatively few, owing to the want of durability of the wood. <s
the extremely hot and moist climate. The teak. Tectana grand;*.
supplies the finest timber. It is found in greatest perfection in t*st
forests of the west coasts of Burma and the Indian peninsula* wh* jt
the rainfall is heaviest, growing to a height of 100 or 150 ft., marv
with other trees and bamboos. The sal, Shore* robusta, a wr,
durable wood, is most abundant along the skirts of the IlimaLi-.a
from Assam to the Punjab, and is found in central India, to wbir.s
the teak also extends. The sal grows to a large sue. and »»«
gregarious than the teak. Of other useful woods found in the pL.'a»
may be named the babool, Acacia; toon, Cedreta; and &u*^
Dalbergia. The only timber in ordinary use obtained from th<-
Himalaya proper is the deodar, Cedrus deoaara. Besides t bese are c he
sandalwood. Santalum, of southern India, and many sorts of bamb.-j
found in all parts of the country. The cinchona has recently bee-
introduced with complete success; and the mahogany of An»n.4
reaches a large site, and gives promise of being grown for use as
timber.
The flora of the rainless region of south-western Asia is continuous
with the desert flora of northern and eastern Africa, and extcnJs
from the coast of Senegal to the meridian of 75* E., or from — - m
the great African desert to the border of the rainless tract t fc
along the Indus and the southern parts of the Punjab.
It includes the peninsula of Arabia, the shores of the Persian Calf,
south Persia, and Afghanistan and Baluchistan. On the wrest iu
limit is in the Cape Verde Islands, and it is partially represented ia
Abyssinia.
The more common plants in the most characteristic part of this
gion in southern Arabia arc Capparidaceae. Euphorbsaceac. a-J
lew Leguminosae, a Reseda and Dipterygium; palms. Potyeonacx je.
region in southern Arabia arc Capparidaceae. Euphorbsaceac. a-J
a few Leguminosae, a Reseda and Dipterygium; palms. Potygonacx j<
ferns, and other cryptogams, are rare. The number 01 faiml .■
relative to the area is very small, and the number of genera a— i
species equally restricted, in very many cases a single species bri-i$
the only representative of an order. The aspect 01 the vegetatk s
is very peculiar, and is commonly determined by the predomin-irH *
of some four or five species, the rest being either local or spmrixu''*'
scattered over the area. The absence of the ordinary bright pnti
colours of vegetation is another peculiarity of this flora, almost a3
the plants having glaucous or whitened stems. Foliage is reduced to
a minimum, the moisture of the plant being stored up in raa*»ite
or fleshy stems against the long-continued drought. Aridity has
favoured the production of spines as a defence from external attack,
sharp thorns are frequent, and asperities of varioussortspredoraiiw 1 1
Many species produce gums and resins, their stems being encrusted
with the exudations, and pungency and aromatic odour is an almost
universal quality of the plants of desert regions.
The cultivated plants of Arabia are much the same aa those < f
northern India — wheat, barley, and the common Sorghum, wits
dates and lemons, cotton and indigo. To these must be added co£c«
which is restricted to the slopes of the western hills* Among the
more mountainous regions of the south-western part of Arabia,
known as Arabia Felix, the summits of which rise to 6000 or 7000 ft .
the rainfall b sufficient to develop a more luxuriant vegetation, and
the valleys have a flora like that of similarly situated parts of
southern Persia, and the less elevated parts of Afghanistan and
Baluchistan, partaking of the characters of that of the hotter Medi-
terranean region. In these countries aromatic shrubs are abundant
Trees are rare, and almost restricted to Pistacia, CeUis and Dodtmaec.
with poplars, and the date palm. Prickly forms of Staiice aad
Astragalus cover the dry hills. In the spring there is an abundant
herbaceous vegetation, including many bulbous plants, with genera,
if not species, identical with tboseof the Syrian region, some of which
extend to the Himalaya.
The flora of the northern part of Afghanistan approximates to that
of the contiguous western Himalaya. Quercus Ilex, the evergnx*
oak of southern Europe, is found in forests as far cast as the Sutlej.
accompanied with other European forms. In the higher parts tA
Afghanistan and Persia Boraginaceae and thistles abound; gigantic
Umbclliferae, such as Ferula, Calbanum, Dorema, Bubon, /V*cmo««<n.
Prangos, and others, also characterize the same districts, and *o«*
of them extend into Tibet.
The flora of Asia Minor and northern Persia differs but little fron
that of the southern parts of Europe. The mountains are clothcJ.
where the fall of rain is abundant, with forests of Quercus, Fcgmt.
Ulmus, Acer, Car pinus and Corylus, and various Coniferae. Of
these the only genus that is not found on the Himalaya is Fagtu,
Fruit trees 01 the plum tribe abound. The cultivated plants arc
those of southern Europe.
The vegetation of the Malayan Islands is for the most part that
of the wetter and hotter region of India; but the greater uniformity
of the temperature and humidity leads to the preaomia* gjmkum
ance of certain tropical forms not so conspicuous in India, ^^
while the proximity of the Australian continent has
permitted the partial diffusion of Australian types which are not
seen in India. The liquidambar and nutmeg may be noticed aok/o^
FAUNA) ASIA
the former; the first is one of the most conspicuous trees in Jaws*
on the mountains of the eastern part of which the caauarina, one
of the characteristic forms of Australia, is also abundant. Rhodo-
dendrons occur in Borneo and Sumatra, descending to the level of
the sea. On the mountains of Java there appears to be no truly
alpine flora; Saxifrage m not found. In Borneo some of the tem-
perate forms of Australia appear on the higher mountains. On the
other islands similar characteristics are to be observed, Australian
genera extending to the Philippines, and even to southern China.
The analysts of the Hong Kong flora indicates that about three*
fifths of the species are common to the Indian region, and nearly
all the remainder are either Chinese or local forms. The number
of species common to southern China, Japan and northern Asia is
small. The cultivated plants of China are, with a few exceptions,
the same as those of India. South China, therefore, seems, botanic-
ally, hardly distinct from the great Indian region, into which many
Chinese forms penetrate, as before noticed. The flora of north
China, which is akin to that of Japan, shows manifest relation to that
of the neighbouring American continent, from which many temperate
forms extend, reaching to the Himalaya, almost as far as Kashmir.
Very little is known of the plants of the interior of northern China,
but it seems probable that a complete botanical connexion is estab-
lished between it and the temperate region of the Himalaya.
The vegetation of the dry region of central Asia is remarkable for
the great relative number of Chenopodiaceae, Salicornia and other
Central aalt pbnts being common; Polygonaceae also are abun-
AaJm. dant ; leafless forms being of frequent occurrence, which
gives the vegetation a very remarkable aspect. Peculiar
forms of Lcguminosae also prevail, and these, with many of the other
plants of the southern and drier regions of Siberia, or of the colder
regions of the desert tracts of Persia and Afghanistan, extend into
Tibet, where the extreme drought and the hot (nearly vertical) sun
combine to produce a summer climate not greatly differing from that
of the plains of central Asia.
Fauna. — The zoological provinces of Asia correspond very closely
with the botanical. The northern portion of Asia, as far south as
Zoological the Himalaya, is not zoologically distinct from Europe,
mloou and thesc two areas, with the strip of Africa north of the
Atlas, constitute the Palaearctic region of Dr Sclater,
whose zoological primary divisions of the earth have met with the
general approval of naturalists. The south-eastern portion of Asia,
with the adjacent islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
pines, form his Indian region. The extreme south-west part of the
continent constitutes a separate zoological district, comprising
Arabia, Palestine and southern Persia, and reaching, like the hot
desert botanical tract, to Baluchistan and Sind ; it belongs to what
Dr Sclater calls the Ethiopian region, which extends over Africa.
south of the Atlas. Celebes, Papua, and the other islands east of
Java beyond Wallace's line, fall within the Australian region.
Nearly all the mammals of Europe also occur in northern
where, however, the Palaearctic fauna is enriched by
Asia.
numerous
Mammal* additional species. The characteristic groups belong
mad bir4M. mostly to forms which are restricted to cold and temperate
regions. Consequently the Quadrumana, or monkeys,
are nearly unrepresented, a single species occurring in Japan, and
one or two others in northern China and Tibet. Insectivorous bats
are numerous, but the frogivorous division of this order b only repre-
sented by a single species in Japan. Carnivora are also numerous,
particularly the frequenters of cold climates, such as bears, weasels,
wolves and foxes. Of the Insectivora numerous forms of moles,
shrews and hedgehogs prevail. The Rodents are also well repre-
sented by various squirrels, mice and hares. Characteristic forms
of this order in northern Asia are the marmots (Arctomys) and the
pikas. or tailless hares (Lagomys). The great order of Ungulata is
represented by various forms of sheep, as many as ten or twelve wild
species of Oets being met with in the mountain chains of Asia; and
more sparingly by several peculiar forms of antelope, such as the
saiga (Saiga latarica), and the GauUa puUwoso, or yellow sheep.
Coming to the deer, we also meet with characteristic forms tn
northern Asia, especially those belonging to the typical genus Cerwus.
The musk deer (Moschus) is also quite restricted to northern Asia,
and is one of its most peculiar types.
The ornithology of northern Asia is even more closely allied to
that of Europe than the mammal fauna. Nearly three-fourths of
the well-known species of Europe extend through Siberia into the
islands of the Japanese empire. Here again we have an absence of
all tropical forms, and a great development of groups characteristic
of cold and temperate regions. One of the most peculiar of these
is the genus Pkasianus, of which splendid birds au the species are
restricted in their wild state to northern Asia. The still more
magnificently clad gold pheasants (Thaumalea), and the eared
pheasants (Crossofttion), are also confined to certain districts in the
mountains of north-eastern Asia. Amongst the Passeres, such forms
as the larks, stone-chats, finches, linnets and grosbeaks are well
developed, and exhibit many species.
The mammal fauna of the Indian region of Asia is much more
highly developed than that of the Palaearctic The Quadrumana
are represented by several peculiar genera, amongst which are
Semnopithecus, Hyfobates ana Simia. Two peculiar forms of the
Lemurtne group are also met with. Both the insectivorous and
i of barbets (Megataema), jsarrots \Palaeomis), and
, Urocissa and Cisso). The family Eurylacmida*
7+7
frogivorous divisions of the bats are well represented. Amongst
the Insectivora very peculiar forms are found, such as Gymnura
and Tupaia. The Carnivora are likewise numerous ; and this region
may be considered as the true home of the tiger, though this animal
has wandered far north into the Palaearctic division of Asia. Other
characteristic Carnivora are civets, various ichneumons, and the
benturong (Arctktis). Two species of bears are likewise restricted
to the Indian region. In the order of Rodents squirrels are very
numerous, and porcupines of two genera are met with. The Indian
region is the home of the Indian elephant — one of the two sole remain-
ing representatives of the order Proboscidca. Of the Ungulates, four
species of rhinoceros and one of tapir are met with, besides several
peculiar forms of the swine family. The Bovidae, or hollow-horned
rumuiants, are represented by several genera of antelopes, and by
species of true Bo» — such as B. sondaicus, B. frontalis and B. bubalus.
Deer are likewise numerous, and the peculiar group of chevrotains
(Tragulus) is characteristic of the Indian region. Finally, this
region affords us representatives of the order Edentata, in the shape
of several species 01 Hants, or scaly ant-eater.
The assemblage of birds of the Indian region is one of the richest
and most varied in the world, being surpassed only by that of
tropical America. Nearly every order, except that of the Strut hiones
or ostriches, is well represented, and there are many peculiar genera
not found elsewhere, such as Buceros, HarpacUs, Lophophortu,
Euphcamus, Paw and Ceriornu. The Pkastanidae (exclusive of
true Phasianus) are highly characteristic of this region, as arc like-
wise certain genera c " ' '*' *
crows (Dendrocitta, ,.
is entirely confined to this part of Asia.
The Ethiopian fauna plays but a subordinate part in Asia, intrud-
ing only into the south-western corner, and occupying the desert
districts of Arabia and Syria, although some of the characteristic
species reach still farther into Persia and Sind. and even into western
India. The lion and the hunting-leopard, which may be considered
as, in this epoch at least, Ethiopian types, extend thus far, besides
various species of jerboa and other desert-loving forms.
In the birds, the Ethiopian type is shown by the prevalence of larks
and .stone-chats, and by the complete absence of the many peculiar
genera of the Indian region.
The occurrence of mammals of the Marsupial order in the Molucca
Islands and Celebes, while none have been found in the adjacent
islands of Java and Borneo, lying on the west of Wallace's line, or
in the Indian region, shows that the margin of the Australian region
has here been reached. The same conclusion is indicated by the
absence from the Moluccas and Celebes of various other Mammals,
Quadrumana, Carnivora, Insectivora and Ruminants, which abound
in the western part of the Archipelago. Deer -do not extend into
New Guinea, in which island the genus Sus appears to have its
ea *'—'" A peculiar form ot baboon, CynopUhecus, and the
sir nt, Anoa, found in Celebes, seem to have no relation
to ds, and rather to be allied to those in Africa.
;hese islands present similar peculiarities. Those of
tb n abruptly disappear at, and many Australian forms
re pass, the line above spoken of. Species of birds akin
to a also occur in Celebes.
orders of Sirenia and Cetacea the Dugong, Halicorc,
is und in the Indian Ocean; and a dolphin. Platanitta,
pe Ganges, ascends that river to a great distance from
the sea.
Of the sea fishes of Asia, among the Acanthopterygii, or spiny-
rayed fishes, the Percidae, or perches, are largely represented; the
genus Srrranus, which has only one species in Europe, is j%a«s.
very numerous in Asia, and the forms arc very large.
Other allied genera arc abundant, and extend from the Indian seas
to eastern Africa. The Squamipennes, or scaly-finned fishes, are
principally found in the seas of southern Asia, and especially near
coral reefs. The MuUidae, or red mullets, are largely represented
by genera differing from those of Europe. The Polynemidae, which
range from the Atlantic through the Indian Ocean to the Pacific,
supply animals from which isinglass is prepared ; one of them, the
mango-fish, esteemed a great delicacy, inhabits the seas from the
Bay of Bengal to Siam. The Sciaenidae extend from the Bay
of Bengal to China, but are not known to the westward. The
StromaUidae, or pomfrets, resemble the dory, a Mediterranean form,
and extend* to China and the Pacific. The sword fishes, Xibkiida*,
the lancet fishes, Acantkuridat, and the scabbard fishes, Trickuridat,
are distributed through the seas of south Asia. Mackerels of various
genera abound, as well as gobies, blennics and mullets.
Among the Anacanthini, the cod family so well known in Europe
shows but one or two species in the seas of south Asia, though the
soles and allied fishes are numerous along the coasts. Of the Pnysos-
tomi, the siluroids are abundant in the estuaries and muddy waters;
the habits of some of these fishes are remarkable, such as that of the
males carrying the ova in their mouths till the young are hatched.
The small family of Scopdida* affords the gelatinous Harpedcn, or
bumalo. The gar-fish and flying-fishes are numerous, extending
into the seas of Europe. The Clupeidae, or herrings, are most
abundant; and anchovies, or sardines, are found in shoals, but at
irregular and uncertain intervals. The marine eels, Muraenidae. are
more numerous towards the Malay Archipelago than ir
748
ASIA
(ETHNOLOGY
Me
rOTOIS Off
im of sea-horse* {Hippoeampm\ pipe-fishes (SyngMtiuu).
{Sdtrodtrmus), and sun-fish, globe-fish, and other allied
form* of GymnodenUt, are not uncommon.
Of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygii. the true sharks and
hammer-headed sharks, are numerous. The dog-fish also is found,
one species extending from the Indian seas to the Cape of Good
Hope. The saw-fishes. Prutidae, the electrical rays, Totptdinae*
and ordinary rays and skates, are also found in considerable numbers.
The fresh waters of southern Asia are deficient in the typical
forms of the Acanthopterygii, and are chiefly inhabited by carp,
ftilurotds, simple or spined eels, and the walking and climbing fishes.
The SUuridae attain their chief development in tropical regions.
Only one Silurus is found in Europe, and the same species extends
to southern Asia and Africa. The Salmonidce are entirely absent
from the waters of southern Asia, though they exist in the rivers
that flow into the Arctic Ocean and the neighbouring parts of the
northern Pacific, extending perhaps to Formosa; and trout, though
iioknown in Indian rivers, arc found beyond the watershed of the
Indus, in the streams flowing into the Caspian. The Cyprinidae, or
carp, are largely represented in southern Asia, and there grow to a
size unknown in Europe; a Barbut in the Tigris has been taken of
the weight of 300 lb. The chief development of this family, both
st to size and number of forms, is in the mountain regions with a
temperate climate ; the smaller. species are found in the hotter regions
snd in the low- lying rivers. Of the Clupeidae, or herrings, numerous
forms occur in Astatic waters, ascending the rivers many hundred
miles; one of the best-known of Indian fishes, the hilsa, is of this
family. The sturgeons, which abound in the Black Sea and Caspian,
an<l avrend the rivers that fall into them, are also found in Asiatic
Russia, and an allied form extends to southern China. The walking
or climbing fishes, which are peculiar to south-eastern Asia and
Africa, arc organized so as to be able to breathe when out of the
water, and they are thus fitted to exist under conditions which
would be fatal to other fishes, being suited to live in the regions of
periodical drought and rain in which they arc found.
The insects of all southern Asia, including India south of the
Himalaya, China, Siam and the Malayan Islands, belong to one
Insects, group ; not only the genera, but even the species are often
the same on the opposite sides of the Bay of Bengal.
The connexion with Africa is marked by the occurrence of many
genera common to Africa and India, and confined to those two
regions, and similarities of form are not uncommon there in cases
in which the genera are not peculiar. Of Coleopterous insects known
to inhabit east Siberia, nearly one-third are found in western
Europe. The European forms seem to extend to about 30° N.,
south of which the Indo-Malayan types are met with, Japan being
of the Europeo-Asiatic group. The northern forms extend generally
along the south coast of the Mediterranean up to the border of the
great desert, and from the Levant to the Caspian.
Of the domesticated animals of Asia may first be mentioned the
elephant. It does not breed in captivity, and is not found wild west
of the Jumna river in northern India. The horse is pro-
duced, in the highest perfection In Arabia and the hot
and dry countries of western Asia. Ponies arc most
esteemed from the wetter regions of the east, and the
hilly tracts. Asses are abundant in most places, and two wild species
occur. The, horned cattle include the humped oxen and buffaloes of
India, and the yak of Tibet. A hybrid between the yak and Indian
cattle, called zo, is commonly reared in Tibet and the Himalaya.
Sheep abound in the more temperate regions, and goats are univers-
ally met with ; both of these animals are used as beasts of burden
in the mountains of Tibet. The reindeer of northern Siberia call
also for special notice; they are used for the saddle aa well as for
draught. (R. S.)
Ethnology
Asia, including its outlying islands, has become the dwelling-place
of all the great families into which the races of men have been
divided. By far the largest area is occupied by the
Mongol ian group. These nave yellow-brown skins, black
eyes and hair, flat noses and obliq ue eyes. They are short
in stature, with little hair on the body and face. In general terms
they extend, with modifications of character probably due to ad-
mixture with other types and to varying conditions of life, over the
whole of northern Asia as far south as the plains bordering the
Caspian Sea, including Tibet and China, and also over the Tndo-
Malayan peninsula and Archipelago, excepting Papua and some of
the more eastern islands.
Next in numerical importance to the Mongolians are the races
which have been called by Professor Huxley Mtlanochroic and
Xantkochroic. The former includes the dark-haired people of
southern Europe, and extends over North Africa, Asia Minor,
Syria to south-western Asia, and through Arabia and Persia to India.
The latter race includes the fair-haired people of northern Europe,
and extends over nearly the same area as the Melanochroi, with
which race it is greatly intermixed. The Xanthochroi have fair
skins, blue eyes and light hair; and others have dark skins, eyes and
hair, and are of a slighter frame. Together they constitute what
were once called the Caucasian races. The Melanochroi are not
considered by Huxley to be one of the primitive modifications of
mankind, but rather to be the reach of the admixture of else 1
cbroi with the Australoid type, next to be mentioned.
The t hird group is that of the Australoid type. Their hair is dark
generally soft, never woolly. The eyes and skin are dark* the beard
often well developed, the nose broad and flat, the lips coarse, aad
jaws heavy. This race is believed to form the basis of the people
of the Indian peninsula, and of some of the hill tribe* of crsstraJ
India, to whom the name Dravidian has been given, and by its
admixture with the Melanochroic group to have given rise to the
ordinary population of the Indian provinces. It is aJsoprobabJe that
the Australoid family extends into south Arabia and Egypt.
The last group, the Negroid, is represented by the races to vhich
has been given the name of JvcgrfJo, from the small size of aoaac of
them. They are closely akin to the negroes of South Africa. and
possess the characteristic dark skins, woolly but scanty beard and
body hair, broad flat noses, and projecting lips of the African; and
are diffused over the Andaman Islands, a part of the Malay peanasvu la.
the Philippines, Papua, and some of the neighbouring island*. The
Negritos appear to be derived from a mixture of the true Negro with
the Australoid type.
The distribution of the Mongolian group in Asia offers no parti*
cular difficulty. There is complete present, and probably previous
long-existing, geographical continuity in the area over ftBm
which they are found. There is also considerable stani- jsnaasv
larity of climate and other conditions throughout the
northern half of Asia which they occupy. The extension of modified
forms of the Mongolian type over the whole American continent
may be mentioned as a remarkable circumstance connected -mriin,
this branch of the human race.
The Mongolians of the northern half ot Asia are almost entirety
nomadic, hunters and shepherds or herdsmen. The least advanced
of these, but far the most peaceful, are those that occupy Siberia-
Farther south the best-known tribes are the Manchus, the Mongols
proper, the Moguls and the Turks, all known under the nan*
of Tatars, and to the ancients as Scythians, occupying from e&a*
to west the zone of Asia comprised between the aotn aad $uta
circles of N. lat. The Turks are Mahommedaas; their tribes extead
up the Oxus to the borders of Afghanistan and Persia, and to the
Caspian, and under the name of Kirghiz into Russia, and their
language is spoken over a large part of western Asia. Their setter*
are those of Persia. The Manchus and Mongols are chiefly Buddhist.
with letters derived from the ancient Syriac The Manchus are ocrw
said to be gradually falling under the influence of Chinese civilizat»>«.
and to be losing their old nomadic habits, and even their peculiar
language. The predatory habits of the Turkish, Mongolian and
Manchu population of northern Asia, and their irruptions into other
parts of the continent and into Europe, have produced very resnark-
able results in the history of the world.
The Chinese branch of the Mongolian family are a thor ou ghly
settled people of agriculturists and traders. They are partially
Buddhist, and have a peculiar monosyllabic, uninnected language,
with writing consisting of symbols, which represent words, not
letters.
The countries lying between India and the Mongolian are occu-
pied by populations chiefly of the Mongolian and Chinese type*
having languages fundamentally monosyllabic, but using letters'
derived from India, and adopting their religion, which is alaoout
everywhere Buddhist, from the Indians. Of these may be named
the Tibetans, the Burmese and the Siamese. Cochin-Chtna is mote
nearly Chinese in all respects. It is known that to the Tibet©-
Chinese modifications of the pure Mongolian type all the eastern
Burmese tribes— Chins, Kachins, Shans, Ac. — belong (as indeed
do the Burmese themselves), and that a cognate race occupies the
Himalaya to the eastern limits of Kashmir.
Some light has been thrown on the connexion between the Tibetan
race and certain tribes of central India, the Bhils and Kols; and it
seems more probable that these tribes are the remnants of a Mon-
golian race which first displaced a yet earlier Negroid population,
and was then itself shouldered out by a Caucasian irruption, than
that they entered India by any of the northern passages withta
historic times. Mongolian settlements have lately been found very
much farther extended into the border countries of north-west India
than has been hitherto recognized. The Mingals, who, conjointly
with the Brahuis, occupy the hills south of Kalat to the limits of the
Rajput province of Las Beta, claim Mongolian desct
of a Mongolian colony have been found in Makran.
The Malays, who occupy the peninsula and most of the islands of
the Archipelago called after them, are Mongols apparently 1
by their very different climate, and by the maritime life
forced upon them by the physical conditions of the
region they inhabit. As they are now known to us, they have under*
gone a process of partial civilization, first at the hands of the Bree*
minical Indians, from whom they borrowed a religion, aad to snow
extent literature and an alphabet, and subsequently from intercoun
TMahe
edaa
with the Arabs, which has led to the adoption of 1
by most of them.
The name of Aryan has been given to the races sneaking language!
derived from, or akin to, the ancient form of Sanskrit, who now
occupy the temperate cone extending from the Mediterraaeaa,
r, Persia and Afghanistan, to
across the highlands of Asia Minor,
HISTORY)
ASIA
749
India- The noes srjeaidng the languages akin to the aadent
Assyrian, which are now mainly represented by Arabic, have been
. .. __ called Semitic, and occupy the countries south-west of
ArjM- Persia, including Syria and Arabia, besides extending into
North Africa. Though the languages of these races are very different
they cannot be regarded as physically distinct, and they are both
without doubt branches of the Melanochroi, modified by admixture
srith the neighbouring races, the Mongols, the Australoids and the
Xanthochroi.
The Aryans of India are probably the most settled and dvffised
of all Asiatic races. This type is found in its purest form in the north
and north-west, while the mixed races and the population referred
to the Australoid type predominate in the peninsula and southern
India. The spoken languages of northern India are very various,
differing one from another in the sort of degree that English differs
from German, though all are thoroughly Sanakritic in their vocables,
but with an absence of Sanskrit grammar that has given rise to
considerable discussion. The languages of the south are Dravidian,
not Sanskritic. The letters of both classes of languages, which also
vary considerably, are all modification* of the ancient Pali, and
probably derived from the Dra vidians, not from the Aryans. They
are written from left to right, exception being made of Urdu or
Hindostani, the mixed language of the Mahommedan conquerors of
northern India, the character used for writing which is the Persian.
From the river Sutlej and the borders of the Sind desert, as far as
Burma and to Ceylon, the religion of the great bulk of the people
of India is Hindu or Brahminical, though the Mahommedans are
often numerous, and in some places even in a majority. West of the
Sutlej the population of Asia may be said to be wholly Mahommedan
with the exception of certain relatively small areas in Asia Minor
and Syria, where Christiana predominate. The language of 'the
Punjab does not differ very materially from that of Upper India.
West of the Indus the dialects approach more to Persian, which
language meets Arabic and Turld west of the Tigris, and along the
Turkoman desert and the Caspian. Through the whole of this tract
the letters are used which are common to Persian. Arabic and
Turkish, written from right to left.
Considerable progress has been made in the classification of the
Various races which occupy the continent to the west of the great
Mongolian region. .The ancient Sacae, or Scyths, are
recognised in the Aryan population, who may be found
in great numbers and in their purest form in the more
inaccessible mountains and glens of the central highlands.
These Tajiks (as they are usually called) form the underlying popu-
lation of Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Badakshan, ana their
language (in the central districts of Asia) is found to contain words
of Aryan or Sanskrit derivation which are not known in Persian.
They have been for the most part dispossessed of their country by
Turkish immigration and conquests, but they still retain their original
Intellectual superiority over the Turkish and other mixed tribes by
which they are surrounded. Uzbegs and Kirghia have but small
aAnity with the Mongol element of Asia. They are the representa-
tives of those countless Turkish irruptions which have taken place
through all history. Of the two divisions (Kara Kirghiz and Kassak
Kirghiz) into which the Kirghiz tribes are divided by Russian
authorities, the Kassak Kirghiz is the more closely allied to the
Kirghia is Tiirki and their religion
nomadic people they have great contempt for4he Sarts, who repre-
sent the town dwellers of the tribe. The Kalmucks are a Buddhist
and Mongolian people who originated in a confederacy of tribes
dwelling in Dzungaria, migrated to Siberia, and settled on the
Lower Volga. From thence they returned late in the 1 8th century
to the reoccupation of their old ground in Kulja under the Chinese.
The Turkoman is the purest form of the Turk element, and his lan-
guage is the purest form of the Turkish tongue, which is represented
at Constantinople by a comparatively mongrel, or mixed, dialect.
Ethnographers have traced a connexion between the Turkoman of
central Asia and the Teutonic races of Europe, based on a similarity
of national customs and immemorial usage. Evidence of an original
affinity between Turkoman and Rajput has also been found in the
mutual possession by these races of a ruddy skin, so that as ethno-
graphical inquiry advances the Turk appears to recede from his
Mongolian affinities and to approach the Caucasian. Turks and
Mongol* alike were doubtless included under the term Scyth by the
ancients, and as Tatars by more modern writers, insomuch that the
Turkish dynasty at Delhi, founded by Baber, is usually termed the
Mogul dynasty, although there can be no distinction traced between
the terms Mogul and Mongol. The general results of recent inquiry
Into the ethnography of Afghanistan is to support the general
correctness of Bellew s theories of the origin of the Afghan races.
The claim of the Durani Afghan to be a true Ben-i- Israel is certainly
in no way weakened by any recent investigation. The influence of
Creek culture in northern India is fully recognized, and the distri-
bution of Greek colonies previous to Alexander's time is attested
by practical knowledge of the districts they were said to occupy.
Toe habitat of the Nysaeana, and the identity of certain tribes of
Kafiristaa with the descendants of these pre-Alexandrian colonists
from the west, are also well established. To this day hymns are un-
wittingly sung to Bacchus in the dales and glens of Kafinstan. The
ethnographical status of the mixed tribes of the mountains that lie
between Chitral and the Peshawar plains has been fairly well fixed
by John Biddulph, and much patient inquiry in the vast fields of
Baluchistan by Major Modeler. G. P. Tate and others has resulted
in quite a new appreciation of the tribal origin of the greafcoa-
glomeration of Baluch peoples.
The result of trans-border surveys to the north and west of India
has been to establish the important geographical fact that it is by
two gateways only, one on the north-west and one on the west of
India, that the central Asiatic tides of immigration have flowed
into the peninsula. The Kabul valley indicates the north-western
entrance, and Makran indicates that on the west. By the Kabul
valley route, which includes at its head the group of passes across
the Hindu Kush which extend from the Khawak to the Kaoshan, all
those central Asian hordes, be they Sacae, Yue-chi, Jar*, Goths or
Huns, who were driven towards the rich plains of the south, entered
the Punjab. Some of them migrated from districts which belong to
eastern Asia, but none of them penetrated into India by eastern
passes. Such tides as set towards the Himalaya broke against their
farther buttresses, leaving an interesting ethnographical flotsam
in the northern valleys ; but they never overflowed the Himalayan
barrier. Later most of the historic invasions of India from central
Asia followed the route which leads directly from Kabul to Peshawar
and Delhi.
By the we ster n gates of Makran prehistoric irruptions from
Mesopotamia broke into the plains of Lower Sind, and either passed
on towards the central provinces of India or were absorbed in the
highlands south of Kalat. In later centuries the Arabs from the
west reached the valley of the Indus by their western route, and
there established a dynasty which lasted for 300 years. The identi-
fication of existing peoples with the various Scythic, Persian and
Arab races who have passed from High Asia into the Indian border-
land, has opened up a vast field of ethnographical inquiry which hat
hardly yet found adequate workers for its investigation. To such
fields may be added the yet more complicated problems of those
reflex waves which flowed backwards from India into the border
highlands.
(T. H. H.*)
History
1. The borders assigned to Asia on the west are somewhat
arbitrary. The Urals indicate no real division of races, and in
both Greek and Turkish times Asia Minor has been connected
with the opposite shores of Europe rather than with the lands
lying to the east. A juster view of early history is probably
obtained by thinking of the countries round the Mediterranean
as interacting on one another than by separating Palestine and
Asia Minor as Asiatic.
z. The words " Asiatic " and " Oriental " are often used as
if they denoted a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians
resemble Asiatics in many ways, and Turks, Hindus,
Chinese, ftc, differ in so many important points that
the common substratum is small. It amounts to this,
that Asiatics stand on a higher level than the natives
of Africa or America, but do not possess the special material
civilization of western Europe. As far as any common mental
characteristic can be assigned it is also somewhat negative,
namely, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independ-
ence and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as
members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities
with a destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy
in politics, fatalism in religion and conservatism in both. Hence,
too, Asiatic history has large and simple outlines. Though
longer chronologically than the annals of Europe, it is less
eventful, less diversified and offers fewer personalities of interest.
But the same conditions which render individual eminence
difficult procure for it when once attained a more ready recogni-
tion, and the conquerors and prophets of Asia have had more
power and authority than their parallels in Europe. Jcnghls
Khan and Timur covered more ground than Napoleon, and no
European has had such an effect on the world as Mahomet.
3. Attention has often been called to the religious character
of Asia. Not only the great religions of the world— Buddhism,
Christianity, Islam — but those of secondary import- ^^
ance, such as Judaism, Parseeism, Taoism, are all amV
Asiatic No European race left to itself has developed ****
anything more than an unsystematic paganism. It is t ^
true that Greek philosophy advanced far beyond this stage, but
it produced nothing sufficiently popular to be catted a rt"
750
ASIA
{HISTORY
On th* wthw KaaH Christianity, though Asiatic in its origin and
rwnitliil itlw«, h«i to a largr extent taken its present form on
Ntft«-»»« wrt. «»'• * ,mp of ,u mo,lt im P° rtftnt manifestations--
niiMtilv »»* Hwinsu Onmh-are European reconstructions in
HW.li Milk »f I hi* AMU I If clement remains. Christianity has
MWtlf MM* wav furllwr runt then Asia Minor. Modem missions
Itiun itud* m» tttMt < (inquests there, and in earlier times the
NMlMtlrttti * w, 1 l*" ,l,,,M wno P«»*trated to central Asia, China
•ml IniIU, iwi-lvml rr»i>cctful hearing, but never had anything
|lt, h (I** «!••«• whlfh attended Buddhism and Islam. Yet
pmMliMtt lw« never made much impression west of India, and
)«Um i« < Iwrly repugnant to Europeans, for even when under
M '..Ibii. i mIc ( a* in Turkey) they refuse to accept it in a far larger
i,h<l>oi uun than did the Hindus in similar circumstances. Hence
J lure ik dearly a deep-seated difference between the religious
jt*lmg> of the two continents.
Kim* Asiatic records go back much farther than those of
Europe, U is natural that Asia should be thought the birthplace
of civilization. But this originality cannot be absolute, for,
whatever may have been the relations of Babylonia' and the
Aryans, the latter brought civilization to India from the west,
and it is not always clear whether similarity of government and
institutions is the result of borrowing or of parallel development.
Both in Europe and in Asia small feudal or aristocratic states
tended to consolidate themselves into monarchies, but whereas
In Europe from the early days of Rome onwards royalty has often
been driven out and replaced temporarily or permanently by
popular government, this change seems not to occur in Asia,
where revolution means only a change of dynasty. The few
cases where the government is not monarchical, as Arabia, seem
to represent the persistence of very ancient conditions.
The contemplation of Asia suggests that progress is most
rapid when accompanied by the migration of races or the trans-
plantation of ideas and institutions. Thus Greece excelled the
Eastern countries from whom she may have derived her civiliza-
tion, and Buddhism had a far more brilliant career outside India
than in it.
4. In many parts of southern Asia are found semi-barbarous
races representing the earliest known stratum of population, such
as the Veddahs of Ceylon, and various tribes in China
STr*af an< * *** Malay Archipelago. Some of them offer
mtwan analogies to the Australians. This connexion, if true,
must be very ancient, since it apparently goes back to
a time when the distribution of land and water was other than
at present. In northern Asia are found other aborigines, such
as the Ainus of Japan and the so-called hyperborean races
(Chukchis, &c), but no materials are at present forthcoming
for (heir history. There is some record of the migrations of the
later races superimposed on these aborigines. The Chinese came
from the west, though how far west is unknown: the Hindus
and Persians from the north-west: the Burmese and Siamese
from the north. We do not know if the Mongols, Turks, &c,
had any earlier home than central Asia, but their extensive
movements from that region are historical
The antiquity of Asiatic history is often exaggerated. With
the exception of Babylonia and Assyria, we can hardly even
conjecture what was the condition of this continent much before
1500 b.c. At that period the Chinese were advancing along the
Hwang-ho, and the Aryans were entering India from the north-
west Both were in conflict with earlier races. The influence
of Babylonian civilization was probably widespread. Some
connexion between Babylonia and China is generally admitted,
and all Indian alphabets seem traceable to a Semitic original
borrowed in the course of commerce from the Persian Gulf.
Apart from European conquests, the internal history of Asia
in the last 2000 years is the result of the interaction of four main
influences: (a) Chinese, (b) Indian, (c) Mahommedan, (</) Central
Asian. Of these the first three represent different types of
civilization: the fourth has little originality, but has been of
great importance in affecting the distribution of races and
political power.
(o) China has moulded the civilization of the eastern mainland
and Japan, without much affecting the Malay ArdupeJafo.
the sphere of direct influence fall 'Korea, Japan and
in the outer sphere are Mongolia, Tibet, Siam, Cambodia asvd
Burma, where Indian and Chinese influence are combined, the
Indian being often the stronger. These countries, except Japan,
have all been at some time at least nominal tributaries of China.
Where Chinese influence had full play it introduced Confucianism,
a special style in art and the Chinese system of writing. Alter
the Christian era it was accompanied by Chinese Buddhism.
The cumbrous Chinese script maintains itself in the Far East,
but has not advanced west of China proper and Annam.
(b) Indian influence may be defined as Buddhism, if it is
understood that Buddhism is not at all periods clearly distinguish-
able from Hinduism. Its sphere includes Indo-China, much of
the Malay Archipelago, Tibet and Mongolia. Moreover, Chtra
and Japan themselves may be said to fall within this sphere, is
view of the part which Buddhism has played in their develop*
ment The Buddhist influence is not merely religious, for it is
always accompanied by Indian art and literature, and often by
an Indian alphabet. Much of this art is Greek in origin, being
derived from the Perso-Greek states on the north-west frontiers
of India. Indian alphabets have spread to Tibet, Cambodia . Java
and Korea. The history of Indian civilization in Indo-China
and the Archipelago is still obscure, in spite of the existence d
gigantic ruins, but it would appear that in some parts at least tmo
periods must be distinguished, first the introduction of Hinduism
(or mixed Hinduism and Buddhism), perhaps under Indian
princes, and secondly a later and more purely ecclesiastical
introduction of Sinhalese Buddhism, with its literature and art.
(e) Mahommedanism or Islam is perhaps the greatest trans-
forming force which the world has seen. It has profoundly
affected and to a large extent subjugated all western Asia
including India, all eastern and northern Africa as well as Spain,
and all eastern Europe. Its open advocacy of force attracts
warlike races, and the intensity of its influence is increased by
the fusion of secular and religious power, so that the *lQ*k9
Church is a Moslem state characterized by slavery, polygamy,
and, subject to the autocracy of the ruler, by the theoretical
equality of Moslems, who in political status are superior to non-
Moslems. Thus, whenever the population of a Moslem country
is of mixed belief, a ruling caste of Moslems is formed, as in
Turkey at the present day and India.under the Moguls. Islam
is paramount in Turkey, Persia, Arabia and Afghanistan. India
is the dividing line: Islam is strong in northern and central India,
weaker in the south. But only one-fifth of the whole population
is Moslem. Beyond India it has spread to Malacca and the
Malay Archipelago, where it overwhelmed Hindu dvilixatioa.
and reached the southern Philippines. But it made no progress
in Indo-China or Japan; and though there is a large Moslem
population in China the Chinese influence has been stronger, for
alone of all Asiatics the Chinese have succeeded in forcing IU&m
to accept the ordinary limitations of a religion and to take its
place as a creed parallel to Buddhism or any other.
Even more than Buddhism Islam has carried with it a special
style of art and civilization. It is usually accompanied by the use
of the Arabic alphabet, and in the languages of Moslem nations
(notably Turkish, Persian, Hindustani and Malay) a Urge
proportion of the vocabulary is borrowed from Arabic Hindi
and Hindustani, two forms of the same language as spoken by
Hindus and Mahommcdans respectively, are a curious exarr.pjt
of how deeply religion may affect culture.
(<f) The great part which central Asian tribes have played in
history is obscured by the absence of any common name for
them. linguistically they can be divided into several groups
such as Turks, Mongols and Huns, but they were from time to
time united into states representing more than one group, aitd
their armies were recruited, like the Janissaries, from all the
military races in the neighbourhood. Soon after the Christian
era central Asia began to boil over, and at least seven great
invasions and more or less complete conquests can be ascribed
to these tribes without counting minor movements, (i.) The
early invasions of Europe by the Avars, Huns and Bulgarians,
HISTORY]
ASIA
75»
(ii.) The invasion and temporary subjection of Russia by the
Mongols, who penetrated as far west as Silesia, (iii.) The
conquests of Tixnur. (iv.) The conquest of Asia Minor and
eastern Europe by the Turks, (v.) The conquest of India by the
Moguls, (vi.) The conquest of China by the Mongols under
Kublai. (vii.) The later conquest of China by the Manchus. To
these may be added numerous lesser invasions of India, China
and Persia.
These tribes have a genius for warfare rather than for govern-
ment, art or literature, and with few exceptions (e.g. the Moguls
in India) -have proved poor administrators. Apart from conquest
their most important function has been to keep up communica-
tions in central Asia, and to transport religions and civilizations
from one region to another. Thus they are mainly responsible
for the introduction of Islam with its Arabic or Persian civiliza-
tion into India and Europe, and in earlier times their movements
facilitated the infiltration of Graeco-Bactrian civilisation into
India, besides maintaining communication between China and
the West
5. Babylonia and Assyria. — The movements mentioned above
have been the chief factors of relatively modern Asiatic history,
but in early times the centre of activity and culture lay farther
west, in Babylonia and Assyria. These ancient states began to
decline in the 7th century B.C., and on their ruins rose the
Persian empire, which with various political metamorphoses
continued to be an important power till the 7th century a.d.,
after which all western Asia was overwhelmed by the Moslem
wave, and old landmarks and kingdoms were obliterated.
The materials for the study of their institutions and population
are abundant, but lend themselves to discussion rather than to
a summary of admitted facts. In the early history of south-
western Asia the Semites form the most important ethnic group,
which is primarily linguistic but also shares other remarkable
characteristics. Two of the greatest religions of the world;
Christianity and Islam, are Semitic in origin, as well as Judaism.
In politics these races have been less successful in modern times,
but the Semitic states of Babylonia and Assyria were once the
principal centres for the development and distribution of civiliza-
tion. It is generally agreed that this civilization can be traced
back to an earlier race, the Sumero-Akkadians, whose language
seems allied to the agglutinative idioms of central Asia. If this
ancient civilized race was really allied to the ancestors of the
Turks and Huns, it is a remarkable instance of how civilization
thrives best by being transplanted at a certain period of growth.
Still less is known of the early non-Aryan races of Asia Minor
such as the Hittites and Alorodians. One hypothesis supposes
that the shores of the Mediterranean were originally inhabited
by a homogeneous race neither Aryan nor Semitic.
The earliest Sumerian records seem to be anterior to 4000 B.C.
Shortly after that period Babylonia was invaded by Semites,
who became the ruling race. The city of Babylon came to the
fore as metropolis about 2285 B.C. under Khammurabi. Assyria
was an offshoot of Babylonia lying to the north-west, and appar-
ently colonized before the second millennium. While using
the same language as the Babylonians, the Assyrians had an
individuality which showed itself in art and religion. In the
pth and 8th centuries B.C. they became the chief power within
their sphere and the suzerain of their parent Babylon. But they
succumbed before the advance of the Mcdo-Persian power in
606 B.C., whereas it was not till 555 that Cyrus took Babylon.
Assyria, being essentially a military power, disappeared with
the destruction of Nineveh, but Babylon continued to exercise
an influence on culture and religion for many centuries after the
Persian conquest.
6. China.— This is the oldest of existing states, though its
authentic history does not go back much beyond 1000 B.C. It is
generally admitted that there was some connexion between
the ancient civilizations of China and Babylonia, but its precise
nature is still uncertain. It is clear, however, that the Chinese
came from the west, and entered their present territory along
the course of the Hwang-ho at an unknown period, possibly about
3000 B.C. In early historical times China consisted of a shifting
confederacy of feudal states, bat about 220 b.c. the state of
Tain or Chin (whence the name China) came into prominence,
and succeeded in formings homogeneous empire, which advanced
considerably towards the south. The subsequent history of
China is mainly a record of struggles with various tribes, com-
monly, but not very correctly, called Tatars. The empire was
frequently broken up by successful incursions, or divided
between rival dynasties, but at least twice became a great
Asiatic power: under the Han dynasty (about 200 b.c.~aj>. 220),
and the T'ang (a.d. 6x9-906). The dominions of the latter
extended across central Asia to northern India, but were dis-
membered by the attacks of the Kitans, whence the name Cathay*
China proper, minus these external provinces, was again united
under the Sung dynasty (960-1x27), but split into the northern
(Tatar) and southern (Chinese) kingdoms. In the 13th century
arose the Mongol power, and Kublai Khan conquered China.
The Mongol dynasty lasted less than a century, but the Ming,
the native Chinese dynasty which succeeded it, reigned tor
nearly 300 years and despatched expeditions which reached
India, Ceylon and East Africa. In 1644 the Ming succumbed
to the attacks of the Manchus, a northern tribe who captured
Peking and founded the present imperial house.
Until the advent of Europeans, the Chinese were always in
contact with inferior races. Whether they expanded at the
expense of weak aboriginal tribes or were conquered by more
robust invaders, Chinese civilization prevailed and assimilated
alike the conquered and the conquerors. It is largely to this
that we must ascribe the national conservatism and contempt
for foreigners. The spirit of the Chinese polity is self-contained,
anti-military and anti-sacerdotal Rank is nominally deter-
mined by merit, as tested by competitive examinations. Society
is conceived as regulated by mutual obligations, of which the
duties of parents and children are the most important. The
emperor is head of the state and the high priest, who sacrifices
to Heaven on behalf of his people, but be can be deposed, and
no divine right is inherent in certain families as in Japan and
Turkey. On the contrary there have been so dynasties since
the Christian era.
The most conspicuous figure in Chinese literature is Confucius
(551-475 B.C.). Though he laid no claim to originality and
merely sought to collect and systematize the traditions of
antiquity, his influence in the Far East has been unbounded,
and he must be pronounced one of the most powerful advocates
of peace and humanity that have ever existed. Confucianism
is an ethical rather than a religious system, and hence was able
to co-exist, though not on very friendly terms, with Buddhism,
which reached China about the xst century a.d. and was the
chief source of Chinese religious ideas, except the older ancestor
worship. But they are not a religious people, and like many
Europeans regard the church as a department of the state.
7. Japan appears to have been formerly inhabited by the
Ainus, who have traditions of ah older but unknown population,
but was invaded in prehistoric times by a race akin to the
Koreans, which was possibly mingled with Malay elements
after occupying the southern part of the islands. Authentic
history does not begin till about the 6th century a.d., when
Chinese civilization and Buddhism were introduced. The
government was originally autocratic, but as early as the 7th
century the most characteristic feature of Japanese politics-*-
the power of great families who overshadowed the throne —
makes its appearance. We hear first of the Fujiwara family,
and then of the rivalry between the houses of Taira and Mina-
moto. The latter prevailed, and in 1102 established the dual
system of government under which the emperor or Mikado
ruled only in name, and the real power was in the hands of a
hereditary military chief called Shogun. Japan has never been
invaded in historical times, but an attempt made by Kublai
Khan to conquer it was successfully repulsed. The chief power
then passed to the Ashikaga dynasty of Shoguns, who retained
it for about 200 years and were distinguished ior their patronage
of the arts. The second half of the 16th century was a period
of ferment and anarchy, marked by the arrival of the Port*
752
ASIA
[HISTORY
and the rise of some remarkable adventurers, one of whom,
Hideyoshi, conquered Korea and apparently meditated the
Invasion of China. His plans were interrupted by his death, and
his successor, Ieyasu, who shaped the social and political life
of Japan for nearly 300 years (1605-1868), definitely decided on a
policy of seclusion and isolation. All ideas of external conquest
were abandoned, Christianity was forbidden, and Japan closed
to foreigners, only the Dutch being allowed a strictly limited
commerce. In. 1854-1859 the Christian powers, beginning
with the United States, successfully asserted their right to trade
with Japan. The influx of new ideas provoked civil war, in
which the already decadent Shogunate was abolished and the
authority of the Mikado restored. Recognizing that their only
chance of competing with Europeans was to fight them with
their own weapons, the Japanese set themselves deliberately
to assimilate the material civilisation and to some extent
the institutions of Europe, such as constitutional government
Their progress and success are without parallel In 1895 they
defeated the Chinese and ten years later the Russians. Their
exceptional status among Asiatic nations has been recognized
by treaties which, contrary to the general practice in non-
Christian countries, place all foreigners in Japan under Japanese
law.
This sudden development of the Japanese is perhaps the
most important event of the second half of the 19th century,
since it marks the rise of an Asiatic power capable of competing
with Europe on equal terms. Their history is so different from
that of the rest of Asia that it is not surprising if the result Is
different The nation hardly came into existence till China and
India had passed their prime, and remained secluded and free
from the continual struggle against barbarian invaders, which
drained the energies of its neighbours. It was left untouched
by Mahommedanism, and for an unprecedentedly long period
kept Europeans at bay without wasting its strength in hostilities.
The military spirit was evolved, not in raids and massacres of
the usual Asiatic type which create little but intense racial
hatred, but in feuds between families and factions of the same
race, which restrained ferocity and tended to create a temper
like that of the feudal chivalry of Europe. On the other hand
it is noticeable that the Japanese have little which is original
in the way of religion, literature or philosophy. Unlike the
Chinese and Indians, they have hitherto not had the smallest
influence on the intellectual development of Asia, and though
they have in the past sometimes shown themselves intensely
nationalist and conservative, they have, compared with India
and China, so little which is really their own that their assimila-
tion of foreign ideas is explicable.
8. Korea received its civilization and religion from China, but
differs in language, and to some extent in customs. An alphabet
derived from Indian sources is in use as well as Chinese writing.
The country was at most periods independent though nominally
tributary to China. In the 16th century the Japanese occupied
it for a short period, and in 1894 they went to war with China
on account of her claims to suzerainty. In 1895 Korea was
declared independent
9. India. — The population of India comprises at least three
strata: firstly, uncivilized aborigines, such as the Kols and
Santhals, and secondly, the Dra vidians (Tamils, Kanarese, &c),
who perhaps represent the earliest northern invaders, and appear
to have attained some degree of culture on their own account
The most recent authorities are of opinion that the Kolarians
and Dra vidians represent a single physical type; but, whatever
the historical explanation may be, they certainly have different
languages and show different stages of civilization. In pre-
historic times they were spread over the whole of India, but were
driven to the centre and south of the peninsula by the third
stratum of Aryans, and perhaps also by invasions of so-called
Mongolian races from the north-west No historical record has
been preserved of these latter, but they appear to have profoundly
affected the population of Bengal, which is believed to be Mongolo-
Dravidian in composition. The Aryans appear to have been
settled to the north of the Hindu Kush, and to have migrated
south-eastwards about 1500 bx. Their original home has been
a subject of much discussion, but the view now prevalent is that
they arose in southern Russia or Asia Minor, whence a section
spread eastwards and divided into two closely related branches—
the Hindus and Iranians. There were probably two successive
Aryan immigrations, and the tradition of a struggle between
them may be preserved in the UakSbhirala. The life of the
ancient Aryans, as portrayed in their sacred songs, the Rig I7&,
was quasi-nomadic and in many ways democratic, but by the
6th century B.C. settled states had been formed in the Ganges
valley. They were absolute monarchies, but the powe* of the
king was tempered by the extraordinary influence possessed by
the hereditary sacerdotal class or Brahmans. The position of
this class, which has remained till the present day, is connected
with the institution of caste, a division of the population into
groups founded partly on racial distinctions. The peaceful
progress of Brahmanism was hindered by the doctrine of li*
Indian prince Gotama, called the Buddha, which grew into oat
of the greatest religions of the world. For many centuries the
culture and development of the Hindus depended mainly on
the interaction of the old Brahmanical religion and Buddhism.
The latter was finally absorbed, and disappeared in India itself,
but has spread Indian influence over the whole of eastern Asia,
where it still flourishes.
In 326 b.c. Alexander invaded the Punjab. The immediate
result was small, but the establishment of Perso-Greek kingdoms
in centra] Asia had a powerful influence on Indian art and culture.
It may also have helped to familiarize the Hindu mind with the
idea of an empire, which appeared among them later than in
other Asiatic countries. The first empire, called Maurya , reached
its greatest extent in the time of Asoka (264-237 B.C.). who rule J
from Afghanistan to Madras. He was a zealous Buddhist and
gave the first example of a missionary religion, for by his exertions
the faith was spread over all India and Ceylon. No Hindu
empires have lasted long, and the Maurya dominions broke up
fifty years after his death.
In the next period (c. 150 b.c.-a.d. 300) India was invaded
from the north by tribes partly of Parthian and partly of Turli
(Yue-chi, &c.) origin. Owing to the absence of dated records
the chronology of these invasions has not yet been set beyond
dispute, but the most important was that of the Kushans, whose
king Kanishka founded a state which comprised northern India
and Kashmir. They were Buddhists, and it is probable that
the Mahayana or northern form of Buddhism was due to an
amalgamation of Gotama's doctrines with the ideas (largely
Greek and Persian) which they brought with them. Much of
Sivaism has probably the same origin. Another native empire,
known as Gupta, rose on the ruins of the Kushan kingdom,
and embraced nearly the whole peninsula, but it broke up
in the 5th century, partly owing to the attacks of new northern
invaders, the Huns. The Malava dynasty maintained Hind a
civilization in the 6th century, and from 606 to 646 Hirsha
established a brief but brilliant empire in the north with its
capital at Kanauj. This epoch is marked by the renaissance of
Sanskrit literature and the gradual revival of Hinduism at the
expense of Buddhism. But after Harsha Hindu history is lost
in a maze of small and transitory states, incapable of resisting
the ever advancing Mahommedan peril. As early as 71a the
Arabs conquered Sind, and by the end of the nth century the
whole of northern India was in Moslem hands. Two periods may
be distinguished, namely the Turki (1 200-1 526) and the Mogul
empire. The former comprised several dynasties of mixed Turki
and Iranian race, but was wanting in coherency. In the neigh-
bourhood of the Moslem capitals, Islam spread rapidly, but la
such districts as Rajputana and specially Vijayanagar (Mysore)
Hindu civilization and religion maintained themselves.
In 1526 the Moguls descended on India from Transoxiana and
seized the throne of Delhi. They never subjugated the south,
but the empire which they founded in the north was for about
two centuries, under such rulers as Akbar and Shah Jehan. one
of the most brilliant which Asia has seen. After 1707 it began
to decline: the governors became independent: a powerful
HISTORY]
Mahratta confederacy arose in central India; Nadir Shah of
Persia sacked Delhi; and Ahmed Shah made repeated invasions.
A still more formidable danger, the power of the French and
English, continued to increase. Amidst such confusion the
authority of the Mogul empire rapidly disappeared, but it lasted
as a name till the Mutiny (1857).
Indian history until Mahommedan times is marked by the
unusual prominence of religious ideas, and u a record of in-
tellectual development rather than of political events. Whatever
national unity the Hindu peoples possessed came from the
persistent and penetrating influence of the Brahman caste.
Kings held a secondary position, and were generally regarded
as adventitious tyrants, rather than as the heads and repre-
sentatives of the nation. Even the great dynasties have left
few traces, and it is with difficulty that the patient historian
disinters the minor kingdoms from obscurity, but Indian religion,
literature and art have influenced all Asia from Persia to Japan.
10. Persia. — The Persians, with whom are often coupled the
Medes, appear to be pure Aryans in origin, and the earliest form
of their language and religion offers remarkable analogies to the
Vedas. It is reasonable to suppose that their ancestors and those
of the Hindus at one time formed a single tribe somewhere in
central Asia. The religion was remodelled by Zoroaster, who
seems to be a historical character and to have lived about the
7th century B.C. About the same time they shook off the
domination of Assyria. From the 6th century onwards their
empire, then known as Median, began to expand at the expense
of the surrounding states. They destroyed Nineveh in alliance
with the Babylonians, and half a century later Cyrus took
Babylon and founded the great dynasty of the Achaemenidae.
The substitution of the Persian for the Median power, which
took place with the advent of Cyrus, seems to indicate merely
the pre-eminence of a particular tribe and not conquest by
another race. The power of the Achaemenidae, when at its
maximum, extended from the Oxus and Indus in the east to
Thrace in the west and Egypt in the south, but fell before Greece,
after lasting for rather more than 200 years. Darius and Xerxes
were repulsed in their efforts to subjugate the Greek Peninsula,
and Alexander the Great conquered their successor Darius III.
in 329. But the greater part of the empire continued to exist
under new masters, the Seleudds, as a Hellenistic power which
was of great importance for the dissemination of Greek culture
in the East. Bactria soon became independent under an Indo-
Greek dynasty, and the blending of Greek, Persian, central
Asiatic and Hindu influences had an important effect on the art
and religion of India, and through India on all eastern Asia.
About the same period (250 b.c.-a.d. 227) the Parthian empire
arose under the Arsacids in Khorasan and the adjacent districts.
The Parisians appear to have been a Turanian tribe who had
adopted many Persian customs. They successfully withstood
the Romans, and at one time their power extended from India
to Syria. They succumbed to the Persian dynasty of the
Sassanids, who ruled successfully for about four centuries,
established the Zoroastrian faith as their state religion, and
maintained a creditable conflict with the East Roman empire.
But in the 7th century they were defeated by Heradius, and
shortly afterwards were annihilated before the first impetus of
the Mahommedan conquest, which established Islam in Persia
and the neighbouring lands, sweeping away old civilizations
and boundaries. During the greater part of the Mahommedan
period Persia has been ruled by troubled and short-lived
dynasties. It attained a certain dignity and unity under
Abbas Shah (1585-1638), but in later times was distracted and
disorganised by Afghan invasions. The present dynasty, which
is of Turkoman origin, dates from 1789.
The achievements of the Persians in art, literature and
religion are by no means contemptible, but somewhat mixed and
cosmopolitan. Owing to its position, the Persian state, when it
from time to time became a conquering empire, overlapped Asia
Minor, Babylon and India, and hence acted as an intermediary
for transmitting art and ideas, sending for instance Greek
sculpture to India and the cult of Mithra to western Europe. It
0x3
ASIA
753
is" perhaps on account of this intermediate flavour that the
literature of Persia— for instance the adaptations of Omar
Khayyam-— is more appreciated in Europe than that of other
Oriental nations. On the other hand, the wars between Persia
and Greece were recognised both at the time and afterwards
as a struggle between Europe and Asia; the fact that both
combatants were Aryans was not felt, and has .no importance
compared to the difference of continent.
ix. Jew. — The Israelites appear to have been originally a
nomadic tribe akin to the Arabs, whom they resemble in their
want of political instinct and in their extraordinary religious
genius. Among many remarkable qualities they have been
distinguished from the earliest times by a species of commen-
safism, or power of living among other nations without becoming
either socially merged or politically distinct. Their traditional
history represents them as migrating to the borders of Egypt
and living there for some centuries. After the exodus, which
perhaps took place about 1300 B.C., they moved northwards
again and founded a state of modest dimensions, which attained
a short-lived unity under Solomon, but succumbed to interna)
dissensions and to the attacks of Assyria and Babylon. Shal-
maneser destroyed the northern kingdom or Israel in 720, and
following the practice of the times deported the majority of the
population, whose traces became lost to history. There is no
reason why their descendants should not be found to-day in
various tribes, but the physical type commonly called Jewish is
characteristic not so much of Israel as of western Asia generally.
In 588 Nebuchadressar carried off the Jews in captivity, but
after the Persian conquest of Babylonia they were .allowed to
return to Palestine in 538. Their institutions and ideas were
probably considerably modified during this period. Babylon
long continued to be a Jewish centre whence the Jews radiated
to other countries. The restored state of Jerusalem lived for
about six centuries in partial independence under Persian,
Egyptian, Syrian and Roman rule, often showing an aggressively
heroic attachment to its national customs, which brought it into
collision with its suzerains, until the temple was destroyed by
Titus in ad. 70, and the country laid waste in the succeeding
years. But long before this period the Jews of the Dispersion
had become as important as the inhabitants of Palestine. From
choice or compulsion large numbers settled in Egypt in the time
of the Ptolemies, and added an appreciable element to Alex-
andrine culture, while gradual voluntary emigration established
Jewish communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, who
facilitated the first spread of Christianity. In spite of chronic
unpopularity and recurring persecutions they have spread over
nearly all Europe. At the end of the 15th century they were
expelled from Spain and many of the exiles moved eastwards.
At present the largest numbers are to be found in the eastern
parts of Europe. It is remarkable that though the Jews live in
relative peace with Asiatics, the great majority of them prefer
Europe as a residence.
13. Arabs.— The Arabs have hardly any history before the
rise of Islam, although their name is mentioned by surrounding
nations from the 9th century B.C. onwards. They appear to
have had few states or kings, but rather tribes and chiefs. Their
relationship to the Babylonians and Jews is indicated by linguistic
and ethnological data. The language and writing of the Semites
who, at an unknown period, settled in what is now Abyssinia,
show affinities with those of South Arabia, and these Semites
may have been immigrants into Africa from that region. It is
plain from early Moslem literature that Persian, Christian and
especially Jewish ideas had penetrated into Arabia.
With the rise of Mahommedanism occurred a sudden effer-
vescence of the Arabs, who during some centuries threatened to
impose not only their political authority but their civilisation
and new religion on the whole known world. They successfully
invaded India and central Asia in the east, Spain and Morocco
in the west. The Caliphate under the Omayyada of Damascus,
and then the Abbasids of Bagdad, became the principal power in
the nearer East. It had not, however, a sufficiently coherent
organisation for permanence; parts of it became independent,
754
ASIA
IH1ST01Y
otters were first protected and then absorbed by the Turks.
Hie Arab rule in Spain, whkb once threatened to overwhelm
Europe and was turned back near Tours by Charles Martel, was
distinguished by its tolerance and civilization, and lingered on
till the 15th century.
The collapse of the political power of the Arabs was singularly
complete. The Caliphate, though Arabian, was always geo-
graphically outside Arabia, and on its fall Arabia remained as
it was before Islam, isolated and inaccessible. It is still one of
the least known parts of the globe, and has hardly any political
link with the outside, for the Arabs of northern Africa form
separate states. But in spite of this total political collapse,
Arabic religion and literature are still one of the greatest forces
working in the western half of Asia, in northern Africa and to
some extent in eastern Europe.
13. Ceylon, though geographically an annex of India, has not
followed its fortunes historically. According to tradition it was
invaded by an Aryan-speaking colony from the valley of the
Ganges in the 6th century B.C. It received Buddhism from
north India in the time of Asoka, and has had considerable
importance as a centre of religious culture which has influenced
Burma and Siam. Its medieval history consists of struggles
between the native sovereigns and Tamil invaders. A powerful
native dynasty reigned in the 12th century, but in 1408 the
island was attacked by Chinese, and from 1505 onwards it was
distracted by the attacks and squabbles of Europeans. It was
partially subjugated, first by the Portuguese and then by the
Dutch. In 1796 the Dutch were expelled by the English.
14. Indo-China. — This is an appropriate name for Burma,
Siam, Cambodia, Annam, &C, for both in position and in civiliza-
tion they lie between India and China. Indian influence is
predominant as far as Cambodia (though with a Chinese tinge),
Indian alphabets being employed and the Buddhism being of
the Sinhalese type, but in- Annam and Tongking the Chinese
script and many Chinese institutions are in use. The population
belongs to various races, and also comprises little-known wild
tribes, (i.) Languages of the group known as Mon-Annam are
spoken in Annam and in Pegu, an ancient kingdom originally
distinct from Burma though now confounded with it. This
distribution seems to indicate that they once spread over the
whole region, and were divided by the later advance of the
Siamese and others. Until Annam was taken by the French,
its history consisted of a struggle with the Chinese, who alter-
nately asserted and lost their sovereignty. The Annamese are,
however, a distinct race. Cochin China was once the seat of a
kingdom called Champa, which appears to have had a hinduized
Malay civilization and to have been subsequently absorbed by
Annam. (ii.) The Burmese are linguistically allied to the
Tibetans, and probably entered Burma from the north-west.
The early history consists largely of conflicts between the
Burmese and Talaings. The kingdom which was annexed by
Britain in 1885 was founded about 1750 by Alompra, who
united his countrymen and broke the power of the Talaings.
He also invaded Siam. (iii.) The Khmers or Cambodians,
whose languages appear to belong to the Mdn-Annam group,
form a relatively ancient kingdom, much reduced in the last few
centuries by the advance of the Siamese and now a French
protectorate. Remarkable ruins dating from perhaps a.d. 800
to 1000 attest the former prevalence of strong Hindu influence. 1
(iv.) The Siamese or Thai, who speak a monosyllabic language
of the Chinese type, but written in an Indian alphabet, represent
a late invasion from southern China, whence they descended
about the 13th century.
15. Malays.— This widely-scattered race has no political
union and its distribution is a puzzle for ethnography. At
present it occupies the extremity of the Malay Peninsula, Java,
Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines and other islands of the
Malay Archipelago as well as Madagascar, while the inhabitants
of most islands in the South Seas, including New Zealand and
Hawaii, speak languages which if not Malay have at least under-
gone a strong Malay influence. It would seem from this dis-
tribution that the Malays are not continental, but a seafaring
race with exceptional powers of dispersal, who have spread o\er
the ocean from some island centre-— perhaps Java. The lairst
theory, however, is that there is a great linguistic group (wh^h
may or may not prove to correspond to an ethnic unity) cos-
prising the Mundi, Mdnkhmer, Malay, Polynesian and Micro-
nesian languages, and that the stream of immigration wh..k
distributed them started from the extreme west. Three pen jc! *
can be traced in the history of the Asiatic Malays, In the ini
(in which such tribes as the Dyaks have remained) they *«ne
semi-barbarous. In the second, Hindu civilization reached the
Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and other islands. The
presence of Hindu ruins, as well as of numerous Indian «ord&
and customs, testifies to the strength of this influence. It *?».
however, superseded by Islam, which spread to the Ma .
Archipelago and Peninsula before the 16th century. At the
present time the Arabic alphabet is used on the mainland, but
Indian alphabets in Java, Sumatra, &c
16. Tibet. — This remote and mountainous country has s
peculiar civilization. It has entirely escaped Islam, and thoif^
it is a nominal vassal of China, direct Chinese influence has r- 1
been strong. The most striking feature is the religion, a corrupt
form of late Indian Buddhism, known as Larnaism, whkh
largely in consequence of the favour shown by Jenghiz Khan
and his successors, has attained temporal power and develop* i
into an ecclesiastical state curiously like the papacy.
17. Mangels. — Such civilization as the Mongols possess is a
mixture of Chinese and Indian, the latter derived chiefly throceh
Tibet, but their alphabet is a curious instance of transplantaiioc
It is an adaptation of the Syriac writing introduced by t£e
early Nestorian missionaries.
18. Almost' all Asiatic countries have a literature, but it s
often not indigenous and consists of foreign works, chicfi)
religious, read either in translations or the original.
Thus with the exception of a little folklore the literature *■**»
of Indo-China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and Manchuria SL^*
is mainly Indian or Chinese. The chief original
literatures arc Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic and Persian. Tr*
Japanese have produced few books of importance, and thc.r
compositions are chiefly remarkable as being lighter and mere
secular than is usual in Asia, but the older Chinese works take
high rank both for their merits and the effect they have had
The extensive Sanskrit literature, which has reached in transla-
tions China, Japan and Java, is chiefly theological and poetic -I.
history being conspicuously absent. India has also a considers U. :
medieval and modern literature in various languages. Pali,
though only a form of Hindu literature, has a separate history,
for it died in India and was preserved in Ceylon, whence it wa>
imported to Burma and Siam as the language of religion. The
Pali versions of Buddha's discourses are among the most remark-
able products of Asia. The literatures of all Moslem peoples are
largely inspired by Arabic, which has produced a volnmicous
collection of works in prose and poetry. Persian, after beir>c
itself transformed by Arabic, has in its turn largely influenced
all west Asiatic Moslem literature from Hindustani to Turkish.
If one excepts the Old Testament, which is a product of the
extreme west of Asia, it is remarkable how smaU has been the
influence of Asiatic literature on Europe. Though Greek and
Slavonic almost ceased to be written languages under Turkish
rule, Europeans showed no disposition to replace them by
Ottoman or Arabic literature.
Without counting subdivisions, there would seem to be three
main schools of art in Asia at present— 'Chinese, Indian and
Moslem. The first contains many original elements. It is
feeblest in architecture and strongest in the branches demanding
skill and care in a limited compass, such as painting, porccUia
and enamel. It is the main inspiration of Japanese art, which,
however, shows great originality in its treatment of borrowed
themes. Both China and Japan have felt through Buddhism
the influence of Indian art, which contains at least two elements-
one indigenous and the other Greco-Persian. Unlike Chinese art
it has a genius for architecture and sculpture rather than paint : n*
Mahommedan art is also largely architectural and has affectrd
HISTORY]
ASIA
753
nearly all Moslem countries. Except that the use of Arabic
inscriptions is one of its principal methods of decoration, it owes
little to Arabia and much to Byzantium. The Persian variety
of this art is more ornate, and less averse to representations of
living beings. Both Moslem and Chinese art are closely connected
with calligraphy, but Hindus rarely use writing for ornament.
In both art and literature modern Asia is inferior to the past
more conspicuously than Europe.
As for science, astronomy was cultivated by the Babylonians
at an early period, and it is probably from them that a knowledge
of the heavenly bodies and their movements spread over Asia.
Grammar and prosody were studied in India with a marvellous
accuracy and minuteness several centuries before Christ. Mathe-
matics were cultivated by the Chinese, Indians and Arabs, but
nearly all the sciences based on the observation of nature,
including medicine* Have remained in a very backward condition.
Much the same, however, might have been said of Europe until
two centuries ago, and the scientific knowledge of the Arabs under
the earlier Caliphates was equal or superior to that of any of
their contemporaries. Histories and accounts of travels have
been composed both in Arabic and Chinese.
19. It is only natural that Europe should have chiefly felt the
influence of western Asia. Though Europeans may be indebted
fafflh>w to China * or somc mechanical inventions, she was
oiA*m too distant to produce much direct effect, and the
*m **w influence of India has been mainly directed towards
tfilTas tnc East. The resemblances between primitive
Christianity and Buddhism appear to be coincidences,
and though both early Greek philosophy and later Alexandrine
ideas suggest Indian affinities, there is no clear connexion such
as there is between certain aspects of Chinese thought and India.
Any general statement as to the debt owed by early European
civilizations to western Asia would at present be premature, for
though important discoveries have been made in Crete and
Babylonia the best authorities are chary of positive conclusions
as to the relations of Cretan civilization to Egypt and Babylonia.
Egyptian influence within the Aegean area seems certain, and
the theory that Greek writing and systems for reckoning time are
Babylonian in origin has not been disproved, though the history
of the alphabet is more complex than was supposed.
In historic times Asia has attempted to assert her influence over
Europe by a series of invasions, most of which have been repulsed.
Such were the Persian wars of Greece, and perhaps one may
add Hannibal's invasion of Italy, if the Carthaginians were
Phoenicians transplanted to Africa. The Roman empire kept
back the Persians and Parthians, but could not prevent a scries
of incursions by Avars, Huns, Bulgarians, and later by Mongols
and Turks. Islam has twice obtained a footing in Europe, under
the Arabs in Spain and under the Turks at Constantinople.
The earlier Asiatic invasions were conducted by armies operating
at a distance from their bases, and had little result, for the
soldiery retired after a time (like Alexander from India), or more
rarely (e.g. the Bulgarians) settled down without keeping up any
connexion with Asia. The Turks, and to some extent the Arabs
in Spain, were successful because they first conquered the parts
of Asia and Africa adjoining Europe, so that the final invaders
were in touch with Asiatic settlements. Though the Turks have
profoundly affected the whole of eastern Europe, the result of
their conquests has been not so much to plant Asiatic culture in
Europe as to arrest development entirely, the countries under
their rule remaining in much the same condition as under the
moribund Byzantine empire.
In general, Europe has in historic times shown itself decidedly
hostile to Asiatic institutions and modes of thought. It is only
of recent years that the writings of Schopenhauer and the
researches of many distinguished orientalists have awakened
some interest in Asiatic philosophy.
The influence of Asia on Africa has been considerable, and
until the middle of the 19th century greater than that of Europe.
Some authorities hold that Egyptian civilisation came from
Babylonia, and that the so-called Hamitic languages are older
and less specialized members of the Semitic family. The con-
nexion between Carthage and Phoenicia is more certain, and the
ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from
south Arabia. The traditions of the Somalis derive them from
the same region. The theory that the ruins in Mashonaland
were built by immigrants from south Arabia is now discredited,
but there was certainly a continuous stream of Arab migration
to East Africa which probably began in pre-Moslem times and
founded a series of dries on the coast. The whole of the north
of Africa from Egypt to Morocco has been mahommedanized,
and Mahommedan influence is general and fairly strong from
Timbuktu to Lake Chad and Wadat. South of the equator,
Arab slave-dealers penetrated from Zanzibar to the great lakes
and the Congo during the second and third quarters of the 19th
century, but their power, though formidable, has disappeared
without leaving any permanent traces.
The relation to Asia of the pre-European civilizations of
America is another of those questions which admit of no definite
answer at present, though many facts support the theory that
the semi-civilized inhabitants of Mexico and Central America
crossed from Asia by Bering Straits and descended the west
coast. Some authorities hold that Peruvian civilization had no
connexion with the north and was an entirely indigenous product,
but Rechua is in structure not unlike the agglutinative languages
of central and northern Asia.
20. European influence on Asia has been specially strong
at two epochs, firstly after the conquests of Alexander the
Great, and secondly from the 16th century onwards.
Alexander's conquests resulted in the foundation of JjJJJJJ
Perso-Greek kingdoms in Asia, which not only hellen- Mtftltt>
feed their own area but influenced the art and religion
of India and to some extent of China. Then follows a long
period in which eastern Europe was mainly occupied in combating
Asiatic invasions, and had little opportunity of Europeanising
the East. Somewhat later the Crusades kept up communication
with the Levant, and established there the power of the Roman
Church, somewhat to the detriment of oriental Christianity,
but intercourse with farther Asia was limited to the voyages
of a few travellers. Looking at eastern Europe and western
Asia only, one must say that Asiatic influences have on the
whole prevailed hitherto (though perhaps the tide is turning),
for Islam is paramount in this region and European culture at
a low ebb. But the case is quite different if one looks at the
two continents as a whole, for improvement in means of com-
munication has brought about strange vicissitudes, and western
Europe has asserted her power in middle and eastern Asia.
In the 1 6th century a new era began with the discovery by
the Portuguese of the route to India round the Cape, and the
naval powers of Europe started one after another on careers of
oriental conquest. The movement was maritime and affected
the nations in the extreme west of Europe rather than those
nearer Asia, who were under the Turkish yoke. Also the parts
of Asia affected were chiefly India and the extreme East. The
countries west of India, being less exposed to naval invasion,
remained comparatively untouched. It will thus be seen that
European (excluding Russian) power in Asia is based almost
entirely on improved navigation. There was no attempt to
overwhelm whole empires by pouring into them masses of
troops, but commerce was combined with territorial acquisition,
and a continuity of European interest secured by the presence
of merchants and settlers. The course of oriental conquest
followed the events of European politics, and the possessions of
European powers in the East generally changed hands accord-
ing to the fortunes of their masters at home. Portugal was
first on the scene, and in the 16th century established a consider-
able littoral empire on the coasts of East Africa, India and China,
fragments of which still remain, especially Goa, where Portuguese
influence on the natives was considerable. Before the century
was out the Dutch appeared as the successful rivals of the
Portuguese, but the real struggle for supremacy in southern
Asia took place between France and England about 1 740-1 783.
Both entered India as commercial companies, but the dis-
organized condition of the Mogul empire necessitated the use
<
756
ASIA
of military force to protect their interests, and allured them to
conquest. The companies gradually undertook the financial
control of the districts where they traded and were recognised
by the natives as political powers. The ultimate victory of
England seems due less to any particular aptitude for dealing
with oriental problems than to a better command of the seas
and to considerations of European politics. At the end of the
Napoleonic wars Portugal had Macao and Goa, Holland Java,
Sumatra and other islands, France some odds and ends in India,
while England emerged with Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon
and a free hand in India. Guided by such administrators as
Warren Hastings, the East India Company had assumed more
and more definitely the functions of government for a great
part of India. In 1800 its exclusive trading rights were taken
away by Parliament, but its administrative status was thus
made clearer, and when after the mutiny of 1857 it was desir-
able to define British authority in India there seemed nothing
unnatural in declaring it to be a possession of the crown.
Another category of European possessions in Asia comprises
those acquired towards the end of the 19th century, such as
Indo-China (France), Burma and Wei-Hai-Wei (Britain), and
Kiao-Chow (Germany). Whereas the earlier conquests were
mostly the results of large half-conscious national movements
working out their destinies in the East, these later ones were
annexations deliberately planned by European cabinets. It
seemed to be assumed that Asia was to be divided among the
powers of Europe, and each was anxious to get its share or
more.
The advance of Russia in Asia is entirely different from that
of the other powers, since it has taken place by land and not
by sea. Though the geographical extent of Russian territory
and influence is enormous, she has always moved along the line
of least resistance. She is a moderately strong empire lying to
the north of the great Moslem states, and having for neighbours
a series of very weak principalities or semi-civilized tribes.
The conquest of Siberia and central Asia presented no real
difficulties: Persia and Constantinople were left on one side,
and Russia was defeated as soon as she was opposed by a vigorous
power in the Far East. As the Russian possessions in Asia are
continuous with European Russia, it is only natural that they
should have been russified far more thoroughly than the British
possessions have been anglicized.
There has been great difference of opinion as to the extent
to which Alexander's conquests influenced Asia, and it is equally
hard to say what is the effect now being produced by Europe.
Clearly such alterations as the construction of railways in
nearly all parts of the continent, and the establishment of
peace over formerly disturbed areas like India, are of enormous
importance, and must change the life of the people. But the
mental constitution of Asiatics is less easily modified than their
institutions, and even Japan has assimilated European methods
rather than European ideas. (C. El.)
Authorities. — The modern bibliography of Asia, including the
works of travellers and explorers since 1880, is voluminous. It is
impossible to refer to all that has been written in the Survey Reports
and Gazetteers of the government of India, or in the records of the
Royal Asiatic Society, or the Astatic Society, Bengal ; but amongst
in.
Dr
las
he
by
er,
5.,
>n,
**.
■ vw/ f m r ami •*» nruviu vNcrw yvaiuuuugC) tow/, ichuhHIi
" Explorations," vol. viii. Proc. G.R.S., 1886; Ney Elias, " Ex-
plorations in Central Asia," sec vols. viii. and ix. Proc. R.C.S., 1886-
I887; Arthur Carey, "Explorations in Turkestan," tee vol. ix.
Proc. R.G.S., 1887; Henry Lanadcll. ^Through Central Asia (London,
1887); Archibald Colquhoun, Report on Raikoay Connexiem between
Burma and China (London, 1887); Major C. Yate. Norther*
Afghanistan (Edinburgh, 1888); Captain r. Younghusband. The
Heart of a Continent (London, 1893) ; A Journey through Mandxnrt*.
cVc. (Lahore, 1888); also see vol. x. Proc. R.G.S., and vol. v. Jomr.
R.G.S.; Dutreuil de Rhins, L'Asie CentraU (Paris. 1889); Pierre
Bonvalot, Through the Heart of Asia, trans. Pitman (London. 18*01 ;
From Paris to Tonkin, trans. Pitman (London, 1891); Roborov»ki.
translation from Russian Invalide, October 1889, vol. xu. Proc
R.G.S.; " Central Asia." vol. viii. Jour. R.G.S., 1896; Colonel Mark
Bell. " Trade Routes of Asia." vol. xii. Proc R.GS., 1800; W. W.
Rockhill, " An American in Tibet," Century Magazine, 'November
1890; The Land of the Lamas (London. 1891); Theodore Best.
" Hadramut," vol. iv. Jour. R.G.S., 1894; " Southern Arabia."
vol. vi. Jour. R.G.S.. 1896; " Bahrein Islands," voL xii. Proc
R.G.S., 1890; Grombcnerski, " Explorations in Kuen Lua." voL xa.
Proc R.G.S., 1890; Lydckker, M The Geology of the Kashmir Valk?
and Chamba Territories," vols. xili. and xiv. Geological Survey if
India; Max Mailer, The Sacred Boohs of the Bast (Oxford, 1890-
1894); Elisee Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants (series, 1800):
G. W. Leitner, Dardistan: H. F. Blanford. Elementary Ceopaphy
of India, Burma, and Ceylon (London. 1890); Guide to the Ut*-^?
and Weather of India (London, 1889); Lord Dunmore, The Pamirs
(London, 1892); A. Tissandier, Voyage au tour du monde (Paris.
1892); Lord Curron, Persia and the Persian Question (London,
1892); Russia and the Anglo-Russian Question (London. 18*9 •;
Problems of the Far East (London, 1894); Captain Hamilton Bower.
Diary of a Journey across Tibet (Calcutta, 1893); Saechenyi. Die
" ' " ' "trajen "" "
wissenschafUichen Ergtbnisse der Reise des Grafen BHa
in Ostasien (Wien, 1893) I R - D - Oldham, " Evolution of Iodiaa
Geology," voL iii. Jour. R.G.S., 1894; Baron Toil, "Siberia."
vol. iu. Jour. R.G.S., 1894; Del mar Morgan, "The Mountain
Systems of Central Asia," Scottish Geological Magazine, No. 10. of
1894; Sir Frederick Goldsmid, " Persian Geography," vol. vi Jomr.
R.G.S., 1895; Warrington Smyth, " Siain," vol. vL Jomr. JLG-S..
1895; " Siamese East Coast," vol xu Jour. 1898; Prince Kropotlm.
" Siberian Railway," vol. v. R.G.S. Jour., 1895; W. R Lawrence.
The Vale of Kashmir (Oxford, 1895); Captain vaughan, " Persia."
vol. viii. Jour. R.G.S.. 1896; Prince H. d'Orleans. " Yunan to
India," vol. vii. Jour. R.G.S., 1896: " Tonkin to Talifu," vol. vi
Jour. R.G.S., 1896; Sir T. Holdich, "Ancient and Medieval
Makran," vol. vu. Jour. R.G.S* 1896: The Indian Borderland
(London, 1901); India (Oxford, 1904); Colonel Woodtborpe.
" Shan States," vol. vii. Jour. R.G.S., 1896; Report of the Pamir
Boundary Commission (Calcutta, 1896); St George Littledaie.
" Journey Across the Pamirs from North to South," vol. ui Jomr.
R.G.S„ 1894, and vol. vii. Jour. R.G.S., 1896; Sir G. Robertson.
The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush (London, 1896); Captain Stifle.
" Persian Guff Trading Centres," vols. viii.. ix. and x. Jour. R.G.S^
1897 ; Ney Elias and Ross. A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia,
from the Tarshh-i-Rastisdi of Mina Hatdar (London, 1898) ; Greaard,
Mission scientifique sur la Haute Asie (Paris, 1898) ; Dr Sven Medio,
Through Asia (London, 1898); Central Asia and Tibet (1903): Geo-
graph us des Hothlandes von Pamir (Berlin. 1894); Captain M. S.
Wellby, " Through Tibet," R.G.S. Jour., September 1898; Captain
P. M. Sykes, " Persian Explorations," vol. x. Jour. R.G-S., 1898:
Ten Thousand Miles in Persia (1902); Kronshin, " Old Beds of the
Oxus," Jour. R.G.S., September 1898; Sir W. Hunter. History rf
British India, vol. i. (London, 1898); Captain H. Deasy. " Western
Tibet," vol. ix. Jour. R.G.S.-, In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan
(London, 1901); A. Little. The Far East (Oxford, 1905); Captaia
Rawling, The Great Plateau (London, 1905); Journal of the Royal
Geogl. Society, vols. xv. to xxv. (1900-1905); Colonel A. Durarvi,
The Making of a Frontier (London, 1899); R. CobboM, Innermost
Asia (London, 1900). (T. H. H.*)
ASIA, in a restricted sense,' the name of the first Roman
province east of the Aegean, formed (133 B.C.) out of the kingdom
left to the Romans by the will of Attalus III. Philometor, king
of Pergamum. It included Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia,
and therefore, of course, Aeolis, Ionia and the Troad. In 84 it,
on the dose of the Mithradatic War, Sulla reorganized the
province, forming 40 regionet for fiscal purposes, and it was
later divided into convent us. From 80 to 50 B.C. the upper
Maeander valley and all Phrygia, except the extreme north,
were detached and added to Cilicia. In 27 B.C. Asia was made
a senatorial province under a pro-consul. As the wealthiest
of Roman provinces it had most to gain by the pax Romano, and
therefore welcomed the empire, and established and maintained
the most devout cult of Augustus by means of the orgmnixatioa
known as the Kainon or Commune, a representative council,
meeting in the various metro poltis. In this cuh the emperor
came to be associated with the common worship of the Ephesuo
Artemis. By the reorganisation .of Diocletian, ad. 997. Asia
was broken up into several small provinces, and one of these,
ASIA MINOR
757
of which the capital was Ephesus, retained the name of the
original province (see Asia Minoi).
ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the peninsula,
forming part of the empire of Turkey, on the extreme west
of the continent of Asia, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea,
on the W. by the Aegean, and on the S. by the Mediterranean,
and at its N.W. extremity only parted from Europe by the
narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On the east,
no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau;
but, for descriptive purposes, it will suffice to take a line drawn
from the southern extremity of the Giaour Dagh, east of the
Gulf of Alexandretta along the crest of that chain, then along
that of the eastern Taurus to the Euphrates near Malatia, then
up the river, keeping to the western arm till Erzingan is reached,
and finally bending north to the Black Sea along the course of
the Churuk Su, which flows out west of Batum. This makes the
Euphrates the main eastern limit, with radii to the north-east
angle of the Levant and the south-east angle of the Black Sea,
and roughly agrees with the popular conception of Asia Minor
as a geographical region. But it must be remembered that this
term was not used by classical geographers (it is first found in
Orosius in the 5th century a.d.), and is not in local or official
use now. It probably arose in the first instance from a vague
popular distinction between the continent itself and the Roman
province of " Asia " (q.v.), which at one time included most of
the peninsula west of the central salt desert (Axyton) . The name
Anatolia, in the form Anodol, is used by natives for the western
part of the peninsula (cis Halyrn) and not as including ancient
Cappadoda and Pontus, Before the reconstitution of the pro-
vinces as vilayets it was the official title of the principal eyalet
of Asia Minor, and was also used more generally to include all
the peninsular provinces over which the beylerbey of Anadoli,
whose seat was at Kutaiah, had the same paramount military
jurisdiction which the beylerbey of " Rumili " enjoyed in the
peninsular provinces of Europe. The term "Anatolia " appears
first in the work of Constantino Porphyrogenitus (10th century).
The greatest length of Asia Minor, as popularly understood, is
along its north edge, 730 m. Along the south it is about 650 m.
The greatest breadth is 420 m, from C. Kerembe to C. Anamur;
but at the waist of the peninsula, between the head of the Gulf of
Alexandretta and the southernmost bight of the Black Sea (at
Ordu), it is not quite 300 in. The greater portion of Asia Minor
consists of a plateau rising gradually from east to west, 2500 ft. to
4500. ft; east of the Kfzil Irmak (Halys), the ground rues more
sharply to the highlands of Armenia {?.».;. On the south the plateau
» ft j east of the Kfc
irply to the highlands of Armenia (?.».).
is buttressed by the Taurus range, which stretches in a broken
irregular line from the Aegean to the Persian frontier. On the north
the plateau is supported by a range of varying altitude, which
follows the southern coast of the Black Sea and has no distinctive
name. On the west the edge of the plateau is broken by broad
valleys, and the deeply indented coast-line throws out long rocky
promontories towards Europe. On the north, excepting the deltas
formed by the Kizil and YeshS Irmaks, there are no considerable
coast plains, no good harbours except Sinope and Vona, and no
islands. On the west there are narrow coast plains of limited extent,
deep gulfs, which offer facilities for trade and commerce, and a
fringe of protecting islands. On the south are the isolated plains
of Pamphylia and Cilicia, the almost land-locked harbours of Mar-
marice, Makri and Kekova, the broad bay of Adalia, the deep-seated
Sulf of Alexandretta (Iskanderun), and the islands of Rhodes with
ependencies, Casteferizo and Cyprus.
Mountains. — The Taurus range, perhaps the most important
feature in Asia Minor, runs ~" ••
s range, perhaps the most important
the whole length of the peninsula on the
Bulgar Dagh (Cilicia) of over 10,000 ft. The average elevation is
about 7000 ft. East of the Bulgar Dagh the range is pierced by the
Sihun and Jihun rivers, and their tributaries, but its continuity is
not broken. The principal passes across the range are those over
which Roman or Byzantine roads ran : — (1) from Laodicea to Adalia
fAttalb), by way of the Khonas pass and the vailey-of the Istanoz
Chai : (2) from Apamea or from Piaidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta
and Sagabssus: (3) from Laranda, by Coropissus and the upper
vahey of the southern Calycadnus, to GermamcopoUs and thence to
Anemourium or Kelendens; (4) from Laranda, by the lower Caly-
cadnus, to Cbudiopolfrand thence to Kelendens or Seleucia ; (5) from
Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca. through the Cilician Gates (Gulek
Boghaz, 3300 ft.) to Tarsus; (6) from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus
and thence to Fbviopolis on the Cilician Plain : (7) from Caesarea over
Anti-Taurus by the Kuru Chai to Cocysus (Geuksuo) and thence to
Germanicia (Marash). Lane districts on the southern slopes of the
Taurus chain are covered with forests of oak and fir, and there are
numerous yatlas or grassy " alps," with abundant water, to which
villagers and nomads move with their fiocka during the summer
months.
Anti-Taurus is a term of rather vague <md doubtful application,
(a) Some, have regarded it as meaning the more or less continuous
range which buttresses up the central plateau on the north, parallel
to the Taurus, (b) Others take it to mean the line of heights and
mountain peaks which separates the waters running to the Black
Sea and the Anatolian plateau from those falling to the Persian
Gulf and the Mediterranean. This has its origin in the high bad,
near the source of the Kizil Irmak, and thence runs south-west
towards the volcanic district of Mt. Argaeus, which, however, can
hardly be regarded as orographically one with it After a low
interval it springs up again at its southern extremity in the lofty
sharp-peaked ridge of Ala Dagh (1 1 ,000 ft.), and finally joins Taurus.
.(c) South of Siva* a line of bore hills connects this chain with another
range of high forest-clad mountains, which loses itself southwards
in the main mass of Taurus, and is held to be the true Anti-Taurus
by geographers. It throws off, in the latitude of Kaisarieh, a sub-
sidiary range, the Bcnboa Dagh, which separates the waters of the
Sihun from those of the Jihun. The principal passes are those
followed by the old roads .— (1) from Sebasteia to Tephrike and the
upper valley of the western Euphrates; (2) from Sebasteia to Metitene,
by way of the pass of Delikli Tash and the basin of the Tokhma Su ;
(3) from Caesarea to Arabissua, by the Kuru Chai and the valley of
Cocysus (Geuksun). The range of Amanus (Giaour Dagh) is separ-
ated from the mass of Taurus by the deep gorge of the Jihun, whence
it runs south - south - west to Ras el - Khanzir, forming the limit
between Cilicia and Syria, various parts bearing different names, as
Elma Dagh above Alexandretta. It attains its greatest altitude in
Kaya Duldui (6500 ft.), which rises abruptly from the bed of the
Jihun, and it b crossed by two celebrated passes 1— (1) the Amanides
Pylae (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the Cilician
Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; (a) the Pylae Syriae or
" Syrian Gates " (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great
Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the
plateau several short ranges, running approximately east and west,
rise above the general level :— Sultan Dagh (6500 ft); Salbacus-
Cadmus (8000 ft.); Messogis (3600 ft.); Latmus (6000 ft.) 1 Tmolus
(moo ft); Dindymus (8200 ft.); Ida (5800 ft.); and the Myrian
Olympus $600 ft). The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and
Caicus facilitate communication between the plateau and the
Aegean, and the descent to the Sea of Marmora along the valleys
of the Tembris and Saiigarius presents no difficulties. The northern
border range, though not continuous, rises steadily from the west
to its culmination in the Galatian Olympus Xllkaz Dagh), south of
Kastamuni. East of the Kizil Irmak there is no single mountain
chain, but there are several short ranees, with elevations sometimes
exceeding 9000 ft. The best routes from thepbteau to the Black
Sea were followed by the Roman roads from Tavium and Sebasteia
to Sinope and Amisus, and those from Sebasteia to Cotyora and
Cerasus-Pharnacia, which at first ascend the apper Halys. Several
minor ranges rise above the level of the eastern plateau, and in the
south groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend for about 150 m.
from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) to Karaman. The most important are
Mt Argaeus (Erjiah Dagh, 13,100 ft.) above Kaisarieh itself, the
highest peak in Asia Minor; AH Dagh (6200 ft.); Hassan Dagh
(8000 ft); Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh (7500ft.). On the west
of the plateau evidences of volcanic activity are to be seen in the
district of Kula (Katakekaumene), coated with recent erupted
matter, and in the numerous hot springs of the Lycus, Maeander,
and other valleys. Earthquakes are frequent all over the peninsula,
but especially in the south-east and west, where the. Maeander valley
and the Gulf of Smyrna are notorious seismic foci. The centre of the'
plateau is occupied by a Vast treeless plain, the Axyion of the Greeks,
in which lies a large salt lake, Tus Geul. The plain is fertile where
cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many places
covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and
Amanus ranges and the sea are the fertile plains of Cilicia Pedias,'
consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise
rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and
Armenian strongholds, and of Pamphylia, partly alluvial soil, partly
travertine, deposited by the Taurus rivers.
Rivers. — The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance.
Some do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the
coast through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few
only are navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths.
They cut so deep into the limestone .formation of the plateau as
to over-drain it, and often they disappear into swallow holes (duden)
to reappear lower down. The most important rivers which flow to
the Black Sea are the following:— the Boas (Churuk Su) which rises
near Baiburt, and flows out near Batum ; the Iris (YeshV Irmak),
with its tributaries the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the
Armenian plateau, the Chekerek kmak, which has its source near
Yusgat, and the Tersakan Su; the Halys (Kizil Irmak) is the longest
river in Asia Minor, with its tributaries the Delije Irmak (Cappadox),
which flows through the eastern part of Gabtia, and theCeuk Irmak,
which has its sources in the mountains above Kastamuni. With
758
ASIA MINOR
ortance lies in the valley of
over 600 m. The Sangarius
ins and, after many changes
, about 80 m. east of the
zk Su (Terabris), which has
is), and, after running north
the Saluda, and the Enguri
t the junction of the Pursak.
regli, also flows the Billaeus
run the Rhyndacus(Edrenos
1), which unite about 12 m.
reams of the Troad are the
inder (Mendercs Su), both
mer flows to the Sea of Mar-
The most northerly of the
cus (Bakir Chai), which runs
tie Gulf of Chanderii. The
lources in the Murad Dagh,
y, runs through the volcanic
fertile valley through which
it flows past Manila to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about
1880 it discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed
by its silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it
was turned back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are — the
Phrygius (Kura Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus
(Gurduk Chai), and the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper
rse is separated from the valley of the Maeander by hills that
__ e crossed by the Roman road from Pergamum to Laodicea. The
Caystrus (Kuchuk Menderes) flows through a fertile valley between
Mt. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea near Ephesus, where its silt has
filled up the port. The Maeander (Menderes Chai) takes hs rise in a
celebrated group of springs near Dinetr, and after a winding course
enters the broad valley, through which it " meanders" to the sea.
Its deposits have long since fined up the harbours of Miletus, and
converted the islands which protected them into mounds in a swampy
plain. Its principal tributaries are the Glaucus. the Senarus (Banaz
Chai). and the Hippurius, on the right bank. On the left bank are
the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows westwards by Colossae through
a broad open valley that affords the only natural approach to the
elevated plateau, the Harpasus (Ak Chai), and the Marsyas (China
Chai). The rivers that flow to the Mediterranean, with two excep-
tions, rise in Mt. Taurus, and have short courses, but in winter and
spring they bring down large bodies of water. In Lycia are the 1 ndus
(Gcreniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen Chai). The Pamphylian
plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the Eurymedon (Keupri
Su), and the Melas (Mcnavgat Chai), which, where it enters the sea,
is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 m. The Calycadnus
(Geuk Su) has two main branches which join near Mot and flow
south-east, and enter the sea, a deep rapid river, about 12 m. below
Sefcfke. The Cydnus (Tersous or Tarsus Chai) is formed by the
junction of three streams that rise in Mt. Taurus, and one of these
flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After
passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of
the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits
have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 ft. The Sarus (Sihun)
is formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which
rises in Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in
the hills to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering
Mt. Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices,
and is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching
the Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su,
which cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads
from the Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarieh. After passing
Adana, to which point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west
to the sea. There are, however, indications that at one period it flowed
south-east to join the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its prin-
cipal source in a group of large springs near Albistan; but before it
enters Mt. Taurus it u joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman
Su and the Geuk Su. The river emerges from Taurus, about 7 m.
west of Marash. and here it is joined by the Ak Su, which rises in some
small lakes south of Taurus. The Jihun now enters a remarkable
defile which separates Taurus from the Giaour Dagh, and reaches
the Cilician Plain near Budrun. From this point it flows west, and
then south-west past Missis, until it makes a bend to discharge its
waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable as far as Missis.
The only considerable tributary of the Euphrates which comes
within our region is the Tokhma Su, which rises in Uzun Yaila and
flows south-east, to the main river not far from Malatia. In the
central and southern portions of the plateau the streams cither flow
into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or into
freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter cases
the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean channels,
and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast. Thus the
Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir and Kestcl
lakes feed the rivers of the Pamphvlian plain.
Lakes.— The salt lakes are Tuz Geul (arte. Tatla). which lies in the
great central plain, and is about 60 m. long and 10 to 30 m. broad
In winter, but in the dry season it is hardly more than a saline
marsh; Buldur Geul, 2900 ft. above sca-lcvcl; and Aji-tuz Geul.
aooo ft. The freshwater lakes are Beishehr Geul (anc KaraJu),
3770 ft. , a fine sheet of water ym.lc4uj;.wfakh o!iscsvar i *s sow t s> cm*'
to the Soghla Geul; Egirdir. Geul (probably anc Ltmmm*. a nan*
which included the two bays of Hoiran and Egirdir. forming f*
lake), 2850 ft., which is 30 m. long, but less broad than Beisfc* -•
and noted for the abundance and variety of its fish. In the north-
west portion of Asia Minor are Isnik Geul (L. Aacaasa), Abnibost
Geul (L. ApoUonia). and Maniyas Geul (L. Miletopou*)..
Springs. — Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thens*!
and mineral springs. The most important are: — Yalova. in tbt
lsmid sanjak; Bnna, Chttli, Terje and EsUshehr. in the Bcwa
vilayet; Tuzla, in the Karasi ; Cheshme, Ikja, Hierapoh* (w.th
enormous alum deposits), and Alashehr, in the Asian; Ten*-
Haramam and Iskelib in the Angora ; Bob* in the Kaatann.sc
and Khavsa. in the Sivas. Many of these were famous in ant*; t r»
and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander valley is eapecia k
noted for its hot springs.
Geology. — The central plateau of Asia Minor consists of nearl-
horizontal strata, while the surrounding, mountain chains form *
complex system, in which the beds are intensely folded. Arr.i- 4
the coast flat-lying deposits of Tertiary age are found, and these-:! ••=
extend high up into the mountain region. The deposits of :**
central, or Lycaonian, plateau consist of freshwater marls and Lo*-
stones of late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the south-easter-:
margin, in front of the Taurus, stands a line of great volcanoes
stretching from Kara-Dagh to Argaeus. They are now extjsct.
but were probably active till the dose of the Tertiary period. C«
its southern side the plateau is bounded by the high chain* of tat
Taurus and the Anti-Taurus, which form a crescent with its o:-.-
vexity facing southwards. Devonian and Carboniferoas fo**u
have been found in several places in the Anti-Taurus. Limcstoars
of Eocene or Cretaceous age form a large part of the Taurus, hot t v <
interior zone probably includes rocks of earlier periods. The loLi ,rs
of the Anti-Taurus affects the Eocene but not the Miocene, *t-.-
in the Taurus the Miocene beds have been elevated, but with-it
much folding, to great heights. North of the Lycaonian plaua~
lies another zone of folding which may be divided into the E-ast
Pontian and West Pontian arcs. Jn the east a well-defined n*o-=>-
tain system runs nearly parallel to the Black Sea coast from Batzn
to Sinope, forming a gentle curve with its convexity facing; south-
wards. Cretaceous limestones and serpentine take a large part z?
the formation of these mountains, whuc even the Oligocene is in-
volved in the folds. West of Sinope Cretaceous beds form a tcc$
strip parallel to the shore line. Carboniferous rocks occur at Errju
(Heraclea Pontica), where they have been worked for coal. Devon-
ian fossils have been found near the Bosporus and Carboniferosi
fossils at Balia Maden in Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretacec^s
beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the or*>-
tinuation of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. FxrtVr
south there are zones of serpentine, and of crystalline and schisc< «r
rocks, some of which are probably Palaeozoic The direction of ti-e
folds of this region is from west to east, but on the borders of Phr> c-
and Mysia they meet the north-westerly extension of the Taut-*
folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. Marine Eoor -1
beds occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of t v -i
part of Asia Minor are mostly freshwater and belong to the urprr
Bart of the system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed
ut in eastern Mysia they are nearly horizontal. They arc oitr?
accompanied by volcanic rocks, which are mainly andesiuc and the r
commonly lie unconformably upon the older beds. In the wt^t"
part of Asia Minor there are several areas of ancient rocks aboc.;
which very little is known. The Taurus folds here meet another
system which enters the region from the Aegean Sea.
OimaU. — The climate is varied, but systematic observations art
wanting. On the plateau the winter is long and cold, and in ttc
northcrn districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot. h t
the nights are usually cooL On the north coast the winter is aJ J
and the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes >4
Russia, are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of sno*
East of Sarasun, where the coast is partially protected by tV
Caucasus, the climate is more moderate. la summer the beat u
damp and enervating, and, as Trebizond is approached, the %tf-
tation becomes almost subtropical. On the south coast the winter
is mild, with occasional frosts and heavy rain; the summer brjt
is very great. On the west coast the climate is moderate, but cSr
influence of the cold north winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, ari
the winter at that place is colder than in corresponding latitudes •»
Europe. A great feature of summer is the inbat or north %ir>*
which blows almost daily, often with the force of a gale, off the wis
from noon till near sunset.
Products, 6Vc— The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great,
but few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to esi «»
are — alum, antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide. chrome, cm'..
copper, emery, fuller's earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnet k
iron, manganese, meerschaum, mercury, nickel, rock-salt, sihrr.
sulphur and zinc The vegetation varies with the climate, soil ard
elevation. The mountains on the north coast are clothed with dt r» <
forests of pine, fir, cellar, oak, beech, &c. On the Taurus range tSe
forests are smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On tSe
west coast the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak. and pine predominate
On the plateau willows, poplars and chestnut trees grow near the
ASIA MINOR
759
stream*, but nine-tenth* of the country is treeless, except for scrub.
On the south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated.
The vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher
districts. The apple, pear, cherry and plum thriye well in the north ;
the orange, lemon, citron and sugar-cane in the south; styrax and
mastic in the south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vilayet
can hardly be surpassed. The most important vegetable productions
are — cereals, cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium,
rice, saffron, salep, tobacco and yellow berries. Silk is produced in
large quantities in the vicinity of Brusa and Amasia, and mohair.
from the Angora goat all over the plateau. The wild animals include
bear, boar, chamois, fallow red and roe deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex,
jackal, leopard, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep and wolf. The
native reports of a maneless lion in Lycia (orslan) are probably based
on the existence of large panthers. Amongst the domestic animals
are the buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from
a Bactrian sire and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and
Angora goats are reared on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on
the Uzttn Yaila; but no effort is made to improve the quality of
the wool and mohair or the breed of horses. Good mules can be
obtained in several districts, and small hardy oxen are largely bred
for ploughing and transport. The larger birds are the bittern, great
ana small bustard, eagle, francolin, goose; giant, grey and red-
legged partridge, sand grouse, pelican, pheasant, stork and swan.
The rivers ana lakes are well supplied with fish, and the mountain
streams abound with small trout.
The principal manufactures are. — Carpets, rugs, cotton, tobacco,
mohair and silk stuffs, soap, wine and leather. The exports are. —
Cereals, cotton, cotton seed, dried fruits, drugs, fruit, gall nuts, gum
tragacanth, liquorice root, maize, nuts, olive oil, opium, rice, sesame,
sponges, sforax, timber, tobacco, valonia, walnut wood, wine, yellow
berries, carpets, cotton yarn, cocoons, hides, leather, mohair, silk,
silk stuffs, rugs, wax, wool, leeches, live stock, minerals, &c. The
imports are s— Coffee, cotton cloths, cotton goods, crockery, dry-
salteries, feezes, glass-ware, haberdashery, hardware, henna, iron-
ware, jute, linen goods, manufactured goods, matches, petroleum,
salt, sugar, woollen goods, yarns, Ac.
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Ethnology. — None of the conquering races that invaded Asia
Minor, whether from the east or from the west, wholly expelled
or exterminated the face in possession. The vanquished retired
to the hills or absorbed the victors. In the course of ages race
distinction has been almost obliterated by fusion of blood; by
the complete Hellcnization of the country, which followed the
introduction of Christianity; by the later acceptance of Islam,
and by migrations due to the occupation of cultivated lands
by the nomads. It will'be convenient here to adopt the modern
division into Moslems, Christians and Jews: — (a) Moslems.
The Turks never established themselves in such numbers as to
form the predominant element in the population. Where the
land was unsuitable for nomad occupation the agricultural
population remained, and it still retains some of its original
characteristics.- Thus in Cappadoda the facial type of the non-
Aryan race is common, and in Galatia there are traces of Gallic
blood The Zeibeka of the west and south-west are apparently
representatives of the Carians and Lydans; and the peasants
of the Black Sea coast range of the people of Bithynia, Paphla-
gonia and Pontus. Wherever the people accepted Islam they
called themselves Turks, and a majority of the so-called " Turks "
belong by blood to the races that occupied Asia Minor before
the Sdjuk. Invasion. Turkish and Zaza-speaking Kurds (see
Kurdistan) are found in the Angora and Sivas vilayets. There
are many large colonies of Circassians and smaller ones of Noghai
(Nogais), Tatars* Georgians, Lasis, Cossacks, Albanians and
Pomaks. East of Boghar Keui there is a compact population
of Kizilbash, who are partly descendants of Shia Turks trans-
planted from Persia and partly of the indigenous race. In the
Cilidan plain there are large settlements of Nosairis who have
migrated from the Syrian mountains (see Syria). The nomads
and semi-nomads are, for the most part, representatives of the
Turks, Mongols and Tatars who poured into the country during
the 3 50 years that followed the defeat of Romanus. Turkomans
are found in the Angora and Adana vilayets. Avshars, a tribe,
of Turkish origin, in the valleys of Anti-Taurus; and Tatars
in the Angora and Brusa vilayets; Yuruks are most numerous
in the Konia vilayet They speak Turkish and profess to be
Moslems, but have no mosques or imams. The Turkomans have
villages in which they spend the winter, wandering over the great
plains of the interior with their flocks and herds during the
summer. The Yuruks on the contrary are a truly nomad race.
Their tents are made of black goats' hair and their prindpal
covering is a cloak of the same material. They are not limited
to the milder districts of the interior, but when the harvest is
over, descend into the rich plains and valleys near the coast. The
Chepmi and Takhtaji, who live chiefly in the Aidin vilayet, appear
to be derived from one of the early races. (b) Christians. The
Greeks are in places the descendants of colonists from Greece,
many of whom, e.g. in Pamphylia and the Smyrna district, are
of very recent importation; but most of them belong by blood
to the indigenous races. These people became " Greeks " as
being subjects of the Byzantine empire and members of the
Eastern Church. On the west coast, in Pontus and to some
extent of late in Cappadoda, and in the mining villages, peopled
from the Trebizond Greeks, the language is Romaic; on the
south coast and in many inland villages (e.g. 'in Cappadoda)
it is either Turkish, which is written in Greek characters, or a
Greco-Turkish jargon. In and near Smyrna there are large
colonies of Hellenes. Armenians are most numerous in the
eastern districts, where they have been settled since the great
migration that preceded and followed the Seljuk invasion.
There are, however, Armenians in every large town. In central
and western Asia Minor they are the descendants of colonists
from Persia and Armenia (see Armenia), (c) The Jews live
chiefly on the Bosporus; and in Smyrna, Rhodes, Brusa and
other western towns. Gypsies — some Moslem, some Christian —
are also numerous, especially in the south.
History. — Asia Minor owes the peculiar interest of its history to
its geographical position. " Planted like a bridge between Asia
and Europe," it has been from the earliest period a battle-
ground between the East and the West. The central plateau
(2500 to 4500 ft.), with no navigable river and few natural
approaches, with its monotonous scenery and severe climate, is a
continuation of central Asia. The west coast, with its alterna-
tion of sea and promontory, of rugged mountains and fertile
valleys, its bright and varied scenery, and its fine climate, is
almost a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to
permanence, and the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of
hostile armies, and rise and fall of small states, rather than that of
a united state under an independent sovereign. At a very early
period Asia Minor appears to have been occupied by non-Aryan
tribes or races which differed little from each other in religion,
language and social system. During the past generation much
light has been thrown upon one of these races— the " Hittites "
or " Syro-Cappadorians," who, after their rule.had passed away,
were known to Herodotus as " White Syrians," and whose de-
scendants can still be recognized in the villages of Cappadoda. 1
The centre of their power is supposed to have been Boghax
Keui (see Pteria), east of the Halys, whence roads radiated to
harbours on the Aegean, to Sinope, to northern Syria and to the
Cilidan plain. Their strange sculptures and inscriptions have
been found at Pteria, Euyuk, Fraktin, Kiz Hissar (Tyana), Ivriz,
Bulgar, Muden and other places between Smyrna and the
1 The people, Moslem and Christian, are physically one and appear
to be closely related to the modern Armenians. This relationship is
noticeable in other districts, and the whole original population of
Asia Minor has been characterized as Proto- Armenian or Armenold.
760
ASIA MINOR
Euphrates (see Hittites). When the great Aryan immigration
from Europe commenced Is unknown, but it was dying out in the
nth and 10th centuries bjc. In Phrygia the Aryans founded
a kingdom, of which traces remain in various rock tombs,
forts and towns, and in legends preserved by the Greeks. The
Phrygian power was broken in the 9th or 8th century B.C. by the
Cimmerii, who entered Asia Minor through Armenia; and on its
decline rose the kingdom of Lydia, with its centre at Sardis. A
second Cimmerian invasion almost destroyed the rising kingdom,
but the invaders were expelled at last by Alyattes, 6x7 B.C. (see
Scythia). The last king, Croesus (> 560-546 b.c.) carried the
boundaries of Lydia to the Halys, and subdued the Greek
colonies on the coast. The date of the foundation of these
colonies cannot be fixed; but at an early period they formed a
chain of settlements from Trebizond to Rhodes, and by the 8th
century B.C. some of them rivalled the splendour of Tyre and
Sid on. Too jealous of each other to combine, and too de-
moralized by luxury to resist, they fell an easy prey to Lydia;
and when the Lydian kingdom ended with the capture of Sardis
by Cyrus, 546 B.C. they passed, almost without resistance, to
Persia. Under Persian rule Asia Minor was divided into four
satrapies, but the Greek -cities were governed by Greeks, and
several of the tribes in the interior retained their native
princes and priest-dynasts. An attempt of the Greeks to
regain their -freedom was crushed, 500-494 B.C., but later the
tide turned and the cities were combined with European Greeks
into a league for defence against the Persians. The weakness
of Persian rule was disclosed by the expedition of Cyrus and the
Ten Thousand Greeks, 402 B.C.; and in the following century
Asia Minor was invaded by Alexander the Great (?.».), 334 B.C.
(See Gkeece; Persia; Ionia.)
The wars which followed the death of Alexander eventually
gave Asia Minor to Seleucus, but none of the Seleucid kings was
able to establish his rule over the whole peninsula. Rhodes be-
came a great maritime republic, and much of the south and west
coast belonged at one time or another to the Ptolemies of Egypt.
An independent kingdom was founded at Pergamum, 283 B.C.,
which lasted until Attalus III., 133 B.C., made the Romans his
heirs. Bithynia became an independent monarchy, and Cappa-
docia and Paphlagonia tributary provinces under native princes.
In southern Asia Minor the Seleudds founded Antioch, Apamea,
Attalia, the Laodiceas and Seleuceias* and other cities as centres
of commerce, some of which afterwards played an import-
ant part in the Hdlenization (see Hellenism) of the country,
and in the spread of Christianity. During the 3rd century,
278-277 B.C., certain Gallic tribes crossed the Bosporus and
Hellespont, and established a Celtic power in central As»a
Minor. They were confined by the victories of Attalus I. of
Pergamum, c. 232 b.c, to a district on the Sangarius and
Halys to which the name Galatia was applied; and after their
defeat by Manlius, 189 b.c, they were subjected to the suzer-
ainty of Pergamum (see Galatia).
The defeat of Antiochus the Great at Magnesia, xoo B.C.,
placed Asia Minor at the mercy of Rome; but it was not until
133 that the first Roman province, Asia, was formed to include
only western Anatolia, without Bithynia. Errors in policy and
in government facilitated the rise of Pontus into a formidable
power under Mithradates, who was finally driven out of the
country by Pompey, and died 63 B.C. Under the settlement of
Asia Minor by Pompey, Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia became
provinces, whilst Galatia and Cappadoda were allowed to retain
nominal independence for over half a century more under native
kings, and Lyda continued an autonomous League. A long
period of tranquillity followed, during which the Roman dominion
grew, and all Asia Minor was divided into two provinces. The
boundaries were often changed; and about aj>. 297, in Dio-
cletian's reorganization of the empire, the power of the great
military commands was- broken, and the provinces were made
smaller and united in groups called dioceses. A great change
followed the introduction of Christianity, which spread first along
the main roads that ran north and west from the Cilician Gates,
and especially along the great trade route to Ephesus. In
districts it spread rapidly, in others slowly. With its x
the native languages and old religions gradually disappeared,
and at last the whole country was thoroughly Helleniaed, aad
the people united by identity of language and reUspoa.
At the dose of the 6th century Asia Minor had become wealthy
and prosperous; but centuries of peace and over-centxalixatxE
had affected the moral of the people and weakened tbe cestxaJ
government. During the 7th century the provincial system
broke down, and the country was divided into t h emes or nrib'tafy
districts. From 6x6 to 626 Persian armies swept unimpeded
over the land, and Chosroes (Khosrau) IX pitched his camp ca
the shore of the Bosporus. The victories of Heradius forced
Chosroes to retire; but the Persians were followed by the Arabs,
who, advancing with equal ease, laid siege to Constantinople.
a J). 668. It almost appeared as if Asia Minor would be annexed
to the dominion of the Caliph. But the tide of co nqu e s t vis
stemmed by the iconoclast emperors, and the Arab ezpeditiosj.
excepting those of Harun al-Rashid, 781 and 806, and of d-
Motasim, 838, became simply predatory raids. In the iota
century the Arabs were expelled. They never held mote thai
the districts along the main roads, and In the intervals of peace
the country rapidly recovered itself. But a more dangcroas
enemy was soon to appear on the eastern border.
In X067 the Seljuk Turks ravaged Cappadoda and Cilicia; ia
107 x they defeated and captured the e m peror Romanus HHagene*,
and in 1080 they took Nicaea. One branch of the Seljcks
founded the empire of Rum, with its capital first at Nicaea and
then at Iconium. The empire, which at one time included
nearly the whole of Asia Minor, with portions of Armenia and
Syria, passed to the Mongols when they defeated the sultan of
Rum in 1243, and the sultans became vassals of the Great Khan.
The Seljuk sultans were liberal patrons of art, literature and
science, and the remains of their public buildings and tombs are
amongst the most beautiful and most interesting in the country.
The marches of the Crusaders across Asia Minor left no pernsaoent
impression. But the support given by the Latin princes 10 the
Armenians in Cilicia facilitated the growth of the small warEk*
state of Lesser Armenia, which fell in 1375 with the defeat and
capture of Leo VI. by the Mameluke sultan of Egypt. The
Mongols were too weak to govern the country they had conquered,
and the vassalage of the last sultan of Rum, who died in 13c?,
was only nominal. On his death the Turkoman governors of his
western provinces drove out the Mongols and asserted their
independence. A contest for supremacy followed, which event-
ually ended in favour of the Osmanli Turks of Brass. In 1400
Sultan Bayezid I. held all Asia Minor west of the Euphrates;
but in 1402 he was defeated and made prisoner by Timor, who
swept through the country to the shores of the Aegean. On the
death of Timur Osmanli supremacy was re-estabUsbed after
a prolonged struggle, which ended with the annexation by
Mahommed II. (1451-1481) of Karamania and TrelnsoDd, and
the abandonment of the last of the Italian trading settlements
which had studded the coast during the 13 th and 14 th centuries.
The later history of Asia Minor is that of the Turkish empire.
The most important event was the advance (1832-1833) of aa
Egyptian army, under Ibrahim Pasha, through the Cilician Gates
to Konia and Kutaiah.
The defeat of the emperor Romanus (107 1) initiated a change
in the condition of Asia Minor which was to be complete and
lasting. A long succession of nomad Turkish tribes, pressing
forward from central Asia, wandered over the rich country m
search of fresh pastures for their flocks and herds. They did not
plunder or ill-treat the people, but they cared nothing for town
life or for agricultural pursuits, and as they passed onward they
left the country bare. Large districts passed out of cultivation
and were abandoned to the nomads, who replaced wheeled
traffic by the pack horse and tbe camel The peasants either
became nomads themselves or took refuge in the towns or the
mountains. The Mongols, as they advanced, sacked towns and
laid waste the agricultural lands. Timur conducted his cam-
paigns with a ruthless disregard of life and p t ope Uy . Entire
Christian communities were massacred, nourishing towns were
ASIENTO— ASIR
761
completely destroyed, and all Asia Minor was ravaged. From
these disasters the country never recovered, and the last traces
of Western civilization disappeared -with the enforced use of the
Turkish language and the wholesale conversions to Islam under
the earliest Osmanli sultans. The recent large increase of the
Creek population in the western districts, the construction of
railways, and the growing interests of Germany and Russia on
the plateau seem, however, to indicate that the tide is again
turning in favour of the West.
Bibliography. — 1. General Authorities:— C. Texicr, Asie
Mineure (1843); P « Tchihatcheff, Asie Mineure (18M-1860);
C. Rittcr, Erdkunde, vols, xviii. xix. (1858-1859): W. J. Hamilton,
Researches in Asia Minor (1843); E. Rectus, Nouv. CSog. Unit.
vol. ix. (1884); V. Cuinct.Ai Turquied'Asie (1890): W. M. Ramsay,
Hist. Ceog. of A. M. (1890) ; Murray's Handbook for A. M. &c, ed. by
Sir C. Wilson (1895). For Geology see Tchihatcheff, Asie Mineure,
Ceologie (Paris, 1867-1869); Schaffer, Cilicia, Pelerm. Mitt. Erg&n-
zungsheft. 141 (1903); Phifippson, Silt, k.freuss. Akad. Wiss. (1903),
pp. 112-124; English, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. (London, 1904). pp. 343-
295; see also Sucss, Das AntlUt der Erde, vol. iii. pp. 402-41 2, and
the accompanying references.
2. A. western Asia Minor. — J. Spon and G. Whclcr, Voyage
du Levant (1679); P. de Tourncfort, Voyage du Levant (1718);
F. Beaufort, Ionian Antiquities (181 1); R. Chandler, Travels (1817);
\V. M. Leake, Journal of a Tour in A. M. (1820) : F. V. 1. Arundcll.
Visit to the Seven Churches (1828), and Discoveries, arc. (1834);
C. Fellows, Excursion in A. M. (i839);C. T. Newton. Travels (1867),
and Discoveries at Halicamassus, arc. (1863); Dilettanti Society,
Ionian Antiquities (1769-1840); J. R. S. Stcirett. Epigr. Journey
and Wolje Exped. (Papers. Arner. Arch. Inst. ii. iii.) (1883); J. H.
Skene, Anadot (1853): G. Radct, Lydie (1893); O. Rayet and
A. Thomas. Milet et It Goife Latmique (1872); K. Burcsch, Aus
Lydutn (1898); W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia
(1895). and Impressions of Turkey (1898).
B. Eastern Asia Minor.— W. F. Ainsworth, Travels in A. M.
(1842); G. Perrot and E. Guillaume. Expl. arch, de la Calotte (1862-
I872) ; E. J. Davis, Anatoiica (1874); H< F. Torer. Turkish Armenia
(1881); H. J. v. Lennep. Travels (1870); D.G. Hogarth. Wandering
Scholar (1896); Lord Warkworth, Notes of a Diary. &c. (1898)-
E. Sarre, Reise (1896); D. G. Hogarth and J. A. ~ " *' '
and Anc. Roads (R.G.S. Supp. Papers iii.)
A. Ride through A. M. and Armenia (1891);
R. Munro, Mod.
); H. C. Barkley.
... ykes, Dar ul- Islam
(1904); E. Chantre, Mission en Cappadocie (1898).
C. Southern Asia Minor.— F. Beaufort, Karamania (18 17); C.
Fellows, Discoveries in Lycia (1841); T. A. B. Sprat t and E. Forbes,
Travels in Lycia (1847); V. Langlois, Voy. dans la Citicie (1861):
E. J. Davis, Life in Asiatic Turkey (1879); O. Benndorf and E.
Niemann, Lykien (1884): C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie
et de la Pistdie (1890); F. v. Luschan, Reisen in S.W. Kleinasien
1888); E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, Lykien (1889); K. Humann
and O. Puchstcin, Reisen in Kleinasien una Nordsyrien (1890).
D. Northern Asia Minor. — J. M. Ki n neir," Journey through A. M.
(i8r8); J. G. C. Anderson and F. Cumont, Studia Poutica (1903);
E. Naumann, Vom Coldenen Horn, &c. (1893).
See also G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hist, de Part dans Vantiquiti.
vols. iv. v. (1886-1890); J. Strzygowski, Kleinasien, &c. (1903).
Also numerous articles in all leading archaeological periodicals, the
Geographical Journal, Deutsche Rundschau, Petermann's Ceog.
Mitteilungen, &c. &c.
3. Maps. — H. Kiepert, Nouv. carte gin. des prov. asioL de YEmp.
ottoman (1894), and Spetialkarte v. Westkleinasien (1890); W. von
Diest. Karte des Nordwesikleinasien (1901); R. Kiepert, Karte von
Kleinasien (1901); E. Friederich*. Handels- und Produktenkarte van
Kleinasien (1898) ; J. G. C. Anderson* Asia Minor (Murray's Handy
Cass. Maps) (1903). „ (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
ASIENTO, or Assiento (from the verb asentar, to place, or
establish), a Spanish word meaning a farm of the taxes, or
Contract. The farmer or contractor is called an asentista. The
word acquired a considerable notoriety in English and American
history, on account of the " Asiento Treaty " of 1 713. Until 1 702
the Spanish government had given the contract for the supply
of negroes to its colonies in America to the Genoese. But after
the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, a French
company was formed which received the exclusive privilege of
the Spanish- American slave trade for ten years— from September
1 702 to 1 7 1 2. When the peace of Utrecht was signed the British
government insisted that the monopoly should be given to its
own subjects. By the terms of the Asiento treaty signed on the
16th of March 1713, it was provided that British subjects should
be authorized to introduce 144,000 slaves in the course of thirty
years, at the rate of 4800 per annum The privilege was to
expire on the 1st of May 174J. British subjects were also
authorized to send one ship of 500 tons per annum, laden with
manufactured goods, to the fairs of Porto Bello and La Vera
Cruz. Import duties were to be paid for the slaves and goods.
This privilege was conveyed by the British government to the
South Sea Company, formed to work it. The privilege, to which
an exaggerated value was attached, formed the solid basis of
the notorious fit of speculative fever called the South Sea Bubble.
Until 1739 the trade in blacks went on without interruption, but
amid increasingly angry disputes between the Spanish and the
British governments. The right to send a single trading ship
to the fairs of Porto Bello or La Vera Cruz was abused. Under
pretence of renewing her provisions she was followed by tenders
which in fact carried goods. Thus there arose what was in fact
a vast contraband trade. The Spanish government established
a service of revenue boats (marda costas) which insisted on
searching all English vessels approaching the shores of the
Spanish colonies. There can be no doubt that the smugglers
were guilty of many piratical excesses, and that the guarda
costas often acted with violence on mere suspicion. After many
disputes, in which the claims of the British government were
met by Spanish counter claims, war ensued in 1 739. When peace
was made at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1 748 Spain undertook to allow the
asiento to be renewed for the four years which were to run when
war broke out in 1739. But the renewal for so short a period
was not considered advantageous, and by the treaty of El Rctiro
of 1750, the British government agreed to the recession of the
Asiento treaty altogether on the payment by Spain of £100,000.
A very convenient account of the Asiento Treaty, and of the trade
which arose under it, will be found in Malacny Postlcthwayt's
Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce (London, 1751), s.v.
ASIR, a district in western Arabia, lying between 17 30' and
a i* N., and 40" 30' and 4 5° E.; bounded N. by Hejaz, E. by
Ncjd, S. by Yemen and W. by the Red Sea. Like Yemen, it
consists of a lowland zone some 2c or 30 m. in width along the
coast, and of a mountainous tract, falling steeply on the west
and merging into a highland plateau which slopes gradually to
the N.E. towards the Nejd steppes. Its length along the coast
is about 230 m. ( and its breadth from the coast to El Besha about
180. The lowland, or Tehama, is hot and barren; the principal
places in it arc Kanfuda, the chief port of the district, Marsa
Hali and El It wad, smaller ports farther south. The mountain-
ous tract has probably an average altitude of between 6000 and
7000 ft., with a temperate climate and regular rainfall, and is
fertile and populous. The valleys are well watered and produce
excellent crops of cereals and dates. The best-known are the
Wadi Taraba and the W. Besha, both running north-east
towards the W. Dawasir in Ncjd. Taraba, according to John
Lewis Burckhardt, is a considerable town, surrounded by palm
groves and gardens, and watered by numerous rivulets, and
famous for its long resistance to Mehemct Ali's forces in 181 5.
Five or six days' journey to the south-cast is the district of
Besha, the most important position between Sana and Taif.
Here Mehemet Ali's army, amounting to 12,000 men, found
sufficient provisions to supply it during a fortnight's halt.
The Wadi Besha is a broad valley abounding with streams
containing numerous hamlets scattered over a tract some
six or eight hours' joumey in length. Its principal affluent,
the W. Shahran, rises 120 m. to the south and runs
through the fertile district of Rhamis Mishet, the highest in
Asir. The Zahran district lies four days west of Besha on the
crest of the main range: the principal place is Makhwa, a large
town and market, from which grain is exported in considerable
quantities to Mecca. Farther south is the district of Shamran.
Throughout the mountainous country the valleys are well
watered and cultivated, with fortified villages perched on the
surrounding heights. Juniper forests are said to exist on the
higher mountains. Three or four days' journey cast and south-
east of Besha are the encampments of the Bani Kahtan, one of
the most ancient tribes of Arabia; their pastures extend into
the adjoining district of Nejd, where they breed camels in large
numbers, as well as a few horses.
The inhabitants are a brave and warlike race of mountaineers,
and aided by the natural strength of their country they have
762
ASISIUM— ASKEW
hitherto preserved their independence. Since the beginning of
the 19th century they have been bigoted Wahhabis, though
previously regarded by their neighbours as very lax Mahom-
medans; during Mehemet Ali's occupation of Nejd their constant
raids on the Egyptian communications compelled him to send
several punitive expeditions into the district, which, however,
met with little success. Since the reconquest of Yemen by the
Turks, they have made repeated attempts to subjugate Asir,
but beyond occupying Kanfuda.and holding one or two isolated
points in the interior, of which Ibha and Manadir arc the principal,
thev have effected nothing.
The chief sources of information regarding Asir are the notes
madebyj. L. BurckhardtatTaifiniSuand thoseof the French
officers with the Egyptian expeditions into the country from
1814 to 1837. No part of Arabia would better repay exploration.
Authorities.— J. L. Burckhardt. Travel* in Arabia (London.
1829); F. Mengin. Histoire de I Egypt*. &c. (Paris. 1823); M. 0.
Tamistcr. Voyage en Arabie (Paris. 1840). (R. A. VV.)
ASISIUM (mod. Assist), an ancient town of Umbria, in a
lofty situation about 15 m. E.S.E. of Pcrusia. As an independent
community it had already begun to use Latin as well as Umbrian
in its inscriptions (for one of these recording the chief magistrates
— marones — see C.I.L. xi. 5390). It became a muniapium in
90 B.c,, but, though numerous inscriptions (C.I.L. xi. 5371-
5606) testify to its importance in the Imperial period, it is hardly
mentioned by our classical authorities. Scanty traces of the
ancient city walls may be seen; within the town the best -pre-
served building is the so-called temple of Minerva, with six
Corinthian columns of travertine, now converted into a church,
erected by Caius and Titus Caesius in the Augustan era. It
fronted on to the ancient forum, part of the pavement of which,
with a base for the equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux (as
the inscription upon it records) has been laid bare beneath the
present Piazza Vittorio Emanucle. The remains of the amphi-
theatre, in opus reticulalum, may be seen in the north-cast corner
of the town; and other ancient buildings have been discovered.
Asisium was probably the birthplace of Propertius. (T. As.)
ASKABAD, or Asklhabad, a town of Russian central Asia,
capital of the Transcaspian province, 345 m. by rail S.E. of
Krasnovodsk and 594 from Samarkand, situated in a small
oasis at the N. foot of the Kopet-dagh range. It has a public
library and a technical railway school; also cotton-cleaning
works, tanneries, brick-works, and a mineral-water factory.
The trade is valued at £250,000 a year. The population, 2500
in 1881, when the Russians seized it, was 19,428 in 1897, one-
third Persians, many of them belonging to the Babi sect.
ASKAULES (Cr. aa*al\n% (?) from (Wi, bag, abXbt, pipe),
probably the Greek word for bag-piper, although there is no
documentary authority for its use. Neither it nor iaxavXas
(which would naturally mean the bag-pipe) has been found in
Greek classical authors, though J. J. Rciske — in a note on Dio
Chrysostom, Oral. lxxi. ad fin., where an unmistakable descrip-
tion of the bag-pipe occurs (" and they say that he is skilled to
write, to work as an artist, and to play the pipe with his mouth,
on the bag placed under his arm-pits ")— says that 00*06X171 was
the Greek word for bag-piper. The only actual corroboration
of this is the use of a sea ides for the pure Latin ulruularius in
Martial x. 3. 8. Dio Chrysostom flourished about a.d. 100;
it is therefore only an assumption that the bag-pipe was known
to the classical Greeks by the name of awavXof. It need not,
however, be a matter of surprise that among the highly cultured
Greeks such an instrument as the bag-pipe should exist without
finding a place in literature. It is significant that it is not
mentioned by Pollux {Onomast. iv. 74) and Athenaeus {Deipnos.
iv. 76) in their lists of the various kinds of pipes.
See articles Allos and Bag-pipb; art. "Aakaules" in Pauly-
Wiuowa, Realencyctopadie.
ASKS, ROBERT (d. 1537), English rebel, was a country
gentleman who belonged to an ancient family long settled in
Yorkshire, his mother being a daughter of John, Lord Clifford.
When in 1536 the insurrection called the " Pilgrimage of Grace "
broke out in Yorkshire, Askc was made leader; and marching
with the banner of St Cuthbcrt and with the badge of the " five
wounds," he occupied York on the 16th of October and oe t>:
20th captured Pontefract Castle, with Lord Darcy and f:
archbishop of York, who took the oath of the rebels. He ca_*- :
the monks and nuns to be reinstated, and refused to allow 1 s.
king's herald to read the royal proclamation, announcing ?->
intention of matching to London to declare Che grievance* «
the commons to the sovereign himself, secure the expuls^rr :
counsellors of low birth, and obtain restitution for the cfiwvi
The whole country was soon in the hands of the rebels, a milt.-
organization with posts from Newcastle to Hull was establish. :
and Hull was provided with cannon. Subsequently Askc, folk- • r ■:
by 30,000 or 40,000 men, proceeded towards Doncaster, *r -r.
lay the duke of Norfolk with the royal forces, which, infr- •«
in numbers, would probably have been overwhelmed had r .t
Askc persuaded his followers to accept the king's pardon, izi
the promise of a parliament at York and to disband. Sops.
afterwards he received a letter from the king desiring him t>
come secretly to London to inform him of the causes of ■.-.«
rebellion. Askc went under the guarantee of a safe-con i-::
and was well received by Henry. He put in writing a tu*
account of the rising and of his own share in it; and, f~ >
persuaded of the king's good intentions, returned home on the
8th of January 1537, bringing with him promises of a visit frcs
the king to Yorkshire, of the holding of a parliament at Yo-c,
and of free elections. Shortly afterwards he wrote to the kin*
warning him of the still unquiet state not only of the north l*:
of the midlands, and staling his fear that more bloodshed ras
impending. The same month he received the king's thanks :«.*
his action in pacifying Sir Francis Bi god's rising. But his
position was now a difficult and a perilous one, and a few werks
later the attitude of the government towards him was suddc- >
changed. The new rising had given the court an excuse :•*
breaking off the treaty and sending another army under Nor* X
into Yorkshire. Possibly in these fresh circumstances A-kf
may have given cause for further suspicions of his loyalty, i->d
in his last confession he acknowledged that communications to
obtain aid had been opened with the imperial ambassador a-.i
were contemplated with Flanders. But it is more proL.^-.
that the government had from the first treacherously aflev'-c
to treat him with confidence to secure the secrets of the rer» s
and to effect his destruction. In March Norfolk congratuli' -i
Cromwell on the successful accomplishment of his ta*k, ha\: 4
persuaded Aske to go to London on false assurances of secur.:>
He was arrested in April, tried before a commission at Hm-
minster, and sentenced to death for high treason on the t:th W
May; and on the 28th of June he was taken back to York^;n.
being paraded in the towns and country through which he
passed. He was hanged at York in July, expressing repemarce
for breaking the king's laws, but declaring that he had prorr x
of pardon both from Cromwell and from Henry. It is rcliu i
that his servant, Robert Wall, died of grief at the though: ci
his master's approaching execution. Askc was a real lead.?
who gained the affection and confidence of his followers; iri
his. sudden rise to greatness and his choice by the people rx.=:
to abilities that have not been recorded.
See Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries, by F. A. Gasq-rt
(1006): Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.. voK 1.
andxii.; English Hi si or. Review, v. 330. 550 (account of ihr r«>-
bcllion, examination and answer* to interrogations) : Chromrt* t*
Henry VIII. tr. by M. A. S. Hume (1889); Whiuker's Rtdkm^U-
shtre, i. 116 (pedigree of the Askes).
ASKEW, or Ascue, AKNB (1521?-! 546), English Protestant
martyr, born at Stallingborough about 1521, was the scoi.tj
daughter of Sir William Askew (d. 1540) of South Kxi»ry
Lincoln, by his first wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thorn*.
Wrottesley. Her elder sister, Martha, was betrothed by her
parents to Thomas Kyme, a Lincolnshire justice of the peace,
but she died before marriage, and Anne was induced or com-
pelled to take her place. She is said to have had two chikirm
by Kyme, but rcligious^jdiflcrences and incompatibility of tem-
perament soon estranged the couple. Kyme was apparently ac
unimaginative man of the world, while Anne took to BibJe-
rcading with seal, became convinced of the falsity of the doctnae
ASMA'L- ASMODEUS
763
of transubstantiation, and created some stir in Lincoln by her dis-
putations. According to Bale and Foxe her husband turned her
out of doors, but in the privy council register she is said to have
" refused Kyme to be her husband without any honest allega-
tion." She had as good a reason for repudiating her husband
as Henry VIII. for repudiating Anne of Geves. In any case,
she came to London and made friends with Joan Bocher, who
was already known for heterodoxy, and other Protestants. She
was examined for heresy in March 1545 by the lord mayor, and
was committed to the Counter prison. Then she was examined
by Bonner, the bishop of London, who drew up a form of re-
cantation which he entered in his register. This fact led Parsons
and other Catholic historians to state that she actually recanted,
but she refused to sign Bonner's form without qualification.
Two months later, on the 24th of May, the privy council ordered
her arrest. On the 13th of June 1545, she was arraigned as a
sacramentarian under the Six Articles at the Guildhall; but no
witness appeared against her; she was declared not guilty by
the jury and discharged after paying her fees.
TTie reactionary party, which, owing to* the absence of Hertford
and Lisle and to the presence of Gardiner, gamed the upper hand
in the council in the summer of 1546, were not satisfied with this
repulse; they probably aimed at the leaders of the reforming
party, such as Hertford and possibly Queen Catherine Parr, who
were suspected of favouring Anne, and on the 18th of June 1546
Anne was again arraigned before a commission including the
ford mayor, the duke of Norfolk, St John, Bonner and Heath.
No jury was empanelled and no witnesses were called; she was
condemned, simply on her confession, to be burnt. On the same
day she was called before the privy council with her husband.
Kyme was sent home into Lincolnshire, but Anne was committed
to Newgate, " for that she was very obstinate and heady in
reasoning of matters of religion." On the following day she was
taken to the Tower and racked; according to Anne's own
statement, as recorded by Bale, the lord chancellor, Wriothesley,
and the solicitor-general, Rich, worked the rack themselves; but
she " would not convert for all the pain " (Wriothesley, Ckrotticlc
i. 1 68). Her torture, disputed by Jardine, Lingard and others, is
substantiated not only by her own narrative, but by two con-
temporary chronicles, and by a contemporary letter (ibid.;
Narratives of the Reformation, p. 305; Ellis, Original Letters y 2nd
Ser. u. 177). For four weeks she was left in prison, and at length
on the i6th of July, she was burnt at Smilhficld in the presence
of the same persecuting dignitaries who had condemned her to
death.
Authorities.— Bale's two tracts.printed at Marburg in November
1546 and January 1547, are the basis of Foxe's account. See also
Aits of Ike Privy Council (1542-1547), pp* 424 46a; Wriothesley *s
Chron. i. 155, 167-160; Narratives of the Reformation, passim;
Cough's Index to Parker Sec. Publications; Burnet's Hist, of the
Reformation ; Dixon's Hist, of the Church of England; Did. Nat.
Biotr. (A. F. P.)
A?MAl (Abu Sa'Id 'Abd ul-Malik ibn Quraib] (c. 730-831),
Arabian scholar, was born of pure Arab stock in Basra and- was
a pupil there of Aba 'Amr ibn uI-'AU. He seems to have been a
poor man until by the influence of the governor of Basra he was
brought to the notice of HarOn al-Rashld, who enjoyed his con-
versation at court and made him tutor of his son. He became
wealthy and acquired property in Basra, where he again settled
for a time; but returned later to Bagdad, where he died in 831.
Asma'l was one of the greatest scholars of his age. From his
youth he stored up in his memory the sacred words of the Koran,
the traditions of the Prophet, the verses of the old poets and the
stories of the ancient wars of the Arabs. He was also a student
of language and a critic. It was as a critic that he was the great
rival of AbQ ' Ubaida (?.*.). While the latter followed (or led) the
Shutkbite movement and declared for the excellence of all things
not Arabian, Asma'l was the pious Moslem and avowed supporter
of the superiority of the Arabs over all peoples, and of the free-
dom of their language and literature from all foreign influence.
Some of his scholars attained high rank as literary men. Of
AsmaTs many works mentioned in the catalogue known as the
Fihrisi, only about half a dozen are extant. Of these the Book
of Distinction has been edited by D. H. Muller (Vienna, 1876);
the Book of the Wild Animals by R. Geyer (Vienna, 1887); the
Book of the Horse, by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1895); the Book of the
Sheef t by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1896).
For life of Asma't, see Ibn Khallikan, Biographical Dictionary,
translated from the Arabic by McG. de Slane (Paris arid
London, 1842), vol. ti. pp. 123-127. For his work as a grammarian.
G. Fidget, Dte gramtnalischen Schulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862),
pp. 7*-«o. (6. W. T.)
ASMARA, the capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea, N.E.
Africa. It is built on the Hamasen plateau, near its eastern edge,
at an elevation of 7800 ft., and is some 40 m. W.S.W. in a direct
line of the seaport of Massawa. Pop. (1904) about 0000, including
the garrison of 300 Italian soldiers, and some 1000 native troops.
The European civil population numbers over 500; the rest
of the inhabitants are chiefly Abyssinians. There is a small
Mahommedan colony. The town is strongly fortified. The
European quarter contains several fine public buildings, including
the residence of the governor, club house, barracks and hospital.
Fort Baldissera is built on a hill to the south-west of the town
and is considered impregnable.
Asmara, an Amharic word signifying " good pasture place," is
a town of considerable antiquity. It was included in the mari-
time province of northern Abyssinia, which was governed by a
viceroy who bore the title of Babar-nagash (ruler of the sea).
By the Abyssinians the Hamasen plateau was known as the plain
of the thousand villages. Asmara appears to have been one of
the most prosperous of these villages, and to have attained
commercial importance through being on the high road from
Axum to Massawa. When Werner Munzinger (?.p.) became
French consul at Massawa, he entered into a scheme for annexing
the Hamasen (of which Asmara was then the capital) to France,
but the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870 brought the
project to nought (cf. A. B. Wylde, Modem Abyssinia, xgox).
In 1872 Munzinger, now in Egyptian service, annexed Asmara
to the khedivial dominions, but in 1884, owing to the rise of the
mahdi, Egypt evacuated her Abyssinian provinces and Asmara was
chosen by Ras Alula, the representative of the negus Johannes
(King John); as his headquarters. Shortly afterwards the I talians
occupied Massawa, and in 1889 Asmara (see Abyssinia: History).
In 1000 the seat of government was transferred from Massawa
to Asmara, which in its modern form is the creation of the
Italians. It is surrounded by rich agricultural lands, cultivated
in part by Italian immigrants, and is a busy trading centre. A
railway from Massawa to Asmara was completed as far as Ghinda,
at the foot of the plateau, in 1004. At Medrizicn, 6 m. north of
Asmara, are gold-mines which have been partially worked.
See G. Dainelli, In Africa. Lettere daW Eritrea (Bergamo. 1908) ;
R. Perini, Di qua dot March (Florence, 1905).
ASMODEUS, or Ashmedai, an evil demon who appears in later
Jewish tradition as " king of demons." He is sometimes identified
with Jjeclzebub or Apollyon (Rev. ix. xx). In the Talmud he
plays a great part in the legends concerning Solomon. In the
apocryphal book of Tobit (iii. 8)occurs the well-known story of
his love for Sara, the beautiful daughter of Raguel, whose seven
husbands were slain in succession by him on their respective
bridal nights. At last Tobias, by burning the heart and liver of
a fish, drove off the demon, who fled to Egypt From the part
played by Asmodeus in this story, he has been often familiarly
called the genius of matrimonial unhappiness or jealousy, and
as such may be compared with Lilith. Le Sage makes him the
principal character in his novel Le Diable boiteux. Both the
word and the conception seem to have been derived originally
from the Persian. The name has been taken to mean "covetous."
It is in any case no doubt identical with the demon Aeshma of
the Zend-Avesta and the Pahlavi texts. But the meaning is not
certain. It is generally agreed that the second pari of the name
Asmodeus is the same as the Zend daeva, dew, " demon." The
first part may be equivalent to Aeshma, the impersonation of
anger. But W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauek, Realencyklop&dic)
prefers to derive it from ish, to drive, set in motion; whence
ish-mln, driving, impetuous.
The legend of Asmodeus is given fully in the Jevnsh Encyclo*
paedia,s.v. See ato ihe articles in the Encyclopaedia Btblica, Hastings
Dictionary of the Bible, and Herrog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.
764
ASMONEUS— ASPARAGINE
ASMONEUS, or Asamonaeus (so Joseph us), great-grandfather
of Mattathias, the father of Judas Maccabaeus. Nothing more is
known of him, and the name is only given by Joscphus (not in
1 Mace. ii. 1). But the dynasty was known to Josephus and the
Mishna (once) as " the sons (race) of the Asamonacans (of A.) ";
and the Targum of x Sam. ii. 4 has " the house of the Hash-
moneans who were weak, signs were wrought for them and
strength.'/ If not the founder, Asmoneus was probably the home *
of the family (cf. Heshmon, Jos. xv. 37).
See Schurer, Gesthichte des judiseken Volkes, i. 248 N; art.
•• Maccabees," { a, in Ency. BiUica, (J. H. A. H.)
A5NI&RES, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine, on the left bank of the Seine, about i| m. N.N.W. of the
fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1006) 35,8*3- T^ town » which
has grown rapidly in recent years, is a favourite boating centre
for the Parisians. The industries include boat-building and the
manufacture of colours and perfumery.
ASOKA, a famous Buddhist emperor of India who reigned
from 264 to 228 or 227 B.C. Thirty-five of his inscriptions on
rocks or pillars or in caves still exist (see Inscriptions: Indian),
and they arc among the most remarkable and interesting of
Buddhist momunen ts (see B UDomsif ) . Asoka was the grandson
of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya (Peacock) dynasty,
who had wrested the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great
from the hands of Sclcucus, and he was the son of Bindusira,
who succeeded his father Chandragupta, by a lady from Champa."
The Greeks do not mention him and the Brahmin books ignore
him, but the Buddhist chronicles and legends tell us much about
him. The inscriptions, which contain altogether about five
thousand words, are entirely of religious import, and their
references to worldly affairs are incidental. They begin in the
thirteenth year of his reign, and tell us that in the ninth year he
had Invaded Kalinga, and had been so deeply impressed by the
horrors involved in warfare that he had then given up the desire
for conquest, and devoted himself to conquest by " religion."
What the religion was is explained in the edicts. It is purely
ethical, independent alike of theology and ritual, and is the code
of morals as laid down in the Buddhist sacred books for laymen.
He further tells us that in the ninth year of his reign he formally
joined the Buddhist community as a layman, in the eleventh
year he became a member of the order, and in the thirteenth he
'• set out for the Great Wisdom " (the Sambodhi), which is the
Buddhist technical term for entering upon the well-known, eight-
fold path to Nirvana. One of the edicts is addressed to the
order, and urges upon its members and the laity alike the learn-
ing and rehearsal of passages from the Buddhist scriptures.
Two others are proclamations commemorating visits paid by the
king, one to the dome erected over the ashes of Konagamana, the
Buddha, another to the birthplace of Gotama, the Buddha (q.v.).
Three very short ones are dedications of caves to the use of
an order of recluses. The rest either enunciate the religion as
explained above, or describe the means adopted by the king for
propagating it, or acting in accordance with it. These means are
such as the digging of wells, planting medicinal herbs, and trees
for shade, sending out of missionaries, appointment of special
officers to supervise charities, and so on. The missionaries were
sent to Kashmir, to the Himalayas, to the border lands on the
Indus, to the coast of Burma, to south India and to Ceylon.
And the king claims that missions sent by him to certain Greek
kingdoms that he names had resulted in the folk there conform-
ing themselves to his religion. The extent of Asoka's dominion
included all India from the thirteenth degree of latitude up to the
Himalayas, Nepal, Kashmir, the Swat valley, Afghanistan as
far as the Hindu Rush, Sind and Baluchistan. It was thus as
large as, or perhaps somewhat larger than, British India before
the conquest of Burma. He was undoubtedly the most powerful
sovereign of his time and the most remarkable and imposing of
the native rulers of India. " If a man's fame/' says Koppen,
•'can be measured by the number of hearts who revere his
memory, by the number of lips who have mentioned, and still
mention him with honour, Asoka is more famous than Char-
lemagne or Cac&ar." At the same time it is probable that,
like Constan tine's patronage of Christianity, his pntrataag* el
Buddhism, then the most rising and influential faith in ImLa.
was not unalloyed with political motives, and it is certain that
his vast benefactions to the Buddhist cause were at least one of
the causes that led to its decline.
See also Asoka, by Vincent Smith (Oxford, lQOl); Insert ftim+s 4t
Piyadasi, by E. Scnart (Paris, 1891); chapters on Asoka »T. W
Rhys Davids's Buddhism (20th ed. .London, 1903). and Bmddktst ltd a
(London, 1903) ; V. A. Smith, Edicts of Asoka (1909)- (T. W. R- D ,
ASOLO (anc. Acdum), a town of Vcnetia, Italy, in the provir.c*
of Trcviso, about 19 m. N.W. direct from the town of Treviso
and some iom.E.ofBassanoby road. Pop.(iooi) 5A47. It is
well situated on a hill, 690 ft. above sea-level. Remains 01
Roman baths and of a theatre have been discovered in the
course of excavation (Notizie degli scan, 1877, 235; 18S1. *©s.
1882, 289), and the town was probably a ntunicipivm. It
became an episcopal see in the 6th century. It was to AscJo
that Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, retired on her abdica-
tion. Here she was visited by Pietro Bembo, who conceived here
his Diaiogki degli Asolani, and by Andrea Kavagero (Kauferius).
Paulus Manutius was born here. The village of Mascr is 4 \ m. to
the E., and near it is the Villa Giacomelli, erected by Palladio, con-
taining frescoes by Paolo Veronese, executed in 1 566-1 5 68 for Marc-
antonio Barbaxo of Venice, and ranking among his best works.
ASOR (Hebr. for " ten "), an instrument " of ten strings **
mentioned in the Bible, about which authors are not agreed.
The word occurs only three times in the Bible, and has not been
traced elsewhere. In Psalm xxxiii. 2 the reference is to " kinccr.
nebel and asor "; in Psalm xcii. 3, to " nebel and asor "; in
Psalm cxliv. to " ncbcl-asor." In the English version asor t%
translated " an instrument of ten strings," with a marginal note
" omit." applied to " instrument." In the Septuagint, the word
being derived from a root signifying " ten/' the Greek is c»
6c«axop6<£ or 4ro\rhpuov fardxopdoi', in the Vulgate in dece-
chordo psalterio. Each time the word asor is used it folio* s the
word nebel (see Psaltery), and probably merely indicates a
variant of the nebel, having ten strings instead of the customary
twelve assigned to it by Josephus {Antiquities, vii. 12. 3).
See also Mendel and Rcissmann, Mutihalisches Connmaiicns-
Lexikon, vol. i- (Berlin, 1881); Sir John Srainer. The Music of ;W
Bible, pp. 35-37; Forkel, Allgemeine GexhickU der' Musdt, Bd. L
p. 133 (Leipzig, 1788). (K. S >
ASP ( Vipera aspis), a species of venomous snake, closely allied
to the common adder of Great Britain, which it represents
throughout the southern parts of Europe, being specials
abundant in the region of the Alps. It differs from the adder
in having the head entirely covered with scales, shields being
absent, and in having the snout somewhat turned up. The term
" Asp" (A<ririr) seems to have been employed by Greek and
Roman writers, and by writers generally down to comparatively
recent times, to designate more than one species of serpent,
thus the asp, by means of which Cleopatra is said to have cr.ded
her life, and so avoided the disgrace of entering Rone a captive,
is now generally supposed to have been the cerastes, or homed
viper (Cerastes cornutus), of northern Africa and Arabia, a snake
about 15 in. long, exceedingly venomous, and provided «ith
curious horn -like protuberances over each eye, which give it a
decidedly sinister appearance. The snake, however, to which
the word " asp " has been most commonly applied' is undoubtedly
the haje of Egypt, the spy-slange or spitting snake of the Boers
{Naja haje), one of the very poisonous Elorinae, from 3 to 4 ft.
long, with the skin of its neck loose, so as to render it dilatable
at the will of the animal, a* in the cobra of India, a species from
which it differs only in the absence of the spectacle-like mark
on the back of the neck. Like the cobra, also, the haje has its
fangs extracted by the jugglers of the country, who afterwards
train it to perform various tricks. The asp (Petite** k?) is
mentioned in various parts of the Old Testament. This name
is twice translated " adder," but as nothing is told of it beyond
its poisonous character and the intractability of its disposition,
it is impossible accurately to determine the species.
ASPARAGINE, C«H»N/)i, a naturally occurring base, found
in plants belonging to the natural orders Leguminosae and
ASPARAGUS— ASPAHA
Cruciferae. It occurs in two optically active forms, namely, at
laevo-asparagine and dextto-asparagine. Laevo-asparagine was
isolated in 1805 by L. N. Vauquelin. A. Piutti (G<m. clum. Jtai.,
1867, 17, p. 126; 1883, x8,*p. 457) synthesized the asparagines
from the monomethyl ester of inactive aspartic acid by heating
it with alcoholic ammonia. In this way a mixture of the two
asparagines was obtained, which were separated by picking out
the hemihedral crystals.
HOOCCHNHrCHrCOOC,H,+NH,
= C,H»OH +HOOCCHNH>CH,CONH,.
Laevo-asparagine is slightly soluble in cold water and readily
soluble in hot water. It crystallises in prisms, containing one
molecule of water of crystallization, the anhydrous form melt-
ing at 234-235 C. Nitrous acid converts it into malic acid,
HOOC- CHOH- CH r COOH. It is laevo-rotatory in aqueous or
in alkaline solution, and dextro-rotatory in acid solution (L.
Pasteur, Ann.Chim, Phys., 1851 [a], 31, p. 67). Dextro-asparagine
was first found in 1886 in the shoots of the vetch {Piutti). It
forms rhombic crystals possessing a sweet taste. It is dextro-
rotatory in aqueous or alkaline solution, and lacvo-rotatory
in acid solution.
Hydrolysis by means of acids or alkalis converts the aspara-
gines into aspartic acid; whilst on heating with water in a sealed
tube they are converted into ammonium aspartate. The con-
stitution of the asparagines has been determined by A. Piutti
{Gam. cfrim. Ital., 1888, 18, p. 457).
ASPARAGUS, a genus of plants (nat. ord. Liliaceae) containing
more than 100 species, and widely distributed in the temperate
and warmer parts of the Old World; it was introduced from
Europe into America with the early settlers. The name is
derived from the Creek 6\<nr6fiayot or Aaettpcnrot , the origin
of which is obscure. S per age or sporage was the form in use from
the 1 6th to z8th centuries, cf . the modern Italian sparagio. The
vulgar corruption sparrow-grass or sparagrass was in accepted
popular use during the 18th century, " asparagus " being con-
sidered pedantic. The plants have a short, creeping, under-
ground stem from which spring slender, branched, aerial shoots.
The leaves are reduced to minute scales bearing in their axils
tufts of green, needle-like branches (the so-called dadodes),
which simulate,. and perform the functions of, leaves. In one
section of the genus, sometimes regarded as a distinct genus
Myrsiphylium, the cladodes are flattened. The plants often
climb or scramble, in which they are helped by the develop-
ment of the scalc-kaves into persistent spines. The flowers are
small, whitish and pendulous; the fruit is a berry.
Several of the chmbing species are grown in greenhouses foe
their delicate, often feathery branches, which are also valu-
able for cutting; the South African Asparagus plumosus is an
especially elegant species. The so-called amilax, much used for
decoration, is a species of the Myrsiphylium section, A. medeo-
laides, also known as Myrsiphylium asparagoides. The young
shoots of Asparagus officinalis have from very remote times been
in high repute as a culinary vegetable, owing to their delicate
flavour and diuretic virtues. The plant, which is a native of the
north temperate zone of the Old World, grows wild on the south
coast of England; and on the waste steppes of Russia it is so
abundant that it is eaten by cattle like grass. In common with
the marsh-mallow and some other plants, it contains asparagine
or aspartic addamide. The roots of asparagus were formerly
used as an aperient medicine, and the fruits were likewise
employed as a diuretic. Under the name of Prussian asparagus,
the spikes of an allied plant, OrnUhogalum pyrenaicum, are used
in some places. The diuretic action is extremely feeble, and
neither the plant nor asparagine is now used medicinally.
Asparagus is grown extensively in private gardens as well as
for market. The asparagus prefers a loose, fight, deep, sandy soil;
the depth should be 3 ft., the soil being well trenched, and all
surplus water got away. A considerable quantity of well-rotted
dung or of recent seaweed should be laid in the bottom of the
trench, and another top-dressing of manure should be dug in
preparatory to planting or sowing. The beds should be 3 ft.
or s ft. wide, with intervening alleys of 2 ft., the narrower beds
takhjgtssosm^p^u, w ^
•nould ran cast «* »<* ^ w ^
against the sideW^ux m *^, „,'"
in equidistant iv»t * w 4 »• ***< m ^,
with plants already t**i*«A ;t*w+* '„
plants may be used, Um *us* « >m , m \, m /
to afford room for spcebfeic ^ u* *„ _ '
kept at about * m. beknr u* *^W* *%_"*
April, after the piaaU ht*t ***** m + ~Z ' '
injury to the roots, it is, now***, y^^u, w " ^ '
sow the seeds in the beds wheat fee p»«f* -^ ' ' ■
exTKriencethefiiiestJiavowola^M^^ , ^ ;
immediately after having been gs«*»t«*, /*,.., „„_ ,,
day, or set info water, its finer A»v«* . +^ „ ,„' "
properly treated, asparagus beds will own**, v , ^w . n
manyyears. The asparagus grown at A#*w^*u <*w , J*
haS . 1 Mqui 2? ■?* ? otori *y *» *• *»* *<* ma *„,J...
quality. The French growers plant fa u**,» x ^, A . A „
raised beds. The most common method U U«< .^ ^^ ^
is to prepare, early in the year, a moderate Wa w, * •„.,*
litter with a bottom heat of 70 , and to cover k **««. « ;+<*>,*
frame. After the heat of fermentation has some*}*' w^^
the surface of the bed is covered with a layer of )i#>i *«#•«, w
exhausted tan-bark, and in this the root* of strong n*tw* ,A» t , f
are closely placed. The crowns of the root* are then *jw4
with 3 to 6 in. of soil. A common three-light frame may \*/A
500 or 600 plants, and will afford a supply for several we»k«.
After planting, linings are applied when necessary to keep up
the heat, but care must be taken not to scorch the roots; air
must be occasionally admitted. Where there are pits heated
by hot water or by the tank system, they may be advantageously
applied to this purpose. A succession of crops must be main*
tained by annually sowing or planting new beds.
The " asparagus-beetle " is the popular name for two beetles,
the " common asparagus beetle " (Crioceris asparagi) and the
" twelve-spotted " (C. duodecimfunctata), which feed on the
asparagus plant. C. asparagi has been known in Europe since
early times, and was introduced into America about 1856; the
rarer C. duodecimpunctata (sometimes called the "red'" to
distinguish it from the " blue " species) was detected in America
in 1881. For an admirable account of these pests see F. H.
Chittenden, Circular 102 of the U. S. Dep. of Agriculture, Bureau
of Entomology, May 1908.
The " asparagus-stone " is a form of apatite, simulating aspar-
agus in colour.
ASPASIA, an Athenian courtesan of the 5th century B.C., was
born either at Miletus or at Megara, and settled in Athens, where
her beauty and' her accomplishments gained for her a great
reputation. Pericles, who had divorced his wife (445), made her
his mistress, and, after the death of his two legitimate sons,
procured the passing of a law under which his son by her was
recognized as legitimate. It was the fashion, especially among
the comic poets, to regard her as the adviser of Pericles in all
his political actions, and she is even charged with having caused
the Samian and Peloponnesian wars (Aristoph. Acharn. 497).
Shortly before the latter war, she was accused of impiety, and
nothing but the tears and entreaties of Pericles procured her
acquittal. On the. death of Pericles she is said to have become
the mistress of one Lysicles, whom, though of ignoble birth, she
raised to a high position in the state; but, as Lysicles died a year
after Perides (438), the story is unconvincing. She was the
chief figure in the dialogue Aspasia by Aeschines the Socratic,
in which she was represented as criticizing the manners and
training of the women of her time (for an attempted reconstruc-
tion of the dialogue see P. Natorp in PhiMogus, li. p. 480, 1802)-
in the Menextnus (generally ascribed to Plato) she is a teacher
of rhetoric, the instructress of Socrates and Pericles, and a funeral
oration in honour of those Athenians who had given their lives
for their country (the authorship of which is attributed to
Aspasia) is repeated by Socrates; Xenophon (Oecon. Hi. 14) also
speaks of her in favourable terms, but she is not mentioned by
Thucydides. In opposition to this view, Wtlamowiu-Mollendorff
766
ASPASIUS— ASPENDUS
(jEfcrmey, xxtv. 1900) regards her amply as a courtesan, 'whose
personality would readily become the subject of rumour, favour-
able or unfavourable. There is a bust bearing her name In the
Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.
See Le Conte de Bievre, Let Deux A spasm (1736) ; J. B. Capefigue,
AtpasU et U s&cle de PiricUs (1 862) ; L" Becq de Fouquieres. Aspasie
de Milet (1873); H. Houssaye, Aspasie, CUopdtre, Thiodera (1899);
R. Hamerling, Astasia (a, romance; Eng. trans, by M. J. Safford,
New York, 1882) ; J. Donaldson, Woman (1907). Also Pbbicles,
ASPASIUS, a Greek peripatetic philosopher, and a prolific
commentator on Aristotle. He flourished probably towards the
dose of the 1st century A.D., or perhaps during the reign of
Antoninus Pius. His commentaries on the Categories, De
Interpretations, De Sensu, and other works of Aristotle are
frequently referred to by later writers, but have not come down
to us. Commentaries on Plato, mentioned by Porphyry in his
life of Plotinus, have also been lost Commentaries on books
1-4, 7 (in part), and 8 of the Nkomackean Ethics are preserved;
that on book 8 was printed with those of Eustratius and others
by Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1536. They were partly (2-4)
translated into Latin by Felicianus in 1541, and have frequently
been republished, but their authenticity has been disputed.
The most recent edition is by G. Heylbut in Commentaria in
AristoleUm Graeco, xix. 1 (Berlin, 1889).
Another Aspasids, in the 3rd century a.d., was a Roman sophist
and rhetorician, son or pupil of the rhetorician Demetrianus. He
taught rhetoric in Rome, and filled the chair of rhetoric founded
by Vespasian. He was secretary to the emperor Maximin. His
orations, which are praised for their style, are lost
ASPEN, an important section of the poplar genus (Populus)
of which the common aspen of Europe, P. tremtdc, may be taken
as the type, — a tall fast-growing tree with rather slender trunk,
and grey bark becoming rugged when old. The roundish leaves,
toothed on the margin, are slightly downy when young, but after-
wards smooth, dark green on the upper and greyish green on the
lower surface; the long slender petioles, much flattened towards
the outer end, allow of free lateral motion by the lightest breeze,
giving the foliage its well-known tremulous character. By their
friction on each other the leaves give rise to a rustling sound.
It is supposed that the mulberry trees (Becaim) mentioned in
x Chronicles xiv. 14, 15 were really aspen trees. The flowers,
which appear in March and April, are borne on pendulous hairy
catkins, 2-3 in. long; male and female catkins are, as in the other
species of the genus, on distinct trees.
The aspen is found in moist places, sometimes at a considerable
elevation, 1600 ft. or more, in Scotland. It is an abundant tree
in the northern parts of Britain, even as far as Sutherland, and is
occasionally found in the coppices of the southern counties, but
in these latter habitats seldom reaches any large size; through-
out northern Europe it abounds in the forests,— in Lapland
flourishing even in 70° N. lat., while in Siberia its range extends
to the Arctic Circle; in Norway its upper limit is said to coincide
with that of the pine; trees exist near the western coast having
stems 15 ft in circumference. The wood of the aspen is very
light and soft, though tough; it is employed by coopers, chiefly
for pails and herring-casks; it is also made into butchers' trays,
pack-saddles, and various articles for which its lightness recom-
mends it; sabots are also made of it in France, and in medieval
days it was valued for arrows, especially for those used in target
practice; the bark is used for tanning in northern countries;
cattle and deer browse greedily on the young shoots and abundant
suckers. Aspen wood makes but indifferent fuel, but charcoal
prepared from it is light and friable, and has been employed in
gunpowder manufacture. The powdered bark is sometimes give n
to horses as a vermifuge; it possesses likewise tonic and febrifugal
properties, containing a considerable amount of satidn. The
aspen is readily propagated either by cuttings or suckers, but
has been but little planted of late years in Britain. P. trepida,
or tremuloides, is closely allied to the European aspen, being
chiefly distinguished by its more pointed leaves; it is a native
of most parts of Canada and the United States, extending
northwards as far as Great Slave Lake. The wood is soft and
neither strong nor durable; it burns better in the green state
than that of most trees, and is often used by the hunters of the
North- West as fuel; split into thin layers, it was former!?
employed in the United States for bonnet and hat making. It
is largely manufactured into wood-pulp for paper-making The
bark is of some value as a tonic and febrifuge. P. grondidenteii,
the large-leaved American aspen, has ovate or roundish leave*
deeply and irregularly serrated on the margin. The wood is
light, soft and dose-grained, but not strong. In northern New
England and Canada it is largely manufactured into wood-porp;
it is occasionally used in turnery and for wooden-ware
ASPENDUS (mod. Balkis Kali , or, more anciently in the
native language, Estvfdys (whence the adjective Estteiijys co
coins), an ancient dty of Pamphylia, very strongly sit on ted en
an isolated hill on the right bank of the Eurymedon at the
point where the river issues from the Taurus. The sea is now
about 7 m. distant, and the river is navigable only for at* ^t
s m. from the mouth; but in the time of Thucydides ships ccu.'d
anchor off Aspendus. Really of pre-Hellenic date, the place
claimed to be an Argive colony. It derived wealth from great
salines and from a trade in oil and wool, to which the wide
range of its admirable coinage bears witness from the 5th century
b.c. onwards. There Alcibiades met the satrap Ussaphernes in
411 b.c, and thence succeeded in getting the Phoenician fleet
intended to co-operate with Sparta, sent back home. The
Athenian, Thrasybulus, after obtaining contributions frets
Aspendus in 389, was murdered by the inhabitants. The city
bought off Alexander in 333, but, not keeping faith, was forcibly
occupied by the conqueror. In due course it passed from
Pergamene to Roman dominion, and according to Cicero, was
plundered of many artistic treasures by Verres. It was ranked
by Philostratus the third city of Pamphylia, and in Byzantine
times seems to have been known as Primopolis, under which
name its bishop signed at Epbesus in a.d. 431. In medieval
times it was evidently still a strong place, but it has now sunk,
in the general decay of Pamphylia, to a wretched hamlet
The ruins still extant are very remarkable, and, with the
noble Roman theatre, the finest in the world, have earned for
the place (as is the case with certain other great monuments) a
legendary connexion with Solomon's Sheban queen. On the
summit of the hillock, surrounded by a wall with three gates,
lie the remains of the city. The public buildings round the forum
can all be traced, and parts of them are standing to a considerable
height They consist of a fine nympheum on the north with a
covered theatre behind it, covered market halls on the west, and
a peristyle hall and a basilica on the east. In the plain below are
large thermae, and ruins of a splendid aqueduct But all ebe
seems insignificant beside the huge theatre, half hollowed out of
the north-east flank of the hill. This was first published by
C. F. M. Texier in 1849, and has now been completely planned.
&c, by Count Lanckoronski's expedition in 1884. It is bnOt of
local conglomerate and is in marvellous preservation. Erected
to the honour of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus by
the architect Zeno, for the heirs of a local Roman citizen (as an
inscription repeated over both portals attests), its auditorium
has a circuit of 313-17 feet There are forty tiers of seating,
divided by one diaxama, and crowned by an arched gallery of
rather later date, repaired in places with brick. This auditorium
held 7500 spectators. The seats are not perfect, but so nearly
so as to appear practically intact The wooden stage has, of
course, perished, but all its supporting structures are in place,
and the great scena wall stands to its full height, and produces a
magnificent impression whether from within or from without
Inwardly it was decorated with two orders of columns one above
the other, with rich entablatures, much of which survives. In
the tympanum is a relief of Bacchus (wrongly supposed to be of a
female, and called the Bal-Kis, ix: " Honey Girl ")• The position
of the sounding board above the stage is apparent Under the
forepart of the auditorium, built out from the hill, are immense
vaults. The whole structure was enclosed within one great will,
pierced with numerous windows. This structure was probably
put to some ecclesiastical Byzantine use, as certain mutilated
heads of saints appear upon it; and later it became a fortress
ASPER— -ASPERN-E8SLING
767
mad received certain additions. It is now under the cue of the
local agkd and not allowed to be plundered for building stone.
See C. Laackorooski, VUles de la PampkylU el it la Pisidie, i.
(1800). (D. G. H.)
ASPER, ARMIUTJS, Latin grammarian, possibly lived in the
2nd century a.d. He wrote commentaries on Terence, Sallust
and Virgil. Numerous fragments of the last show that as both
critic and commentator he possessed good judgment and taste.
They are printed in Kefl, Probi in Vergilii BucoHca Commentarhts
(1848); see also Suringar; Hisloria Crilica Sckoliastarum Lati-
norum (1834) ; Grfifenhan, GeschichUderUassiuken PkilologU im
Allertkum, iv. (1843-1850). Two short grammatical treatises,
extant under the name of Asper, and of very little value, have
nothing to do with the commentator, but belong to a much
later, date— the time of Prisdan (6th century). Both are
printed in Keil, Grammaiki Latini. See also Schans, Gesckiekte
der romischen Litter atur, § 598.
ASPER, HANS (1400-1571), Swiss painter, was born and died
at Zurich. He wrought in a great variety of styles, but excelled
chiefly in flower and fruit pieces, and in portrait-painting.
Many of his pictures have perished, but his style may be judged
from the illustrations to Gessner's Historia Animalium, for which
he is said to have furnished the designs, and from portraits of
Zwingli and his daughter Rcgula Gwalter, which are preserved
in the public library of Zurich. It has been usual to class Asper
among the pupils and imitators of Holbein, but an inspection of
bis works is sufficient to show that this is a mistake. Though
Asper was held in high reputation by his fellow-citizens, who
elected him a member of the Great Council, and had a medal
struck in his honour, he seems to have died in poverty.
ASPERGES ("thou wilt sprinkle," from the Latin verb
asper gere), the ceremony of sprinkling the people with holy water
before High Mass in the Roman Catholic Church, so called from
the first word of the verse (Ps. iv. 9) Aspergcs me, Domini,
kyssopo ct mundabor, with which the priest begins the ceremony.
The brush used for sprinkling is an aspergill (aspcrgillum), or
aspersoir, and the vessel for this water an aspersorium. The act
of sprinkling the water is called aspersion.
ASPERN-ESSLING, Battle of (1809), a battle fought on the
ax st and 22nd of May 1809 between the French and their allies
under Napoleon and the Austrian* commanded by the arch-
duke Charles (sec Napoleonic Campaigns). At the time of the
battle Napoleon was in possession of Vienna, the bridges over
the Danube had been broken, and the archduke's army was on
and about the Bisamberg, a mountain near Korneuburg, on
the left bank of the river. The first task of the French was the
crossing of the Danube. Lobau, one of the numerous islands
which divide the river into minor channels, was selected as the
point of crossing, careful preparations were made, and on the
night of the ioth-aothof May the French bridged all the channels
from the right bank to Lobau and occupied the island. By the
evening of the 20th great masses of men had been collected there
and the last arm of the Danube, between Lobau and the left bank,
bridged. Massena's corps at once crossed to the left bank and
dislodged the Austrian outposts. Undeterred by the news of
heavy attacks on his rear from Tirol and from Bohemia, Napoleon
hurried all available troops to the bridges, and by daybreak on
the aist, 40,000 men were collected on the Marchfeld, the broad
open plain of the left bank, which was also to be the scene of
the battle of Wagram. The archduke did not resist the passage;
it was his intention, as soon as a large enough force had crossed,
to attack it before the rest of the French army could come to its
assistance. Napoleon had, of course, accepted the risk of such
an attack, but he sought at the same time to minimize it by
summoning every available battalion to the scene. His forces
on the Marchfeld were drawn up in front of the bridges facing
north, with their left in the village of Aspern (Gross-Aspern)
and their right in Essling (or Essungen). Both places by dose
to the Danube and could not therefore be turned; Aspern,
indeed, is actually on the bank of one of the river channels.
But the French bad to fill the gap between the villages, and also
to move forward to give room for the supports to form up*
Whilst they were thus engaged the archduke moved to the
attack with his whole army in five columns. Three under
Hiller, Beuegarde and HohenzoUern were to converge upon
Aspern, the other two, under Rosenberg, to attack Essling.
The Austrian cavalry was in the centre, ready to move out
against any French cavalry which should attack the heads of
the columns. During the aist the bridges became more and
more unsafe, owing to the violence of the current, but the
French crossed without intermission all day and during the night.
The battle began at Aspern; Hiller carried the village at the
first rush, but Massena recaptured it, and held his ground with
the same tenacity as he had shown at Genoa in 1800. The
French infantry, indeed, fought on this day with the old stubborn*
bravery which ft had failed to show in the earlier battles of the
year. The three Austrian columns fighting their hardest through
the day were unable to capture more than half the village; the
rest was still held by Massina when night fell. In the meanwhile
nearly all the French infantry posted between the two villages
and in front of the bridges had been drawn into the fight on
either flank. Napoleon therefore, to create a diversion, sent
forward his centre, now consisting only of cavalry, to charge the
enemy's artillery, which was deployed in a long line and firing
into Aspern. The first charge of the French was repulsed, but
the second attempt, made by heavy masses of cuirassiers, was
more serious. The French horsemen, gallantly led, drove off
the guns, rode round Hohenaollern's infantry squares, and
routed the cavalry of Lichtenstcin, but they were unable to do
more, and in the end they retired to their old position. In the
meanwhile Essling had been the scene of fighting almost as
desperate as that of Aspern. The French cuirassiers made
repeated charges on the flank of Rosenberg's force, and for long
delayed the assault, and in the villages Lannes with a single
division made a heroic and successful resistance, till night ended
the battle. The two arrnfes bivouacked on their ground, and in
Aspern the French and Austfians lay within pistol shot of each
other. The latter had fought fully as hard as their opponents,
and Napoleon realized that they were no longer the professional
soldiers of former campaigns. The spirit of the nation was in
them and they fought to kill, not for the honour of their arms.
The emperor was not discouraged, but on the contrary renewed
his efforts to bring up every available man. All through the
night more and more French troops were put across.
At the earliest dawn of the 32nd the battle was resumed.
Massena swiftly cleared Aspern of the enemy, but at the same
time Rosenberg .stormed Essling at last. Lannes, however,
resisted desperately, and reinforced by St Hilaire's division*
drove Rosenberg out In Aspern Massena had been less for-
tunate, the counter-attack of Hiller and Bellegarde feeing as
completely successful as that of Lannes and St Hilaire. Mean-'
time Napoleon had launched a great attack on the Austrian
centre. The whole of the French' centre, with Lannes on the
right and the cavalry in reserve, moved forward. The Austrian
line was broken through, between Rosenberg's right andHohcn-
aollera's left, and the French squadrons poured into the gap.
Victory was almost won when the archduke brought up his last
reserve, himself leading on his soldiers with a colour in his hand.
Lannes was checked, and with his repulse the impetus of the
attack died out all along the line. Aspern had been lost, and
graver news reached Napoleon at the critical moment The
Danube bridges, which had broken down once already, had at
last been cut by heavy barges, which had been set adrift down
stream for the purpose by the Austrian*. Napoleon at once
suspended the attack. Essling now fell to another assault of
Rosenberg, and though again the French, this time part of the
Guard, drove him out, the Austrian general then directed his
efforts on the flank of the French centre, slowly retiring on the
bridges. The retirement was terribly costly, and but for the
steadiness of Lannes the French must have been driven into the
Danube, for the archduke's last effort to break down their
resistance was made with the utmost fury. Only the complete
exhaustion of both sides put an end to the fighting. The French
Jost 44,000 out of 90,000 successively engaged, and amongst the
768
ASPHALT— ASPHODEL
killed were Lannes and St Hflalre. The Austrians, 75,000 strong,
lost 23,360. Even this, the first great defeat of Napoleon, did
not shake his resolution. The beaten forces were at last with-
drawn safely into the island. On the night of the aand the
great bridge was repaired, and the army awaited the arrival of
reinforcements, not in Vienna, but in Lobau.
See sketch map in article Wagram.
ASPHALT, or Asphaltum. The solid or semi-solid kinds of
bitumen (q.v.) were termed aV^aXrot by the Greeks; and by
some ancient classical writers the name of pissaspkaUum (rim,
pitch) was also sometimes employed. The asphalt of the Dead
Sea (known as Locus AsphaUites) received considerable notice
from early travellers, and Diodorus the historian states that the
inhabitants of the surrounding parts were accustomed to collect
it for use in Egypt for embalming. In common with other forms
of bitumen, asphalt is very widely distributed geographically
and occurs in greater or less quantity in rocks of all ages. There
is some divergence in the views expressed as to the precise
manner of its production, but it may certainly be said that the
principal asphalt deposits are merely the result of the evaporation
and oxidation of liquid petroleum which has escaped from
outcropping strata. The celebrated Pitch Lake of Trinidad
was long regarded as the largest deposit of asphalt in existence,
but it is said to be exceeded in area, if not in depth also, by one
in Venezuela- The Trinidad " Lake " has an area of 99*3 acres,
and is sufficiently firm in places to support a team of horses. The
deposit is worked with picks to a depth of a foot or two, and the
excavations soon become filled up by the plastic material flowing
in from below and hardening. The depth of the deposit is not
accurately known. The surface is not level but is composed of
irregularly tumescent masses of various sixes, each said to. be
subject to independent motion, whereby the interior of each
rises and flows centrifugally towards the edges. As the spaces
between them are always filled with water, these masses are
prevented from coalescing. The softer parts of the lake constantly
evolve gas, which is stated to consist largely of carbon dioxide
and sulphuretted hydrogen, and the pitch, which is honey-
combed with gas-cavities, continues to exhibit this action for
some time after its removal from the lake. The working of the
deposit is in the hands of the New Trinidad Asphalt Company,
who hold the concession up to the year X930 on payment to the
government of a minimum royalty of £10,060 a year. A circular
One of tramway, supported on palm-leaves, has been laid on
the lake to facilitate the removal of the asphalt. Very large
quantities are exported for paving and other purposes, the annual
shipments amounting to about 230,000 tons from the lake and
about 30,000 tons from other properties. The amount of asphalt
in the lake has been estimated at 158,400 tons for each foot of
depth, and if the average depth be taken at 20 ft this would give
a total of 3,168,000 tons; but in 1008, though 1,885,000 tons
had been removed in the previous thirty-five years, there was
but little evidence of reduction in the quantity. The Venezuelan
deposit already referred to is in the state of Bermudes, and the
area of it is reported to be more than xooo acres. The asphalt
of Cuba is a well-known article of commerce, of which 735a tons
was exported to the United States in 1002. The principal
deposits are near the harbour of Cardenas (70 ft. thick), in the
Pinar del Rio, near Havana (18 ft. thick), at Canas TomasiU
(105 ft. thick); and a specially pure variety near Vuelta.
The comparative composition of Trinidad and Cuba asphalt
b given in the following table:—
The chemical composition of Trinidad asphalt baa I
Refined
Trinidad,
Melting
point
185° F.
Refined
Cuba(soft).
Melting
point
115° F.
Refined
Cuba(hard).
Melting
point
i6o°F.
Water
Volatile bitumen . .
Sulphur ....
Ash (earthy matter) .
Fixed carbon . . .
0*17
5181
1 00c
28-30
97*
0-13
64-03
8-35
1951
798
O-ll
8-34
802
1660
6603
10000
loo-oo
IO0-OO
C.
H.
N.
O.
S ■
80-32
6-30
0-50
1.4©
n-48
The following is a comparison
(Bermudes) asphalt:—
of Trinidad and Venezuela
Refined
Trinidad.
1-373.
61507%
34-Si ..
3-983»
Refined
Specific gravity at 6o* F. .
Bitumen soluble in carbon bi-
sulphide
Mineral matter (ash)
Non-bituminous organic matter .
Portion of total bitumen soluble
in alcohol .... 8-24 „
Portion of total bitumen soluble
in ether .... 80-01 „
Loss at 312° F. . 0-65 n
„ 400° F. in ten hours . 7-08 „
Loss at 400° on total bitumen . 12-811 „
Evolution of sulphuretted hydro-
gen at .... 410* F.
Softening-point . 160° E.
Flowing-point .... 19a F.
1-071
9*-** %
*-*• ...
II-66 „
•l*<3 -
17-80 z
18-308,,
eat 437* F.
„ 113 F.
m IS© F.
Asphalt in its purest forms is generally black or Marsha
brown in colour, and is frequently brittle at ordinary tempera-
tures. Apart from its principal use in the manufacture of
paving materials, it is largely employed in building as a ** damp-
course " and as a water-excluding coating for concrete floors,
as well as in the manufacture of roofing-felt. It also enters
largely into the composition of black varnish. The material
chiefly used in the construction of asphalt roadways is an
asphaltic or bituminous limestone found in the Val de Travers,
canton of Neuchatel; in the neighbourhood of Seyssd, depart-
ment of Ain; at Limmer, near the city of Hanover; and else-
where. The proportion of bkumen present in asphalt rock
usually ranges from 7 to 30%, but it is found that rock containing
more than 11% cannot be satisfactorily used for street pave-
ments, and it is accordingly customary to mix the richer and
poorer varieties in fine powder in such respective quantities
that the proportion of bitumen present is from 9 to 10%. The
richer rock is utilized as a source of asphalt " mastic/* which is
employed for footpaths, floors, roofs, &c. Excellent foundations
for steam-hammers, dynamos and high-speed engines are made
of asphaltic concrete. (B. R.)
ASPHODEL (Aspkoddus), a genus of the lily order CLfliacc»e\
containing seven species in the Mediterranean region. The
plants are hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted
radical leaves and an elongated stem bearing a handsome spike
of white or yellow flowers. Aspkoddus albus and A. fishdesms
have white flowers and grow from if to a ft. high; A. ramosns is
a larger plant, the large white flowers of which have a reddish-
brown line in the middle of each segment. Bog-aspbodd
(Nartkecium ossifragum) , a member of the same family, is a small
herb common in boggy places in Britain, with rigid narrow radical
leaves and a stem bearing a raceme of small golden yellow
flowers.
In Greek legend the asphodel is the most famous of the plants
connected with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes
it as covering the great meadow (Aff^oftcXos A«n&r), the haunt of
the dead (Od. xi. 539, 573; xxiv. 13). It was planted on graves,
and is often connected with Persephone, who appears crowned
with a garland of asphodels. Its general connexion with death
is due no doubt to the greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish
flowers, which suggest the gloom of the underworld and the pallor
of death. The roots were eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence
such food was thought good enough for the shades (cf. Hesiod,
Works and Days, 41; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxf. 17 (681; Ludan, Dt
luctu, 19). The asphodel was also supposed to be a remedy for
poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was fatal
to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads
made their huts of asphodel stalks (cf. Herod, iv. too).
ASPHYXIA— ASQUITH
769
No satisfactory derivation of the word is suggested. The
English word " daffodil " is a perversion of " asphodel/' formerly
written " affodil." The d' may come from the French fieur
d'affodVU. It is no part of the word philologically.
See Pauly-Wiwowa, ReaJcncycfop&Jie, s.v.; H. O. Lent, Botanik
dor alien Griecken und Rimer (1859); J. " ~"
der grietkischen Mytkologie (1890).
. Murr, Die Pflantenwelt in
ASPHYXIA (Gr. d- priv., o4>{£a, a pulse), a term in medicine,
literally signifying loss of pulsation, which is applied to describe
the arrestment of the function of respiration from some hindrance
to the entrance of air into the lungs. (See Respiratory System:
Pathology.)
ASPIC (French, from Lat. aspis), an asp or viper found in
Egypt whose bite is supposed to cause a swift and easy death,
hence poetically a term for any venomous snake. From associa-
tion, perhaps, with the coldness of the aspic (as in the French
proverb, Jroid comme un aspic), the word is used for a savoury
jelly containing meat, fish or eggs, &c. It is also the botanical
name of the Lavandula spica, or spikenard, from which a white,
aromatic and highly inflammable oil is distilled, called huile
d'aspic.
ASPIDISTRA, a small genus of the hly order (Liliaceae),
native of the Himalayas, China and Japan. Aspidistra lurida is
a favourite pot-plant, bearing large green or white-striped leaves
on an underground stem, and small dark purplish, cup-shaped
flowers close to the ground.
ASPIROTRICHACBAB (O. Btttschli), an order of COiate
Infusoria, characterised by an investment, general or partial,
of nearly uniform cilia, without any distinct adoral wreath, and
one or two adoral endoral undulating membranes. With the
Gymnostomaceae it formed the Holotricha of Stein.
ASP1R0Z. MANUEL DB (1836-1905), Mexican statesman and
diplomatist, was born at Puebla, and educated at the university
of Mexico, where he took his degree in 1855. He took part in the
war against the emperor Maximilian, and in 1867, on the
establishment of the republic, was appointed assistant secretary
•f state for foreign affairs. In 1873 he became Mexican consul at
San Francisco, where he remained till his election to the Senate
in 1875. He was professor of jurisprudence at the college of
Puebla from 1883 to 1800, when he was again appointed assistant
secretary of foreign affairs. From 1809 till he died in 190s he
was Mexican ambassador to the United States. Among his
writings may be mentioned; Cddigo de extranjeria de los Eslados-
Unidos Ucxicanos (1876), and La liberdad civil como base dd
dertcho internacional privado (1896).
ASPROMONTB, a mountain of Calabria, Italy, rising behind
Reggio di Calabria, the west extremity of the Sua range. The
highest point is 6420 ft. and the slopes arc clad with forest.
Here Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner by the Italian
troops under Pallavidni in 1862.
ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY (185a- ), English states-
nan, son of Joseph Dixon Asquith, was born at Morley, York-
shire, on the 1 2th of September 1852. He came of a middle-class
Yorkshire family of pronounced Liberal and Nonconformist
views, and was educated under Dr Edwin Abbott at the City of
London school, from which he went as a scholar to Balliol,
Oxford; there he had a distinguished career, taking a first-class
in classics, winning the Craven scholarship and being elected a
fellow of his college. He was president of the Union, and im-
pressed all his contemporaries with his intellectual ability, Dr
Jowett himself confidently predicting his signal success in any
career he adopted. On leaving Oxford he went to the bar, and
as early as 1890 became a K.C. In 1887 he unsuccessfully
defended Mr R. B. Cunninghame Graham and Mr John Burns
for their share in the riot in Trafalgar Square; and in 1889 he
was junior to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Russell as counsel
for the Irish Nationalists before the Parnell Commission — an
association afterwards bitterly commented upon by Mr T. Healy
in the House of Commons (March 30, 1908). But though he
attained a fair practice at the bar, and was recognized as a lawyer
of unusual mental distinction and clarity, his forensic success
was not nearly so conspicuous as that of some of his con-
temporaries. His ambitions lay rather in the direction of the
House of Commons. He had taken a prominent part in politics
as a Liberal since his university days, especially in work for the
Eighty Club, and in 1886 was elected member of parliament
for East Fife, a seat which he retained in subsequent elections.
Mr Gladstone was attracted by his vigorous ability as a speaker,
and his evidence of sound political judgment; and in August
1892,* though comparatively unknown to the general public, he
was selected to move the vote of want of confidence which,
overthrew Lord Salisbury's government, and was made home
secretary in the new Liberal ministry. At the Home Office he
proved his capacity as an administrator; he was the first to
appoint women as factory inspectors, and he was responsible for
opening Trafalgar Square to Labour demonstrations; but he
firmly refused to sanction the proposed amnesty for the dyna-
miters, and he was violently abused by extremists on account of
the shooting of two men by the military at the strike riot at
Featherstone in August 1893. It was he who coined the phrase
(Birmingham, 1804) as to the government's "ploughing the
sands" in their endeavour to pass Liberal legislation with a
hostile House of Lords. His Employers' Liability Bill 1893
was lost because the government refused to accept the
Lords' amendment as to " contracting-out" His suspensory
bill, with a view to the disestablishment of the church in
Wales, was abortive (1805), but it served to recommend
him to the Welsh Nationalists as well as to the disestablish-
ment party in England and Scotland. During his three years
of office he more than confirmed the high opinion formed of
his abilities.
Tie Liberal defeat in 1895 left him out of office for eleven
years. He had married Miss Helen Melland in 1877, and was
left with a family when she died in 1891; in 1804, however, he
had married again, his second wife being the accomplished Miss
Margaret (" Margot ") Tennant, daughter of the wealthy iron-
master, Sir Charles Tennant, Bart, a lady well known in London
society as a member of the coterie known as " Souls," and
commonly identified as the original of Mr E. F. Benson's Dodo
(1893). On leaving the Home Office in 1895, Mr Asquith decided
to return to his work at the bar, a course which excited much
comment, since it was unprecedented that a minister who had
exercised judicial functions in that capacity should take up again
the position of an advocate; but it was obvious that to maintain
the tradition was difficult in the case of a man who had no
sufficient independent means. During the years of Unionist
ascendancy Mr Asquith divided his energies between his legal
work and politics; but his adhesion to Lord Rosebery (q.v.)
as a Liberal Imperialist at the time of the Boer War, while U
strengthened his position in the eyes of the public, put him in
some difficulty with his own party, led as it was by Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.), who was identified with the " pro-
Boer " policy. He was one of the founders of the Liberal League,
and his courageous definiteness of view and intellectual vigour
marked him out as Lord Rosebery's chief lieutenant if that
statesman should ever return to power. He thus became iden-
tified with the Roscberyite attitude towards Irish Home Rule;
and, while he continued to uphold the Gladstonian policy in
theory, in practice the Irish Nationalists felt that very little
could be expected from his advocacy. In spite of his Imperialist
views, however, he did much to smooth over the party difficulties,
and when the tariff-reform movement began in 1903, he seized
the opportunity for rallying the Liberals to the banner of free-
trade and championing the "orthodox" English political
economy, on which indeed he had been a lecturer in his younger
days. During the critical years of Mr Chamberlain's crusade
(1903-1006) he made himself the chief spokesman of the Liberal
party, delivering a series of speeches in answer to those of the
tariff-reform leader; and his persistent following and answering
of Mr Chamberlain had undoubted effect. He also made useful
party capital out of the necessity for financial retrenchment,
owing to the large increase in public expenditure, maintained by
the Unionist government even after the Boer War was over;
77°
ASS— ASSAM
and his mastery of statistical detail and argument made his
appointment as chancellor of the exchequer part of the natural
order of things when in December 1905 Mr Balfour resigned and
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (q.v.) became prime minister.
During Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership, Mr
Asquith gradually rose in political importance, and in 1907 the
prime minister's ill-health resulted in much of the leadership in
the Commons devolving on the chancellor of the exchequer.
At first the party as a whole had regarded him somewhat coldly.
And his unbending common-sense, and sobriety of criticism in
matters which deeply interested the less academic Radicals who
were enthusiasts for extreme courses, would have made the
parliamentary situation difficult but for the exceptional popu-
larity of the prime minister. In the autumn of 1907, however,
as the lattcr's retention of office became more and more improb-
able, it became evident that no other possible successor had equal
qualifications. The session of 1908 opened with Mr Asquith
acting avowedly as the prime minister's deputy, and the course
of business was itself of a nature to emphasize his claims. After
two rather humdrum budgets he was pledged to inaugurate a
system of old-age pensions (forming the chief feature of the
budget of 1008, personally introduced by him at the beginning of
May), and his speech in April on the Licensing Bill was a triumph
of clear exposition, though later in the year, after passing the
Commons, it was thrown out by the Lords. On the 5th of April
it was announced that Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman had re-
signed and Mr Asquith been sent for by the king. As the latter
was staying at Biarritz, the unprecedented course was followed
of Mr Asquith journeying there for the purpose, and on the 8th
he resigned the chancellorship of the exchequer and kissed hands
as prime minister. The names of the new cabinet were announced
on the 13th. The new appointments were: Lord Tweedmouth
as lord president of the council (instead of the admiralty);
Lord Crewe as colonial secretary (instead of lord president of
the council) ; Mr D. Lloyd George, chancellor of the exchequer
(transferred from the Board of Trade); Mr R, McKenna, first
lord of the admiralty (instead of minister of education); Mr
Winston Churchill, president of the Board of Trade; and Mr
Walter Runriman, minister of education. Lord Elgin ceased
to be colonial secretary, but Lord Loreburn (lord chancellor),
Lord Ripon (lord privy seal), Mr H. Gladstone (Home Office),
Sir E. Grey (foreign affairs), Mr Haldane (War Office), Mr
Sinclair (secretary for Scotland; created in 1909 Lord Pcntland),
Mr Burns (Local Government Board), Lord Carrington (Board
of Agriculture), Mr Birrell (Irish secretary), Mr S. Buxton
(postmaster-general), MrL. Harcourt (commissioner of works),
Mr John Morlcy (India) and Sir Henry Fowler (duchy of Lan-
caster) retained their offices, the two latter being created peers.
The Budget (see Lloyd Geobge) was the sole feature of political
interest in 1909, and its rejection in December by the Lords led
to the general election of January 19 10, which left the Liberals
and Unionists practically equal, with the Labour and Irish
parties dominating the situation (L. 275, U. 273, Lab. 40, 1. 82).
Mr Asquith was in a difficult position, but the ministry re-
mained in office; and he had developed a concentration
of forces with a view to attacking the veto of the House of
Lords (see Parliament), when the death of the king in May
caused a suspension of hostilities. A conference between the
leaders on both sides was arranged, to discuss whether any
compromise was possible, and controversy was postponed to
an autumn session. (H. Ch.)
ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus), a common name (the syno-
nym " donkey " is supposed to be derived either by analogy
from "monkey," or from the Christian name Duncan; cf.
Neddy, Jack, Dicky, &c.) for different varieties of the sub-genus
Asinus, belonging to the horse tribe, and especially for the
domestic ass; it differs from the horse in its smaller sfce, long
ears, the character of its tail, fur and markings, and its proverbial
dulness and obstinacy. The ancient Egyptians symbolized an
ignorant person by the head and cars of an ass, and the Romans
thought it a bad omen to meet one. In the middle ages the
Germans of Westphalia made the ass the symbol of St Thomas,
the incredulous apostle; the boy who was last to enter school
on St Thomas' day was called the " Ass Thomas " (Gubernam »
Zoological Mythology, i. 362). The foolishness and obstioao
of the ass has caused the name to be transferred metaphorically
to human beings; and the fifth proposition of Book L of Euclid
is known as the Pons Asinorum, bridge of aases.
ASS. FEAST OF THE, formerly a festival in northern France,
primarily in commemoration of the biblical flight into Egyp-
and usually held on the 14th of January. A girl with a babr 21
her breast and seated on an ass splendidly caparisoned was Ird
through the town to the church, and there placed at the gospel
side of the altar while mass was said. The ceremony degenerat rd
into a burlesque in which the ass of the flight became confused
with Balaam's ass. So scandalous became the popular revel*
associated with it, that the celebration was prohibited by the
church in the 15th century. (See Fools, Feast or.)
ASSAB, a bay and port on the African shore of the Red Sea,
60 m. N. of the strait of Bab-el Mandcb. Assab Bay was tr*r
first territory acquired by Italy in Africa. Bought from the
sultan of Raheita in 1870, it was not occupied onto 1SS0
(See EumtEA, and It alt: History.)
ASSAM, a former province of British India, which was am!
gamated in 1905 with " Eastern Bengal and Assam *' (9 r *
Area 56,243 sq. m.; pop. (1901 ) 6,126,343. The province o*
Assam lies on the N.E. border of Bengal, on the extrerre
frontier of the Indian empire, with Bhutan and Tibet beyond
it on the N. f and Burma and Manipur on the E. It con-
prises the valleys of the Brahmaputra and Surma rivers, together
with the mountainous watershed which intervenes between then:
It is situated between 24 o' and 28 17' N. lat., and between
89* 46' and 97 5' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by t±c
eastern section of the great Himalayan range, the front let
tribes from west to cast being successively Bhutias, Aka*.
Daphtas, Miris, Abors and Mishmis; on the N.E. by tfc;
Mishmi hills, which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra
valley; on the E. by the unexplored mountains that mark
the frontier of Burma, by the hills occupied by the independ' nt
Naga tribes and by the state of Manipur; on the S. by ihr
Lushai hills, the state of Hill Tippera, and the Bengal distr- ♦
of Tippera; and on the W. by the Bengal districts of Mywn-
singh and Rangpur, the state of Kuch Behar and Jalpaiguri
district.
Natural Divisions. — Assam fs naturally divided Into three
distinct tracts, the Brahmaputra valley, the Surma valley and
the hill ranges between the two. The Brahmaputra valley b
an alluvial plain, about 450 m. in length, with an averas?
breadth of 50 m., lying almost east and west. To the north is
the main chain of the Himalayas, the lower ranges of which rise
abruptly from the plain; to the south is the great elevatfd
plateau or succession of plateaus known as the Assam ranee
The various portions of this range arc called by the names of th<«
tribes who inhabit them — the Garo, the Khasi, the Jaintia. the
North Cachar and the Naga hills. The range as a whole is
joined at its eastern extremity by the Patkai to the Himalayan
system, and by the mountains of Manipur to the Arakan Yoma
The highest points in the range are Nokrek peak (4600 ft.) ?n
the Garo hills, Shillong peak (6450 ft.) in the Khasi -Jaintia h3I>.
and Japva peak (nearly 10,000 ft.) in the Naga hills. South o!
the range comes the third division of the province, the Surma
valley, comprising the two districts of Cachar and Sythct. The
Surma valley is much smaller than the Brahmaputra vaOev,
covering only 7506 against 24,283 sq. m.; its mean elevation
is much lower and its rivers are more sluggish.
Physical Aspects. — Assam is a fertile scries of valleys, with the
great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the Son of B*ohma)
flowing down its middle, and an Infinite number of tributaries and
watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side.
The Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad
during the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a
number of islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to
the north of the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern paasrs
not far from the Yang-tszc-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, k
enters Assam by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders
and accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhunpsr
ASSAM
771
district, through which the southernmost branch of the Brahma-
putra enters, has from time immemorial been held in reverence by
the Hindus. It is called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda ;
and although the journey to it is both difficult and dangerous, it is
annually visited by thousands of devotees. After a rapid course
westwards down the whole length of the Assam valley, the Brahma -
' putra turns sharply to the south, spreading itself over the alluvial
districts of the Bengal delta, and, after several changes of name,
ends its course of 1800 m. in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries
in Assam, after crossing the frontier, arc the Kundii and the Digaru.
flowing from the Mishmi hills on the north, and the Tengapam and
Dihing, which take their rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east.
Shortly afterwards it receives the Dibang, flowing from the north-
east; out its principal confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its
origin, under the name of the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of
the source of the Sutlci, flows in a direction precisely opposite to that
river, and traversing the tableland of Tibet, at the back of the great
Himalaya range, falls into the Brahmaputra in 27" 48' N. lat..
95* 26' IE. long., after a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long
entertained whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the
continuation of the Tsangpo, but these were practically set at rest
by the voyage of F. J. Ncedham in 1886. Below the confluence; the
united stream flows in a south-westerly direction, forming the
boundary between the districts of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated
on its northern bank, and those of Sibsagar and Nowgong on the
south ; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it crosses over the frontier
of the province and passes into Bengal. In its course it receives
on the left side the Dihing, a river having its rise at the south-eastern
angle of the province; and lower down, on the opposite side, it parts
with a considerable offset termed the Buri Lohit, which, however,
reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the point of divergence,
bearing with it the additional waters of the Subansiri, flowing from
Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the Kalang river, rejoins
the parent stream a short distance above the town of Gauhati.
The remaining rivers arc too numerous to be particularized. The
streams of the south are not rapid, and have no considerable current
until May or June. Among the islands formed by the intersection
and confluence of the rivers is Maiuli, or the Great Island, as it is
called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55 m. in length
by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra on the
south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the upper
part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra enters,
the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north and
east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
snow-line. On cither bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip
of plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees
of great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the
interior {able-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of
the large rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle,
with the exception of some very low-lying tracts which are cither
permanent marshes or are covered with water during the rains-
Jungle will not grow on these depressions, and they are covered
either with water, reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or
near such open spaces are collected all the villages. As the traveller
proceeds farther down the valley, the country aradually opens out
into wide plains." In the western district of Kamrup the country
forms one great expanse, with a few elevated tracts here and there,
varying from 200 to 800 ft. in height.
Soils. — The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composcdof a rich
black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the largest
group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains, which
stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the valley
at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs from
the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies above
the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
highest la nds in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
beds of the hiH streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
elevation, from the vast chars of pure and* subject to annual inun-
dations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the accumu-
lated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be liable
to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of sand
newly washed forward by the current during floods, become converted
into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to lessen and
retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural embank-
ments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion of
water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
action of the sun's rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
seeds of the Saccnarum tpontancum and other grasses that have been
gartly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water,
uch places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds,
which resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation
begins to appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloesare attracted
by the supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and
in their turn contribute to manure the soiL
newer beds show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese
folding — on the top of the ptateau they arc nearly horizontal, but
alone the southern margin they are bent sharply downwards in a
simple monoclinal fold. The greater part of the mass is composed of
gneiss and schists. The Sylhct traps near the southern margin are
correlated with the Raimahal traps of Bengal. The older rocks are
overlaid unconformabfy by Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of
sandstones with seams of coal, the whole scries thinning rapidly
towards the north and thus indicating the neighbourhood of the
old shore-line. The fossils are very similar to those of the South
Indian Cretaceous, but very different from those of the corresponding
beds in the Nerbudda valley. The overlying Tertiary scries includes
hummulitic beds and valuable seams of coaf
The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to
the Burmese system of mountain chains (see Burma), and consist
largely of Tertiary beds, including the great coal seams of Upper
Assam. The Assam valley is covered by the alluvial deposits of the
Brahmaputra.
Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal.
Compared with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the
Tertiary coal seams of Assam are remarkable for their purny and
their extraordinary thickness. The " Thick Seam " of Margherita.
in Upper Assam, averages 50 ft., and in some places reaches as much
as 80 ft. The average percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal
was 3-8 as against 16-3 in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal
seams are commonly associated with petroleum springs. Gold is
found in the alluvial deposits, but the results of exploration have
not been very promising.
Earthquakes.— Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock
in Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875. and one in Silchar in
October 1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which
occurred on the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic
disturbance extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to
Sikkim; but the focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the
station of Shillong every masonry building was levelled to the
ground. Throughout the country bridges were shattered, roads
were broken up like ploughed fields, and the beds of rivers were
dislocated. In the hills there were terrible landslips, which wrecked
the little Cherrapunji railway and caused 600 deaths. The total
mortality recorded was 1542, including two Europeans at Shillong.
The levels of the country were so affected that the towns of Goalpara
and Barpeta became almost uninhabitable during the rains.
Fauna.— The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering
villages in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to then-
tastes. Many are caught by means of female elephants previously
tamed, and trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for
subjecting them to captivity. A considerable number are tamed
and exported from Assam every year. Many are killed every year
in the forests for the sake of the ivory which they furnish. The
government keddah establishment front Dacca captures large numbers
of elephants in the province, and the right of hunting is also sold
by auction to private bidders. The annual catch of the latter
averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros is found in the denser
parts of the forests and generally In swampy places. This animal
is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn. The skin affords
the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred in the eyes of
the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated that, if caught
young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes strongly attached
to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are annually de-
stroyed for the sake of the government reward, their numbers seem
scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are numerous:
and the sand-badger, the Arctonyx eollaris of Cuvier, a small animal
somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes and tail
of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
is the wild buffalo or gaur which is of great size, strength and
fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog a very
abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety.
The porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the
otter are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumera-
tion. Wild game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and
water-fowl of many descriptions make the country a tempting field
for the sportsman. Vulture* and other birds of prey are met with.
772
ASSAM
Crocodile* (commonly called alligator*) swarm in all parts of the
Brahmaputra, and are very destructive to the fish, of which hun-
dreds of varieties are found, and which supply a valuable article of
food. The most destructive of the ferae naturae, as regards human
life, are, however, the snakes. Of these, several poisonous species
exist, including the cobra and karait {Naja tripudians and Bun-
gams caeruleus). The bite of a fairly-grown healthy serpent of
either of these species is deadly; and it is ascertained that more
deaths occur from snake-bite than from all the other wild beasts put
together. Among the non-poisonous serpents the python ranks
first. This is an enormous boa -constrictor of great length and
weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a tree, or steals
upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by rolling himself
round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates it by one irre-
sistible convolution round its throat. He seldom or never attacks
human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life from this cause
is scarcely ever reported.
Agriculture. — The principal and almost the only food - grain of
the plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this
staple is carried on generally under the same conditions as in
Bengal; but the times of sowing and reaping and the names given
to the several crops vary much in different parts of the province.
In 1901-1902 out of a total cultivated area 01 1,736,000 acres, there
were 1,194,000 acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a
considerable extent in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in
large quantities along the slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is
grown In government plantations and is also brought in by the hill
tribes; while lac, mustard and potatoes are also produced.
Tea Plantations. — The most important article of commerce pro-
duced in Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion
of the cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consump-
tion, large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea
plantations are the one great source of wealth to the province, and
the necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by
Mr Robert Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile
exploration. The country, however, then formed part of the
Burmese dominions. But war with this monarchy shortly after-
wards broke out, and a brother of the first discoverer, happening to
be appointed to the command of a division of gunboats employed
in some part of the operations, followed up the pursuit of the subject,
and obtained several hundred plants and a considerable quantity
of seed. Some specimens were ultimately forwarded to the super-
intendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In 1832 Captain F.
Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India, Lord William
Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country, and the tea
plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in 1834 a
minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
before his departure from England. In accordance with the views
of that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries,
and to promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were
opened with China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and
a deputation, composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies,
was despatched to Assam, some seeds were obtained from China ;
but they proved to be of small importance, as it was clearly ascer-
tained by the members of the Assam deputation that both the black
and the green tea plants were indigenous here, and might be multi-
plied to any extent ; another result of the Chinese mission, that of
procuring persons skilled in the cultivation and manufacture of black
tea, was of more material benefit. Subsequently, under Lord
Auckland, a further supply of Chinese cultivators and manu-
facturers was obtained — men well acquainted with the processes
necessary for the production of green tea, as the former set were
with those requisite for black. In 1838 the first twelve chests of tea
from Assam were received In England. They had been injured in
some degree on the passage, but on samples being submitted to
brokers, and others of long experience and tried judgment, the
reports were highly favourable. It was never, however, the in-
tention of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture
of tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849
the government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished
the manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise.
In 185 1 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
280,000 lb. Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea
is now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When
the industry was first established, the land which was supposed
to be best for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now
it has been found in the Surma valley that with good drainage the
heaviest crops of tea can be raised from low-lying land, even such
as formerly supported rice cultivation. At the close of the year
I905 there were 942 gardens in all, with 422,335 acres, and employ-
ing 464,912 coolies. The majority of gardens are owned by Euro-
peans, 405,486 acres belonging to them as against 16,849 to fndians.
The total out-turn for the province in 1905 was 193.556.047 lb.
Between 1 893 and 1898 there was a great extension of tea cultivation.
with the result that the industry began to suffer from the congestion
that follows over-production. Also to meet the requirements of the
industry, an enormous number of coolies had to be Drought into the
province from other parts of India, and in recent years the supply
of labour has begun to fall off, causing a rise in the coat of pro-
duction. For these reasons there was a crisis in the tea industry of
Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the reduction of the
English duty on tea in 1906.
Tea-Garden Coolies. — The labour required on the
is almost entirely imported, as the natives of the . _
too prosperous to do such work. During the decade • 891-1901.
SK>,&56 coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total pops-
tion of the province. The importation of coolies is coetroted
by an elaborate system of legislation, which provides for the regis-
tration of contracts, the medical inspection of coolies daring the
jburney, and supervision over rates of pay, Ac. on the gardes*.
The first labour act was passed in 1863, and ■ ncc then the taw on the
subject has been changed by successive enactments. The n aeass u e
now in force is called Act VI. of 1901 . Under this act the maximns
term of the labour contract is fixed at four years, and a zniniasssn
monthly wage is laid down, the payment of which, however, is con-
tingent on the completion of a daily task by the labourer. Laboaren
under contract deserting are liable to fine and imprisonment, and.
subject to certain restrictions, may be arrested without warrant
by their employers. In addition to the labourers engaged under
this act, a large number are employed under contract enforceable
by Act XIII. of 1859, which provides penalties for breach of the
contract, but does not allow of the arrest of deserters withoat
warrant. Neither does this act regulate in any way the terms of
the contract, nor contain any special provisions for the prot e c tio n
of the labourer. Many labourers on the conclusion of their first
engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into renewed contracts
under Act XI 1 1, of 1859. In 1905 there were in all 664,296 Uboorenv
and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62 % chose the old act.
Railways. — The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the biOs to
Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch
to Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hilt section of this
line was found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive
damage was done by the earthquake of 1897 ; but it is now cosnplrte.
This railway is financed by the government, though wor ke d by a
company, and therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904
its open mileage was £76 m. There are several short lines of tight
railway or tramway in the province. The most important is the
Dibru-Sadiya railway, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with
a branch to the coal-fields.
Trade. — The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by
steamer, partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In
the Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86 % of the
exports, and 94% of the imports. In the Surma valley natrie
boats carry about 43% of both. In 1904-190$ the total exports
were valued at 726 »kns of rupees. The chief items we** tea. rice
in the husk, oil-seeds, tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports
were valued at 457 lakhs of rupees. The chief items were cotton
piece-goods, rice not in the husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron
and steel, tobacco, cotton twist and yarn, and brass and copper.
No less than two-thirds of the total trade is conducted with Calcutta.
The trans-frontier trade is insignificant ; and most of it is conducted
with the Bengal state of Hill Tippers. The trade through Chitta-
gong is increasing owing to the opening of the hill-section of the
Assam-Bengal railway, which gives direct communication bet w e en
the districts of Upper Assam and the port of Chittagong, and the
incorporation of that port in the new province of Eastern Bengal
and Assam.
Inhabitants.— The total population of Assam, according to
the census of xooi, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were
Hindus, 1,581*317 Manommedaus and 1,068,334 Animists.
The number of foreigners in the population due to immigration
by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But in spite of this
immigration the rate of increase in the population was only
59 % in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1-36 %.
Amongst native-born Assamese during the decade there was s
serious decrease in Nowgong and some other districts, due to
kaUuaar and other disease*. The Assamese are an interesting
race, of distinct origin from the neighbouring Bengalis. A large
proportion of them derive their origin from tribes who came
from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the Chinese
frontier. The most important of these are the Ahotns or Ahams,
an offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the
last conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long
preserved their ancient traditions, habits and institutions.
Hinduism first made its encroachments among their kings and
nobility. Several generations ago they gave up eating beef,
and they are now completely Hinduised, except in a few remote
recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also i m p ress e d its huuruags
ASSAM
773
upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a dose
affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of * lor the Bengali eh,
of a guttural k for the Bengali karsk, and a few other dialectic
changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time
Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province
under British rule. But with the development of the country
the Assamese tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct
vernacular, and a resolution of government (2873) re-established
it as the language of official life and public business.
The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and
surrounded by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on
the whole, prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants
with very little labour, and, with the exception of a few religious
ceremonies, he has no demand made upon him for money, saving
the light rental of his fields. Under the peaceful influences of
British rule, he has completely lost his ancient warlike instincts,
and forgotten his predatory habits. In complexion he is a shade
or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is in general short
and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of the Hindu.
A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy
resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His
hair is abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty,
and usually plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appear-
ance. The women form a striking contrast to the men; there is
more of feminine beauty in them than is commonly seen in the
women of Bengal, with a form and feature somewhat approach-
ing the European. The habits of life of the Assamese peasantry
are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age;
when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported
by their children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a
burden to the public. They have also in general a very tender
regard for their offspring, and are generous and kind to their
relations. They are hospitable to people of their own caste, but
to no others. The use of opium is very genersi.
HOI Tribes.— Tht hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the
Nagas, Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &c.,
nearly all of whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the fron-
tiers of Lakhimpur district. The principal of these, in point of
numbers, are the Nagas, who inhabit the hills and forests along
the eastern and south-eastern frontier of Assam. They reside
partly in the British district of the Naga hills and partly in
independent territory under the political control of the deputy-
commissioner of the adjoining districts* They cultivate rice,
cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the brine
springs in their lulls. The different tribes of Nagas are inde-
pendent of and unconnected with one another, and are often
at war with each other. The Singphos are another of the main
population of the same race, who occupy in force the hilly
country between the Patkai and Chindwin rivers, and are nomin-
ally subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors,
Mishmis and Khamtis arc described under separate headings.
Under regulation V\ of 1873, an inner line has been laid down
in certain districts, up to which the protection of British authority
is guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission,
it is not lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has
been laid down in Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and
Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the Daphlas, Miris, Abors,
Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in Sibsagar towards
the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the Lushai
border has since 189s been allowed to fall into desuetude, but
Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the
superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at
intervals by frontier posts held by military police and com-
manding the roads of access to the tract beyond; and any
person from the plains who has received permission to cross the
line has to present his pass at these posts.
History.— Assam was the province of Bengal which remained
most stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of
the Mahommedan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently
overrun by Mussulman armies, and its western districts annexed
to the Mahommedan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province main-
tained an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese
towards the end of the 18th century, and its final cession to the
British in 1826. It seems to have been originally included, along
with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the old Hindu
territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great religious
revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a
source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into
pre-historic times, but the first rajah capable of ^identification
flourished about the year 76 a.d. Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur
of the ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak,
whose son Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of
the Mokdbkfirata.
When Hsuan Tsang visited the country in ad. 640, a prince
named Kumar Bhaakara Barman was on the throne. The people
are described as being of small stature with dark yellow com-
plexions; they were fierce in appearance, but upright and
studious. Hinduism was the state religion, and the number of
Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and fertile, and
the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from
rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers
in Assam. It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and
belonged to the Pal dynasty of Bengal Although the whole of
Kamrup appears from time to time to have been united into one
kingdom under some unusually powerful monarch, it was more
often split up into numerous petty states; and for several
centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested
for the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century
the Ahoms or Abams, from northern Burma and the Chinese
frontiers, poured into the eastern districts of Assam, founded a
kingdom, and held it firmly for several centuries. The Ahoms
were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of Pong. Their
manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long
time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but
they found themselves compelled to respect the superior civiliza-
tion of this race, and slowly adopted its customs and language,
The conversion of their king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took
place in the year a.d. 1655, and all the Ahoms of Assam
gradually followed his example.- In medieval history, the
Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike,
predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of
innumerable canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta,
and retired in safety to their forests and Swamps. As the
Mahommedan power consolidated itself in Bengal, repeated ex-
peditions were sent out against these river pirates of the north-
east. The physical difficulties which an invading force had to
contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a
regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts,
the Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the
western districts at the mouth of the Assam valley. The follow-
ing details will suffice for the history of a struggle in which no
great political object was attained, and which left the Assamese
still the same wild and piratical people as when their fleets of
canoes first sallied forth against the Bengal delta. In 1638,
during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the Assamese
descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the
city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal,
who retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During
the civil wars between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam
renewed his predatory incursions into Bengal; upon the termina-
tion of the contest, Aurangxcb determined to avenge these
repeated insults, and despatched a considerable force for the
regular invasion of the Assamese territory (1060-1662). His
general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the mountains,
and most of the chiefs made their submission to the conqueror.
But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla's trmy
was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated
the last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose
fortunes in this country were never prosperous. A writer of the
Mahommedan faith says:—' 4 Whenever an invading army has
entered their territories, the Assamese have sheltered themselves
in strong posts, and have distressed the enemy by stratagems,
surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their provisions. If
these means failed, they have declined a battle in the field, but
774
ASSAMESE— ASSASSIN
have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the grain
and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set
in upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their oppor-
tunity to make excursions and vent their rage; the famished
Invaders have either become their prisoners or been put to death.
In this manner powerful and numerous armies have been sunk
in that whirlpool of destruction, and not a soul has escaped."
The same writer states that the country was spacious, populous
and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in dangers; that
the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that the
obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The
inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always
prepared for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously
garrisoned and plentifully provided with warlike stores; and
the approach to them was opposed by thick and dangerous
jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers. The difficulties in the
way of successful invasion are of course not understated, as it
was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and perseverance
of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by
recording that " the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort
of fighting for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to
the sovereignty of his just and pious majesty. 1 ' The short-lived
triumph of the Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a
less ambitious tone. About the middle of the 17th century the
chief became a convert to Hinduism. By what mode the con-
version was effected does not dearly appear, but whatever were
the means employed, it seems that the decline of the country
commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, in-
vasion and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province,
and neither prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the
1 8th century some interference took place on the part of the
British government, then conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but
the successor of that nobleman, Sir John Shore, adopting the
non-intervention policy, withdrew the British force, and aban-
doned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged the
Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency
of Ava. The extension of their encroachments on a portion of
the territory of the East India Company compelled the British
government to take decisive steps for its own protection. Hence
arose the series of hostilities with Ava known in Indian history as
the first Burmese War, on the termination of which by treaty in
February 1826, Assam remained a British possession. In 1832
that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam was
formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon
Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the ad-
ministration of this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his
principality was reunited with the British dominions. After a
period of successful administration and internal development,
under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, it was erected into a
separate chief-commissionershlp in 1874.
In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and
in' 1874 the district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the
Garo hills were incorporated in Assam. In 1808 the southern
Lushai hills were transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the
north and south Lushai hills were amalgamated as a district of
Assam, and placed under the superintendent of the Lushai hills.
Frontier troubles occasionally occur with the Akas, Daphlas,
Abors and Mishmis along the northern border, arising out of
raids from the independent territory into British districts. In
October 1005 the whole province of Assam was incorporated in
the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See E. A. Gait, The History of Assam (1906).
ASSAMESE* the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam
valley. In 1001 the number of its speakers was 1,350,846.
It is closely related to Bengali and Oriya, forming with them
and with Bihari the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan vernacu-
lars. For further particulars sec Bengali.
ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTUTA (1753-1820),
the founder of schools for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy,
was born at Genoa in 1753. After qualifying himself for the
church, he entered the society of the Pietists, " Scuole Pie,"
who devoted themselves to the training of the young. His
superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecjhsre m
theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the
Abb* Stcard's training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved u
try something similar in Italy. He began with one pupal, aos
had by degrees collected a small number round ham, when, in 1 90s.
Napoleon, hearing of his endeavours, ordered a convent to be
given him for a school-house, and funds for supporting twelve
scholars to be taken from the convent revenues. This order «u
scarcely attended to till 181 1, when it was renewed, and in the
following year Assarotti, with a considerable number of puptb
took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with the
exception of a short interval in 1814, till bis death in 1829. A
pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia,
he bequeathed to his scholars.
ASSARY, or Assauon, a Roman copper coin, the " farthing
of Matthew x. 20.
ASSASSIN (properly Hashisldn, from Hoskuk, the opiate
made from the juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret
murderer, originally the name of a branch of the Sfaiite sect
(see Shxites), known as Isma'flites, founded by Hassan (ibai
Sabbah at the end of the nth century, and from that time active
in Syria and Persia until crushed in the 13th century by the
Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by the Mameluke
Bibars in Syria. The father of Hassan Sabbah, a native of
Khorasan, and a Sbiite, had been frequently compelled to prof est
Sunnite orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent ka
son to study under an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here
Hassan made the acquaintance of Nizam-ul-Mulk, afterward*
vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see Seljuks). During the
reign of AIp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then appeared
at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly recehrd
by his old friend the vizier, rjassan, who was a man of great
ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but wa»
outwitted and compelled to take bis departure from Persia. He
went to Egypt ( 1078-79) , and, on account of his high repuUtioa
was received with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon
stood so high in the caliph Mostansir's favour as to excite again*
him the jealousy of the chief general, and a cause of open ennui)
soon arose. The caliph had nominated first one and thee
another of his sons as his successor, and in consequence a party
division took place among the leading men. Hassan, »s*
adopted the cause of Nizir, the eldest son, found his enemies too
strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After nuay
adventurcs he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn
there, settled near Kuhistan (Kobistan). He gradually spread
his peculiar modification of Ismallite doctrine, and. havicx
collected a considerable number of followers, formed them into a
secret society. In 1000 he obtained, by stratagem, the strvsf
mountain fortress of AlamQt in Persia, and, removing thrre
with his followers, settled as chief of the famous society after-
wards called the Assassins.
The speculative principles of this body were identical with
those of the Isma'ilites, but their external policy was marked b>
one peculiar and distinctive feature— the employment of secret
" assassination " against all enemies. This practice was introduced
by Hassan, and formed the essential characteristic of the sttt
In organization they closely resembled the western lodge at
"Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler, the Skeik-*l-J*iti
(Jebel), i.e. Chief, or, as it is commonly translated, Old Man <A
the Mountains. Under him were three Dfi'i-al-Kirbdl, or, a*
they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the three provinces
over which the sheik's power extended. Next came the bod>
of Dd'is, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret
doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth wete
the Reflqs, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation
and who ultimately advanced to the dignity of dd'is. Filth
came the most distinctive class, the Fedais (*.*. the devoted
ones), who were the guards or assassins proper. These were all
young men, and from their ranks were selected the agents for
any deed of blood. They were kept uninitiated, and the blindest
obedience was exacted from and yielded by them. When the
sheik required the services of any of them, the selected /aaeii
ASSAULT
775
5 intoxicated with the hashish. When in this state they were
introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and sur-
rounded with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of
paradise, only to be granted by their supreme ruler, made them
eager to obey his slightest command; their lives they counted as
nothing, and would resign them at a word from him. Finally,
the sixth and seventh orders were the Ldsias, or novices, and
the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of estab-
lished law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass
of people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observ-
ance* of Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they
knew the worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they
believed in nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.
The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of
their first victims was Hassan's former friend, Nisam-ul-Mulk,
whose son also died under the dagger of a secret murderer. The
death by poison of the sultan Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed
to this dreaded society, and contributed to increase their evil
fame. Sultan Sinjar, his soccessor, made war upon them, but
he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies against whose
operations no precaution seemed available. After a long and
prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He
had previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having
been concerned in the murder of a dai at Kuhistan, the other
for drinking wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his
successor his chief d&'i, Kia-Busurg-Omid.
During the fourteen years' reign of this second leader, the
Assassins were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and
their castles were taken and plundered; but they acquired a
stronghold in Syria, while their numerous murders made them
an object of dread to the neighbouring princes, and spread abroad
their evil renown. A long series of distinguished men perished
under the daggers of the fedais; even the most sacred dignity
was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was assassinated in his
tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered a similar fate.
Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahoromed I., who,
during the long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out
his predecessor's principles. In his time Massiat became the
chief seat of the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed's
abilities were not great, and the affections of the people were
drawn towards his son Hassan, a youth of great learning, skilled
in all the wisdom of the initiated, and popularly believed to be
the promised Imam become visible on earth. The old sheik
prevented any attempt at insurrection by slaying 250 of Hassan's
adherents, and the son was glad to make submission. When,
however, he attained the throne, he began to put his views into
effect. On the 17th of the month Ramadan, 1x64, he assembled
the people and disclosed to them the secret doctrines of the
initiated; he announced that the doctrines of Islam were now
abolished, that the people might give themselves up to feasting
and joy. Soon after, he announced that he was the promised
Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate these
claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but
was descended from Niair, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir,
and a lineal descendant of Ismail. After a short reign of four
years Hassan was assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his
son Mahommed II. succeeded. One of hb first acts was to slay
his father's murderer, with all his family and relatives; and his
long rule, extending over a period of forty-six years, was marked
by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to contend with many
powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg sultan
Nureddln, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had
gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite
caliph, and against whom even secret assassination seemed
powerless. During his reign, also, the Syrian branch of the
society, under their dS'l, Sfnan, made themselves independent,
and remained so ever afterwards. It was with this Syrian branch
that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it appears to have
been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli and
Conrad of Montferrat.
Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered,
it is believed, by his son, Jdaleddln Hassan in., who succeeded.
He restored the oM form of doctrine secr e t principles for the
initiated, and Islam for the people— and his general piety and
orthodoxy procured for him the name of the new Mussulman.
During his reign of twelve years no assassinations occurred, and
he obtained a high reputation among the neighbouring princes.
Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his son, ' Ala-ed-dla
Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in mind and
body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild
principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of
assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years,
'Am-ed-din was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddln,
the last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku
(Hulagu), brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill
country of Persia, took AlamQt and many other castles, and
captured Rukneddln (see Mongols). He treated him kindly,
and, at his own request, sent him under escort to Mangu. On
the way, Rukneddln treacherously incited the inhabitants of
Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith was
severely punished by the khan, who ordered Rukneddln to be
put to death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) com-
manding him to slay all his captives. About 12,000 of the
Assassins were massacred, and their power in Persia was com-
pietely broken. The Syrian branch flourished for some years
longer, till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, ravaged their
country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of them
lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to
exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be
met with in north Syria.
See T. von Hammer, GeschickU der Assassin** (181 8) ; S. dc Sacy,
Mhnotres do V Instittd, tv. (1818), who ductules the etymology fully ;
ColculUs Review, vols, lv., lvi. ; A. Jourdain in Michaud's Hisloire aes
Croisades, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans, of the Persian historian
Mirkhond in Notices el extrails des manuscrits, xiii. pp. 141 sq.; cf.
R. Dozy, Essai svr VhisUnrt de flsiamisme (Leiden and Pans, 1879),
Ch. ix. (G. W. T.)
ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and sdlart, to leap), in
English law, " an attempt or offer with force or violence to do
corporal hurt to another, as by striking at another with a stick
or other weapon, or without a weapon, though the party misses
his aim." Notwithstanding ancient opinions to the contrary,
it is now settled that mere words, be they ever so provoking,
will not constitute an assault Coupled with the attempt or
threat to inflict corporal Injury, there must in all cases be the
means of carrying the threat into effect. A battery is more than a
threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury
must have been inflicted, but it makes no difference however
small it may be, as the law does not "draw the line between
degrees of violence," but " totally prohibits the first and lowest
stage of it. 1 ' Every battery includes an assault. A common
assault is a misdemeanour, and is punishable by imprisonment
with or without hard labour to the extent of one year, and if it
occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for three years, or
imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without hard
labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are
provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such
as the Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of
Crimes Act 187 r, &c; and there are also certain aggravated
assaults for which the punishment is severer than for common
assault, as an assault with intent to murder, with intent to
commit a rape, &c. In certain cases an assault and battery is
sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in authority,
as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment upon
a child, or fn certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of one's-
goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime,
giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as
being the subject of a criminal prosecution.
United Slates.— The general principles applicable throughout
the United States arc the same as in England. Riding a horse
threateningly near a person; or riding a bicycle against another
(Mercer v. Corbin, 117 Indiana Rep. 430); waking one from
sleep to present a milk bill {Richmond v. Piske, 160 Mass. 34),
are assaults. A minor is liable for damages for an r ' BI
(Hildreth v. Hancock, 156 Illinois Rep. 618). In Te
776
ASSAYE— ASSAYING
been held that an assault with a knife is not necessarily an
aggravated assault (Warren v. Stole, 3 S.W. 340), and an axe
is not necessarily a " deadly weapon" with which to assault
(Oadney v. Stale, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it
would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (Mellon
v. Stale, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are
necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or
manner of use in making the assault (Ballard v. Stale, 13 S.W.
674; Miles v. Stale, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held
by the Texas Supreme Court to be a deadly weapon if not used
simply as a club (Lockland v. Stale, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same
court held in 1904 that a pistol is a deadly weapon (Pace v. State,
79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was an aggravated assault In
North Carolina it has been held that an axe is ex vi termini a
" deadly weapon " (Stale v. Shields, no N.C. 40).
ASSAYS* a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam's Dominions,
in southern India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is
celebrated as the site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September
1803 between the combined Mahratta forces under Sindhia and
the rajah of Berar and the British under Major-General Wellesley,
afterwards the duke of Wellington. The Mahratta force con-
sisted of 50,000 men, supported by 100 pieces of cannon served
by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a strong position.
Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men, which,
however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete
victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the
enemy 12,000 were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley
lost 1657— one-third of his little force — killed and wounded.
Assaye is 261 m. north-west of Hyderabad.
ASSAYING. To "assay" (or "essay"; Fr. essayer) is in
general to try, or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted
sense the term assaying is applied in metallurgy to the deter-
mination of the amount of gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this
article, however, it will be used in a wider technical signification,
and will include a description of the methods for the quantitative
determination of those elements in ores which affect their value
in metallurgical operations. It would be impossible to give in
detail here all the precautions necessary for the successful use
of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be confined
to the principles involved and the general manner in which they
are applied to secure the desired results.
Gold and Silver.— Ores containing gold or silver are almost
invariably assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with
appropriate fluxes and ultimate separation of the elements in
the metallic form. One of the customs which has grown out of
our peculiar system of weights is the form of statement of the
results of such an assay. Instead of expressing the amounts of
gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they are
expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce
and the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify
calculation and to enable the assayer to use the metric system
of weights employed in all chemical calculations, the " assay
ton " (" A.T. " ■» 29* 166 grammes) has been devised, which bears
the same relation to the ton of 2000 lb avoirdupois that one
milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay ton of ore is
used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents one ounce
to the ton.
The assay of an ore for gold or silver consists of two operations.
In the first the gold or silver is made to combine or alloy with
metallic lead, the other constituents of the ore being separated
from the lead as slag. In the second, the lead button containing
the gold or silver is cupelled and the resulting gold or silver button
is weighed. The first is conducted in one of two ways, known
respectively as the crucible method and the scorification method.
The crucible method is generally used for ores containing gold
in small amounts and for certain classes of silver ores. The
amount of ore taken for assay is generally one-half " A.T.," but in
very low-grade ores one, two, and sometimes even four " A.T.s"
arc used. In the scorification method one-tenth of an " A.T." is
the amount commonly taken. While in both methods the same
result is sought, the means employed are quite different In the
scorification method the ore is mixed in the scorifier (a shallow
dish of burned day) with from ten to twenty times its weight ef
granulated metallic lead (test lead) and a little borax glass, and
heated in a muffle, the front of which is at first dosed. When
the lead melts and begins to oxidize, the lead oxide, or so-called
litharge, combines with or dissolves the non-metallic and readdr
oxidizablc constituents of the ore, while the gold and silver alky
with the lead. As the slag thus formed flows off to the sides of
the scorifier, the assay clears and the melted metallic lead tones
an " eye " in the middle. The door of the muffle i* then opened
and the current of air which is drawn over the scorifier rapidly
oxidizes the lead, while the melted litharge gradually closes over
the metal. When the " eye " has quite disappeared the door is
closed and the temperature raised to make the slag very liquid.
The scorifier is taken from the muffle in a pair of tongs and the
contents poured into a mould, the lead forming a button in the
bottom while the slag floats on top. When cold, the conteau
of the mould are taken out and the lead button hammered into
the form of a cube, the slag, which is glassy and brittle, separating
readily from the metal, which is then ready for cupellation. In
the crucible method the ore is mixed with from once to twice its
weight of flux, which varies in composition, but of which the
following may be taken as a type.*—
Sodium bicarbonate , . . 8 parts.
Potassium carbonate 3 „
Powdered borax .... . 4 „
Flour , 1 „
Litharge 9 „
The mixture is charged into a round clay crucible from 100 nun.
to 125 mm. high, and heated either in a muffle or in a crucible
furnace at a gradually increasing heat for forty or fifty minutes.
At the expiration of this time, when the charge should be perfectly
liquid and in a tranquil state of fusion, the crucible is removed
from the furnace and the contents are poured into a mould.
The resulting lead button hammered into shape and carefully
cleansed from slag is ready for the cupel. If the button is tos
large for cupellation, or if it is hard, it may be scorified either
alone or mixed with test lead before cupellation. The **■——— '
and amount of the flux necessarily depend upon the character of
the ore, the object being to concentrate in the lead button all the
gold and silver while dissolving and carrying off in the slag the
other constituents of the ore. Under the most favourable con-
ditions there is a slight loss of gold and silver in the fusion, the
scorification and the cupellation, both by absorption in the slag
and by actual volatilization and absorption in the cupeL In ores
containing much copper, this metal is largely concentrated in the
lead button, making it hard, and necessitating repeated scarifica-
tions and, in some cases, a preliminary removal of the copper
by solution of the ore in nitric acid. This leaves the gold is
the insoluble residue, which is filtered off, and the silver in the
solution is thrown down by hydrochloric acid. The resulting
precipitate of silver chloride is filtered, and the residue and the
precipitate are scorified together. Ores containing much arsenic
or sulphur are generally roasted at a low heat and the assay
is made on the roasted material.
The process of cupellation is briefly as follows.*— The gold
alloy is fused with a quantity of lead, and a little silver if silver
is already present The resulting alloy, which is called the lead
button, is then submitted to fusion on a vtxy porous support,
made of bone-ash, and called a cupel. The fusion being effected
in a current of air, the lead oxidises. The heat is sufficient to
keep the resulting lead oxide fused, and the porous cupel has the
property of absorbing melted lead oxide without taking up any
of the metallic globule, exactly in the same way that blotting-
paper will absorb water whilst it will not touch a globule of
mercury. The heat being continued, and the current of ait
always passing over the surface of the melted lead button, and
the lead oxide being sucked up by the cupel as fast as it is formed,
the metallic globule rapidly diminishes in sise until at last all
the lead has been got rid of. Now, if this were the only action,
little good would have been gained, for we should simply have
put lead into the gold alloy, and then taken it out again; bat
another action goes on whilst the lead is oxidising in the carrenft
ASSAYING
777
of air. Other metals, except the silver and gold, also oxidize,
And are carried by the melted litharge into the cupel. If the lead
is therefore rightly proportioned to the standard of alloy, the
resulting button will consist of only gold and silver, and these are
separated by the operation of parting, which consists m boiling
the alloy (after rolling it to a thin plate) in strong nitric acid,
which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold as a coherent
sponge. To effect this parting properly, the proportion of silver
to gold should be as 3 to x. The operation by which the alloy is
brought to this standard is termed quartation or inquariatwn,
and consists in fusing the alloy in a cupel with lead and the
quantity of fine silver or fine gold necessary to bring it to the
desired composition.
Lead,— The " dry " or fire assay for lead is largely used for the
valuation of lead ores, although it is being gradually replaced by
volumetric methods. One part of the ore is mixed with from
three to five parts of a flux of the following composition: —
Potassium carbonate .... 40-6 %
Sodium bicarbonate . . . . 31*3 „
Borax 15-6 „
Flour 125 „
The mixture is charged into a clay crucible and heated for twenty
minutes at a good red heat. When the mixture has been in a
tranquil state of fusion for a few minutes it is poured into a mould.
When cold, the button is hammered, cleaned carefully from slag,
and weighed. The proportion is calculated from the amount
tof ore used, and the result is expressed in parts in a hundred
or percentage of the ore. Various impurities, such as copper,
antimony and sulphur, go into the lead button, so that the result
is generally too high. The most accurate method for the deter-
mination of lead in ores is the gravimetric method, in which it is
weighed as lead sulphate after- the various impurities have been
separated. Nearly all lead ores contain more or less sulphur;
and as in the process of solution in nitric acid this is oxidized
to sulphuric acid which unites with the lead to form the very
insoluble lead sulphate, it is simpler to add sulphuric acid to
convert all the lead into sulphate and then evaporate until the
nitric acid is expelled. The salts of iron, copper, &c, are then
dissolved in water and filtered from the insoluble silica, lead
sulphate, and calcium sulphate, which are washed with dilute
sulphuric acid. The insoluble matter is treated with a hot solu-
tion of alkaline ammonium acetate, which dissolves the lead
sulphate, the other materials being separated by nitration. The
lead sulphate, re-precipitated in the filtrate by an excess of
sulphuric acid and alcohol, is then filtered on an asbestos felt in
a Gooch crucible, washed with dilute sulphuric acid and alcohol,
ignited, and weighed. Lead sulphate contains 68-30 % of
metallic lead.
There are several volumetric methods for assaying lead ores,
but the best known is that based on the precipitation of lead by
ammonium molybdate in an acetic acid solution. The lead
sulphate, obtained as described aboveand dissolved in ammonium
acetate, is acidulated with acetic acid diluted with hot water and
heated to boiling-point. A standardized solution of ammonium
molybdate is then added from a burette. As long as the solution
contains lead,- the addition of the molybdate solution causes
a precipitation of white lead molybdate. An excess of the
precipitant is shown by a drop of the solution imparting a
yellow colour to a solution of tannin, prepared by dissolving
one part of tannin in 300 of water, drops of this solution are
placed on a white porcelain plate, and as the precipitant is added
to the lead solution a drop of the latter is removed from time to
time on a glass stirring-rod and added to one of the drops on the
porcelain plate. The appearance of a yellow colour shows that
all the lead has been precipitated and that the solution contains
an excess of molybdate. From the reading of the burette the
lead is calculated. The molybdate solution should be of such a
strength that x cc. will precipitate o-oi gramme of lead. It is
standardized by dissolving a weighed amount of lead sulphate in
ammonium acetate and proceeding as described above.
Zinc.— Chemically the ores of zinc consist of the silicates,
carbonates, oxides, and sulphides of sine associated with other
metals, some of which complicate the methods of assay. The
most modern and the most generally accepted method is volu-
metric, and is based on the reaction between zinc chloride and
potassium ferrocyanide, by which insoluble zinc ferrocyanide
and soluble potassium chloride are formed; the presence of the
slightest excess of potassium ferrocyanide is shown by a brownish
tint being imparted by the solution to a drop of uranium nitrate.
The ore (05 gramme) is digested with a mixture of potassium
nitiatc and nitric acid. A saturated solution of potassium
chlorate in strong nitric add is added, and the mass evaporated
to dryness. It is then heated with a mixture of ammonium
chloride and ammonia, filtered and washed with a hot dilute
solution of the same mixture. The nitrate diluted to 200 cc is
carefully neutralized with hydrochloric add, and excess of 6 cc
of the strong add is added, and the solution saturated with
hydrogen sulphide, which predpitates the copper and cadmium,
metals which would otherwise interfere. Without filtering, the
standard solution is added from a burette, and from time to time
a drop of the solution is removed on the glass stirring-rod and
added to a drop or two of a strong solution of uranium nitrate,
previously placed on a white porcelain plate. The appearance
of a brown tint in one of these tests shows the end of the reaction.
When cadmium is not present the copper may be precipitated
by boiling the acidulated ammoniacal solution with test lead and
titrating, as before described, without remeviog the lead and
copper from the solution. The ferrocyanide solution is standard'
ized by dissolving x gramme of pure zinc in 6 cc. of hydrochloric
acid, adding ammonium chloride, and titrating as before. This
method is modified in practice by the character of the ores,
carbonates and silicates free from sulphides being decomposed
by hydrochloric add, with the addition of a little nitric add.
Copper. — The fire assay for copper ores was abandoned years
ago and the electrolytic method took its place; this in turn is
now largely replaced by volumetric methods. In the electrolytic
method from 0-5 to 5 grammes of ore are treated in a flask or
beaker, with a mixture of 10 cc of nitric and xo cc. of sulphuric
add, until thoroughly decomposed. When this liquid is cold it
is diluted with cold water, heated until all the soluble salts are
dissolved, transferred to a tall, narrow beaker, and diluted to
about x 50 cc. The electrodes are attached to a frame connected
with the battery and the beaker is placed on a stool, which can
be raised so that the electrodes are immersed in the liquid and
reach the bottom of the beaker. The electrodes consist of two
cylinders of platinum (placed one inside the other) about 75 mm.
high, the smaller of the two 37 mm. and the larger 50 mm, in
diameter, both pierced with xo to 12 holes 5 mm. in diameter,
evenly distributed over the surfaces to facilitate diffusion of the
liquids. The surfaces of the cylinders are roughened wi th a sand
blast to increase the areas and make the deposited metals adhere
more firmly. Each cylinder hat a platinum wire fused to the
upper drcumference to connect with a clamp from which a wire
leads to the proper pole of the battery. The smaller cylinder is
generally the negative electrode on which the copper is deposited.
The framework carrying the clamps is arranged so that a number
of determinations may be made at one time, the wires from the
clamps running from a rheostat, so arranged that currents of any
strength may be used simultaneously. The cylinder, having
been carefully wdghed, is placed in position, the beaker con-
taining the solution is adjusted, and the current passed until all
the copper is precipitated. This generally requires from two to
twelve hours. The cylinders are then removed from the solution
and washed with distilled water, the one holding the deposited
copper being washed with alcohol, dried and weighed; the
increase in weight represents the copper contents of the ore.
The deposited copper should be firmly adherent and bright rosy
red In colour Silver, arsenic and cadmium, if present, are
precipitated with the copper and affect the accuracy of the
results; they should be removed by spedal methods.
Volumetric methods are more expeditious and require less
apparatus. The potassium cyanide method is based on the
fact that, when potassium cyanide is added to an ammoniacal
solution of a sajt of copper, the insoluble copper f *" '
77*
ASSEGAI— ASSELIJN
formed, the end of the reaction being indicated by the disappear-
ance of the blue colour of the solution. One gramme of the ore
is treated in a flask with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids
and evaporated until all the nitric acid is expelled. After cooling
a little, water is added, and then a few grammes of aluminium
foil free from copper. On this foil the copper in the solution is
all precipitated by electrolytic action in a few minutes, and the
aluminium is dissolved by the addition of an excess of sulphuric
acid. Water is added, and as soon as the gangue and copper
particles have settled the clear solution is decanted, and the
residue washed several times in the same way. The copper is
then dissolved in 5 cc. of nitric add, if silver is present a drop or
two of hydrochloric acid is added, the solution diluted to about
50 cc, and filtered. To the filtrate (or, if no silver is present, to
'the diluted nitric add solution) 10 cc of ammonia are added,
and a standard solution of potassium cyanide is run in from
ia burette until the blue colour has nearly disappeared. The
solution is filtered to get rid of the precipitate, and the titration
is finished in the nearly dear filtrate, which should be always
about 200 cc in volume. The titration is complete when the
blue colour is so faint that it is almost imperceptible after the
flask has been vigorously shaken. The potassium cyanide solu-
tion is standardized by dissolving 0-5 gramme of pure copper
in 5 cc of nitric add, diluting, adding to cc of ammonia, and
titrating exactly as described above.
When potassium iodide is added to a solution of cupric acetate,
the reaction (Cu(C,H,0,),+ 2KI - Cul + 2K(C a H,Qt) + 1 takes
place; that is, for each atom of copper one atom of iodine is
liberated. If a solution of sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite)
is added to this solution, hydriodic acid, sodium iodide and
tctrathionate are formed; and if a little starch solution has been
added, the end of the reaction is indicated by the disappearance
of the blue colour, due to the iodide of starch. The amount of
Iodine liberated is therefore a measure of the copper in the
solution, and when the sodium thiosulphate has been carefully
standardized the method is extremely accurate. The ore is
treated as described in the cyanide method until the copper
predpitated by the aluminium foil has been washed and dissolved
in 5 cc. of nitric add, then 025 gramme of potassium chlorate
is added, and the solution boiled nearly dry to oxidize any
arsenic present to arsenic acid. The solution is cooled, 50 cc.
water added, then 5 cc ammonia, and the solution is boiled for
five minutes. Next 5 cc of glacial acetic acid are added, the
solution cooled, and 5 cc of a solution of potassium iodide (300
grammes to the litre) and the standard solution of sodium
thiosulphate run in from a burette until the brown colour has
nearly disappeared. A few drops of starch solution are then
added, and when the blue colour has nearly vanished a drop or
two of methyl orange makes the end reaction very sharp. The
thiosulphate solution is standardized by dissolving 03 to 0-5
gramme of pure copper in 3 cc. of nitric acid, adding 50 cc. of
water and 5 cc. of ammonia, and titrating as above after the
addition of 5 cc. of glarial acetic acid and 5 cc. of the potassium
iodide solution.
Iron. — The methods used in the assay for iron arc volumetric,
and are all based on the property possessed by certain reagents
of oxidizing iron from the ferrous to the ferric state. Two salts
are in common use for this purpose, potassium permanganate and
potassium bichromate. It is necessary in the first place, after
the ore is in solution, to reduce all the iron to the ferrous con-
dition, then the carefully standardized solution of the oxidizing
reagent is added until all the iron is in the ferric state, the
volume of the standard solution used being the measure of the
iron contained in the ore. The end of the reaction when potassium
permanganate is employed is known by the change in colour
of the solution. As the solution of potassium permanganate,
which is deep red in colour, is dropped into the colourless iron
solution, it is quickly decolorized while the iron solution
gradually assumes a yellowish tinge, the first drop of the perman-
ganate solution in excess giving it a pink tint. With potassium
bichromate solution, which is yellow, the iron solution becomes
green from the chromium chloride or sulphate formed, and the
end of the reaction is determined by removing a drop of the
solution on the stirring-rod and adding it to a drop of a diluir
solution of potassium ferricyanide on a while tile. So long as tac
solution contains a ferrous salt, the drop on the tile changes is
blue; hence the absence of a blue coloration indicates the
complete oxidation of all the ferrous salt and the end of ihr
reaction. One gramme of ore is usually taken for assay a: J
treated in a small flask or beaker with 10 cc. of. hydrochloric at > 1
All the iron in the ore generally dissolves upon heating, and a
white residue is left. Occasionally this residue contains a sttjJ
amount of iron in a difficultly soluble form; in that case the
solution is slightly diluted with water and filtered into a U^S**
flask. The residue in the filter is ignited and fused with a U-^
sodium carbonate and nitrate, or with sodium peroxide. 1 .*-?
product is treated with water, filtered, and the residue dissolve :
in hydrochloric acid and added to the main solution. Th >
solution, which should not exceed 50 cc. or 75 cc in volume
contains the iron in the ferric state and is ready for reduction
In the reduction by metallic zinc, about 3 grammes of grar. j-
lated or foliated zinc are placed in the flask, which is dosed »i*a
a small funnel; when the iron is reduced, add 10 cc. of sulphur:;
add, and as soon as all the zinc is dissolved the solution is rcad>
for titration. In the reduction by stannous chloride the solute
of the ore in the flask is heated to boiling, and a strong solute
of stannous chloride is added until the solution is comply :u>
decolorized, then 60 cc. of a solution of mercuric chloride 13c
grammes to the litre) are run in and the contents of the £jI*
poured into a dish containing 600 cc. of water and 60 cc. of a solu-
tion containing 200 grammes of manganous sulphate, x litre <*
phosphoric acid (1 3 sp. gr), 400 cc. of sulphuric add, and 1600
cc. of water The solution is then ready for titration with the
standard permanganate solution.
The permanganate or bichromate solution is standardized by
dissolving 05 of a gramme of pure iron wire in a flask, in hydro-
chloric acid, oxidizing it with a little potassium chlorate, boiling
off all traces of chlorine, deoxidizing by one of the method
described above, and titrating with the solution. As the »uc
always contains impurities, the absolute amount of iron in the
wire must be determined and the correction made accordingly.
Pure oxalic acid may also be used, which, in the presence of
sulphuric acid, is oxidized by the standard solution according to
the reaction —
5(HtCK><2HtO)-r3HiSO«+2KMnO«- 10COi4-2MiiSO«
+K>SO«+i0HiO
The reaction in case of ferrous sulphate is :—
10FeSO 4 +2KMnO«+8H,SO < -5Fet(SO,),+K,SO,
+2MnSO.+«HiO.
that is, the same amount of potassium permanganate is required
to oxidize 5 molecules of oxalic acid that U necessary to oxidize
to molecules of iron in the form of ferrous sulphate to ferric
sulphate, or 63 parts by weight of oxalic acid equal 56 parts by
weight of metallic iron. Ammonium ferrous sulphate may also be
used; it contains one-seventh of its weight of iron. (A. A. B.)
ASSEGAI, or Assagai (from Berber-Arab at-uiAayak, through
Portuguese azagaia), a weapon for throwing or hurling, a light
spear or javdin made of wood and pointed with iron, particularly
the spear used by the Zulu and other Kaffir tribes of South
Africa. In addition to the long-handled assegai there a a shorter
weapon for use at close quarters
ASSELUN. HANS (1610-1660), Dutch painter, was bom at
Diepen, near Amsterdam. He received instruction from Esaias
Vandcvelde (1587-1630), and distinguished himself particularly
in landscape and animal painting, though his historical works
and battle pieces are also admired. He travdled much in France
and Italy, and model'ed his style greatly after Bambocdo (Peter
Laer). He was one of the first Dutch painters who introduced a
fresh and dear manner of painting landscapes in the style of
Claude Lorraine, and his example was speedily followed by other
artists. Asselijn's pictures were in high estimation at Amster-
dam, and several of them are in the museums of that dty.
Twenty-four, painted in Italy, were engraved.
ASSEMAN3— A8SER
779
, the name of a Syrian Marooite family of famous
Orientalists.
i. Joseph Simon, a Maronite of Mount Lebanon, was bora in
1687. When very young be was sent to the Maronite college in
Rome, and was transferred thence to the Vatican library. In
x 7 r 7 he was sent to Egypt and Syria to search for valuable MSS.,
and returned with about 150 very choice ones. The success of
this expedition induced the pope to send him again to the East
in 1735, and he returned with a still more valuable collection.
On his return he was made titular archbishop of Tyre and
librarian of the Vatican library. He instantly began to carry
into execution most extensive plans for editing and publishing
the most valuable MS. treasures of the Vatican. His two great
works are the Bibiiotheca OrientaHs Clementino- Vatic ana tec.
manuscr. codd. Syr., Arab., Pers., Turc, Hebr.,Samarit», Armen.,
Aethiop., Grate, Aegypt., Iber,, et Maiab., jussu et munif. Clem,
XI. (Rome, 17x0-1728), 9 vols, folio, and Rpkraemi Syri opera
omnia quae extant, Cr., Syr., et Lot., 6 vols, foho (Rome, 1737*
1746). Of the Bibliotiuca the first three vols, only were completed.
The work was to have been in four parts— (1) Syrian and allied
MSS., orthodox, Nestorian and Jacobite; (2) Arabian MSS.,
Christian and Mahommedan; (3) Coptic, Aethiopic, Persian
and Turkish MSS.; and (4) Syrian and Arabian MSS. not
distinctively theological; only the first part was completed,
but extensive preparations were made for the others. There is a
German abridgment by A. F. Pfeifier.
2. Joseph Aloysius, brother of Joseph Simon, and professor
of Oriental languages at Rome. He died in 1 78a. Besides aiding
his brother in his literary labours, he published, in 1 740-1 760,
Codex Liturgicus EccJesiac Universac in *v. Ubris (this is incom-
plete), and Comment, de Catholicis she Patriarchis Ckaidaeorum
et Nestorianorum (Rome, 1775)-
3. Stephen Evooius, nephew of Joseph Simon and Joseph
Aloysius, was the chief assistant of his uncle Joseph Simon in his
work in the Vatican library. He was titular archbishop of
Apamea in Syria, and held several rich prebends in Italy. His
literary labours were very extensive. His two most important
works were a description of certain valuable MSS. in bis BibHo-
ikuae Mediceo-Laurentianae et Palaiinae codd, manuscr. Orien-
talium Catalog** (Fk>r. 1742), foL, and his Acta SS. Afcrtyntm
Orientalium. He made several translations from the Syrian,
and in conjunction with his uncle he began the Bibliothccae
Apostol. Vatic, codd. manusc. Catal., in tres partes distributus.
Only three vols, were published, and the fire in the Vatican
library in 1768 consumed the manuscript collections which had
been prepared for the continuation of the work.
4. Simon, grandnephew of Joseph Simon, was born, at Tripoli
id 1752, and was professor of Oriental languages in Padua. He
died in 1820. He is best known by his masterly detection of the
literary imposture of Vella, which claimed to be a, history of the
Saracens in Syria.
ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL, the term used in English law for an
assembly of three or more persons with intent to commit a crime
by force, or to carry out a common purpose (whether lawful or
unlawful), in such a manner or in such circumstances as would
in the opinion of firm and rational men endanger the public
peace or create fear of immediate danger to the tranquillity of
the neighbourhood. In the Year Book of the third year of
Henry VII. 's reign assemblies were referred to as not punishable
unless in ierrorem populi domini regis. It has been suggested
(Criminal Code Commission, 1879) that legislation first became
necessary at a time when it was usual for those landed proprietors
who were on bad terms with one another to go to market at the
head of bands of armed retainers (Statute of Northampton,
1328, 2 Edw. III. c. 3). An assembly, otherwise lawful, is not
made unlawful if those who take part in it know beforehand
that there will probably be organized opposition to it, and that
it may cause a breach of the peace {Beatty v. Citibanks, 1882,
9 Q. B. D. 308). All persons may, and must if called upon to do
so, assist in dispersing an unlawful assembly (Redford v. Birley,
1822, 1 St. Tr. n.s.1215; R. v. Pinney, 1831, 3 St. Tr. n*. 11).
An assembly which is lawful cannot be rendered unlawful by
proclamation unless the proclamation is one authorised by
statute (R. v. Fnrsey, 1833, 3 St. Tr. n.s. 543, 567; R.v.
OXonntU, 2831, 2 St. Tr. na 620, 656; see also the Prevention
of Crimes (Ireland] Act 1887) . Meetings for training or drilling,
or military movements, are unlawful assemblies unless held under
lawful authority from the crown, the lord-lieutenant, or two
justices of the peace (Unlawful Drilling Act 1820, s. 1 1).
An unlawful assembly which has made a motion towards its
common purpose is termed a rout, and if the unlawful assembly
should proceed to carry out its purpose, e.g. begin to demolish a
particular enclosure, it becomes a riot (q. v.). All three offences
are misdemeanours in English law, punishable by fine and
imprisonment The common law as to unlawful assembly
extends to Ireland, subject to the special legislation referred to
under the title Riot. The law of Scotland includes unlawful
assembly under the same head as rioting.
British Dominions Abroad.— The law of the British colonies
as a general rule as to unlawful assemblies follows the common
law 01 England. The definitions in the Criminal Codes of Canada
(1892, s. 79) and Queensland (1809, •• <*«) * re substantially the
same as the common-law definition above given. Under the
Indian Penal Code (s. 141) an assembly of five or more persons
is designated an unlawful assembly if the common object of the
persons composing that assembly is — (1) to overawe by criminal
force, or show of criminal force, the legislative or executive
government of India, or the government of any presidency or
any lieutenant-governor, or any public servant in the exercise
of the lawful power of such public servant; (2) to resist the
execution of any law or of any legal process; (3) to commit any
mischief or' 4 criminal trespass " or other offence; (4) by means
of criminal force or show of criminal force to any person, to take
or obtain possession of any property, or to deprive any person of
the enjoyment of a right of way, or of the use of water, or other
corporeal right of which he is in possession or enjoyment, or
to enforce any right or supposed right; or (5) by means of
criminal force or show of criminal force, to compel any person
to do what he is not legally bound to do, or to omit to do
what he is legally entitled to do (see Mayne, Ind. Cr. Law, ed.
1896, p. 480). In South Africa and Mauritius the law on this
subject is derived from the Roman Dutch and French law (see
Riot.)
United States.-— -The common-law definition of unlawful
assembly is accepted in the United States subject to the special
legislation of the constituent states. The New York Penal Code
(s. 451) declares that whenever three or more persons being
assembled attempt or threaten any act tending towards a breach
of the peace, or injury to person or property, or any unlawful
act, such assembly is unlawful (see Bishop. Amer. Crim. Law,
8th ed. f 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. s. 1256).
ASSEN, the capital of the province of D rente, Holland, 16 m.
by rail S. of Groningen.at the junction of the two canals which
run north and south to Groningen and Meppel respectively.
Pop. (1900) 11,329. It is partly surrounded by a small forest
belonging to the state. Assen possesses schools (a gymnasium
and burgher school), a chamber of commerce, a museum of
antiquities and a court-house. Peat-cutting forms a considerable
industry. Many prehistoric remains found in the neighbourhood
are in the museum at Leiden. Until the 19th century Assen was
a small place built round the convent in which Otto II. (of Lippe),
bishop of Utrecht, was murdered after being taken prisoner at
Koevorden in 1237.
A38BR* or Assebius Menevensis (d. c. 9x0), English bishop,
and author of a life of Alfred the Great, was a native of the
western part of Wales, and was related to Nobis, bishop of St
David's. He became a monk at St David's, and having acquired
some reputation for learning, he was invited by King Alfred to
his court The king met the monk at Demi (probably East or
West Dean, dear Seaford in Sussex), but Asser did not at once
accept the invitation of Alfred, and returned to Wales to consult
his colleagues. He then agreed to spend six months of each year
with the king and six months in his own land; but his first stay
at the royal court extended to eight months, and it is y&* ■■'
780
ASSESSMENT— ASSETS
that the annual visit to Wales was curtailed if not altogether
discontinued. It is difficult to fix the date of Asser's arrival in
England, but it was probably about 885. He assisted the king
in his studies, received from him the monasteries of Congresbury
and Banwell, and sometime later " Exeter and its diocese in
Saxonland and Cornwall." He became bishop of Sherborne
before 900, and his death is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
under the date 910, although it is possible that it occurred a
year or two earlier. The scanty details of Asser's life are taken
from his biography of Alfred, from which it is inferred that he
was acquainted with one or two Frankish biographies, and
possibly had visited the continent of Europe.
Asser's work, Annates rerum gestarum Alfred* magmi, was
written about 893, and consists of a chronicle of English history
from 849 to 887, and an account of Alfred's life, largely drawn
from personal knowledge, down to 887. The only manuscript
of which there is any record daces from about 1000, and was
destroyed by fire in 1731. From this manuscript an edition was
printed in 1574 under the direction of Matthew Parker, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, but this contained many interpolations
and alterations which were copied by subsequent editors. The
text has since been the subject of careful study, and the edition
edited by W H. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) distinguishes between
the original work of Asser and the later additions. Some doubt
has been cast upon the authenticity of the work, especially by
T. Wright in the Biograpkia Britannia* liieraria (London, 184a),
who ascribes the life to a monk of St Neots; but the latest
scholarship regards it as the work of Asser, although all the
difficulties which surround the authorship have not been removed.
The life was largely used by subsequent chroniclers, among
others by Florence of Worcester, Simeon of Durham, Roger of
Hoveden, and William of Malmesbury.
See W. H. Stevenson, Introduction to Asser's Life of King Alfred
(Oxford, 1904) ; R. Pauti, Introduction to Konig Ad/red (Berlin.1851).
ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessors, to sit beside, to judge), a
term expressing either an official valuation of income or property
for purposes of taxation, or the amount so determined (see
Taxation and Valuation). It is also applied to the amount
of damages fixed by a jury in a court of law (see Damages).
An assessment committee is a statutory committee appointed
under the Union Assessment Acts 1862, 1880, for the purpose of
making out the valuation lists upon which the poor-law rate is
An assessment policy, in life insurance, is a policy issued at a
fixed premium, the excess of which over the portion necessary
to meet current claims and expenses goes to form a reserve fund
which is devoted to various forms of benefit for the policy-
holders. See Insurance and Friendly Societies.
. ASSESSOR (Lat. assessare, assidere t to sit by), a Roman term
originally applied to a trained lawyer who sat beside a governor
of a province or other magistrate, to instruct him in the ad-
ministration of the laws (see Roll, De assessorious magistratuum
Romanorum, Leipzig, 1872). The system is still exemplified in
Scotland, where it is usual in the larger towns for municipal
magistrates, in the administration of their civil jurisdiction, to
have the aid of professional assessors. In England, by the Judi-
cature Act 1873, the court of appeal and the High Court may
in any cause or matter call in the aid of assessors. The Patents
Act 1907 makes special provision for assessors in patent and
trade-mark cases. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act
1891 the House of Lords may, in appeals in admiralty actions,
call in the aid of assessors, while in the 'admiralty division of the
High Court it is usual for the Elder Brethren of Trinity House to
assist as nautical assessors. In admiralty cases in the county
courts, too, the judge is frequently assisted by assessors of
"nautical skill and experience" (County Court Admiralty
Jurisdiction Act 1868). In the ecclesiastical courts assessors
assist the bishop in proceedings under the Church Discipline Act
1840, s. 11, while under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, a. 2,
they assist the chancellor in determining questions of fact By
the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14. the king in council
nay make rules for the attendance of archbishops and bishops
as assessors in the hearing of ecclesiastical cases by the ja&&]
committee of the privy council
The term " assessor " is also very generally applied to per&ccj
appointed to ascertain and fix the value of rates, taxes, hi .
and in this sense the word is used in the United States.
In France and in all European countries where the civil ha
system prevails, the term assesseur is applied to those assisurt
judges who, with a president, compose a judicial court.
In Germany an Assessor, or Betsifeer, is a member of the kza,
profession who has passed four years in actual practice sad
become qualified for the position of a judge.
ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assets, mod. Fr. arses, " enough"*
in English law, strictly the property of a debtor in the
hands of his representative sufficient for the satisfaction of t s
creditors or legatees. Thus the property of a bankrupt is tensed
his assets and is the fund out of which his liabilities must be pel
AU property of the debtor is assets, and it is not necessary thu
it should have been reduced into possession by him.
The creditors of a debtor are either secured or unsecured. A
secured creditor, e.g. a mortgagee, has a prior claim to be paid his
debt out of his security. If on realization of the security there a
a balance after paying the debt, such balance becomes assets for
the unsecured creditors; if there is a deficit, then the credlicr
becomes an unsecured creditor for such deficit. _ The unsecured
creditors were formerly divided into creditors by specialty »rj
by simple contract, the first being creditors secured by instrumtai
under seal who ranked in priority to simple contract creditors.
But by Hinde Palmer's Act [the Executors Act] 1009 all un-
secured creditors rank alike.
Assets are divisible into legal assets and equitable assets, and
the former class is again divisible into assets real and personal.
These distinctions, though formerly of great importance, have
now lost most of their meaning, but it is necessary briefly to de-
scribe the nature of these divisions and their co n sequences. The
distinction between assets legal and equitable depends entirely
upon the remedy open to the creditor to recover his debt and is
no way'upon the nature of the property from which the debt is
sought to be recovered. If the creditor had to sue the executor
of a debtor at law to obtain payment out of the property, that
property was legal assets; but if the only remedy open to the
creditor to get at the property was to bring an action in chancery
for the administration of the estate, then the assets were
equitable.
Legal assets, as has been said, were divided into real and
personal assets. The personal assets were those which devolved
virtute officii on the executor or administrator; such assets aie
since Hinde Palmer's Act available equally for specialty and
simple contract creditors. The real assets consisted of those
descending to the heir or devised to a devisee, and were at hw
only liable for specialty debts. However, by the Land Transfer
Act 1897 it is provided that the real estate of a deceased shall
devolve upon the executor and " shall be administered in the
same manner . . . and with the same incidents as if it were
personal estate." The distinction, therefore, between assets real
and personal has practically ceased to exist, and only continues
in regard to such property as is not included in the act, the most
important of which is.land held in copyhold.
The equitable assets were treated otherwise. In the eyes of
equity all unsecured creditors stand upon the same footing,
and a creditor suing for administration of the estate sued on
behalf of himself and all other creditors of the estate, and the
distinction between specialty and simple contract creditors was
ignored. Land was not at law liable to satisfy simple con-
tract creditors; but if a testator expressly charged it with pay-
ment of his debts or devised it to his executors upon trust
to pay his debts, equity treated it as equitable assets and so
made it available to satisfy simple contract creditors; and
finally by an act of 1833 it was provided that real estate
should in all cases be assets to be administered by equity
for the benefit of simple contract creditors as well as creditors
by specialty. It will be seen therefore that, generally speaking,
all creditors have now the same remedies against the executors
ASSIDEANS— ASSIGNATS
7»*
cither at law or in equity. The only property as to which these
distinctions at all survive is that not touched by the Land
Transfer Act 1807.
The act of 1833 just mentioned does not, however, deal with
legacies, which continue to be payable only out of personalty
unless they are expressly charged upon the realty by the testator;
it has been contended that the effect of the Land Transfer Act
x.897 has been to alter this and make the realty assets for the
purpose of paving legacies, but this view is believed to be un-
sound.
It Is necessary for the representative so to distribute the assets
that any fund primarily liable shall bear its proper burden, and
that as far as possible all debts and legacies may be paid; this
is said to be M marshalling the assets," and a few examples of
the principal cases of marshalling will make this clear. If the
personalty is exhausted in satisfying the creditors the legatees
aire left without a fund from which to be paid. But inasmuch as
the creditor could have got paid out of the realty, as well as the
personalty, it is not fair that the legatee should suffer by the
creditor's choice, and he will therefore get payment from the
real estate. So again if one legacy is charged upon the real
estate and another is not, then if the former be paid out of the
personalty the latter will stand in its place and be paid from
the real estate.
Finally it shall be noticed that an insolvent estate may be
administered in bankruptcy. In such a case the law of bank-
ruptcy regulates the order in which the assets are divided among
the creditors (see Bankruptcy), but by the Judicature Act 1875,
it is provided that an insolvent estate may be administered in
the chancery division, and in such a case " the same rules shall
prevail and be observed as to the respective lights of secured
and unsecured creditors and as to the debts and liabilities
provable and as to the valuation of annuities and future and
contingent liabilities respectively as may be in force for the time
being under the law of bankruptcy." This clause must be
construed strictly, and it is only in the three cases specifically
mentioned that the rules of bankruptcy will be imported into
the administration of an insolvent estate by the chancery
In a less strict sense, the term " assets," or " an asset," is
used derivatively as a synonym for any property, or as opposed
to " habOities." Cecil Rhodes once spoke of the British flag
as a M great commercial asset " in South Africa, meaning
merely that the imperial connexion was a source of strength and
credit
ASSIDBAMS (the Anglicized form, derived through the Greek,
of the Hebrew ffasidim, " the pious "), the name of a party or
sect which stood out against the Hellenixation of the Jews in
the and century B.C. After the massacre of those who fled from
the forces of Antiochus Epiphanes and would not resist on the
sabbath, Mattsthiaa (or Judas) derided to set aside the law and
was joined by a company of Aasideans, brave men of Israel
every one, who offered themselves willingly for the law (x Mace.
iL 4a, cf. a Mace viii. x). On the appointment of Akimus (16a
B.C.), " a descendant of Aaron " as high-priest, " the Aasideans
were the first who sought peace " (x Mace vii. 13 f.); but the
treacherous murder of sixty of them (ib. 16) threw them back
into the arms of Judas. According to a Mace, xiv., Akimus
identified them with the whole party of the rebels, of which
they were only one, though the most important, section.
See Schurer, GtschichU des jUdiseken Vdkes, i. 303; art. In Jewish
Encyclopaedia* s.v. " tfaaidim " (S. M. Dubnow). (J. H. A. H.)
ASSIGN ATS (from Lat. assignatus, assigned), a form of paper-
money issued in France from 1780 to 1796. Assignats were so
termed, as representing land assigned to the holders.
The financial strait of the French government in 1789 was
extreme. Coin was scarce, loans were not taken up, taxes had
ceased to be productive, and the country was threatened with
imminent bankruptcy. In this emergency assignats were issued
to provide a substitute for a metallic currency. They were
originally of the nature of mortgage bonds on the national lands.
These lands consisted of the church property confiscated, on the
motion of Mirabeau, by the Constituent Assembly on the and
of November 1789, and the crown lands, which had been
taken over by the nation on the 7 th of October (sec French
Revolution).
The assignats were first to be paid to the creditors of the state.
With these the creditors could purchase national land, the
assignats having, for this purpose, the preference over other
forms of money. If the creditor did not care to purchase land,
it was supposed that he could obtain the face-value for them
from those who desired land. Those assignats which were re-
turned to the state as purchase-money were to be cancelled, and
the whole issue, it was argued, would consequently disappear as
the national lands were distributed.
A first issue was made of 400,000,000 francs' worth of
assignats, each note being of 100 francs' value and bearing
interest daily at a rate of 5%. They were to be redeemed by
the product of the sales, and from certain other sources, at the
rate of 120,000,000 francs in 1701, 100,000,000 francs in 179a,
80,000,000 francs in 1793 and 1794, and the surplus in 1795.
The success of the issue was undoubted, and, possibly, if the
assignats had been restricted, as Mirabeau at first desired, to
the extent of one-half the value of the lands sold, they would
not have shared the usual fate of inconvertible paper money.
Mirabeau was a strenuous advocate of the assignats. " They
represent," he said, "real property, the most secure of all
possessions, the soil on which we tread." " There cannot be a
greater error than the fear so generally prevalent as to the over-
issue of assignats . . . reabsorbed progressively in the purchase
of the national domains, this paper-money can never become
redundant"
In 1790 the interest was reduced to 3%, and as the treasury
had again become exhausted, a further issue was decided upon;
it was also decreed that the assignats were to be accepted as
legal tender, all public departments being instructed to receive
them as the equivalent of metallic money. This second issue
amounted to 800,000,000 francs and carried no interest It was
solemnly declared in the decree authorizing the issue that the
maximum issue was never to exceed twelve hundred millions.
This pledge, however, was soon broken, and further issues
brought the total up to 3,750,000,000 francs. The consequence of
these further issues was instant depredation, and the note of 100
francs nominal value sank to less than ao francs coin. Recourse
was then had to protective legislation. The first step was to
decree the penalty of six years' imprisonment ikainst any
person who should sell specie for a more considerable quantity
of assignats, or who should stipulate a different price for com-
modities according as the payment was to be made in specie or in
assignats. For the second offence the penalty was to be twenty
years' imprisonment (August x, 1793), for which" the death
penalty was ultimately substituted (May xo, 1794). This
severe provision was, however, repealed after the fall of Robes-
pierre. Notwithstanding these precautions, the value of assignats
still declined, till the proportion to specie had become that of six
to one. Then came the passing by the Convention on the 3rd of
May 1793 of the absurd " maximum." The decree required all
farmers and corn-dealers to declare the quantity of corn in their
possession and to sell it only in recognised markets. No person
was to be allowed to lay in more than one month's supply. A
maximum price was fixed, above which no one was to buy or sell
under severe penalties. These measures were soon stultified by
further issues, and by June 1794 the total number of assignats
aggregated nearly 8,000,000,000, of which only 2,464,000,000
had returned to the treasury and been destroyed. The extension
of the " maximum " to all commodities only increased the
confusion. Trade was paralysed and all manufacturing establish-
ments were dosed down. Attempts by the Convention to
increase the value of the assignats were of no avail Too many
causes operated in favour of their depreciation: the enormous
issue, the uncertainty as to their value if the Revolution should
fail, the relation they bore to both spede and commodities,
which retained their value and refused to be exchange^ for
a money of constantly diminishing purchasing pov
7«a
ASSIGNMENT— ASStUT
between the assignats themselves there were differences. The
royal assignats, which had been issued under Louis XVI., had
depreciated less than the republican ones. They were worth
from 8 to 15% more, a fact due to the hope that in case of a
counter-revolution they would be less likely to be discredited.
The Directory was guilty of even greater abuses in dealing
with the assignats. By 1 706 the issues had reached the enormous
figure of 45,500,000,000 francs, and even this gigantic total was
swollen still more by the numerous counterfeits introduced into
France from the neighbouring coun tries. The assignats had now
become totally valueless— the abolition of the " maximum " the
previous year {1705) had produced no effect, and, though, by
various payments into the treasury, the total number had been
reduced to about 24,000,000,000 francs, their face-value was
about 30 to 1 of coin. At this value they were converted into
800,000,000 francs of land-warrants, or mandats Icrriioriaux,
which were to constitute a mortgage on all the lands of the
republic. These mandats were no more successful than the
assignats, and even on the day of their issue were at a discount
of 82 %. They had an existence of six months, and were finally
received back by the state at about the seventieth part of their
face-value in coin.
Authorities. — L. A. Thiers, Histoire ie la rholulion francaise,
gives a full and graphic account of the assignats, the causes of their
depreciation, Ac; J. Gamier, Trailiies Finances (t862); J. Bresson,
Htstoire financiire ie la France (1820); R. Stourm, Us Finances
ie I'ancien rigim* ei ie la revolution (1885); F. A. Walker, Money
(1891); Henry Higgs, in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. viii.
(1904). (T. A. I.)
ASSIGNMENT, Assignation, Assignee (from Lat. assignare,
to mark out), terms which, as derivatives of the verb " to
assign," are of frequent technical use in law. To assign is to
make over, and the term is generally used to express a trans-
ference by writing, in contradistinction to a transference by actual
delivery. In England the usual expression is assignment, in
Scotland it is assignation. The person making over is called the
assignor or cedent; the recipient, the assign or assignee. An
assignee may be such either by deed, as when a lessee assigns his
lease to another, or in law, as when property devolves upon an
executor. The law as to assignment in connexion with each
particular subject, as the assignment of a chose in action,
assignment in contract, of dower, of errors, of a lease, &c, will be
found under the respective headings. In a colloquial sense, " as-
signation " means a secretly contrived meeting between lovers.
ASSINlBOtA, a name formerly applied to two districts of
Canada, but not now held by any. (1) A district formed in 183 5
by the Hudson's Bay Company, having in it Fort Garry at the
junction of the Red and Assiniboinc rivers in Rupert's Land,
North America. It extended over a circular area, with a radius
of 50 m. from Fort Garry. It was governed by a local council
nominated by the Hudson's Bay Company. It ceased to exist
when Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada in 1870. (2) A
district of the North-west Territories, which was given definite
existence by an act of the Dominion parliament in 187 5. Assini-
boia extended from the western boundary of Manitoba (oo° W.
in 1875, and 101 25' W. in 1881) to in° W.. and from
49° N. to 5 2 N. The name was a misnomer, as it barely
touched the Assiniboine river. To the north of the district lay
the district of Saskatchewan, so that when the two were united
by the Dominion act of 1005, they were somewhat changed in
boundaries and the name Saskatchewan was given to the new
province. The derivation of Assinlboia is from two Ojibway
words, assini meaning a stone, and the termination " to cook
by roasting "; from these came a name first applied to a Dakota
or Sioux tribe living on the Upper Red river; afterwards when
this tribe separated from the Dakotas, its name was given to the
branch of the Red river which the tribe visited, the river being
known as the Assiniboinc and the tribe as Assiniboin.
AS8IN1B0IN (" Stone-Cookers "), a tribe of North American
Indians of Siouan stock. Their name (see above) is said to refer
to their method of boiling water by dropping red-hot stones into
it. Their former range was between the Missouri and the middle
Saskatchewan on both sides of the Canadian frontier. In 1904
there were 1234 in the United States, all on reservations in
Montana; and in 1002 there were 1371 in Canada.
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Waahiagtoa.
1907).
ASSISE (from the Fr., derived from Lat. essidere, to sit beside*,
a geological term for two or more beds of rock united by the
occurrence of the same characteristic species or genera.
ASSISI (anc. Asisium), a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 15 m. E.S.E. by rail from the
town of Perugia. Pop. (1901) town, 5338; commune, 17,340.
The town occupies a fine position on a mountain (1345 ft- above
sea-level) with a view over the valleys of the Tiber and Topino.
It is mainly famous in connexion with St Francis, who was
born here in 1 182, and returned to die in 1226. The Franciscan
monastery and the lower and tipper church of St Francis were
begun immediately after his canonisation in x 2 28, and completed
in 1 253, being fine specimens of Gothic architecture. The crypt
was added in 1818, when the sarcophagus containing his retna.ns
was discovered. The lower church contains frescoes by Cimabuc .
Giotto and others, the most famous of which are those over the
high altar by Giotto, illustrating the vows of the Franciscan
order; while the upper church has frescoes representing actors
from the life of St Francis (probably by Giotto and his con-
temporaries) on the lower portion of the walls of the nave, and
scenes from Old and New Testament history by pupils of Cim* bu.
on the upper. The church of Santa Chiara (St Clare), the
foundress of the Poor Clares, with its massive lateral buttresses,
fine rose-window, and simple Gothic interior, was begun in 125;.
four years after her death. It contains the tomb of the saict
and 13th-century frescoes and pictures. Santa Maria Maggiore
is also a good Gothic church. The cathedral (San Rutin©) has a
fine facade with three rose-windows of 1140; the interior was
modernized in 1572. The town is dominated by the medieval
castle (1655 ft.), built by Cardinal Albornoz (1367) and added
to by Popes Pius II. and Paul III. Two miles to the east in
a ravine below Monte Subasio is the hermitage dtlle Carceri
(2300 ft.), partly built, partly cut out of the solid rock, given to
St Francis by Benedictine monks as a place of retirement.
Below the town to the south-west, close to the station, is the tarsr
pilgrimage church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, begun in i*t >
by Pope Pius V., with Vignola as architect; but not completed
until 1640. It contains the original oratory of St Francis ard
the cell in which he died. Adjacent is the garden in which the
saint's thornless roses bloom in May. Half a mile outside the
town to the south-east is the convent of San Damiano, erected
by St Francis, of which St Clare was first abbess.
In the early middle ages Assisi was subject to the dukes of
Spoleto; but in the nth century it seems to have been inde-
pendent It became involved, however, in the disputesof Gudphs
and Ghibellines, and was frequently at war with Perugia. It
was sacked by Perugia and the papal troops in 1442, and even
after that continued to be the prey of factions. The place is
now famous as a resort of pilgrims, and is also important for the
history of Italian art. The poet Metaataslo was bora here in
1698.
See L. Duff-Gordon. Assist (" Mediaeval Towns " series. London.
1900). For ancient history' see Aaisiu*. (T. As.)
ASSIUT, or Siut, capital of a province of Upper Egypt of tbc
same name, and the largest and best-built town in the Nile
Valley south of Cairo, from which it is distant 248 m. by rail
The population rose from 32,000 in 1882 to 42,000 in xooo.
Assiut stands near the west bank of the Nile across which, just
below the town, is a barrage, completed in iooa, consisting of an
open weir, 2733 ft l°Bg> anc * over 100 bays or sluices, each ioJ
ft. wide, which can be opened or closed at will. At the western
end of the barrage begins the Ibrahunia canal, the feeder of the
Bahr Yusuf, the largest irrigation canal of Egypt. The Ibra-
bimia canal is skirted by a magnificent embankment planted
with shady trees leading from the river to the town. There are
several basaars, baths and handsome mosques, one noted for iu
lofty minaret, and here the American Presbyterian mission has
established a college for both sexes. Assiut is famous for its red
and black pottery and for ornamental wood and ivory work.
ASSIZE— ASSOCIATE
7«3
which fad a ready market all over Egypt. It is one of the chief
centres of the Copts. Heze also is the northern terminus of the
caravan route across the desert, which, passing through the
Kharga oasis, goes south-west to Darfur. It is known as the
Arbain, or forty days road, from the time occupied on the journey.
Asstut (properly AsyQt) is the successor of the ancient Lycopolis
(Eg. Sftout), capital of the 13th nome of Upper Egypt. Here
-were worshipped two canine gods (see Anubis), Ophols (Wepwoi)
being the principal god of the city, while Anubis apparently
presided over the necropolis. No ruins are visible, the mounds of
the old city being for the most part hidden under modern
buildings; but the slopes of the limestone hills behind it are
pierced with an infinity of rock-cut tombs, some of which were
Urge and decorated with sculptures, paintings and long inscrip-
tions. The archaeological commission of the Description de
PEgypte visited them in 1799, when the walls of many of the large
tombs were still almost intact; in the first half of the 19th cen-
tury (and to some extent later) an immense amount of destruction
was caused by blasting for stone. Three of the tombs illustrate
one of the darkest periods in Egypt's history, when the princes of
Siut played a leading part in the struggle between Heracleopolis
and Thebes (Dyns* IX.OC1.); another, of the XUth Dynasty,
contains a remarkable inscription detailing the contracts made
by the nomarch with the priests of the temples of Ophols
and Anubis for perpetual services at bis tomb (see Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt, Historical Documenis r vol. i. pp.
*79> a 5 8 )- Remains of the mummies of dogs and similar
animals sacred to these deities are scattered among the debris
on the hillside in abundance. Lycopolis was the birthplace
of Plotinus, the founder of Neo-Platonism (aj>. 905-170).
From the 4th century onwards its grottoes were the dwellings
of Christian hermits, amongst whom John of Lycopolis was
the most celebrated. (F. Ll. G.)
ASSIZE, or Assise (Lat ossidert, to sit beside; (X Fr. assire,
to sit, ossis, seated), a legal term, meaning literally a " session,"
but in fact, as Littleton has styled it, a nomen aequiweum, mean-
ing sometimes a jury, sometimes the sittings of a court, and
sometimes the ordinances of a court or assembly.
It originally signified the form of trial by a jury of sixteen
persons, which eventually superseded the barbarous judicial
combat; this jury was named the grand assize and was sworn
to determine the right of seisin of land (see Evidence). The
grand assize was abolished in 1833; but the term assize is still
applicable to the jury in criminal causes in Scotland.
In the only sense in which the word is not now almost
obsolete, assize means the periodical session of the judges of the
High Court of Justice, held in the various counties of England,
chiefly for the purposes of gaol delivery and trying causes at
nisi prius. Previous to Magna Carta (1215) writs of assize had
all to be tried at Westminster, or to await trial in the locality in
which they had originated at the septennial circuit of the justices
in eyre; but, by way of remedy for the great consequent delay
and inconvenience, it was provided by this celebrated act that
the assizes of mort d' ancestor and novel disseisin should be tried
annually by the judges in every county. By successive enact-
ments, the civil jurisdiction of the justices of assize was extended,
and the number of their sittings increased, till at last the necessity
of repairing to Westminster for judgment in civil actions was
almost obviated to country litigants by an act, passed in the reign
of Edward I., which provided that the writ summoning the jury
to Westminster should also appoint a time and place for hearing
such causes within the county of their origin. The date of the
alternative summons to Westminster was always subsequent to
the former date, and so timed as to fall in the vacation preceding
the Westminster term; and thus " Unless before," or nisi prius,
issues came to be dealt with by the judges of assize before the
summons to Westminster could take effect. The nisi prius
clause, however, was not then introduced for the first time. It
occurs occasionally in writs of the reign of Henry III. The royal
commissions to hold the assizes are— (1) general, (2) special.
The general commission is issued twice a year to the judges of the
High Court of Justice, and two judges are generally sent on each
circuit. It coven commissions (1) of oyer and terminer, by
which they are empowered to deal with treasons, murders,
felonies, &c. This is their largest commission ; (a> of nisi prius
(?-v<); (3) of gaol delivery, which requires them to try every
prisoner in gaol, for whatsoever offence committed; (4) of the
peace, by which all justices must be present at their county
assizes, or else suffer a fine. Special commissions are granted for
inquest in certain causes and crimes. See also the articles
Cncurr; Juav.
Assizes, in the sense of ordinances or enactments of a court or
council of state, as the " assize of bread and ale," the " assize of
Clarendon," the " assize of arms," are important in early eco-
nomic history* As early as the reign of John the observance of
the assisae venoiium was enforced, and for a period of 500
years thereafter it was considered no unimportant part of the
duties of the legislature to regulate by fixed prices, for the pro-
tection of the lieges, the sale of bread, ale, fuel, &c. (see
Adulteration). Sometimes in city charters the right to assize
such articles is specially conceded. Regulations of this descrip-
tion were beneficial in the repression of fraud and adulteration.
Assizes are sometimes used in a wider legislative connexion by
early chroniclers and historians— the " assisae of the realme,"
e.g. occasionally meaning the organic laws of the country. For
the " assizes of Jerusalem " see Crusades.
The term assize, originally applying to an assembly or court,
became transferred to actions before the court or the writs
by which they were instituted. The following are the more
important.
Assme of darrien presentment, or last presentation, was a
writ directed to the sheriff to summon an assize or jury to
enquire who was the last patron that presented to a church
then vacant, of which the plaintiff complained that he was
deforced or unlawfully deprived by the defendant. It was
abolished in 1833 *nd the action of quart impedit (q.t.) sub-
stituted. But by the Common Law Procedure Act i860, no
quart impedit can be brought, so that an action in the king's
bench of the High Court was substituted for it.
Assize of mort d f ancestor was a writ which lay where a plaintiff
complained of an " abatement " or entry upon his freehold,
effected by a stranger on the death of the plaintiff's father,
mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, &c. It was abolished in 1833.
Assize of novel disseisin was an action to recover lands of which
the plaintiff had been "disseised" or dispossessed. It was
abolished in 1833. See Pollock and Maitknd, Hist. Eng. Law.
Assise, clerk of, an officer " who writes all things judicially
done by the justices of assizes in their circuits." He has charge
of the commission, and takes recognizances, records, judgments
and sentences, grants certificates of conviction, draws up orders,
&c. By the Clerks of Assize Act 1869 he must either have
been for three years a barrister or solicitor in actual practice, or
have acted for three years in the capacity of subordinate officer
of a clerk of assize on circuit.
Un ited States.— There are no assize courts in the United States ;
it is not the custom for supreme court judges of the states to go
on circuit, but the judges of the United States Supreme Court do
sit as members of the United States circuit courts in the several
states periodically throughout the year. These courts are not
assize courts, but are federal as distinguished from state courts,
and have a special and limited jurisdiction. In the several states
the highest court is divided into departments, in each of which
there are courts presided over by supreme court judges residing
in that department, thus avoiding the assize court or circuit-
going system.
ASSMANNSHAUSEN, a village of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine and
the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Niederlahnsteln. Pop.
1 100. It has a lithium spring, baths and a Kurhaus, and is
famed for its red wine (AssmannshUuser), which resembles light
Burgundy. From here a railway ascends the Niederwaki
ASSOCIATE (Lat. associate, from ad, to, and sociore to join),
one who is united with another, and so generally a <
in particular a subordinate member of ah institutir
7 8 4
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
as an associate of the Royal Academy, or one holding a degree in
a learned society lower than that of fellow. In English law the
associates are officers of the supreme court, whose duties are to
draw up the list of causes, enter verdicts, hand the records to the
parties, &c, and generally to conduct the business of trials. By
the Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 they were styled masters of
the supreme court, but the office is now amalgamated with the
crown office department, of which they are clerks.
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, or Mental Association, a term
used in psychology to express the conditions under which
representations arise in consciousness, and also for a principle
put forward by an important historical school of thinkers to
account generally for the facts of mental life. Modern physio-
logical psychology has so altered the approach to this subject
that much of the older discussion has become antiquated, but it
may be recapitulated here for historical purposes.
Earlier Theory.— -In the long and erudite Note D", appended by
Sir W. Hamilton to his edition of Reid's Works, many anticipations
of modern statements on association are cited from the works of
ancient or medieval thinkers; and for Aristotle, in particular, the
glory is claimed of having at once originated the doctrine and
practically brought it to perfection. 1 As translated by Hamilton,
but without his interpolations, the classical passage from the De
Memoria et Reminiscentia runs as follows: —
" When, therefore, we accomplish an act of reminiscence, we pass
through a certain series of precursive movements, until we arrive
at a movement on which the one we are in quest of is habitually
consequent. Hence, too. it is that we hunt through the mental
train, excogitating from the present or some other, and from similar
or contrary or coadjacent. Through this process reminiscence takes
place. For the movements are, in these cases, sometimes at the
same time, sometimes parts of the same whole, so that the subsequent
movement is already more than half accomplished."
The passage is obscure, but it does at all events indicate the various
principles commonly termed contiguity, similarity and contrast.
Similar principles are stated by Zeno the Stoic, by Epicurus (see
Diog. Laert. vii. ft 53, x. ft 32), and by St Augustine (Confessions,
X. c. 10). Aristotle's doctrine received a more or less intelligent
expansion and illustration from the ancient commentators and the
schoolmen, and in the still later period of transition from the age
of scholasticism to the time of modern philosophy, prolonged in the
works of some writers far into the 17th century, Hamilton adduced
not a few philosophical authorities who gave prominence to the
general fact of mental association— the Spaniard Ludovicus Vives
(1492-1540) especially being moat exhaustive in his account of
In Hobbes's psychology much importance is assigned to what he
called, variously, the succession, sequence, series, consequence,
coherence, train of imaginations or thoughts in mental discourse.
But not before Hume is there express question as to what are the
distinct principles of association. Tohn Locke had. meanwhile,
introduced the phrase " Association of Ideas " as the title of a supple-
mentary chapter incorporated with the fourth edition of his Essay.
meaning it, however, only as the name of a principle accounting for
the mental peculiarities of individuals, with little or no suggestion
of its general psychological import. Of this last Hume had the
strongest impression; he reduced the principles of association to
three— Resemblance, Contiguity in time and place. Cause and (or)
Effect. Dugald Stewart put forward Resemblance, Contrariety,
and Vicinity in time and place, though be added, as another obvious
principle, accidental coincidence in the sounds of words, and further
noted three other cases of relation, namely, Cause and Effect, Means
and End, Premisses and Conclusion, as holding among the trains of
thought under circumstances of special attention. Reid, preceding
Stewart, was rather disposed to make light of the subject of associa-
tion, vaguely remarking that it seems to require no other original
quality of mind but the power of habit to explain the spontaneous
recurrence of trains of thinking, when become familiar by frequent
repetition (Intellectual Powers, p. 387).
Hamilton's own theory of mental reproduction, suggestion or
association is a development, greatly modified, of the doctrine ex-
pounded in his Lectures on Metaphysics (vol. ii. p. 323, seq.). which
reduced the principles of association first to two — Simultaneity
and Affinity, and these further to one supreme principle of Redin-
tegration or Totality. In the ultimate scheme he posits no less than
four general laws of mental succession concerned in reproduction:
(1) Associability or possible co-suggestion (all thoughts of the same
mental subject are associable or capable of suggesting each other) ;
(a) Repetition or direct remembrance (thoughts coidentical in
1 There are, however, distinct anticipations of the theory in
Plato (Pkaedo), as part of the doctrine of s>4#vsjrtt ; thus we 6nd
the idea of Simmias recalled by the picture of Simmias (similarity),
and that of a friend by the sight of the lyre on which he played
(contiguity).
modification, but differing in time, tend to suggest each otber\
(3) Rediuterratum, direct remembrance or reminiscence (thousfei
once coidentical in time, are, however, different as mental moo**
again suggestive of each other, and that in the mutual order whx •>
they originally held); (4) Preference (thoughts are suggested a*
merely by force of the general subjective relation subsisting betw?
themselves, they are also suggested in proportion to the fdataofi ci
interest, from whatever
mind). Upon these f
of the laws of Repetit „ — _-. , , ~ r -
(Analogy, Affinity); (a) law of Contrast; (3) hw of Goadjacrnrr
(Cause and Effect, Ac); B, Secondary— modes of the law of Pre-
ference, under the law of Possibility— (1) laws of I mmed ia cy and
Homogeneity; (a) law of Facility. ......
The Associationist School.— This name is given to the Eag^
psychologists who aimed at explaining all mental acqussitioras, and
the more complex mental processes generally under laws not otaer
than those which have just been set out as determining mmpk
reproduction. Hamilton, though professing to deal with reproduc-
tion only, formulates a number of still more general laws of mental
succession— law of Succession, law of Variation, law of Depende n ce.
law of Relativity or Integration (involving law of Conditioned), ari.
finally, law of Intrinsic or Objective RelativityT-as the highest to
which human consciousness is subject; but it is in a sense qu.tr
different that the psychologists of the so-called AseociatkrrJ*
School intend their appropriation of the principle
commonly signalized. As far as can be judged fr
permanent note to whom this doctrine may be traced. Tnoufi.
in point of fact, he took anything but an exhaustive view of the
phenomena of mental succession, yet, after dealing with trains of
imagination, or what he called mental discourse, he sought in ti*
higher departments of intellect to explain rea s o n ing aa a discount
in words, dependent upon an arbitrary system of marks, eacb
associated with, or standing for, a variety of imaginations; aad.
save for a general assertion that rea s oni ng is a reckoni ng oth e i * re.
a compounding and resolving — he had no other account of know-
ledge to give. The whole emotional side of mind, or, in his language,
the passions, be, in like manner, resolved into an expectation of
consequences based on past experi en ce of pleasu r e s and paias <i
sense. Thus, though he made no serious attempt to justify tes
analysis in detail, he is undoubtedly to be classed with the assocu-
tioiusts of the next century. They, however, were wont to trace
their psychological theory no further back than to Locke's Eaej.
Bishop Berkeley was driven to posit expressly a principle of sugges-
tion or association in these terms: — ''That one idea may sngreat
another to the mind, it will suffice that they have been observed to
go together, without any demonstration of the necessity of the*
coexistence, or so much as knowing what it is that makes them so to
coexist " (New Theory of Vision, f 25) ; and to support the obraos
ar ,?_ * *•" principle to the case of the sensations of kzM
ai m, he constantly urged that association of sou ad
ai ge which the later school has always put in the
fo r as illustrating the principle in general or ta
e> nipreme importance of language for knowledge.
It 1, that Hume, coming after Berkeley, and una-
in Its, though he reverted to the larger inquiry of
L tore explicit in his reference to association ; but
1m >. when he spoke of it as a " land of attract »ca
w u world will be found to have as extraordinary
el ural, and to show itself in as inaay and aa varrca
fc Uure, i. 1, §4). Other inquirers about the came
time conceived of association with this breadth of view, and set
themselves to track, as psychologists, its effects in detail.
David Hartley in his Oosonations an Man, published in 17*0
(eleven years after the Human Nature, and one year after the better-
known Inquiry, of Hume), opened the path for all the tavestigatiue*
of like nature that have been so characteristic of English p*> eco-
logy. A physician by profession, he sought to combine with as
elaborate theory of mental association a minutely detailed hypo-
thesis as to the corresponding action of the nervous system, bawd
upon the suggestion of a vibratory motion within the nerves thrown
out by Newton in the last paragraph of the Priucipuu So far. how-
ever, from promoting the acceptance of the psychological the«nr.
this physical hypothesis proved to have rather the opposite effect,
and it began to be dropped by Hartley's followers (as F. Priestley, in
his abridged edition of the Observations, 1775) before it was seriou-Uy
impugned from without. When it is studied in the original. and
not taken upon the report of hostile critics, who would not. or evuld
not understand it, no little importance must still be accorded to the
first attempt, not seldom a curiously felicitous one, to carry through
that parallelism of the physical and psychical, which since then has
come to count for more and more in t he science of mind. Nor should
it be forgotten that Hartley himself, for all his paternal interest in the
doctrine of vibrations, was careful to keep separate from its fortunes
the cause of his other doctrine of mental association. Of this the point
lav in no mere restatement, with new precision, of a principle of
coherence among " ideas," but in its being taken as a clua by which
ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS
785
fjo follow the pfOfPCMvc development of the mind s powers. Hold-
ing that mental states could be sdeiiri&ally understood onh/asthey
were analysed. Hartley sought for a principle of synthesis to explain
the complexity exhibited not only in trains of representative images,
but alike in the most involved combinations of reasonings and (as
f had seen) in the apparently simple phenomena of objective
on, as well as in the varied play of the emotions, or, again,
principle appeared to
for the simplest case, thus:
One
in the manifold conscious adjustment* of the motor system.
'Any*
kted with one another a sufficient number of times, get such a
t for all, running, as enunciated
* B, C, Ac, by being
1 Any sensations A, B, '
power over the corresponding ideas (called by Hartley also vestigi
types, images) a, b, c, &c., that any one of the sensations A, when
impressed alone, shall be able to excite in the mind b, e, &c, the
ideas of the rest." To render the principle applicable in the cases
where the associated elements are neither sensations nor simple
ideas of sensations. Hartley's first care was to determine the con-
ditions under which states other than these simplest ones have their
rise in the mind, becoming the matter of ever higher and higher
combinations. The principle itself supplied the key to the difficulty,
when coupled with the notion, already implied in Berkeley's invest*-
ntions, of a coalescence of simple ideas of sensation into one complex
idea, which may cease to bear any obvious relation to its constituents.
So far from being content, like Hobbes, to make a rough generaliza-
tion to all mind from the phenomena of developed memory, as if
these might be straightway assumed, Hartley made a point of
r e fe rr ing them, in a subordinate place of their own, to his universal
principle of mental synthesis. He expressly put forward the law of
association, endued with such scope, as supplying what was wanting
to Locke's doctrine in its more strictly psychological aspect, and
thus marks by his work a distinct advance on the line of development
of the experiential philosophy.
The new doctrine received warm support from some, as Law and
Priestley, who both, like Hume and Hartley himself, took the prin-
ciple of association as having the like import for the science of mind
that gravitation had acquired for the science of matter. The prin-
ciple Began also, if not always with direct reference to Hartley, vet,
doubtless, owing to his impressive advocacy of it, to be applied
systematically in special directions, as by Abraham Tucker (1768)
to morals, and by Archibald Alison (1790) to aesthetics. Thomas
Brown (d. 1820) subjected anew to discussion the question of theory.
Hardly less unjust to Hartley than Read or Stewart had been, and
forward to proclaim all that was different in his own position, Brown
must yet be ranked with the associarionists before and after him
for the prominence he assigned to the associative principle in sense-
perception (what he called external affections of mind), and for his
reference of all other mental states (internal affections) to the two
generic capacities or susceptibilities of Simple and Relative Sugges-
tion. He preferred the word Suggestion to Association, which seemed
to him to imply some prior connecting process, whereof there was
no evidence in many of the most important cases of suggestion, nor
even, strictly speaking, in the case of contiguity in time where the
term seemed least inapplicable. According to him, all that could
be assumed was a general constitutional tendency of the mind to
exist successively in states that have certain relations to each other,
of itself only, and without any external cause or any influence
previous to that operating at the moment of the suggestion. Brown's
chief contribution to toe general doctrine of mental association,
besides what he did for the theory of perception, was. perhaps, his
analysis of voluntary reminiscence ana constructive imagination —
faculties that appear at first sight to lie altogether beyond the ex-
planatory range of the principle. In James Mill's Analysis of the
Phenomena of As Human Mind (1829), the principle, much as
Hartley had conceived it, was carried out, with characteristic
consequence, over the psychological field. With a much enlarged
and more varied conception of association. Alexander Bain re-
executed the general psychological task, while Herbert Spencer
revised the doctrine from the new point of view of the evolution-
of view of the associationist theory, and, thus or otherwise being
drawn into general philosophical discussion, spread wider than any
one before him its repute.
The Associationist School has been composed chiefly of British
thinkers, but in France also it has had distinguished representatives.
Of these it will suffice to mention Condillac, who p ro f e s se d to explain
all knowledge from the single principle of association (liaison) of
ideas, operating through a previous association with signs, verbal
or other. In Germany, before the time of Kant, mental association
was generally treated in the traditional manner, as by Wolff. Kant's
inquiry into the foundations of knowledge, agreeing in its general
purport with Locke's, however it differed in its critical procedure,
brought him face to face with the newer doctrine that had been
grafted on Locke's philosophy ; and to account for the fact of syn-
thesis in cognition, in express opposition to associattonism, as
re p resen ted by Hume, was, in truth, his prime object, starting, as
he did, from the assumption that there was that in knowledge which
no mere association of experiences could explain. To the extent,
there f ore, that his influence prevailed, all inquiries made by the
English assodatlonists were discounted In Germany. Notwith-
standing, under the very shadow of his authority a corresponding, if
not related, movement was initiated by J. F. Herbart. Peculiar,
. igning fundamental importance t_
the psychological investigation of the development of consciousness,
nor was his conception of the laws determining the interaction and
flow of mental presentations and representations, when taken in its
bare psychological import, essentially different from theirs. I n F. £.
Beneke s psychology also, and in more recent inquiries conducted
mainly by physiologists, mental association has been understood in
its wider scope, as a general principle of explanation.
The assoctationists differ not a little among themselves in the
statement of their principle, or, when they adduce several principles,
in their conception of the relative importance of these. Hartley
took account only of Contiguity, or the repetition of impressions
synchronous or immediately successive; the like is true of James
Mill, though, incidentally, he made an express attempt to resolve
the received principle of Similarity, and through this the other
principle of Contrast, into his fundamental law— law of Frequency,
as he sometimes called it, because upon frequency, in conjunction
with vividness of impressions, the strength of association, in his
view, depended. In a sense of his own. Brown also, while accepting
the common Aristotelian enumeration of principles, inclined to the
opinion that " all suggestion may be found to depend on prior co-
existence, or at least on such proximity as is itself very probably a
modification of coexistence," provided account be taken of " the
influence of emotions and other feelings that are very different
from ideas, as when an analogous object suggests an analogous
object by the influence of an emotion which each separately may
have produced before, and which is, therefore, common to both.
To the contrary effect, Spencer maintained that the fundamental
law of all mental association is that presentations aggregate or
cohere with their like in past experience, and that, besides this law,
there is in strictness no other, all further phenomena of association
being incidental. Thus in particular, he would have explained
association by Contiguity as due to the circumstance of imperfect
assimilation of the present to the past in consciousness. A. Bain
regarded Contiguity and Similarity logically, as perfectly distinct
principles, though in actual psychological occurrence blending
intimately with each other, contiguous trains being started by a first
(it may be, implicit) representation through Similarity, while the
express assimilation of present to past in consciousness is always,
tends to be, followed by the revival of what was presented in
contiguity with that past.
The high
ighest philosophical interest, as distinguished from that
which is more strictly psychological, attaches to the mode of mental
association called Inseparable. The coalescence of mental states
noted by Hartley, as it had been assumed by Berkeley, was farther
formulated by James Mill in these terms:—
"Some ideas are by frequency and strength of association so
closely combined that they cannot be separated; if one exists, the
other exists along with it in spite of whatever effort we make to
disjoin them." — (Analysis of the Human Mind, and ed. vol. L p. 93.)
f. S. Mill's statement is more guarded and particular: —
" When two phenomena have been very often experienced in con-
junction, and have not. in any single instance, occurred separately
either in experience or in thought, there is produced between them
what has been called inseparable, or, less correctly, indissoluble,
association; by which is not meant that the association must
inevitably last to the end of life — that no subsequent experience or
process of thought can possibly avail to dissolve it ; but only that
as long as no such experience or process of thought has taken place,
the association is irresistible; it is impossible for us to think the
one thing disjoined from the other." — (Examination of Hamilton's
Philosophy, and ed. p. toi.)
It is chiefly by J. S. Mill that the philosophical application of the
principle has been made. The first and most obvious application
is to so-called necessary truths — such, namely, as are not merely
analytic judgments but involve a synthesis of distinct notions.
Again, the same thinker sought to prove Inseparable Association
the ground of belief in an external objective world. The former
application, especially, is facilitated, when the experience through
which the association is supposed to be constituted is understood
as cumulative in the race, and transmissible as original endowment
to individuals— endowment that may be expressed either, subjec-
tively, as latent intelligence, or, objectively, as fixed nervous
connexions. Spencer, as before suggested, is the author of thia
extended view of mental association.
Modern Criticism.— Of recent years the associationist theory has
been subjected to searching criticism, and it has been maintained
by many writers that the laws are both unsatisfactorily expressed
and insufficient to explain the facts. Among the most vigorous and
comprehensive of these investigations is that of F. H. Bradley in his
Principles of Lope (1883). Having admitted the psychological fact
of mental association, he attacks the theories of Mill and Bain
primarily on the ground that they purport to give an account of
mental life as a whole, a metaphysical doctrine of existence. Accord-
ing to this doctrine, mental activity is ultimately reducible to
786
ASSONANCE
particular feelings, impression*, ideas, which are disparate and un-
connected, until chance Association brings them together. On this
assumption the laws of Association naturally emerge in the following
form: — (i) The law of Contiguity.—' 'Act ions, sensations and states
of feeling, occurring together or in close connexion, tend to grow
together, or cohere, in such a way that, when any one of them is
afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be brought
up in idea (A. Bain, Senses and Intellect, p. 327). (2) The law of
Similarity. — " Present actions, sensation, thoughts or emotions tend
to revive their like among previous impressions or states " (A. Bain,
ibid. 457. Compare J. 5. Mill, Logic, ii. p. 440, 9th ed.). The
fundamental objection to (l) is that ideas and impressions once
experienced do not recur; they are particular existences, and, as
such, do not persevere to recur or be presented. So Mill is wrong
in speaking of two impressions being " frequently experienced.
Bradley claims thus to reduce the law to " When we have experienced
(or even thought of) several pairs of impressions (simultaneous or
successive), which pairs are like one another; then whenever an
idea occurs which is like all the impressions on one side of these pairs,
it tends to excite an idea which is like all the impressions on the other
side." This statement is destructive of the title of the law, because
it appears that what were contiguous (the impressions) are not
associated, and what are associated (the ideas) were not contiguous;
in other words, the association is not due to contiguity at all.
Proceeding to the law of Similarity (which in Mill's view is at the
back of association by contiguity;, and having made a similar
criticism of its phrasing, Bradley maintains that it involves an even
greater absurdity; if two ideas arc to be recognized as similar,
they must both be present in the mind ; if one is to call up the other,
one must be absent. To the obvious reply that the similarity is
recognized ex post facto, and not while the former idea is being called
up, Bradley replies simply that such a view reduces the law to the
mere statement of a phenomenon and deprives it of any explanatory
value, though he hardly makes it clear in what sense this necessarily
invalidates the law from a psychological point of view. He further
points out with greater force that in point of fact mere similarity
is not the basis of ordinary cases of mental reproduction, inasmuch
as in any given instance there is more difference than similarity
between the ideas associated.
Bradley himself bases association on identity plus contiguity: —
" Any part of a single state of mind tends, if reproduced, to re-instate
the remainder," or " any element tends to reproduce those elements
with which it has formed one state of mind. This law he calls by
the name'* redintegration," understood, of course, in a sense different
from that in which Hamilton used it. The radical difference between
this law and those of Mill and Bain is that it deals not with particular
units of thoughts but with universals or identity between individuals.
In any example of such reproduction the universal appears in a
particular form which is more or less different from that in which it
originally existed.
Psychophysical Researches. — Bradley's discussion deals with the
subject purely from the metaphysical side, and the total result
practically is that association occurs only between universals. From
the point of view of empirical psychologists Bradley's results arc
open to the charge which he made against those who impugned his
view of thelaw of similarity, namely that they are merely a state-
ment — not in any real sense an explanation. The relation between
the mental and the physical phenomena of association has occupied
the attention of all the leading psychologists (sec Psychology).
William James holds that association is of objects " not of " ideas,"
b between "things thought of" — so far as the word stands for an
effect. " So far as it stands for a cause it is between processes in
the brain." Dealing with the law of Contiguity he says that the
" most natural way of accounting for it is to conceive it as a result
of the laws of habit in the nervous system; in other words to ascribe
it to a physiological cause." Association is thus due to the fact that
when a nerve current has once passed by a given way, it will pass
more easily by that way in future; and this fact is a physical fact.
He further seeks to maintain the important deduction that the only
primary or ultimate law of association is that of neural habit.
The objections to the associationist theory are summed up by
G. F. Stout (Analytic Psychol., vol. ii. pp. 47 scq.) under three heads.
Of these the first is that the theory as stated, e.g. by Bain, lays far
too much stress on the mere connexion of elements hitherto entirely
separate, whereas, in fact, every new mental state or synthesis
consists in the development or modification of a pre-existing state or
psychic whole. Secondly, it is quite false to regard an association as
merely an aggregate of disparate units; in fact, the form of the new
idea is quite as important as the elements which it comprises.
Thirdly, the phraseology used by the associationbts seems to assume
that the parts that go to form the whole retain their identity un-
impaired; in fact, each part or clement is ipso facto modified by the
very fact of its entering into such combination.
The experimental methods now in vogue have to a large extent
removed the discussion of the whole subject of association of ideas,
depending in the case of the older writers on introspection, into a new
sphere. 1 n such a work as E. B. Titchcncr's Experimental Psychology
(tool)), association is treated as a branch of the study of mental
reactions, of which association reactions arc one division.
Bibliography.— bee Psychology; and the works of Bradley,
teral works on psychology:
MM and Intellect (4th c*L.
17-249; John Watson. Am
!ng, Hist, of Mod. PkU*s
in Umritsen auj GnuuL^ge
1; Jas. Sully. The Hum**
id., 1892); £. B. Titchcner.
in his trans, of O. Kulpe's
Jas. Ward in Mind, vuL
I, iii. (1894); G. T. 1-arfd,
r (Lond.. 1894): C. L. C.
[Lend., 1804): W. Wundt.
1904), Human and Animal
; Outlines of Psych, (En*.
ion des idles (1903). For
asi ... r r ~, J. I. Bcare, Creek Theories
of Elementary Cognition (Oxford, 1906), part iii. \\ 14, 43 scq.
ASSONANCE (from Lat. adsonarc or assonart, to sound to or
answer to), a term defined, in its prosodical sense, as "the
corresponding or riming of one word with another in the accented
vowel and those which follow it, but not in the consonants "
CVw English Dictionary, Oxford). In other words, assonance
is an improper or imperfect form of rhyme, in which the ear b
satisfied with the incomplete identity of sound which the vounl
gives without the aid of consonants. Much rustic or popular
verse in England is satisfied with assonance, as in such cases as
" And pray who gave thee that jolly red nose?
Cinnamon, Ginger, Nutmeg and Cloves,"
where the agreement between the two o's permits the ear to
neglect the discord between s and v. But in English these
instances arc the result of carelessness or blunted ear. It is not
so in several literatures, such as in Spanish, where assonance is
systematically cultivated as a literary ornament. It is an error
to confound alliteration, — which results from the close juxta-
position of words beginning with the same sound or letter, — and
assonance, which is the repetition of the same vowel-sound in a
syllable at points where the ear expects a rhyme. The latter a
a more complicated and less primitive employment of artifice
than the former, although they have often been used to intensify
the effect of each other in a single couplet Assonance appears.
nevertheless, to have preceded rhyme in several of the European
languages, and to have led the way towards it. It is particularly
observable in the French poetry which was composed before the
13th century, and it reached its highest point in the " Chanson
de Roland," where the sections are distinguished by the fact that
all the lines in a laisse or stanza close with the same vowel-sound.
When the ear of the French became more delicate, and pure
rhyme was introduced, about the year 1120, assonance almost
immediately retired before it and was employed no more, until
recent years, when several French poets have re-introduced
assonance in order to widen the scope of their effects of sound.
It held its place longer in Provencal and some other Romance
literatures, while in Spanish it has retained its absolute authority
over rhyme to the present day. It has been observed that in the
Romance languages the ear prelcrs the correspondence of vomK
while in the Teutonic languages the preference is given to
consonants. This distinction is felt most strongly in Spanish,
where the satisfaction in rimas asonanles is expressed no less in
the most elaborate works of the poets and dramatists than in
the rough ballads of the people. The nature of the language here
permits the full value of the corresponding vowel-sounds to be
appreciated, whereas in English — and even in German, where,
however, a great deal of assonant poetry exists— the divergence
of the consonants easily veils or blunts the similarity of sound.
Various German poets of high merit, and in particular Ticck
and Heine, have endeavoured to obviate this difficulty, but with-
out complete success. Occasionally they endeavour, as English
rhymers have done, to mix pure rhyme with assonance, but the
result of this in almost all cases is that the assonances, &c.
which make a less strenuous appeal to the car, are drowned and
lost in the stress of the pure rhymes. Like alliteration, assonance
is a very frequent and very effective ornament of prose style, but
such correspondence in vowel-sound is usually accidental and
involuntary, an instinctive employment of the skill of the writr-
To introduce it with a purpose, as of course must be done ui
ASSUAN— ASSUR
787
poetry, has always been held to be a most dangerous practice
in prose. Assonance as a conscious art, in fact, is scarcely
recognized as legitimate in English literature. (E. G.)
ASSUAN, or Aswan, a town of Upper Egypt on the east bank
of the Nile, facing Elephantine Island below the First Cataract,
and 500 m. S. of Cairo by rail. It is the capital of a province of
the same name — the southernmost province of Egypt. Popula-
tion (1907) 16,128. The principal buildings arc along the river
front, where a broad embankment has been built. Popular
among Europeans as a winter health resort and tourist centre,
Assuan is provided with large modern hotels (one situated on
Elephantine Island), and there is an English church. South-east
of the railway station are the ruins of a temple built by Ptolemy
Euergetes, and stOI farther south arc the famous granite quarries
of Syene. On Elephantine Island arc an ancient nilomcter and
other remains, including a granite gateway built under Alexander
the Great at the temple of the local ram-headed god Chnubis or
Chnumis (Eg. Khnum), perhaps on account of his connexion
with Ammon (qv.); two small but very beautiful temples of the
XVIIIth Dynasty were destroyed there about 1820. In the hill
on the opposite side of the river arc tombs of the Vlth to Xllth
dynasties, opened by Lord Grcnfcll in 1 885-1886. The inscrip-
tions show that they belonged to frontier-prefects whose ex-
peditions into Nubia, &c, are recorded in them. Three and a
half miles above the town, at the beginning of the Cataract, the
Assuan Dam stretches across the Nile. This great engineering
work was finished in December 1002 (sec Irrigation: Egypt;
and Nile). Above the dam the Nile presents the appearance of
a vast lake. Consequent on the rise of the water-level several
islands have been wholly and others partly submerged, among
the latter Philae (q.v.). On the east bank opposite Philae h the
village of Shellal, southern terminus of the Egyptian railway
system and the starting point of steamers for the Sudan.
In ancient times the chief city, called Y*b, capital of the
frontier nome, the first of the Upper Country, was on the island
of Elephantine, guarding the entrance to Egypt. But, owing to
the cataract, the main route for traffic with the south was by
land along the eastern shore. Here, near the granite quarries—
whence was obtained the material for many magnificent monu-
ments—there grew up another city, at first dependent on and
afterwards successor to the island town This city was called
Stcan, the Mart, whence came the Greek Syene and Arabic
Aswan. Sycne is twice mentioned (as* Sevcneh) in the prophecies
of Ezckiel, and papyri, discovered on the island, and dated in
the reigns of Artaxerxes and Darius II. (464-404 B.C.), reveal
the existence of a colony of Jews, with a temple to Yahu (Yahweh,
Jehovah), which had been founded at some time before the con-
quest of Egypt by Cambyses in 523 B.C. They also mention the
great frontier garrison against the Ethiopians, referred to by
Herodotus. Syene was one of the bases used by Eratosthenes
in his calculations for the measurement of the earth. In Roman
times Syene was strongly garrisoned to resist the attacks of the
desert tribes. Thither, in virtual banishment, Juvenal was sent
as prefect by Domitian. In the early days of Christianity the
town became the seat of a bishopric, and numerous ruins of
Coptic convents are in the neighbourhood Sycne appears also
to have flourished under its first Arab rulers, but in the 12th
century was raided and ruined by Bedouin and Nubian tribes.
On the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in the 16th century,
Selim I. placed a garrison here, from whom, in part, the present
townsmen descend. As the southern frontier town of Egypt
proper, Assuan in times of peace was the entrepot of a consider-
able trade with the Sudan and Abyssinia, and in t88o its trade
was valued at £2,000,000 annually. During the Mahdia (1884-
1808) Assuan was strongly garrisoned by Egyptian and British
troops. Since the defeat of the khalifa at Omdurman and the
fixing (1899) of the Egyptian frontier farther south, the military
.value of Assuan has declined.
For the Jewish colony «ec A. H. Sayce and A. E. Cowley, Aramaic
Papyri discovered at Assuan (Oxford, 1906); E. Sachau, Drri
Aramaische papyrus-Urkundcn aus Elephantine (Berlin, 1907).
For the dam sec W. Willcocks, The Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan
(London, 1901). (F. Ll. G.)
ASSUMPSIT (" he has undertaken," from Lat. assumere), a
word applied to an action for the recovery of damages by reason
of the breach or non-performance of a simple contract, cither
express or implied, and whether made orally or in writing.
Assumpsit was the word always used in pleadings by the plaintiff
to set forth the defendant's undertaking or promise, hence the
name of the action. Claims in actions of assumpsit were ordi-
narily divided into {a) common or indebitatus assumpsit, brought
usually on an implied promise, and (ft) special assumpsit, founded
on an express promise. Assumpsit as a form of action became
obsolete after the passing of the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875
(See further Contract; Pleading and Tort.)
ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF. The feast of the " Assumption of
the blessed Virgin Mary " (Lat. festum assumptions, dormiiionis,
depositumis, pausationis B. V If., Gr. Kolftnms or draXn^tt rip
Bwrbwv) is a festival of the Christian Church celebrated on the
15th of August, in commemoration of the miraculous ascent into
heaven of the mother of Christ. The belief on which this festival
rests has its origin in apocryphal sources, such as the «fo rffp
Kclumjiv rflt inrtpaylat btaroivrtt ascribed to the Apostle John,
and the de transitu Mar toe, assigned to Melito, bishop of Sardis,
but actually written about ad. 400. Pope Gelasius I. (402-496)
included them in the list of apocryphal books condemned by the
Decrctum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis, but they were
accepted as authentic by the pseudo-Dionysius (de nominbus
divinis e, 3), whose writings date probably from the 5th century,
and by Gregory of Tours (d. 593 or 594). The latter in his De
gloria martyrum (i. 4) gives the following account of the miracle*
As all the Apostles were watching round the dying Mary, Jesus
appeared with His angels and committed the soul of His Mother
to the Archangel Michael Next day, as they were carrying the
body to the grave, Christ again appeared and carried it with Him
in a cloud to heaven, where it was reunited with the soul. This
story is much amplified in the account given by St John of
Damascus in the homilies In dormitionem Mariae, which are still
read in the Roman Church as the lesson during the octave of the
feast. According to this the patriarchs and Adam and Eve
also appear at the death-bed. to praise their daughter, through
whom they had been rescued from the curse of God, a Jew who
touches the body loses both his hands, which are restored to
him by the Apostles, and the body ties three days in the grave
without corruption before it is taken up into heaven
The festival is first mentioned by St Andrew of Crete (c 650),
and, according to the Byzantine historian Niccphorus Collistus
(Hist. Ecdcs. xvii. 28), was first instituted by the Empcroi
Maurice in ad. 589. From the East it was borrowed by Rome,
where there is evidence of its existence so early as the 7 th century
In the Gallican Church it was only adopted at the same time as
the Roman liturgy But though the festival thus became in-
corporated in the regular usage of the Western Church, the belief
in the resurrection and bodily assumption of the Virgin has
never been defined as a dogma and remains a " pious opinion."
which the faithful may reject without imperilling their immortal
souls, though not apparently— to quote Mclchior Cano (De Locis
Theoiog. xti. 10)— without " insolent temerity," since such rejec-
tion would be contrary to the common agreement of the Church
By the reformed Churches, including the Church of England,
the festival is not observed, having been rejected at the Reforma
tion as being neither primitive nor founded upon any " certain
warrant of Holy Scripture."
Sec Hcrsog-Hauck, Realcncyklop&die fed. s), s. n Maria "; Mgr.L.
uchesne. Christian Worship (Eng. trans., London, 1004); Wctrcr
and Wcltc. Kinhenlexikon, s. "Maricnfcste "; The Catholic Encyclo-
paedia (London and New York, 1907. &c.), s. " Apocrypha/
' Assumption "
ASSUR (Auth. Vers. Asskur), a Hebrew name, occurring in
many passages of the Old Testament, for the land and dominion
of Assyria. 1 The country of Assyria, which in the AssyrVBaby-
Ionian literature is known as mat Aiiur (ki), "land of Assur,"
took its name from the ancient city of Aiiur, situated at the
1 The name Assur is not connected with the Asshurof I ChroQjitai:
ii. 45. Note that it is customary to spell the god-name /
country-name Allu/-
788
ASSUR
southern extremity of Assyria proper, whose territory, soon after
the first Assyrian settlement, was bounded on the N by the
Zagros mountain range in what is now Kurdistan and on the S.
by the lower Zab river. The kingdom of Assyria, which was the
outgrowth of the primitive settlement on the site of the city of
Assur, was developed by a probably gradual process of coloniza-
tion in the rich vales of the middle Tigris region, a district
watered by the Tigris itself and also. by several tributary streams,
the chief of which was the lower Zab. 1
It seems quite evident that the city of Assur was originally
founded by Semites from Babylonia at quite an early, but as
yet undetermined date In the prologue to the law-code of the
great Babylonian monarch Khammurabi (c. 2230 B.C.), the cities
of Nineveh and Assur are both mentioned as coming under that
king's beneficent influence. Assur is there called A-usar(ki)*
in which combination the ending -ki (" land territory ") proves
that even at that early period there was a province of Assur more
extensive than the city proper. It is probable that this non-
Semitic form A-usar means "well watered region," * a most
appropriate designation for the river settlements of Assyria.
The problem as to the meaning of the name Assur is rendered
all the more confusing by the fact that the city and land are also
called A iiur (as well as A -usar), both by the Khammurabi records 4
and generally in the later Assyrian literature. Furthermore,
the god- and country-name Assur also occurs at a late date in
Assyrian literature in the* forms An-far An-iar (ki), which form *
was presumably read Assur. In the Creation tablet, the heavens
personified collectively were indicated by this term An-iar \
"host of heaven," in contradistinction to the earth *Ki-Sar,
" host of earth." In view of this fact, it seems highly probable
that the late writing An-sar for Assur was a more or less conscious
attempt on the part of the Assyrian scribes to identify the
peculiarly Assyrian deity Asur (sec Assur, the god, below) with
the Creation deity An-sar. On the other hand, there i* an epithet
A Sir or Ashir ("overseer") applied to several gods and particu-
larly to the deity Aiur, a fart which introduced a third clement
of confusion into the discussion of the name Assur It is probable
then that there is a triple popular etymology in the various forms
of writing the name ASSur, viz. A-usar* An-iar and the stem
aidru, all of which is quite in harmony with the methods
followed by the ancient Assyro-Babylonian philologists 7
See also A. H. Lavard, Discoveries in the Rums of Nineveh and
Babylon (1853): G. Smith Assyrian Discoveries (1875), R W
Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, i. 297; it. 13; ii. 30.76.
102; J. F M'Curdy. History. Prophecy and the Monuments. J§ 74.
171 f., 247, 258, 283 . 57. 59 f- (on the god). (J- D. Pa.)
ASSUR, the primitive capital of Assyria, now represented by
the mounds of Kaleh Sherghal (Qal'at Shergal) on the west bank
of the Tigris, nearly midway between the Upper and Lower Zab.
It is still doubtful (see discussion on the name in the preceding
article) whether the national god of Assyria. took his name from
that of the city or whether the converse was the case. It is
most probable, however, that it was the city which was deified
(see Sayce, Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, 1002. pp.
366, 367) Sir A. H. Layard, through his assistant Hormuzd
Rassam, devoted two or three days to excavating on the site,
but owing to the want of pasturage and the fear of Bedouin
attacks he left the spot after finding a broken clay cylinder
* Cf. Rassam, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod, 250-251, and many
other works.
1 Robert Harper, Code of Hammurabi, pp. 6-7, lines 55*58.
• Thus already Delitzsch. Wo lag das Parodies? p. 252. The
element a means " water," and in u-sar it is probable chat u also
means " water," while sar is " park, district." See Prince, Materials
for a Sumerian Lexicon, s.v. usar.
* The name appears as Al-lur(kt) and Al~iu-ur(ki). See King,
Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi, iv. p. 21, obv. 27; and Nagcl,
Beitrdge tur Assyriologie, iv. p. 404; also Cun. Texts from Bab.
Tablets, vi. p|. 19, line 7.
» Mcissncr-Rost, Bauinsckrift Sankeribs, K. 5413a; K 1306,
rev. 16.
• See on thit* entire subject, Morris last row, Jr., Journal A met.
Onent. Soc., xxiv. pp. 282-311; alao Dig Religion Bab. u. Assyr.
pp. 207 ii.
' On the philological methods of the ancient Babylonian priest-
\ sec Pnncc, Materials for a. Sumerian Lexicon, Introduction.
containing the annals of Tiglath-Pflcser I., and for many yean
no subsequent efforts were made to explore it. In 1904, however,
a German expedition under. Dr \V. Andrae began systematic
excavations, which have led to important results. The city
originally grew up round the great temple of the god Assur.
the foundation of which was ascribed to the High-priest U»pia
For many centuries Assur and the surrounding district, which
came accordingly to be called the land of Assur (Assyria), were
governed by high-priests under the suzerainty of Babylonia
With the decay of the Babylonian power the high-priests suc-
ceeded in making themselves independent kings, and Assur
became the capital of an important kingdom. It was already
surrounded by a wall of crude brick, which rested on stone
foundations and was strengthened at certain points by courses oi
burnt brick. A deep moat was dug outside it by Tukulti-In-
aristi or Tukulti-Masu (about 1270 B.C.), and it was further
defended on the land side by a salkhu or outwork. In the 15th
century B.C. it was considerably extended to the south in order
to include a " new town " which had grown up there. The wall
was pierced by " the gate of Assur," " the gate of the Sun-god."
" the gate of the Tigris," &c, and on the river side was a quay
of burnt brick and limestone 'cemented with bitumen. The
temples were in the northern part of the city, together with
their lofty towers, one of which has been excavated. Besides
the temple of Assur there was another great temple dedicated to
Anu and Hadad, as well as the smaller sanctuaries of Bel, Ishtar.
Mcrodach and other deities. After the rise of the kingdom
palaces were erected separate from the temples; the sites ot
those of Hadad-nirari I., Shalmaneser I., and Assur-naxir-p:il
have been discovered by the German excavators, and about a
dozen more arc referred to in the inscriptions. Even after the
rise of Nineveh as the capital of the kingdom and the seat of the
civil power, Assur continued to be the religious centre of the
country, where the king was called on to reside when performirg
his priestly functions. The city survived the fall of Assyria,
and extensive buildings as well as tombs of the Parthian age
have been found upon the site
See Milteilungen der deulschen OrienLGestttschafl (1004-1906).
(A. HTsO
ASSUR, Asur, or Askvb. the chief god of Assyria, wasoripn-
ally the patron deity of the city of Assur on the Tigris, the ancient
capital of Assyria from which as a centre the authority of the
patcsis (as the rulers were at first called) spread in various direc-
tions. The history of Assyria (q.v.) can now be traced back
approximately to 2500 B.C., though it does not rise to political
prominence until c. 2000 B.C. The name of the god is identical
with that of the city, though an older form A-shir, signifying
" leader," suggests that a differentiation between the god and
the city was at one time attempted. Though the origin of the
form Ashur (or Assur) is not certain, it Is probable that the name
of the god is older than that of the city (sec discussion on the
name above).
The title Ashir was given to various gods in the south, as
Marduk and Ncbo, and there is every reason to believe that it
represents a direct transfer with the intent to emphasize that
Assur is the " leader " or head of the pantheon of the north
He is in fact to all intents and purposes of the north. Originally
like Marduk a solar deity with the winged disk— the disk always
typifying the sun* — as his symbol, he becomes as Assyria develops
into a military power a god of war, indicated by the attachment
of the figure of a man with a bow to the winged disk. While the
cult of the other great gods and goddesses* of Babylonia was
transferred to Assyria, the worship of Assur so overshadowed
that of the rest as to give the impression of a decided tendemy
towards the absorption of all divine powers by the one god
Indeed, the other gods, Sin, Shamash (Samas), Adad, Ninib and
Ncrgal, and even Ea, take on the warlike traits of Assur in the
epithets and descriptions given of them in the annals and
votive inscriptions of Assyrian rulers to such an extent as to
make them appear like little Assure by the side of the great one
Marduk alone retains a large measure of his independence as a
1 See Prince,./**™. Bibl. LiL, soul 35.
AS8UR-BANI-PAL
7 8 9
concession on the part of the Assyrians to 'Che traditions of the
south, for which they always manifested a profound respect.
Even during the period that the Assyrian monarch* exercised
complete sway over the south, they rested their claims to the
control of Babylonia on the approval of Marduk, and they or
their representatives never failed to perform the ceremony of
" taking the hand " of Marduk, which was the formal method
of assuming the throne in Babylonia. Apart from this conces-
sion, it is Assur who pre-eminently presides over the fortunes of
Assyria. 1 In his name, and with his approval as indicated by
favourable omens, the Assyrian armies march to battle. His
symbol is carried into the thick of the fray, so that the god is
actually present to grant assistance in the crisis, and the victory
is with becoming humility invariably ascribed by the kings
" to the help of Assur." With the fall of Assyria the rule of
Assur also comes to an end, whereas it is significant that the
cult of the. gods of Babylonia-— more particularly of Marduk —
survives for several centuries the loss of political independence
through Cyrus' capture of Babylonia in 539 B.C. The name of
Assur's temple at Assur, represented by the mounds of Kaleh
Sherghat, was known as E-khar-sag-gal-kur-kurra, i.e. " House
of the great mountain of the lands." Its exact site has been
determined by excavations conducted at Kaleh Sherghat since
1903 by the German Oriental Society. The name indicates the
existence of the same conception regarding sacred edifices in
Assyria as in Babylonia, where we find such names as E-Kur
(" mountain house ") for the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur, and
E-Saggila (" lofty house ") for Marduk's (q.v.) temple at Babylon
and that of Ea (q.v.) at Eridu, and in view of the general depend-
ence of Assyrian religious beliefs as of Assyrian culture in general,
there is little reason to doubt that the name of Assur's temple
represents a direct adaptation of such a name as E-Kur, further
embellished by epithets intended to emphasise the supreme
control of the god to whom the edifice was dedicated. The
foundation of the edifice can be traced back to Uspia (Ushpia),
c. sopo b.c , and may turn out to be even older. Besides the chief
temple, the capital contained temples and chapels, to Ami, Adad,
Ishtar, Marduk, Gula, Sin, Shamash, so that we are to assume the
existence of a sacred precinct in Assur precisely as in the religious
centres of the south. On the removal of the seat of residence of
the Assyrian kings to Calah (c 1300 B.C.), and then in the Sth
century to Nineveh, the centre of the Assur cult was likewise
transferred, though the sanctity of the old seat at Assur con-
tinued to be recognized. At Nineveh, which remained the
capital till the fall of the Assyrian empire in 606 b.c, Assur had
as his rival Ishtar, who was the real patron deity of the place,
but a reconciliation was brought about by making Ishtar the
consort of the chief god. The combination was, however, of an
artificial character, and the consciousness that Ishtar was in
reality an independent goddess never entirely died out She
too, like Assur, was viewed as a war deity, and to such an
extent was this the case that at times it would appear that
she, rather than Assur, presided over the fortunes of the Assyrian
armies. (M. Ja.)
ASSUR-BANI-PAL ("Assur creates a son"), the grand
numarqnc of Assyria, was the prototype of the Greek Sardana-
palus, and appears probably in the corrupted form of Asnapper
in Eara iv. xo. He had been publicly nominated king of Assyria
(on the 12th of Iyyar) by his father Esar-haddon, some time
before the lattex's death, Babylonia being assigned to his twin-
brother Samas-sum-yukin, in the hope of gratifying the national
feeling of the Babylonians. After Esar-haddon's death in 668
B.c. the first task of Assur-bani-pal was to finish the Egyptian
campaign. Tirhakah, who had reoccupied Egypt, fled to
Ethiopia, and the Assyrian army spent forty days in ascending
the Nile from Memphis to Thebes. Shortly afterwards Necho,
the satrap of Sais, and two others were detected intriguing with
Tirhakah; Necho and one of his companions were sent in chains
to Nineveh, but were there pardoned and restored to their
1 As essentially a national god, he is almost identical in character
with the early Vahweh of Tsiael. See Sayce, Hibbert Lectures,
RtHgion of Ancient Babylonia, p. 129.
principalities. Tirhakah died 667 B.C., and his
Tandaman (Tanuat-Amon) entered Upper Egypt, where a general
revolt against Assyria took place, headed by Thebes. Memphis
was taken by assault and the Assyrian troops driven out of the
country. Tyre seems to have revolted at the same time. Assur-
bani-pal, however, lost no time in pouring fresh forces into the
revolted province. Once more the Assyrian army made its way
up the Nile, Thebes was plundered, and its temples destroyed,
two obelisks being carried to Nineveh as trophies (see Nahum iii.
8). Meanwhile the siege of insular Tyre was closely pressed;
its water-supply was cut off, and it was compelled to surrender.
Assur-bani-pal was now at the height of his power. The land of
the Manna (Minnt), south-east of Ararat, had been wasted, its
capital captured by the Assyrians, and its king reduced to vassal-
age. A war with Teumman of Elam had resulted in the over-
throw of the Elamite army; the head of Teumman was sent to
Nineveh, and another king, Umman-igas, appointed by the
Assyrians. The kings of Cilicia and the Tabal offered their
daughters to the harem of Assur-bani-pal; embassies came from
Ararat, and even Gyges of Lydia despatched envoys to " the
great king" in the hope of obtaining help against the Cim-
merians. Suddenly the mighty empire began to totter. The
Lydian king, finding that Nineveh was helpless to assist him,
turned instead to Egypt and furnished the mercenaries with
whose help Psammetichus drove the Assyrians out of the country
and suppressed his brother satraps. Egypt was thus lost to
Assyria for ever (660 B.C.). In Babylonia, moreover, discontent
was arising, and finally Samas-sum-yukin put himself at the
head of the national party and declared war upon his brother.
Elamite aid was readily forthcoming, especially when stimulated
by bribes, and the Arab tribes joined in the revolt. The resource*
of the Assyrian empire were strained to their utmost. But
thanks in some measure to the intestine troubles in Elam, the
Babylonian army and its allies were defeated and driven into
Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa and Cutha, One by one the cities
fell, Babylon being finally starved into surrender (648 b.c.) after
Samas-sum-yukin had burnt himself in his palace to avoid falling
into the conqueror's bands. It was now the turn of the Arabs,
some of whom had been in Babylon during the siege, while
others bad occupied themselves in plundering Edom, Moab and
the Hainan. Northern Arabia was traversed by the Assyrian
forces, the Nabataeans were almost exterminated, and the
desert tribes terrorized into order. Elam was alone left to be
dealt with, and the last resources of the empire were therefore
expended in preventing it from ever being again a thorn in the
Assyrian side.
But the effort had exhausted Assyria. Drained of men and
resources it was no longer able to make head against the Cim-
merian and Scythian hordes who now poured over western Asia.
The Cimmerian DugdammC (Lygdamis in Strabo i. 3, 16) , whom
Assur-bani-pal calls " a limb of Satan," after sacking Sardis,
had been slain in Cilicia, but other Scythian invaders came to
take his place. When Assur-bani-pal died in 626 (?) B.C. his
empire was already in decay, and within a few years the end came.
He was luxurious and indolent, entrusting the command of his
armies to others whose successes he appropriated, cruel and
superstitious, but a magnificent patron of art and literature.
The great library of Nineveh was to a considerable extent his
creation, and scribes were kept constantly employed in it
copying the older tablets of Babylonia, though unfortunately
their patron's tastes inclined rather to omens and astrology
than to subjects of more modern interest. The library was
contained in the palace that he built on the northern side of the
mound of Kuyunjik and lined with sculptured slabs which
display Assyrian art at its best Whether Kandalanu (Kinela-
danos), who became viceroy of Babylonia after the suppression
of the revolt, was Assur-bani-pal under another name, or a
different personage, is still doubtful (see Sardanafalus).
A VTHoaniBS.— George Smith, History of A ssurbanital (1871);
S. A. Smith, Die Kcilsckrifltexte A surboniiots (1 887-1 889) ; P. Jensen
in E. Schrader's KetiinsckrifUicke BibKolhek, 11. (1880); J. A.
Knudtxon, Auyrixke GebeU an don SonnengoU (1893) : C. Uhmann,
• * ■• .(1893). (A u c '
792
ASTERIA— ASTHMA
8 to 18 in. high, iad flower towards the end of summer. They
alto make handsome pot plants for the conservatory.
ASTORIA, or Star-Stone (from Gr. he-Hip, star), a name
applied to such ornamental stones as exhibit when cut en
cabockon a luminous star. The typical asteria is the star-
sapphire, generally a bluish-grey corundum, milky or opalescent,
with a star of six rays. (See Sapphire.) In red corundum the
stellate reflexion is less common, and hence the star-ruby occa-
sionally found with the star-sapphire in Ceylon is among the
most valued of " fancy stones." When the radiation is shown
by yellow corundum, the stone is called star-topaz. Cymophane,
or chatoyant chrysoberyl, may also be asteriated. In all these
cases the asterism is due to the reflexion of light from twin-
lamellae or from fine tubular cavities or thin enclosures definitely
arranged in the stone. The astrion of Pliny is believed to have
been our moonstone, since it is described as a colourless stone
from India having within it the appearance of a star shining
with the light of the moon. All star-stones were formerly
regarded with much superstition.
• ASTERJD, a group of starfish. They are the starfish proper,
and have the typical genus Asierias (see Starfish).
ASTERISK (from Gr. oVrepfoicos, a little star), the sign*
used in typography. The word is also used in its literal meaning
in old writers, and as a description of an ornamental form
(sta r-shap ed) in one of the utensils in the Greek Church.
ASTERIUS, of Cappadoda, sophist and teacher of rhetoric
in Galatia, was converted to Christianity about the year 300,
and became the disciple of Lucian, the founder of the school of
Antioch. During the persecution under Maximian (304) he
relapsed into paganism, and thus, though received again into
the church by Lucian and supported by the Eusebian party,
never attained to ecclesiastical office. He is best known as an
able defender of the semi-Arian position, and was styled by
Athanasius the " advocate " of the Arians. His chief work was
the Syntagmaiion, but he wrote many others, including comment-
aries on the Gospels, the Psalms, and Romans. He attended
many synods, and we last hear of him at the synod of Antioch
in 341.
ASTERIUS, bishop of Amasis, in Pontus, e. 400. He was
partly contemporary with the emperor Julian (d. 363) and lived
to a great age. His fame rests chiefly on his Homilies, which
were much esteemed in the Eastern Church. Most of these have
been lost, but twenty-one are given in full by Migne (Patrol.
Set. Gr. xl. 164-477), and there are fragments of others in Photius
(Cod. 271). Asterius was a man of much culture, and his works
are a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the history of
pre achin g.
ASTHMA (Gr. hrtfta, gasping, whence Mfialwu, I gasp for
breath), a disorder of respiration characterized by severe
paroxysms of difficult breathing (dyspnoea) usually followed by
a period of complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at
more or less frequent intervals. The term is often loosely
employed in reference to states of embarrassed respiration,
which are plainly due to permanent organic disease of the
respiratory organs (see Respiratory System: Pathology).
The attacks occur quite suddenly, and in some patients at
regular, in others at irregular intervals. They are characterized
by extreme difficulty both in inspiration and expiration, but
especially in the latter, the chest becoming distended and the
diaphragm immobile. In the case of " pure " " idiopathic " or
" nervous " asthma, there is no fever or other sign of inflamma-
tion. But where the asthma is secondary to disease of some organ
of the body, the symptoms will depend largely on that organ and
the disease present. Such secondary forms may be bronchitk,
cardiac, renal, peptic or thymic
The mode of onset differs very markedly In different cases.
In some the attack begins quite suddenly and without warning,
but in others various sensations well known to the patient
announce that an attack is imminent. According to the late
Dr Hyde Salter the commonest warning is that of an intense
desire for sleep, so overpowering that though the patient knows
his only chance of warding off the attack is to keep awake, he is
yet utterly, unable to fight against his drowsiness,
patients, however, a condition of unwonted mental exriti
presages the attack. Again the secondary forms of the <
may be ushered in by flatulence, constipation and loss of appetite,
and a symptom which often attends the onset, though it is not
strictly premonitory, is a profuse diuresis, the urine being
watery and nearly colourless, as in the condition of hysterical
diuresis. In the majority of instances the attack begins during
the night, sometimes abruptly but often by degrees. The patient
may or may not be aware that his asthma is threatening. A few
hours after midnight he is aroused from sleep by a sense of
difficult breathing. In some cases this is a slowly increasicg
condition, not becoming acute for some hour or more. But ia
others the attack is so sudden, so severe, that the patient springs
from his bed and makes his way at once to an open window,
apparently struggling for breath. Most asthmatics have some
favourite attitude which best enables them to use all the
auxiliary muscles of respiration in their straggle for breath,
and this attitude they immediately assume, and guard fixedly
until the attack begins to subside. The picture is characteristic
and a very painful one to watch. The face is pale, anxious, and
it may be livid. The veins of the forehead stand out, the eyes
bulge, and perspiration bedews the face. The head is fixed in
position, and likewise the powerful muscles of the hack to aid the
attempt at respiration. The breath is whistling and wheezing,
and if it becomes necessary for the patient to speak, the words arc
uttered with great difficulty. If die chest be watched it is seen
to be almost motionless, and the respirations may become
extraordinarily slowed. Inspiration is difficult as the chest is
already over-distended, but expiration ia an even far greater
struggle. The attack may last any time from an hour to several
days, and between the attacks the patient is usually quite at
ease. But notwithstanding the intensely distressing character
of the attacks, asthma is not one of the diseases that shorten Hie.
In the child, asthma is usually periodic in its recurrence, but
as he ages it tends to become more erratic in both its manifesta-
tions and time of appearance. Also, though at first it may be
strictly " pure " asthma, later in life it becomes attended by
chronic bronchitis, which in its turn gives- rise to emphysema.
As to the underlying cause of the disease, one has only to read
the many utterly different theories put forward to account for it,
to see how little is really known. But it has now been clearly
shown that in the asthmatic state the respiratory centre is in aa
unstable and excitable condition, and that there is a morbid
connexion between this and some part of the nasal apparatus.
Dr Alexander Francis has shown, however, that the disease is not
directly due to any mechanical obstruction of the nasal passages*
and that the nose comparatively rarely supplies the immediate
exciting cause of the asthmatic attack. Paroxysmal sneering is
another form in which asthma may show itself, and, curiously
enough, this form occurs more frequently in women, asthma of
the more recognised type in men. In infants and young children
paroxysmal bronchitis is another form of the same disease.
Dr James Goodhart notes the connexion between asthma and
certain skin troubles, giving cases of the alternation of asthma
and psoriasis, and also of asthma and ccsema. The disease
occurs in families with a well-marked neurotic inheritance, and
twice as frequently in men as in women. The immediate cause
of an attack may be anything or nothing. Dr Hyde Salter notes
that 80% of cases in the young date from an attack of whooping
cough, bronchitis or measles.
In the general treatment of asthma there are two methods of
dealing with the patient, either that of hardening the individual,
widening his range of accommodation, and thus making him less
susceptible, or that of modifying and adapting the environment
to the patient. These two methods correspond to the two
methods of drug treatment, tonic or sedative. During the last
few years the method of treatment first used by Dr Alexander
Francis has come into prominence. His plan is to restore the
stability of the respiratory centre, by cauterixing the septal
mucous membrane, and combining with this general hygienic
In his own words the operation, which is entirety
ASTROLABE Plate I.
ider, a
ith the
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graved
differ-
Plate II. ASTROLABE
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orse or
ASTI— ASTOR
793
painless and insignificant, is performed as follows:— " After
painting one side of the septum nasi with a few drops of cocaine
and resortin, I draw a line with a galvano-cautery point from a
spot opposite the middle turbinated body, forwards and slightly
downwards for a distance of rather less than half an inch. In
about one week's time I repeat the operation on the other side."
In his monograph on the subject, he classifies a large number of
cases treated in this manner, most of which resulted in complete
relief, some in very great improvement, and a very few in slight
or no relief.
ASTI (anc ffasta), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Alessandria, situated on the Tanaro;
it is 39 m. W. by rail from Alessandria. Pop. (iooi) town,
x 9*787i commune, 41,047. Asti has still numerous medieval
towers, a fine Gothic cathedral of the 14th century, the remains
of a Christian basilica of the 6th century, and the octagonal
baptistery of S. Pietro (nth century). It was the birthplace of
the poet Yittorio AlfierL In ancient times it manufactured
pottery. It is now famous for its sparkling wine {A sti sfiumanie),
and is a considerable centre of trade. ^
ASTLBY, JACOB ASTLBY. Baron (1570-1653), royalist
commander in the English Civil War, came of a Norfolk family.
In 1508 he joined Counts Maurice and Henry of Orange in the
Netherlands, where he served with distinction, and afterwards
fought under the elector palatine Frederick V. and Gustavus
Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War. He was evidently thought
highly of by the states-general, for when he was absent, serving
under the king of Denmark, his company in the Dutch army
was kept open for. him. Returning to England with a well-
deserved reputation, he was in the employment of Charles I.
in various military capacities. As " sergeant-major," or general
of the infantry, he went north in 1639 to organize the defence
against the expected Scottish invasion. Here his duties were as
much diplomatic as military, as the discontent which ended in
the Civil War was now coming to a head. In the ill-starred
"Bishops' War," Astley did good service to the cause of the
king, and he was involved in the so-called " Army Plot." At
the outbreak of the Great Rebellion (1642) he at once joined
Charles, and was made major-general of the foot . His character-
istic battle-prayer at Edgehill has become famous: " O Lord,
Thou knowest how busy I must be this day. If I forget Thee,
do not forget me. March on, boys I" At Gloucester he com-
manded a division, and at the first battle of Newbury he led the
infantry of the royal army. With Hopton, in 1644, he served
at Arundel and Cheriton. At the second battle of Newbury
he made a gallant and memorable defence of Shaw House. He
was made a baron by the king, and at Naseby he once more
commanded the main body of the foot. He afterwards served
in the west, and with 1500 men fought stubbornly but vainly
the last battle for the king at Stow-on-the-Wold (March 1646).
His remark to his captors has become as famous as his words
at Edgehill, " You have now done your work and may go play,
unless you will fall out amongst yourselves." His scrupulous
honour forbade him to take any part in the Second Civil War,
as he had given his parole at Stow-on- the- Wold; but he had
to undergo his share of the discomforts that were the lot of
the vanquished royalists. He died in February 165 1/2. The
barony became extinct in 1668.
ASTLBY, 8IR JOHN DUGDALB, Bart. (1828-1804), English
soldier and sportsman, was a descendant of Lord Astley, and
son of the and baronet (cr. 182 1). From 1848 to 1859 he was in
the army, serving in the Crimean War and retiring as lieutenant-
colonel. He married an heiress in 1858, and thenceforth devoted
himself to horse-racing, pugilism and sport in general. He
succeeded to the baronetcy in 1873, and from 1874 to 1880 was
Conservative M.P. for North Lincolnshire. He was a popular
figure on the turf, being familiarly known as " the Mate," and
won and lost large sums of money. Just before bis death, on
the zoth of October 1804, he published some entertaining reminis-
cences, under the title of Fifty Years of my Life.
ASTON, ANTHONY (fl. 1712-1731), English actor and
dramatist, began to be known on the London stage in the early
years of the 18th century. He had tried the law and other
professions, which he finally abandoned for the theatre. He
had some success as a dramatic author, writing Lave in a
Hurry ; performed in Dublin about 1709, and Pastora, or the Coy
Shepherdess, an opera (17 12). For many years he toured the
English provinces with his wife and son, producing pieces which
he himself wrote, or medleys from various plays fitted together
with songs and dialogues of his own.
ASTON MANOR, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Warwickshire, England, adjoining Birmingham on the north-east.
Pop. (1001) 7 7,326. There are extensive manufactures, including
those of motors and cycles with their accessories, also paper-
mills, breweries, &c, and the population is largely industrial.
Aston Hall, erected by Sir Thomas Holte in 1618-1635, is an
admirable architectural example of its period, built of red brick.
It stands in a large park, the whole property being acquired by
the corporation of Birmingham in 1864, when the mansion
became a museum and art gallery. It contains the panelling
of a room from the house of Edmund Hector, which formerly
stood in Old Square, Birmingham, where Dr Samuel Johnson
was a frequent visitor. Aston Lower Grounds, adjoining the
park, contain an assembly hall, and the playing field of the
Aston Villa Football Club, where the more important games
are witnessed by many thousands of spectators. Aston Manor
was incorporated in 1003. The parliamentary borough returns
one member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 960 acres.
ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1 763-1848), American merchant,
was born at the village of Walldorf , near Heidelberg, Germany,
on the 1 7th of July 1 763. Until he was sixteen he worked in the
shop of his father, a butcher; he then joined an elder brother
in London, and there for four years was employed in the piano
and flute factory of an uncle, of the firm of Astor & Broad wood.
In 1783 he emigrated to America, and settled in New York,
whither one of his brothers had previously gone. On the voyage
he became acquainted with a fur-trader, by whose advice he
devoted himself to the same business, buying furs directly from
the Indians, preparing them at first with his own hands for the
market, and selling them in London and elsewhere at a great
profit. He was also the agent in New York of the firm of Astor
& Broadwood. By his energy, industry and sound judgment
he gradually enlarged his operations, did business in all the fur
markets of the world, and amassed an enormous fortune,— the
largest up to that time made by any American. He devoted
many years to carrying out a project for organizing the fur
trade from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean, and thence
by way of the Hawaiian Islands to China and India. In 18x1
he founded at the mouth of the Columbia river a settlement
named after him Astoria, which was intended to serve as the
central depot; but two years later the settlement was seized
and occupied by the English. The incidents of this undertaking
arc the theme of Washington living's Astoria. A scries of
disasters frustrated the gigantic scheme. Astor made vast
additions to his wealth by investments in real estate in New
York City, and erected many buildings there, including the
hotel known as the Astor House. The last twenty-five years of
his life were spent in retirement in New York City, where he
died on the 29th of March 1848, his fortune then being estimated
at about $30,000,000. He made various charitable bequests
by his will, and among them a gift of $50,000 to found an
institution, opened as the " Astor House " in 1854, for the
education of poor children and the relief of the aged and the
destitute in his native village in Germany. His chief benefaction,
however, was a. bequest of $400,000 for the foundation and
endowment of a public library in New York City, since known
as the Astor library, and since 1895 part of the New York public
library.
See Parton's Life of John Jacob Astor (New York, 1865).
His eldest son, William Backhouse Astoi (x7v*-i&75)>
inherited the greater part of his father's fortune, and chiefly by
judicious investments in real estate greatly increased it. He
was sometimes known as the " Landlord of New York '
794
ASTORGA— ASTRAKHAN
his direction the building for the Astor library was erected, and
to the library he gave about $550,000, including a bequest
of $200,000. His son, John Jacob Astor (1822-1800), was
also well known as a capitalist and philanthropist, giving
liberally to the Astor library.
The son of the last named, William Waldorf Astor (1848-
), served in the New York assembly in 1877, and in the state
senate in 1880-81. He was United States minister to Italy from
1882 to 1885. He published two romances, Valentine (1885) and
Sfona (1889). His wealth, arising from property in New York,
where also he built the New Netherland hotel and the Waldorf
hotel, was enormous. In 1800 he removed to England, and in
1890 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the Pall
Mall Gazette, and afterwards started the Pall Mall Magazine.
ASTORGA, BMANUELE D* (1681-1736), Italian musical
composer, was born at Naples on the nth of December 1681.
No authentic account of Astorga's life can be successfully con-
structed from the obscure and confusing evidence that has been
until now handed down, although historians have not failed to
indulge many pleasant conjectures. According to some of these,
his father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt
to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own
soldiers and publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled
to be spectators of his fate; and such was the effect upon them
that his mother died on the spot, and Emanuele fell into a state
of gloomy despondency, which threatened to deprive him of
reason. By the kindness of the princess Ursini, the unfortunate
young man was placed in a convent at Astorga, in Leon, where
he completed a musical education which is said to have been
begun in Palermo under Francesco Scarlatti. Here he recovered
his health, and his admirable musical talents were cultivated
under the best masters. On the details of this account no
reliance can safely be placed, nor is there any certainty that in
1 703 he entered the service of the duke of Parma. Equally un-
trustworthy is the story that the duke, suspecting an attachment
between his niece Elizabeth Farnese and Astorga, dismissed
the musician. The established facts concerning Astorga are
indeed few enough. They are: that the opera Dafne was
written and conducted by the composer in Barcelona in 1709;
that he visited London, where be wrote his Stabat Maler, possibly
for the society of " Anticnt Musick "; that it was performed in
Oxford in 1713; that in 171 2 he was in Vienna, and that he
retired at an uncertain date to Bohemia, where he died on the
21st of August 1736, in a castle which had been given to him in
the domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz. Astorga deserves
remembrance for his dignified and pathetic Stabat Mater, and
for his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He
was probably the last composer to carry on the traditions
of this form of chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro
Scarlatti.
ASTORGA, a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Leon;
situated near the right bank of the river Tuerto, and at the
junction of the Salamanca-Corunna and Lcon-Astorga railways.
Pop. (1000) 5573 Astorga was the Roman Asturica Augusta, a
provincial capital, and the meeting-place of four military roads.
Though sacked by the Goths in the 5th century, and later by the
Moors, it is still surrounded by massive walls of Roman origin.
A ruined castle, near the city, recalls its strategic importance in
the 8lh century, when Asturias, Galicia and Leon were the
headquarters of resistance to the Moors. Astorga has been the
see of a bishop since the 3rd century, and was formerly known as
the City of Priests, from the number of ecclesiastics resident
within its walls. Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th
century. The city confers the title of marquis on the Osorio
family, the ruins of whose palace, sacked in 18 to by the French,
are still an object of interest.
For the history, especially the ecclesiastical history, of Astorva,
see the anonymous llislorta de la ciudad de Astorga (ValladoMd,
1840); with Fundati6ndc la . . . igUsia . . . de Astorga, by P. A.
Ezpekts (Madrid, 1634); and Fundatidn, nombre y armas de . . .
Astorga, by P. J unco (Pamplona, 1635).
ASTORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Qatsop county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Columbia river, 8 m.
from its mouth. Pop. (1800) 6184; (tooo) 8381, of whom 3770
were foreign-born (many being Finns, — a Finnish weekly was
established here in 1005), and 601 were Chinese; (1910, census^
9599. It is served by the Astoria & Columbia River railroad
(Northern Pacific System), and by several coastwise and foreign
steamship lines (including that of the Oregon Railway & Naviga-
tion Co.). The river here is about 6 m. wide, and the city has a
water-front of about 5 m. and a deep, spacious and plarid
harbour. By dredging and the construction of jetties the Federal
government has since 1885 greatly improved the channel at the
mouth of the river. The business portion of the city occupies the
low ground of the river bottom; the residence portion is 00 the
hillsides overlooking the harbour. Astoria is the port of entry
for the Oregon Customs District, Oregon; in 1907 its imports
were valued at $21,262, and its exports at $329,103. The city
is especially important as a salmon fishing and packing centre
(cod, halibut and smaller fish also being abundant); it has also
an extensive lumber trade, important lumber manufactories,
pressed brick and terra-cot ta factories, and dairy interests. In
1005 the value of the factory product was $3,092,628 (of which
Si. 7 50,87 1 was the value of preserved and canned fish), being
an increase of 41 -8 % in five years. Astoria is the oldest American
settlement in the Columbia Valley. It was founded in 181 1, as a
depot for the fur trade, by John Jacob Astor, in whose honocr
it was named. It was seized by the British in 18 13, but was
restored in 1818. In 1821, while occupied by the North-West
Fur Company, it was burned and practically abandoned, only
a few settlers remaining. It was chartered as a dty in 1876.
See Washington living's Astoria: or Anecdotes of an Enterprise
beyond the Rocky Mountains (Philadelphia, 1836).
ASTRAEA, in Greek legend, the M star maiden," daughter of
Zeus and Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos, in which case
she is identified with Dike. During the golden age she remained
among men distributing blessings, but when the iron (or bronze)
age came on, she was forced to withdraw, being the last of the
goddesses to quit the earth. In the heavens she is amongst the
signs of the zodiac as the constellation Virgo. She is usually
represented with a pair of scales and a crown of stars.
Ov. Met. i. 150; Juv. vi. 19; Aratus, Phaenomena. 96.
ASTRAGAL (from the Gr. acrrpairaXo*, the ankle-joint), an
architectural term for a convex moulding. This term is gener-
ally applied to small mouldings, " torus " (q.v.) to large ones of
the same form. The Lesbian astragal referred to by Vitruvius,
bk. iv. ch. vi., was in all probability an astragal carved with a
bead and reel enrichment.
ASTRAKHAN, a government of $.E. Russia, on the lower
Volga, bounded N. by the governments of Samara and Saratov.
W. by Saratov and the government of the Don Cossacks, S. by
Stavropol and Terek, and E. by the Caspian Sea and the govern-
ment of the Urals. Area, 91,327 sq. m., of which 6730 sq. m.
belong to the delta of the Volga and its brackish lagoons, and
62,200 sq. m. are covered by the Kalmuck and Kirghiz Steppes.
The surface is a low-lying plain, except that in the west the
Ergcni Hills (500-575 ft.) form the water-parting between the
Volga basin and that of the Don. The climate is very hot and
dry, the average temperature for the year being 50 Fahr.. for
January 21 , and for July 78 , rainfall 7-3 in., but often there
is no rain at all in the summer. Pop. (1897) 1*005,460, of whom
132,383 were urban. The Kalmucks (138,580 in 1897) and
Kirghiz (260,000) are semi-nomads. In addition to them the
population includes nearly 44,000 Tatars, 4270 Armenians, with
Poles and Jews. Fishing off the mouth of the Volga gives
occupation to 50,000 persons; the fish, chiefly herrings and
sturgeon, together with the caviare prepared from the tatter, are
sold for the most part at Nizhniy-Novgorod. Over 300,000 tons
of salt are extracted annually from the lakes, principally those
of Baskunchak and Elton. Cattle-breeding is an important
industry. Market-gardening (mustard, water-melons, fruit) is
on the increase; but pure agriculture is relatively not much
developed. The government is divided into five districts, the
chief towns of which are Astrakhan, Enotayevsk (pop. 2? 10
in 1897), Krasnyi-yar (4680), Chernyi-yar (suo), and Tsarev
ASTRAKHAN— ASTROLOGY
795
($900}. The Kalmuck* and Kirghiz have their own local
administrations, and so have the Astrakhan Cossacks (25,600).
ASTRAKHAN, a town of £. Russia, capital of the government
of Astrakhan, on the left bank of the.main channel of the Volga,
50 m. from the Caspian Sea, in 46° ai' N. lat and 4& 5' £. long.
Since the growth of the petroleum industry of Baku and the
construction of the Transcaspian railway, Astrakhan has become
an important commercial centre, exporting fish, caviare, sugar,
metals, naphtha, cottons and woollens, and importing grain,
cotton, fruit and timber, to the aggregate value of £8,250,000
with foreign countries and of £14,500,000 with the interior of
Russia. The town gives its name to the " fur " called " astra-
khan," the skin of the new-born Persian lamb, and so to an
imitation in rough woollen cloth. There is some tanning, ship-
building and brewing, and making of soap, tar and machinery.
Astrakhan is the chief port on the Caspian Sea and the head-
quarters of the Russian Caspian fleet. The city consists
of (1) the kreml or citadel (1550), crowning a hill, on which
stand also the spacious brick cathedral containing the tombs
of two Georgian princes, the archbishop's palace' and the
monastery of the Trinity; (a) the Byelogorod or White Town,
containing the administrative offices and the bazaars; and (3)
the suburbs, where most of the population resides. The buildings
in the first two quarters are of stone, in the third of wood, irregu-
larly arranged along unpaved, dirty streets. The city is the see
of a Greek Catholic archbishop and of an Armenian archbishop,
and contains a Lamaist monastery, as well as technical schools,
an ichthyological museum, the Peter museum, with ethno-
graphical, archaeological and natural history collections, a
botanical garden, an ecclesiastical seminary, and good squares
and public gardens, one of which is adorned with a statue (1884)
of Alexander II. Vineyards surround the city. Astrakhan was
anciently the capital of a Tatar state, and stood some 7 m.
farther north. After this was destroyed by the Mongol prince
Timur the Great in 1395, the existing city was built. The Tatars
were expelled about 1554 by Ivan IV. of Russia. In 1569 the
city was besieged by the Turks, but they were defeated with
great slaughter by the Russians. In 1670 it was seized by the
rebel Stenka Razin; early in the following century Peter the
Great constructed here a shipbuilding yard and made Astrakhan
the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the same
century Catherine II. accorded the city important industrial
privileges. In 1709, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from
fires; in 1719 was plundered by the Persians; and in 1830 the
cholera swept away a large number of its people. In the middle
ages the city was known, also as Jitarkban and Ginterkhan.
Pop. (1867) 47,839; (1900) 121,580. Eight miles above Astra-
khan, on the right bank of the Volga, are the ruins of two ancient
cities superimposed one upon the other. In the upper, which
may represent the city of Balanjar (Balansar, Belenjer), have
been found gold and silver coins struck by Mongol rulers, as well
as ornaments in the same metals. The older and scantier
underlying ruins are supposed to be those of the once large and
prosperous city of Itil or Atel (Etcl, Idl) of the Arab geographers,
a residence of the khan of the Khazars, destroyed by the Russians
in 069. (^ A. K.)
ASTROLABE (from Gr. oWpor, star, and Xo/Sfty, to take), an
instrument used not only for stellar, but for solar and lunar
altitude-taking. The principle of the astrolabe is explained in
fig. 2, There were two kinds,— spherical and - planispheric.
Frc. a.— Principle of the Astrolabe. If a
solid circle be fixed in any one position and
a tube be pivoted on its centre so as to move;
and if the line C D be drawn upon the circle
pointing towards any object Q in the heavens
which lie* in the plane of the circle, by turn-
ing the tube A B towards any other object
P in the plane of the circle, the angle BOD will be the angle sub-
tended by the two objects r and Q at the eye.
The earliest forms were " armillae " and spherical. Gradually,
from Eratosthenes to Tycho, Hipparchus playing the most
important part among ancient astronomers, the complex astro-
labe was evolved, large specimens being among the chief observa-
tory instruments of the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries;
while small ones were in use among travellers and learned men,
not only for astronomical, but for astrological and topographical
purposes. Nearly every one of the modem instruments used for
the observations of physical astronomy is a part of the perfected
astrolabe. A collection of circles such as is the armillary sphere,
if each circle were fitted with a view-tube, might be considered
a complete astrolabe. Tycho's armillae were astrolabes. In
fact the modern equatorial, and the altitude and azimuth circle
are astrolabes in the strictest and oldest meaning of the term;
and Tycho in one of his astrolabes came so near the modem
equatorial that it may be taken as the first of the kind.
The two forms of the planispheric astrolabe most widely
known and used in the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries were:
(1) the portable astrolabe shown in
fig. 1 (Plato). This originated in
the East, and was in early use
in India, Persia and Arabia, and
was introduced into Europe by
the Arabs, who bad perfected it
— perhaps a* early as A.O. 700.
It combines the planisphere and |
armillae of Hipparchus and
others, and the theodolite of '
Theon, and was usually of brass,
varying in diameter from a
couple of inches to a foot of
more. It was used for taking the
altitudes Of SUn, moon and FrvrnfiMroxf. byT. BiasdcvJUe.
stars; for calculating latitude; Fie. 3-— Mariner's Astrolabe,
for determining the points of the A.o. i594- Made of brass, or of
comparand Ume; tor «c,rU»- fc'Sfi.SJ* - ,^
ing heights of mountains, &c; diameter,
and for construction of horo-
scopes. The instrument was a marvel of convenience and
ingenuity, and was called " the mathematical jewel." Never-
theless it passed out of use, because incapable of any great
precision.
(2) The mariner's astrolabe, fig. 3, was adapted from that of
astronomers by Martin Behaim, c. 148a This was the instru-
ment used by Columbus. With the tables of the sun's declina-
tion then available, he could calculate his latitude by meridian
altitudes of the sun taken Trith his astrolabe. The mariner's
astrolabe was superseded by John Hadley's quadrant of 1731.
Authorities.— Chaucer, Treatise on the Astrolabe (Skeat's edition
of Chaucer); J. J. Stdmer, Elucidatio Fabrice ususque AstroJabii,
&c; Thomas Blundcville, His Exercises (1594); F. Ritter,
Astrolabium; W. H. Morley, Description of Astrolabe of Skah
Husain; M. L. Huggins. " The Astrolabe " (Astrophysieal Journal,
1894); Penny Cyclopaedia, article " Astrolabe;" R. Grant, History
of Physical A stronomy. (M. L. H.)
ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate
and future of human beings from indications given by the posi-
tions of the stars (sun, moon and planets). The belief in a
connexion between the heavenly bodies and the life of man has
played an important part in human history. For long ages
astronomy and astrology (which might be called astromancy,
on the same principle as " chiromancy ") were identified; and
a distinction is made between " natural astrology," which pre-
dicts the motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, &c, and
" judicial astrology," which studies the influence of the stars on
human destiny. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) is one of the first to
distinguish between astronomy and astrology; nor did astronomy
begin to rid itself of astrology till the 16th century, when, with
the system of Copernicus, the conviction that the earth itself is
one of the heavenly bodies was finally established. The study of
astromancy and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found
in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and
directly or indirectly through the Babylonians spread to other
nations. It came to Greece about the middle of the 4th century
B.C., and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian
era. In India and China astronomy and astrology are largelv re-
flections of Greek theories and speculations; and simila
796
ASTROLOGY
the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy
and astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile
during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was
further developed by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century,
and in the Europe of the 14th and 15th centuries astrologers
were dominating influences at court.
Even up to the present day men of intellectual eminence like
Dr Richard Garnett have convinced themselves that astromancy
has a foundation of truth, just as there are still believers in
chiromancy or other forms of divination. Dr Garnett (" A. G.
Trent ") insisted indeed that it was a mistake to confuse astrology
with fortune-telling, and maintained that it was a " physical
science just as much as geology," depending like them on
ascertained facta, and grossly misrepresented by being connected
with magic. Dr Garnett himself looked upon the study of bio-
graphy in relation to the casting of horoscopes as an empirical
investigation, but it is difficult in practice to keep the distinction
clear, to judge by present-day text-books such as those of Dr
Wilde ( Primer of A strohgy, &c). Dr Wilde insists on there being
" nothing incongruous with the laws of nature in the theory
that the sun, moon and stars influence men's physical bodies
and conditions, seeing that man is made up of a physical part
of the earth." There is an obvious tendency, however, for
astromancy to be employed, like palmistry, as a means of
imposing on the ignorant and credulous. How far the more
serious claim is likely to be revived in connexion with the
renewal of research into the " occult " sciences generally, it is
still too early to speculate; and it has to be recognized that
such a point of view is opposed to the generally established
belief that astrology is either mere superstition or absolute
imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to deception
or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment. But U the
progress of physical science has not prevented the rehabilitation
of much of ancient alchemy by the later researches into chemical
change, and if psychology now finds a place for explanations of
spiritualism and witchcraft which involve the admission of the
empirical facts under a new theory (as in the case of the divining-
rod, &c.)t it is at least conceivable that some new synthesis
might once more justify part at all events of ancient and medieval
astromancy, to the extent of admitting the empirical facts where
provable, and substituting for the supposed influence of the stars
as such, some deeper theory which would be consistent with an
application to other forms of prophecy, and thus might recon-
cile the possibility of dipping into futurity with certain inter-
relations of the universe, different indeed from those assumed
by astrological theory, but underlying and explaining it. If
this is ever accomplished it will need the patient investigation
of a number of empirical observations by competent students
unbiassed by any parti pris—* difficult set of conditions to
obtain; and even then no definite results may be achieved.
The history of astrology can now be traced back to ancient
Babylonia, and indeed to the earliest phases of Babylonian
history, i.e. to about 3000 B.C. In Babylonia as well as in Assyria
as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also
term it " Euphralean " culture), astrology takes its place in the
official cult as one of the two chief means at the disposal of the
priests (who were called bdri or " inspectors ") for ascertaining
the will and intention of the gods, the other being through the
inspection of the liver of the sacrificial animal (see On en). Just
as this latter method of divination rested on a well-defined theory,
to wit, that the liver was the seat of the soul of the animal and
that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified himself with
the animal, whose " soul " was thus placed in complete accord
with that of the god and therefore reflected the mind and will
of the god, so astrology is based on a theory of divine government
of the world, which in contrast to " liver " divination assumes
at the start a more scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. This
theory must be taken into consideration as a factor in accounting
for the persistent hold which even at the present day astrology
still maintains on many minds. Starting with the indisputable
fact that man's life and happiness are largely dependent upon
phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of the soil is de-
pendent upon the sun shining in the heavens as well as upon the
rains that come from heaven, that on the other hand the mischief
and damage done by storms and inundations, to both of which
the Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subject, were to be
traced likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that
all the great gods had their seats in the heavens. Id that early
age of culture known as the " nomadic " stage, which under
normal conditions precedes the " agricultural " stage, the moon
cult is even more prominent than sun worship, and with the
moon and sun cults thus furnished by the " popular " faith it
was a natural step for the priests, who correspond to the " scien-
tists " of a later day, to perfect a theory of a complete accord
between phenomena observed in the heavens and occurrences on
earth.
If moon and sun, whose regular movements conveyed to the
more intelligent minds the conception of the reign of law and
order in the universe as against the more popular notion of
chance and caprice, were divine powers, the same held good
of the planets, whose movements, though more difficult to
follow, yet in the course of time came to be at least partially
understood. Of the planets five were recognixed— Jupiter,
Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Man — to name them in the order
in which they appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later
texts Mercury and Saturn change places. These five planets
were identified with the great gods of the pantheon as follows:—
Jupiter with Marduk (<?.».), Venus with the goddess Ishtar (f v.),
Saturn with Ninib (q. ».), Mercury with Nebo (q.v.), and Mars
with Ncrgal (q.v.). The movements of the sun, moon and five
planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five
gods in question, together with the moon-god Sin («.».) and the
sun-god Shamash (q.v.), in preparing the occurrences on earth.
If, therefore, one could correctly read and interpret the activity
of these powers, one knew what the gods were aiming to bring
about. The Babylonian priests accordingly applied themselves
to the task of perfecting a system of interpretation of the pheno-
mena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the
system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets to the
more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. That system in-
volved not merely the movements of the moon, sun and planets,
but the observation of their relative position to one another and
to all kinds of peculiarities noted at any point in the course of
their movements: in the case of the moon, for instance, the
exact appearance of the new crescent, its position in the heavens,
the conditions at conjunction and opposition, the appearance
of the horns, the halo frequently seen with the new moon,
which was compared to a " cap," the ring round the full moon.
which was called a " stall " (i.e. " enclosure "), and more of the
like. To all these phenomena some significance was attached,
and this significance was naturally intensified in the case of
such a striking phenomenon as an eclipse of the moon. Applying
the same method of careful observation to the sun and planets.
and later to some of the constellations and to many of the fixed
stars, it will be apparent that the body of observations noted
must have grown in the course of time to large and indeed to
enormous proportions, and correspondingly the interpretations
assigned to the nearly endless variations in the phenomena thos
observed. The interpretations themselves were based (as in the
case of divination through the liver) chiefly on two factors: —
(1) on the recollection or on written records of what in the past
had taken place when the phenomenon or phenomena in ques-
tion had been observed, and (2) association of ideas—involving
sometimes merely a play upon words — in connexion with the
phenomenon or phenomena observed. Thus if on a certain
occasion the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed
by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the «ign in
question was thus proved to be a favourable one and its recur-
rence would be regarded as a good omen, though the prognostica-
tion would not necessarily be limited to the one or the other of
those occurrences, but might be extended to apply to other
circumstances. On the other hand, the appearance of the new
moon earlier than was expected was regarded as an unfavour-
able omen — prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death
ASTROLOGY
797
among cattle, in a third bad crop*— not necessarily because
these events actually took place alter such a phenomenon, but
by an application of the general principle resting upon association
of ideas whereby anything premature would suggest an un-
favourable occurrence. A thin halo seen above the new moon
was pictured as a cap, and the association between this and the
symbol of royalty, which was a conical-shaped cap, led to
interpreting the phenomenon as an Indication that the ruler
would have a successful reign. In this way a mass of traditional
interpretation of all kinds of observed phenomena was gathered,
and once gathered became a guide to the priests for all times.
Astrology in this its earliest stage is, however, marked by two
characteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements
and position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences
as are of public import and affect the general welfare. The
individual's interests are not in any way involved, and we must
descend many centuries and pass beyond the confines of Baby-
lonia and Assyria before we reach that phase which in medi-
eval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt Upon —
genethliology or the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and
Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively
in the public welfare and the person of the king, because
upon his well-being and favour with the gods the fortunes of
the country were dependent in accordance with the ancient
conception of kingship (see J. G. Frazer, The Early History of
Kingship). To some extent, the individual came in for his
share in the incantations and in the purification ritual through
which one might hope to rid oneself of the power of the demons
and of other evil spirits, but outside of this the important aim
of the priests was to secure for the general benefit the favour of
the gods, or, as a means of preparing oneself for what the future
had in store, to ascertain in time whether that favour would be
granted in any particular instance or would be continued in the
future. Hence in* " liver " divination, as in astrology, the in-
terpretations of the signs noted all have reference to public
affairs and events and not to the individual's needs or desires.
In the second place, the astronomical knowledge presupposed
and accompanying early Babylonian astrology is essentially of
an empirical character. While in a general way the reign of law
and order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recog-
nized, and indeed must have exercised an influence at an early
period in leading to the rise of a methodical divination that was
certainly of a much higher order than the examination of an
animal's liver, yet the importance that was laid upon the endless
variations in the form of the phenomena and the equally numerous
apparent deviations from what were regarded as normal condi-
tions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious study of
astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical
purposes that the priests as " inspectors " of the heavens (as
they were also the " inspectors " of the sacrificial livers) had in
mind. True, we have, probably as early as the days of Kham-
murabi, i.e. e. 2000 B.C., the combinations of prominent groups
of stars with outlines of pictures fantastically put together, but
there is no evidence that prior to 700 B.C. more than a number
of the constellations of our zodiac had become part of the
current astronomy. The theory of the ecliptic as representing
the course of the sun through the year, divided among twelve
constellations with a measurement of 50° to each division, is
also of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved;
but it does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall
of the Babylonian empire in 539 B.C. Similarly, the other
accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their
system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing
up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the
golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote
past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid period,
i.e. after the advent of trie Greeks in the Euphrates Valley.
From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are
earlier than the 7U1 century B.C. it would appear, indeed, that
the beginnings at least of the calculation of sun and moon
eclipses belong to the earlier period, but here, too, the chief
work accomplished was after 400 B.C., and the defectiveness of
early Babylonian astronomy may be gathered from the fact that
as late as the 6th century B.C. an error of almost an entire month
was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the attempt to
determine through calculation the beginning of a certain year.
The researches of Bouchl-Leclercq, Cumont and Boll have
enabled us to fix with a considerable degree of definiteness the
middle of the 4U1 century B.C. as the period when Babylonian
astrology began its triumphal march to the west, invading the
domain of Greek and Roman culture and destined to exercise
a strong hold on all nations and groups — more particularly in
Egypt — that came within the sphere of Greek and Roman
influence. It is rather significant that this spread of astrology
should have been concomitant with the intellectual impulse that
led to the rise of a genuine scientific phase of astronomy in
Babylonia itself, which must have weakened to some extent
the hold that astrology had on the priests and the people. The
advent of the Persians, bringing with them a conception of religion
of a far higher order than Babylonian-Assyrian polytheism (see
Zoroaster), must also have acted as a disintegrating factor
in leading to the decline of the old faith in the Euphrates
Valley, and we thus have the interesting though not entirely
exceptional phenomenon of a great civilization bequeathing as
a legacy to posterity a superstition instead of a real achievement.
"Chaldaean wisdom" became among Greeks and Romans the
synonym of divination through the planets and stars, and it is
not surprising that in the course of time to be known as a
u Chaldaean " carried with it frequently the suspicion of char-
latanry and of more or less wilful deception. The spread of
astrology beyond Babylonia is thus concomitant with the rise
of a truly scientific astronomy in Babylonia itself, which in turn
is due to the intellectual impulse afforded by the contact with
new forms of culture from both the East and the West.
In the hands of the Greeks and of the later Egyptians both
astrology and astronomy were carried far beyond the limits
attained by the Babylonians, and it is indeed a matter of surprise
to observe the harmonious combination of the two fields — a
harmony that seems to grow more complete with each age, and
that is not broken until we reach the threshold of modern science
in the x6th century. To the Greek astronomer Hipparchus
belongs the credit of the discovery (c. 130 B.C.) of the theory of
the precession of the equinoxes, for a knowledge of which among
the Babylonians we find no definite proof; but such a signal
advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from develop-
ing in a most elaborate manner the theory of the influence of the
planets upon the fate of the* individual. The endeavour to trace
the horoscope of the individual from the position of the planets
and stars at the time of birth (or, as was attempted by other
astrologers, at the time of conception) represents the most
significant contribution of the Greeks to astrology. The system
was carried to such a degree of perfection that later ages made
but few additions of an essential character to the genethliology
Or drawing up of the individual horoscope by the Greek astro-
logers. The system was taken up. almost bodily by the Arab
astronomers, it was embodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and
Christians, and through these and other channels came to be the
substance of the astrology of the middle ages, forming, as already
pointed out, under the designation of " judicial astrology," a
pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect footing of equality
with " natural astrology " or the more genuine science of the
study of the motions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies.
Partly in further development of views unfolded in Babylonia,
but chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was
enlarged until it was brought into connexion with practically all
of the known sciences, botany, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy,
anatomy and medicine. Colours, metals, stones, plants, drugs
and animal life of all kinds were associated with the planets and
placed under their tutelage. In the system that passes under the,
name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with grey, Jupiter with
white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while Mercury, occupy-
ing a peculiar place in Greek as it did m Babylonian astrology
(where it was at one time designated as Me planet pa*
knee), was supposed to vary its colour according to c
798
ASTROLOGY
circumstances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with
silver, Jupiter with electmm, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper,
and so on, while the continued influence of astrological motives
is to be seen in the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery
at a comparatively late period, with Mercury, because of its
changeable character as a solid and a liquio'. In the same way
stones were connected with both the planets and the months;
plants, by diverse association of ideas, were connected with the
planets, and animals likewise were placed under the guidance
and protection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this
curious process of combination the entire realm of the natural
sciences was translated into the language of astrology with the
single avowed purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative
of what the future had in store. The fate of the individual, as
that feature of the future which had a supreme interest, led to
the association of the planets with parts of the body. Here, too,
we find various systems devised, in part representing the views
of different schools, in part reflecting advancing conceptions
regarding the functions of the organs in man and animals. In
one system the seat of Mercury, representing divine intelligence as
the source of all knowledge-— a view that reverts to Babylonia
where Ncbo (corresponding to Mercury) was regarded as the
divine power to whom all wisdom is due — was placed in the liver
as the primeval seat of the soul (see Omen), whereas in other
systems this distinction was assigned to Jupiter or to Venus.
Saturn, taking in Greek astrology the place at the head 'of the
planets which among the Babylonians was accorded to Jupiter-
Marduk, was given a place in the brain, which in later times was
looked upon as the centre of soul-life; Venus, as the planet of
the passion of love, was supposed to reign supreme over the
genital organs, the belly and the lower limbs; Mars, as the
violent planet, is associated with the bile, as well as with the
blood and kidneys. Again, the right ear is associated with
Saturn, the left ear with Mars, the right eye in the case of the male
with the sun and the left eye with the moon, while in the case
of the female it was just the reverse. From the planets the same
association of ideas was applied to the constellations of the
zodiac, which in later phases of astrology are placed on a par
with the planets themselves, so far as their importance for the
individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of the individual
in this combination of planets with the zodiac was made
dependent not merely upon the planet which happened to be
rising at the time of birth or of conception, but also upon its
local relationship to a special sign or to certain signs of the zodiac.
The zodiac was regarded as the prototype of the human body,
the different parts of which all had their corresponding section
in the zodiac itself. The head was placed in the first sign of the
zodiac— the Ram ; and the feet in the last sign — the Fishes.
Between these two extremes the other parts and organs of the
body were distributed among the remaining signs of the zodiac,
the neck being assigned to the Bull, the shoulders and arms to
the Gemini (or twins), the breast to Cancer, the flanks to Leo,
the bladder to Virgo, the buttocks to the Balance, the pubis to
the Scorpion, the thighs to Sagittarius, the knees to Capricorn,
and the limbs to Aquarius. Not content with this, we find the
late Egyptian astrologers setting up a correspondence between
the thirty-six decani recognized by them and the human body,
which is thus divided into thirty-six parts; to each part a god
was assigned as a controlling force. With human anatomy thus
connected with the planets, with constellations, and with single
stars, medicine became an integral part of astrology, or,
as we might also put it, astrology became the handmaid of
medicine. Diseases and distrubanccs of the ordinary functions
of the organs were attributed to the influence of planets or
explained as due to conditions observed in a constellation or in
the position of a star; and an interesting survival of this bond
between astrology and medicine is to be seen in the use up to
the present time of the sign of Jupiter 01, which still heads
medicinal prescriptions, while, on the other hand, the influence
of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the
week to the planets, beginning with Sunday, assigned to the sun,
and ending with Saturday, the day of Saturn. Passing on into
still later periods, Saturn's day was associated with the Jewish
sabbath, Sunday with the Lord's Day, Tuesday with Tiw, the
god of war, corresponding to Mars of the Roman* and to the
Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was assigned to the
planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic cod Woden;
Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and Friday to
Friga, the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus among
the Romansand among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astrological
considerations likewise already regulated in ancient Babylonia
the distinction of lucky and unlucky days, which passing du«n
to the Greeks and Romans {diesjasti and nejasti) found a sirikxg
expression in Hesiod's Works and Days. Among the Arabs
similar associations of lucky and unlucky days directly connected
with the influence of the planets prevailed through all times.
Tuesday and Wednesday, for instance, being regarded as the
days for blood-letting, because Tuesday was connected «ah
Mars, the lord of war and blood, and Wednesday with Mercury.
the planet of humours. Even in modern times travellers relate
how, when an auspicious day has been proclaimed by the astro-
logers; the streets of Bagdad may be seen running with blood
from the barbers' shops.
It is unnecessary here to give a detailed analysis of the methods
of judicial astrology as an art, or directions for the casting of a
horoscope, or " nativity," *'.*. a map of the heavens at the hoar
of birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of
the heavenly bodies, from which their influence may be deduced.
Each of the twelve signs of the zodiac (q.v.) is credited with its
own characteristics and influence, and is the controlling sign of
its " house of life." The sign exactly rising at the moment of
birth is called the ascendant. The benevolent or malignant
influence of each planet, together with the sun and moon, is
modified by the sign it inhabits at the nativity ; thus Jupiter
in one house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in
another, and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity.
The calculation is affected by the " aspects," i.e. according as
the planets are near or far as regards one another fin conjunction,
in semi-sextile, semi-square, sextile, quintile, square, trine,
scsqui-quadratc, bi-quintile, opposition or parallel acdination).
Disastrous signs predominate over auspicious, and the various
effects are combined in a very elaborate and complicated manner.
Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant
of natural astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled
with what is now considered an unscientific and superstitious
view of world-forces. In the Janua aurca reseraia cuainar
linguarum (1643) of J. A. Comenius we find the following
definition: — " Astronomus siderum meatus xeu motus consider at:
Attrologus eorundem efficaciam, iufluxum, it tfcclum." Kepler
was more cautious in his opinion; he spoke of astronomy as
the wise mother, and astrology as the foolish daughter, but he
added that the existence of the daughter was necessary to the
life of the mother. Tycho Brahc and Gassendi both began with
astrology, and it was only after pursuing the false science, and
finding it wanting, that Gassendi devoted himself to astronomy.
In their numerous allusions to the subtle mercury, which the one
makes when treating of a means of measuring time by the efflux
of the metal, and the other in a treatise on the transit of the
planet, we see traces of the school in which they served their first
apprenticeship. Huygens, moreover, in his great posthumous
work, Cosmotheoros, sen de terris coelestibus, shows himself a
more exact observer of astrological symbols than Kircher him-
self in his Iter ex static urn. Huygens contends that between the
inhabitants of different planets there need not be any greater
difference than exists between men of different types on the earth.
" There are on the earth," continues this rational interpreter
of the astrologers and chiromancers, " men of cold temperament
who would thrive in Saturn, which is the farthest planet from
the sun, and there are other spirits warm and ardent enough
to live in Venus."
Those were indeed strange times, according to modern ideas,
when astrologers were dominant by the terror they inspired,
and sometimes by the martydom they endured when their pre-
dictions were either too true or too false. Faith, to borrow their
ASTROLOGY
799
own language, was banished to Virgo, and rarely shed her
influence on men. Cardan (i 501-1576), for instance, hated
Luther, and so changed his birthday in order to give him an
unfavourable horoscope. In Cardan's times, as in those of
Augustus, it was a common practice for men to conceal the day
and hour of their birth, till, like Augustus, they found a com-
plaisant astrologer. But, as a general rule, medievat and Renais-
sance astrologers did not give themselves the trouble of reading
the stars, but contented themselves with telling fortunes by
faces. They practised chiromancy (see Palmistxy), and relied
on afterwards drawing a horoscope to suit. As physiognomists
(see Physiognomy) their talent was undoubted, and according to
Vaaini there was no need to mount to the house-top to cast a
nativity. " Yes," he says, " I can read his face; by his hair
and his forehead it is easy to guess that the sun at his birth
was in the sign of Libra and near Venus. Nay, his complexion
shows that Venus touches Libra. By the rules of astrology he
could not lie."
A few salient facts may be added concerning the astrologers
and their predictions, remarkable either for their fulfilment or
for the rufn and confusion they brought upon their authors. We
may begin with one taken from Bacon's Essay of Prophecies: —
" When I was in France, I heard from one Dr Pena, that the
queen mother, who was given to curious arts, caused the king
her husband's nativitie to be calculated, under a false name;
and the astrologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed in
a duell; at which the queen© laughed, thinking her husband to
be above challenges and duels; but he was slaine, upon a course
at tilt, the splinters of the stafle of Mongomery going in at his
bever." A favourite topic of the astrologers of all countries has
been the immediate end of the world. As early as 1x86 the
earth had escaped one threatened cataclysm of the astrologers.
This did not prevent StOfHer from predicting a universal deluge
for the year 1524 — a year, as it turned out, distinguished for
drought. His aspect of the heavens told him that in that year
three planets would meet in the aqueous sign of Pisces. The
prediction was believed far and wide, and President Aurial, at
Toulouse, built himself a Noah's ark—a curious realization, in
fact, of Chaucer's merry invention in the Miller's Tale.
Tycho Brahe was from his fifteenth year devoted to astrology,
and adjoining his observatory at Uranienburg the astronomer-
royal of Denmark had a laboratory built in order to study
alchemy, and it was only a few years before hb death that he
finally abandoned astrology. We may here notice one very
remarkable prediction of the master of Kepler. That he had
carefully studied the comet of 1577 as an astronomer, we may
gather from his adducing the very small parallax of this comet
as disproving the assertion of the Aristotelians that a solid
sphere enveloped the heavens. But besides this, we find him
in his character of astrologer drawing a singular prediction from
the appearance of this comet. It announced, he tells us, that in
the north, in Finland, there should be born a prince who should
lay waste Germany and vanish in 1633. Gustavus Adolphus,
it is well known, was born in Finland, overran Germany, and died
in 1632. The fulfilment of the details of this prophecy suggests
that Tycho Brahe had some basis of reason for his prediction.
Born in Denmark of a noble Swedish family, a politician, as were
all his contemporaries of distinction, Tycho, though no conjuror,
could foresee the advent of some great northern hero. Moreover,
he was doubtless well acquainted with a very ancient tradition,
that heroes generally came from the northern frontiers of their
native land, where they are hardened and tempered by the
threefold struggle they wage with soil, climate and barbarian
neighbours.
Kepler explained the double movement of the earth by the
rotation of the sun. At one time the sun presented its friendly
side, which attracted one planet, sometimes its adverse side,
which repelled it He also peopled the planets with souls and
genu. He was led to his three great laws by musical analogies,
just as William Herschel afterwards passed from music to
astronomy. Kepler, who in his youth made almanacs, and once
prophesied a hard winter, which came to pass, could not help
putting an astrological interpretation on the disappearance of
the brilliant star of 1 57 2, which Tycho had observed. Theodore
Beza thought that this star, which in December 1573 equalled
Jupiter in brilliancy, predicted the second coming of Christ.
Astronomers were only then beginning to study variable and
periodic stars, and disturbances in that part of the heavens,
which had till then, on the authority of Aristotle, been regarded
as incorruptible, combined with the troubles of the times, must
have given a new stimulus to belief in the signs in heaven.
Montaigne (Essais, lib. i. chap, x.) relates a singular episode
in the history of astrology. Charles V. and Francis I., who both
bid for the friendship of the infamous Aretino, surnamed the
divine, both likewise engaged astrologers to fight their battles.
In Italy those who prophesied the ruin of France were sure to be
listened to. These prophecies affected the public funds much
as telegrams do nowadays. " At Rome," Montaigne tells us, " a
large sum of money was lost on the Change by this prognostica-
tion of our ruin." The marquis of Saluccs, notwithstanding his
gratitude to Francis 1. for the many favours he had received,
including his marquisate, of which the brother was despoiled
for his benefit, was led in 1 536 to betray his country, being scared
by the glorious prophecies of the ultimate success of Charles V.
which were then rife. The influence of the Medici made astro-
logers popular in France. Richelieu, on whose council was
Jacques Gaffarel (1601-1681), the last of the Kabbalists, did not
despise astrology as an engine of government. At the birth of
Louis XIV. a certain Morin de Villefranche was placed, behind
a curtain to cast the nativity of the future autocrat. A genera-
tion back the astrologer would not have been hidden behind a
curtain, but have taken precedence of the doctor. La Bruyere
dares not pronounce against such beliefs, " for there are per-
plexing facts affirmed by grave men who were eye-witnesses."
In England William Lilly and Robert Fludd were both dressed
in a little brief authority. The latter gives us elaborate rules
for the detection of a thief, and tells us that he has had personal
experience of their efficacy. " If the lord of the sixth house is
found in the second house, or in company with the lord of the
second house, the thief is one of the family. If Mercury is in
the sign of the Scorpion he will be bald, &c." Francis Bacon
abuses the astrologers of his day no less than the alchemists, but
he does so because he has visions of a reformed astrology and a
reformed alchemy. Sir Thomas Browne, too, while he denies
the capacity of the astrologers of his day, does not venture to
dispute the reality of the science. The idea of the souls of men
passing at death to the stars, the blessedness of their particular
sphere being assigned them according to their deserts (the
metempsychosis of J. Reynaud), may be regarded as a survival
of religious astrology, which, even as late as Dcscartes's day,
assigned to the angels the task of moving the planets and the stars.
Joseph de Maistre believed in comets as messengers of divine
justice, and in animated planets, and declared that divination
by astrology is not an absolutely chimerical science. Lastly,
we may mention a few distinguished men who ran counter to
their age in denying stellar influences. Aristarchus of Samoa,
Martian us Capdla (the precursor of Copernicus), Cicero, Favo-
rinus, Sextos Empiricus, Juvenal, and in a later age Savonarola
and Pico della Mirandola, and La Fontaine, a contemporary of
the neutral La Bruyere, were all pronounced opponents of
astrology.
In England Swift may fairly claim the credit of having given
the death-blow to astrology by his famous squib, entitled
Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac Bicker stojf, Esq. He begins,
by professing profound belief in the art, and next points out the
vagueness and the absurdities of the philomaths. He then, in
the happiest vein of parody, proceeds to show them a more
excellent way: — " My first prediction is but a trifle, yet I
mention it to show how ignorant these sottish pretenders to
astrology are In their own concerns: it refers to Partridge the
almanac-maker. I have consulted the star of his nativity by
my own rules, and find he will infallibly die upon the 29th of
March next about eleven at night of a raging fever. Therefore
I advise him to consider of it and settle his affairs in '*
8oo
ASTRONOMY
(GENERAL
Then followed a letter to a person of quality giving a full and
particular account of the death of Partridge on the very day
and nearly at the hour mentioned. In vain the wretched
astrologer protested that he was alive, got a literary friend to
write a pamphlet to prove it, and published his almanac for 1 709.
Swift, in his reply, abused him for his want of manners in giving
a gentleman the lie, answered his arguments seriatim, and
declared that the evidence of the publication of another almanac
was wholly irrelevant, " for Gadbury, Poor Robin, Dove and
Way do yearly publish their almanacs, though several of them
have been dead since before the Revolution." Nevertheless a
field is found even to this day for almanacs of a similar type,
and for popular belief in them.
To astrological politics we owe the theory of heaven-sent rulers,
instruments in the hands of Providence, and saviours of society.
Napoleon, as well as Wallenstein, believed in his star. Many
passages in the older English poets are unintelligible without
some knowledge of astrology. Chaucer wrote a treatise on the
astrolabe; Milton constantly refers to planetary influences;
in Shakespeare's King Lear, Gloucester and Edmund represent
respectively the old and the new faith. We still contemplate and
consider; we still speak of men as jovial, saturnine or mercurial',
we still talk of the ascendancy of genius, or a disastrous defeat.
In French heur, malheur, hcureux, malheureux, are all derived
from the Latin augurium; the expression ni sous une mauvaise
iloile, born under an evil star, corresponds (with the change of
ttoile into astre) to the word maldtru, in Provencal malastrue;
and son ttoile pdlit, his star grows pale, belongs to the same class
of illusions. The Latin ex augurio appears in the Italian sciagura,
sciagurato, softened into sciaura, sciaurato, wretchedness,
wretched. The influence of a particular planet has also left
traces in various languages; but the French and English jovial
and the English saturnine correspond rather to the gods who
served as types in chiromancy than to the planets which bear
the same names. In the case of the expressions bien or mal
lunt, well or ill mooned, avoir un quartier de lune dans la Ute t to
have the quarter of the moon in one's head, the German mond-
sUcktig and the English moonstruck or lunatic, the fundamental
idea lies in the strange opinions formerly held about the moon.
Bibliogxaphy. — For the history of astrology with iti affinities to
astronomy on the one hand, and to other forms of popular belief on
the other, the following works out of v ' ■— -*— ' — ? ht
be. mentioned are specially recommen< :q,
L'Astrolope grecque (Paris, 1899), with
BcQ, SpKaera (Leipzig, 1903); Franz C
Asttologorum Craecorum (Brussels, 1898
1909) ; Franz Boll, " Die Erforachung d
Neu§ JaMrbUcher fur das klassiscke Alter,
103-126) ; Franz Cumont, Les Religions t
romoin (Paris. 1907) (ch. vii. " L Aitrol
Maury, La Magte et I'astrologie <L Vantiqu
- ' -177): R. C - ~ -
Utters of
Kugler, Sternkundi und Sterndienst in .
Paris,' 1877): ft. C. Thompson, Reports
trologers of Nineveh and Babylon (a vo
be completed in 4 vols.) ; Ch. Virollea
(Paris, 1905 — to be completed in 8
translations of cuneiform texts); Jastro*
Assyriens (Parts ix and 14); also ce
Lcclercq, Histoire ie la divination dan
vol. i. pp. 205-257 ; in Marcellin Berthelo
(Paris, 1885), pp. 1-56; Ford. Hofcr, Hit
1846), pp. I -00; in Rudolf Wolf, Gesckich
1877), ch. i. Sec also the article by E
Paulv-Wissowa, ReaUncydop&die der k
uly-
la/t.
sckaft, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896). For n r
logy the following works may be found useful in different ways:
E. M. Bennett. Astrology (New York, 1894); J. M. Pfaff. Astrologie
(Bamberg, 1816); G. Wilde, Chaldaean Astrology up to date (1901);
R. Garnet t (" A. G. Trent "), " The Soul and the Stars." in the
University Magazine, 1880 (reprinted in Dobaon and Wilde, Natal
Astrology, 1803): Ariel Haatan, TraiU d 'astrologie judiciaire (Paris,
1825) ; Fomafhaut, Manuel d' astrologie spkerique etjudiciain (Paris,
1897). (M.)a.)
ASTRONOMY (from Gr. torpor, a star, and vi^uw, to classify
or arrange). The subject matter of astronomical science, con-
sidered in its widest range, comprehends all the matter of the
universe which lies outside the limit of the earth's atmosphere.
The seeming anomaly of classifying as a single branch of science
all that we know in a field so wide, while subdividing our know-
ledge of things on our own planet into an indefinite number of
separate sciences, finds its explanation in the impossibility of
subjecting the matter of the heavens to that experimental
scrutiny which yields such rich results when applied to matter
which we can handle at will. Astronomy is of necessity a science
of observation in the pursuit of which experiment can directly
play no part. It is the most ancient of the sciences b ec a use,
before the era of experiment, it was the branch of knowledge
which could be most easily systematized, while the relations of
its phenomena to day and night, times and seasons, made some
knowledge of the subject a necessity of social life. In recent
times it is among the more progressive of the sciences, b e ca me
the new and improved methods of research now at command
have found in its cultivation a field of practically unlimited
extent, in which the lines of research may ultimately lead to a
comprehension of the universe impossible of attainment before
our time.
The field we have defined is divisible into at least two parts,
that of Astronomy proper, or " Astrometry," which treats of
the motions, mutual relations and dimensions of the heavenly
bodies; and that of Astrophysics (f.».), which treats of their
physical constitution. While it is true that the instruments and
methods of research in these two branches are quite different in
their details, there is so much in common in the fundamental
principles which underlie their application, that it is unprofitable
to consider them as completely distinct sciences.
Speaking in the most comprehensive way, and making an
exception of the ethereal medium (see Aethek), which, being
capable of experimental study, is not included in the subject
of astronomy, we may say that the great masses of matter winch
make up the universe are of two kinds:— (1) incandescent bodies,
made visible to us by their own light; (2) dark bodies, revolving
round them or round each other. These dark bodies are known
to us in two ways: (a) by becoming visible through reflecting
the light from incandescent bodies in their neighbourhood, (b)
by their attraction upon such bodies.
The incandescent bodies are of two classes: stars and nebulae.
Among the stars our sun is to be included, as it has no properties
which distinguish it from the great mass of stars except our
proximity to it. The stars are supposed to be generally spherical,
like the sun, in form, and to have fairly well-defined boundaries;
while the nebulae arc generally irregular in outline and have no
well-defined limits. It is, however, probable that the one class
runs into the other by imperceptible gradations. In the relation
of the universe to us there is yet another separation of its bodies
into two classes, one comprising the solar system, the other
the remainder of the universe. The former consists of the sun
and the bodies which move round it Considered as a part of
the universe, our solar system is insignificant in extent, though,
for obvious reasons, great in practical importance to us, and in
the facility with which we may gain knowledge relating to it-
Referring to special articles, Solas System, Stax, Sum, Moon,
&c for a description of the various parts of the universe, we
confine ourselves, at present, to setting forth a few of the most
general modern conceptions of the universe. As to extent, it
may be said, in a general way, that while no definite limits can
be set to the possible extent of the universe, or the distance of
its farthest bodies, it seems probable, for reasons which will be
given under Stax, that the system to which the stars that we see
belong, is of finite extent.
As the incandescent bodies of the universe are visible by their
own light, the problem of ascertaining their existence and
position is mainly one of seeing, and our facilities for attacking
it have constantly increased with the improvement of our optical
appliances. But such is not the case with the dark bodies.
Such a body can be made known to us only when in the neigh-
bourhood of an incandescent body; and even then, unless its
mass or its dimensions are considerable, it will evade all the
scrutiny of our science. The question of the possible number
and magnitude of such bodies is therefore one that docs not
admit of accurate investigation. We can do 1
SPHERICAL!
ASTRONOMY
Soi
balance vague estimates of probability, What we do know is
that these bodies vary widely in size; Those known to be
revolving round certain of the stars are far larger in proportion
to their central bodies than our planets are in respect to the sun;
for were it otherwise we should never be able to detect their
existence. At the other extreme we know that innumerable
swarms of minute bodies, probably little more than particles,
move round the sun in orbits of every degree of eccentricity,
making themselves known to us only in the exceptional cases
when they strike the earth's atmosphere. They then appear
to us as " shooting stars " (see Meteos).
A general idea of the relation of the solar system to the universe
may be gained by reflecting that the average distance between
any two neighbouring stars is several thousand times the extent
of the solar system. Between the orbit of Neptune and the
nearest star known to us is an immense void in which no bodies
are yet known to exist, except comets. But although these
sometimes wander to distances considerably beyond the orbit
of Neptune, it is probable that the extent of the void which
separates our system from the nearest star is hundreds of times
the distance of the farthest point to which a comet ever recedes.
We may conclude this brief characterization of astronomy
with a statement and classification of the principal lines on
which astronomical researches are now pursued. The most
comprehensive problem before the investigator is that of the
constitution of the universe. It is known that, while infinite
diversity is found among the bodies of the universe, there are
also common characteristics throughout its whole extent. In
a certain sense we may say that the universe now presents itself
to the thinking astronomer, not as a heterogeneous collection
of bodies, but as a unified whole. The number of stars is so vast
that statistical methods can be applied to many of the characters
which they exhibit — their spectra, their apparent and absolute
luminosity, and their arrangement in space. Thus has arisen
in recent times what we may regard as a third branch of astro-
nomical science, known as Stellar Statistics. The development of
this branch has infused life and interest into what might a few
years ago have been regarded as the most lifeless mass of figures
possible, expressing merely the positions and motions of innumer-
able individual stars, as determined by generations of astro-
nomical observers. The development of this new branch requires
great additions to this mass, the product of perhaps centuries
of work on the older lines of the science. To the statistician of
the stars, catalogues of spectra, magnitude, position and proper
motions are of the same importance that census tables are to the
student of humanity. The measurement of the speed with which
the individual stars are moving towards or from our system is a
work of such magnitude that what has yet been done is scarcely
more than a beginning. The discovery by improved optical
means, and especially by photography, of new bodies of our
system so small that they evaded all scrutiny in former times,
is still going on, but does not at present promise any important
generalisation, unless we regard as such the conclusion that our
solar system is s more complex organism than was formerly
supposed.
One characteristic of astronomy which tends to make its
progress slow and continuous arises out of the general fact that,
except in the case of motions to or from us, which can be deter-
mined by a single observation with the spectroscope, the motion
of a heavenly body can be determined only by comparing its
position at two different epochs. The interval required between
these two epochs depends upon the speed of the motion. In the
case of the greater number of the fixed stars this is so slow that
centuries may have to elapse before motion can be deduced.
Even in the case of the planets, the variations in the form and
position of the orbits are so slow that long periods of observation
are required for their correct determination.
The process of development is also made slow and difficult by
the great amount of labour involved in deriving the results of
astronomical observations. When an astronomer has made an
observation, it still has to be " reduced," and this commonly
requires more labour than that involved in making it But
even this labour may be small compared with that of the theo-
retical astronomer, who, in the future, is to use the result as the
raw material of his work. The computations required in such
work are of extreme complexity, and the labour required is still
further increased by the fact that cases are rather exceptional in
which the results reached by one generation will not have to be
revised and reconstructed by another; processes which may
involve the repetition of the entire work. We may, in fact, regard
the fabric of astronomical science as a building in the construction
of which no stone can be added without a readjustment of some
of the stones on which it has to rest Thus it comes about that
the observer, the computer, and the mathematician have in astro-
nomical science a practically unlimited field for the exercise of
their powers.
In treating so comprehensive a subject we may naturally
distinguish .between what we know of the universe and the
methods and processes by which that knowledge is acquired.
The former may be termed general, and the latter practical,
astronomy. When we descend more minutely into details we
find these two branches of the subject to be connected by certain
principles, the application of which relates to both subjects.
Considering as general or descriptive astronomy a description of
the universe as we now understand it, the other branches of the
subject generally recognized are as follows: —
Geometrical or Spherical Astronomy, by the principles of which
the positions and the motions of the heavenly bodies are defined.
Theoretical Astronomy t vrbich may be considered as an exten-
sion of geometrical astronomy and includes the determination of
the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies by combining
mathematical theory with observation. Modern theoretical
astronomy, taken in the most limited sense, is based upon
Celestial Mechanics, the science by which, using purely deductive
mechanical methods, the laws of motion of the heavenly bodies
are derived by deductive methods from their mutual gravitation
towards each other.
Practical Astronomy, which comprises a description of the
instruments used in astronomical observation, and of the
principles and methods underlying their application.
Spherical or Geometrical Astronomy,
In astronomy, as in analytical geometry, the position of a
point is defined by stating its distance and its direction from a
point of reference taken as known. The numerical quantities by
which the distance and direction, and therefore the position, are
defined, are termed co-ordinates of the point. The latter are
measured or defined with regard to a fixed system of lines and
planes, which form the basis of the system.
The following are the fundamental concepts of such a system.
(0) An origin or point of reference. The points most generally
taken for this purpose in astronomical practice are the following : —
(1) The position of a point of observation on the earth's surface.
We conceive its position to be that occupied by an observer. The
position of a heavenly body is then denned by its direction and
distance from the supposed observer.
(2) The centre of the earth. This point, though it can never be
occupied by an observer, is used because the positions of the heavenly
bodies in relation to it are more readily computed than they can be
from a point on the earth's surface.
(3) The centre of the sun.
(4) In addition to these three most usual points, we may, of
course, take the centre of a planet or that of a star in order to define
the position of bodies in their respective neighbourhoods. %
Co-ordinates referred to a point of observation as the origin are
termed " apparent," those referred to the centre of the earth are
" geocentric, those referred to the centre of the sun, * heliocentric.
\b) The next concept of the system is a fundamental plane,
regarded as fixed, passing through the origin. In connexion with It
is an axis perpendicular to it, also passing through the origin. We
may consider the axis and the plane as a single concept, the axis
determining the plane, or the plane the axis. The fundamental
concepts 01 this class most in use are: —
(1) When a point on the earth's surface is taken as the origin,
the fundamental axis may be the direction of gravity at that point-
This direction defines the vertical line. The fundamental plane
which it determines is horizontal and is termed the plane of the
horizon. Such a plane is realized in the surface of a liquid
©^quicksilver, for example.
8oa
ASTRONOMY
(a) Wheo the centre of the earth is taken as origin, the most
natural fundamental axis is that of the earth s rotation. This axis
cut* the earth's surface at the North and South Poles. The funda-
mental plane perpendicular to it is the plane of the equator. This
plane intersects the earth's surface in the terrestrial equator. Co-
ordinates referred to this system are termed equatorial. m A system
of equatorial co-ordinates may also be used when the origin is on the
eartns surface. The fundamental axis, instead of being the earth's
axis itself, is then a line parallel to it, and the fundamental plane is
the plane passing through the point, and parallel to the plane of the
equator.
(3) In the system of heliocentric co-ordinates, the plane in which
the earth moves round the sun, which is the plane of the ecliptic,
is taken as the fundamental one. The axis of the ecliptic is a line
perpendicular to this plane.
\c) The third concept necessary to complete the system is a fixed
line passing through the origin, and lying in the fundamental plane.
This line defines an initial direction from which other directions are
counted.
The geometrical concepts just defined are shown In fig. I. Here O
b the origin, whatever point it may be; OZ is the fu n da m en t al
axis passing through it. In order to represent in the figure the
_ position of the
2 1 u ndamental
plane, we conceive
a circle to be drawn
round O, lying in
that plane. This
circle, projected in
-ML
Fio. 1.
ellipse, is shown in
Vthe figure. OX is
the fixed initial
line by which
directions are to be
defined.
Now let P be
any point in space,
y the centre of
a heavenly body. Conceive a perpendicular PQ to be dropped from
this point on the fundamental plane, meeting the latter in the
point Q; PQ will then be parallel to OZ. The co-ordinates of P will
then be the following three quantities: —
(1) The length of the line OP, or the distance of the body from the
origin, which distance is called the radius vector of the body.
m The angle XOQ which the projection of the radius vector upon
the fundamental plane makes with the initial line OX. This angle
is called the Longitude, Right Ascension or Azimuth of the body, in
the various systems of co-ordinates. We may term it in, a general
way the longitudinal co-ordinate.
(3) The angle QOP, which the radius vector makes with the
fundamental plane. This we may call the latitudinal co-ordinate.
Instead of it is frequently used the complementary angle ZOP,
known as the polar distance of the body. Since ZOO is a right angle,
it follows that the sum of the polar distance and the latitudinal co-
ordinates is always 90*. Either may be used for astronomical
purposes.
It is readily seen that the position of a heavenly body is completely
defined when these co-ordinates are given.
One of the systems of co-ordinates is familiar to every one, and
may be used as a general illustration of the method. It is our system
of defining the position of a point on the earth's surface by its latitude
and longitude. Regarding O (fig. l) as the centre of the earth, and
P as a point on the earth's surface, a city for example, it will be seen
that OZ being the earth's axis, the circle MN will be the equator.
The initial line OX then passes through the foot of the perpendicular
dropped from Greenwich upon the plane of the equator, and meets
the surface at N. The angle QOP is the latitude of the place and
the angle NOQ its longitude. The longitudes and latitudes thus
defined are geocentric, and the latitude is slightly different from that
in ordinary use for geographic purposes. The difference arises from
the oblatencss of the earth, and need not be considered here.
The conception of the co-ordinates we have defined is facilitated
by introducing that of the celestial sphere. This conception is
embodied in our idea of the vault of heaven, or of the sky. Taking
as origin the position of ah observer, the direction of a heavenly
body u defined by the point in which he sees it in the sky; that is
to say, on the celestial sphere. Imagining, as we may well do, that
the radius of this sphere is infinite — then every direction, whatever
the origin, may be represented by a point on its surface. Take for
example the vertical line which is embodied in the direction of the
plumb line. This line, extended upwards, meets the celestial sphere
in the zenith. The earth's axis, continued indefinitely upwards,
meets the sphere in a point called the Celestial Pole. This point in
our middle latitudes is between the scnith and the north horizon,
near a certain star of the second magnitude familiarly known as the
Pole Star. As the earth revolves from west to east the celestial
sphere appears to us to revolve in the opposite direction, turning on
the tine joining the Celestial Poles as on a pivot.
As we conceive of the sky, it does not consist of an entire sphere
•SPHERICAL
but only as a hemisphere bounded by the horizon. But we have t>,
difficulty in extending the conception below the horizon, so that tic
earth with everything upon it is in the centre of a complete sphen
The two parts of this sphere are the visible hemisphere, whkh it
above the horizon, and the invisible, which is. below it. Then tat
plumb line not only defines the zenith as already shown, but is s
downward direction it defines the nadir, which is the point of the
sphere directly below our feet. On the side of this sphere oppc-ite
to the North Celestial is the South Pole, invisible in the Northers
Terrestrial Hemisphere but visible in the Southern one.
The relation of geocentric to apparent co-ordinates dep end s upoi
the latitude of the observer. The changes which the aspect of tit
heaven undergoes, as we travel North and South, are so well kno+z
that they need not be described in detail here; bat a general state-
meat of them will give a luminous idea of the geometries! co-oroiflatri
we have described. Imagine an observer starting from the Noru
Pole to travel towards the equator, carrying his zenith with hir.
When at the pole his zenith coincides with the celestial pole, and u
the earth revolves on its axis, the heavenly bodies perform tHrr
apparent diurnal revolutions in horizontal ardea round the sec* a.
As he travels South, his zenith moves alone the crsrsfial spfctrt.
and the circles of diurnal rotation become oblique to the homo*.
The obliquity continually increases until the observer reaches t>*
equator. His zenith is then in the equator and the celestial poles ir.
in the North and South horizon respectively. The circles in »h*^
the heavenly bodies appear to revolve are then vertical. Coutin^:^
his journey towards the south, the north celestial pole sinks be. •
the horizon; the south celestial pole rises above it: or to spra*.
more exactly, the zenith of the observer approaches) that pole. TV
circles of diurnal revolution again become oblique. Finally, at t»c
south pole the circles of diurnal revolution are again apnarcc:!.
horizontal, but are described in a direction apparently (out xt
really) the reverse of that near the north pole. The reader w hr » J
trace out these successive concepts and study the results of fes
changing positions will readily acquire the notions which it is oh
subject to define.
We have next to point out the relation of the co-ordinates se
have described to the annual motion of the earth around the sua
In consequence of this motion the sun appears to us to describe
annually a great circle, called the ecliptic, round the nrsftial sphae.
among the stars, with a nearly uniform motion, of sosssewhat test
than i* in a day. Were the stars visible in the daytime in tat
immediate neighbourhood of the sun, this motion could be traced
from day to day. The ecliptic intersects the celestial equator at
two opposite points, the equinoxes, at an angle of 23* vf. The
vernal equinox is taken as the initial point on the sphere frcs
which co-ordinates are measured in the equatorial and ediF*
systems. Referring to fig. 1 , the initial line OX is defined as dim- -^
toward the vernal equinox, at which point it intersects the celesta]
sphere.
The following is an enumeration of the co-ordinates which we
have described in the three systems:—
ArrAEiMT System.
Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Altitude or Zenith 1
Longitudinal „ Azimuth.
Equatorial System.
Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Declination or Polar Distance.
Longitudinal „ Right Ascension.
Ecliptic System.
Latitudinal Co-ordinate; Latitude or Ecliptic Polar Distance.
Longitudinal „ Longitude.
Relation of the Diurnal Motion to Spherical Co-ordinates. — TV
vertical line at any place being the fundamental axis of the appar< T *
system of co-ordinates, this system rotates with the earth, and *>*
seems to us as fixed. The other two systems, iadading the vere-J
equinox, are fixed on the celestial sphere, and so seem to os :?
perform a diurnal revolution from east towards west. Regarding the
period of the revolution as 24 hours, the apparent mo t ion gees oe
at the rate of 15" per hour. Here we have to make a dwtinctioa d
fundamental importance between the diurnal motions of the u*
and of the stars. Owing to the unceasing apparent motion of the
sun toward the cast, the interval between two passages of the sar*
star over the meridian is nearly four minutes less than the intern'
between consecutive passages of the sun. The latter is the 1
ovUlife. Ins
a day, termed " sidereal," determined, not by the diurnal revolutkra
ti astronomical
I practices
thediurni
of the day as used in civil 1:
a day, termed " sidereal,"
of the sun, but of the stars. The year, which comprises A6$-zs »
days, contains 36625 sidereal days. The latter are divided tn*o
sidereal hours, minutes and seconds as the solar day is. The coc-
ception of a revolution through 360* in 24 hours m a ry litahlc to
each case. The sun apparently moves at the rate of 15 in a subr
hour; the stars at the rate of 15* in a sidereal hour. The latter
motion leads to the use, in astronomical practice, of time instead of
angle, as the unit in which the right ascensions are to be exu i omd
Considering the position of the vernal equinox, and also of a star
on the celestial sphere, it will be seen that the interval bccwri
the transits of these two points across the meridian may be lvJ
to measure the right ascension of a star, since the latter amonati to
THEORETICAL}
13* for every sidereal hour of this interval. For example, if the right
ascenrion of a star i» exactly 15°, it will oast the meridian one sidereal
hour after the vernal equinox. For the relations thus arising, and
their practical applications, see Time, Measurement op.
Theoretical Astronomy.
Ineoretical Astronomy is that branch of the science which,
tnaking use of the results of astronomical observations as they are
supplied by the practical astronomer, investigates the motions of
the heavenly bodies. In its most important features it is an
offshoot of celestial mechanics, between which and theoretical
astronomy no sharp dividing line can be drawn. While it is true
that the one is concerned altogether with general theories, it is
also true that these theories require developments and modifica-
tions to apply them to the numberless problems of astronomy!
which we may place in either class.
Among the problems of theoretical astronomy we may assign the
first place to the determination of orbits (*.».), which is auxiliary to
the prediction of the apparent motion* of a planet, satellite or star.
The computations involved in the process, whUe simple in some cases.
9n extremely complex in others. The orbit of a newly-discovered
planet or comet may be computed from three complete observations
by well-known methods in a single day. From the malting elements
of the orbit the positions of the body from day to day may be
computed and tabulated in an ephemeris for the use of observers.
But when definitive results as to the orbits are required, it is necessary
to compute the perturbations produced by such of the major planets
as have affected the motions of the body. With this complicated
process is associated that of combining numerous observations with
a view of obtaining the best definitive result. Speaking in a general
way, we may say that computations pertaining to the orbital
revolutions of double stars, as well as the bodies of our solar system,
are to a greater or less extent of the classes we have described. The
principal modification is that.up to the present time, stellar astronomy
has not advanced so far that a computation of the perturbations in
each case of a system of stars is either necessary or possible, except
in exceptional cases*
Celestial Mechanics.
Celestial Mechanics is, strictly speaking, that branch of applied
mathematics which, by deductive processes, derives the laws of
motion of the heavenly bodies from their gravitation towards
each other, or from the mutual action of the parts which form
them. The science had its origin in the demonstration- by Sir
Isaac Newton that Kepler's three laws of planetary motion, and
the law of gravitation, in the case of two bodies, could be mutually
derived from each other. A body can move round the sun in an
elliptic orbit having the sun in its focus, and describing equal
areas in equal times, only under the influence of a force directed
towards the sun, and varying inversely as the square of the
distance from it. Conversely, assuming this law of attraction, it
can be shown that the planets will move according to Kepler's
laws.
Thus celestial mechanics may be said to have begun with
Newton's Principia. The development of the science by the
successors of Newton, especially Laplace and Lagrange, may be
classed among the most striking achievements of the human
intellect. The precision with which the path of an eclipse is laid
down years in advance cannot but imbue the minds of men with
a high sense of the perfection reached by astronomical theories;
and the discovery, by purely mathematical processes, of the
changes which the orbits and motions of the planets are to
undergo through future ages is more impressive the more fully
one apprehends the nature of the problem. The purpose of the
present article is to convey a general idea of the methods by which
the results of celestial mechanics are reached, without entering
into those technical details which can be followed only by a
trained mathematician. It must be admitted that any intelligent
comprehension of the subject requires at least a grasp of the
fundamental conceptions of analytical geometry and the in-
finitesimal calculus, such as only one with some training in these
subjects can be expected to have. This being assumed, the hope
of the writer is that the exposition will afford the student an
insight into the theory which may facilitate his orientation, and
convey to the general reader with a certain amount of mathe-
matical training a clear idea of the methods by which conclusions
relating to it are draws. The. non-mathematical reader may
ASTRONOMY
803
possibly be able to gain some general idea, though vague, of the
significance of the subject
The fundamental hypothesis of the science assumes a system of
bodies in motion, of which the sun and planets may be taken as
examples, and of which each separate body is attracted toward all
the others according to the law 01 Newton. The motion of each body
is then expressed in the first place by Newton's three laws of motion
(see Motion, Laws op, and Mechanics). The first step in the
process shows in a striking way the perfection of the analytic method.
The conception of force is, so to speak, eliminated from the conditions
of the problem, which is reduced to one of purs kinematics. At the
outset, the position of each body, considered as a material particle,
is defined by reference to a system of co-ordinate axes, ana not by
any verbal description. Differential equations which express the
changes of the co-ordinates are then constructed. The process of
discovering the laws of motion of the particle then consists in the
integration of these equations. Such equations can be formed for a
system of any number of bodies, but the process of integration in a
rigorous form is possible only to a limited extent or in special cases.
The problems to be treated are of two classes. In one, the bodies
are regarded as material particles, no account being taken of their
dimensions. The earth, for example, may be regarded as a particle
attracted by another more massive particle, the sun. In the other
class of problems, the relative motion of the different parts of the
separate bodies is considered; for example, the rotation of the
earth on its axis, and the consequences of the fact that those parts
of a body which are nearer to another body are more strongly
attracted by it. Beginning with the first branch of the subject,
the fundamental ideas which it is our purpose to convey are em-
bodied in the simple case of only two bodies, which we may call
the sun and a planet. In this case the two bodies really revolve
round their common centre of gravity : but a very slight modification
of the equations of motion reduces them to the relative motion of
the planet round the sun, regarding the moving centre of the latter
as the origin of co-ordinates. The motion of this centre, which arises
from the attraction of the planet on the sun, need not be considered.
In the actual problems of celestial mechanics three co-ordinates
necessarily enter, leading to three differential equations and six
equations of solution. But the general principles of the problem
are completely exemplified with only two bodies, in which case the
motion takes place in a fixed plane. By taking this plane, which is
: that of the orbit in which the planet performs its revolution, as the
plane of xy, we have only two co-ordinates to consider. Let us use
the following notation:
x, y, the co-ordinates of the planet relative to the sun as the origin.
M, m, the masses of the attracting bodies, sun and planet.
r, the distance apart of the two bodies, or the radius vector of m
relative to M. This last quantity is analytically defined by the
equation—
r»-*«+>*.
t. the time, reckoned from any epoch we choose.
The differential equations which completely determine the
changes in the co-ordinates x and y, or the motion of m relative to
Af.are.—
«Fx (M+m)x
dfi " r* (1)
*y ( Jlf-r-m)y
These formulae are worthy of special attention. They are the
expression in the language of mathematics of Newton's first two
laws of motion. Their statement in this language may be regarded
as perfect, because it completely and unambiguously expresses the
naked phenomena of the motion. The equations do this without
expressing any conception, such as that of force, not associated
with the actual phenomena. Moreover, as a third advantage, these
expressions arc entirely free from those difficulties and ambiguities
which are met with in every attempt to express the laws of motion
in ordinary language. They afford yet another great advantage
in that the den vat ion of the results requires only the analytic
operations of the infinitesimal calculus.
The power and spirit of the analytic method will be appreciated
by showing how it expresses the relations of motion as they were
conceived geometrically by Newton and Kepler. It is quite evident
that Kepler's laws do not in themselves enable us to determine the
actual motion of the planers. We must have, in addition, in the
case of each "special planet, certain specific facts, via. the axes and
eccentricity of the ellipse, and the position of the plane in which it
lies. Besides these, we must have given the position of the planet
in the orbit at some specified moment. Having these data, the
position of the planet at any other time may be geometrically
constructed by Kepler's laws. The third law enables us to compute
the time taken by the radius vector to sweep over the entire area of
the orbit, which is identical with the time of revolution. The
problem of constructing successive radii vectores, the angles of
which are measured off from the radius vector of the body at the
original given position, is then a geometric one, known as Kepler '-
problem.
In the analytic process these specific data, called elements o
804
ASTRONOMY
"¥£
orbit, appear as- arbitrary constants, iatroduoed by the process of
integration. In a case like the present one, where there are two
differential equations of the second order, there will be four such
constants. The result of the integration is that the co-ordinates x
and y and their derivatives as to the time, which express the position,
direction of motion and speed of the planet at any moment, are found
as functions of the four constants and of the time. Putting
a, b, c, d,
for the constants, the general form of the solution will be\
x-fi(o,b,c,d,t) ' M
y-MaAcM W
From these may be derived by differentiation as to I $e velocities
The symbols %* and / are used for brevity to mean the velocities
expressed by the differential coefficients. The arbitrary constants,
a, ft. c and a, are the elements of the orbit, or any quantities from
which these elements can be obtained. We note that, in the actual
process of integration, no geometric construction need enter.
Let us next consider the problem in another form. Conceive that
instead of the orbit of the planet, there is given a position P (fig. 2),
q ^ through which the planet passed at an assigned
jtv | --?i moment, with a given velocity, and in a given
'' I y^ direction, represented by the arrowhead. Logi-
/ >* cally these data completely determine the orbit
I / \ in which the planet shall move, because there
• g 1 is only one such orbit passing through P, a
• * .' planet moving in which would have the given
\ / speed. It follows that the elements of the
y orbit admit of determination when the co-ordi-
' nates of the planet at an assigned moment
Fie. 2 and their derivatives as to time are given.
Analytically the elements are determined from
these data by solving the four equations just given, regarding
a, b, c and d as unknown quantities, and x, y, x*, y and / as given
quantities. The solution of these equations would lead toexpressions
of the form
one for each of the elements.
The general equations expressing the motion of a planet considered
as a material particle round a centre of attraction lead to theorems
the more interesting of which will now be enunciated.
(1) The motion of such a planet may take place not only in an
ellipse but in any curve of the second order; an ellipse, hyperbola,
or parabola, the latter being the bounding curve between the other
two. A body moving in a parabola or hyperbola would recede
indefinitely from its centre of motion and never return to it. The
ellipse is therefore the only closed orbit.
(2) The motion takes place in accord with Kepler's laws, enun-
ciated elsewhere.
(3) WhevoeWs theorem: if a point R be taken at a distance from
the sun equal to the major axis of the orbit of a planet and, there-
fore, at double the mean distance of the planet, the speed of the
latter at any point is equal to the speed which a body would acquire
by falling from the point R to the actual position of the planet.
The speed of the latter may, therefore, be expressed as a function of
its radius vector at the moment and of the major axis of its orbit
without introducing any other elements into the expression. Another
corollary is that in the case of a body moving in a parabolic orbit
the velocity at any moment is that which would be acquired by the
body in falling from an infinite distance to the place it occupies at
the moment.
(4) If a number of bodies are projected from any point in space
with the same velocity, but in various directions, and subjected
only to the attraction of the sun, they will all return to the point
of projection at the same moment, although the orbits in which they
move may be ever so different.
(5) At each distance from the sun there is a certain velocity
which a body would have if it moved in a circular orbit at that
distance. If projected with this velocity in any direction the point
of projection will be at the end of the minor axis of the orbit, because
this is the only point of an ellipse of which the distance from the focus
is equal to the semi-major axis of the curve, and therefore the only
point at which the distance of the body from the sun is equal to its
mean distance.
(6) The relation between the periodic time of a planet and its
mean distance, approximately expressed by Kepler's third law,
follows very simply from the laws of centrifugal force. It is an ele-
mentary principle of mechanics that this force varies directly as
the product of the distance of the moving body from the centre of
motion into the square of its angular velocity. When bodies revolve
at different distances around a centre, their velocities must be such
that the centrifugal force of each shall be balanced by the attraction
of the central mass, and therefore vary inversely as the square of the
[CELESTIAL MECHANICS
If AT is the central mass, » the angular velocity, sad • the
distance, the balance of the two forces is tinwawd by the eq eatiu e
whence aW- M, a constant.
The periodic time varying inversely as », this equation tmtw rt
Kepler's third law. This reasoning tacitly supposes the orbst to he
a circle of radius a, and the mass of the planet to be n eg jic ih ir
The rigorous relation is expressed by a slight modification of the
law. Putting M and m for the respective msssti of the son and
'utting 4 . . . m
planet, a for the semi-major axis of the orbit, and a for the 1
angular motion in unit of time, the relation then is
oV-lf+ss.
What is noteworthy in this theorem is that this relation depends
only on the sum of the masses. It follows, there f or e , that were aay
portion of the mass of the sun taken from it, and added to the planet.
the relation would be unchanged. Kepler's third saw therefore
expresses the fact that the mass of the sun ia the same for all the
planets, and deviates from the truth only to the extent that the
masses of the latter differ from each other by quantities which ere
only a small fraction of the mass of the sua.
Problem of Thru Bodies.— A* soon as the general law of gravitation
was fully apprehended, it became evident that, owing to the attrac-
tion of each planet upon all the others, the actual motion of the
planets must deviate from their motion in an ellipse according to
Kepler's laws. In the PrinciOia Newton made several invrstisjatmm
to determine the effects of these- actions; but the geometrical
method which he employed could lead only to rude a ppr mim a tiom
When the subject was taken up by the continental matheniatsriassv
using the analytical method, the question naturally arose whether
the motions of three bodies under their mutual attraction could not be
determined with a degree of rigour approximating^ that with whkh
Newton had solved the problem of two bodies. Thus arose the cele-
brated " problem of three bodies." Investigation soon showed that
certain integrals expressing relations between the motion* not only
of three but of any number of bodies could be found. These were —
First, the law of the conservation of the centre of gravity. This
expresses the general fact that whatever be the number of the bodies
which act upon each other, their motions are so related that the
centre of gravity of the entire system moves in a straight line with
a constant velocity. This is expressed in three equation*, one lor
each of the three rectangular co-ordinates.
Secondly, the law of conservation of areas. This is an eatensioa
of Kepler's second law. Taking as the radius vector of each body
the line from the body to the common centre of gravity of alt the
sum of the products formed by multiplying each area described,
by the mass of the body, remains a constant. In the language of
theoretical mechanics, the moment of momentum of theentire system
is a constant quantity. This law is also expressed in three equations,
one for each of the three planes on which the areas are projected.
Thirdly, the entire vis viva of the system or, as it is now caBed.
the energy, which is obtained by multiplying the mass of each body
into half the square of its velocity, is equaj to the sum of the quotients
formed by dividing the product of every pair of the masses, takes
two and two, by their distance apart, with the addition of a const set
depending on the original conditions of the system. In the language
of algebra putting m u m%, m», Ac. for the masses of the bodies.
n.i fi.i 'm, &c. for their mutual distances apart; vi, **, 9 U Ac, for
the velocities with which they are moving at any moment ; these
quantities will continually satisfy the equation
i(m^+m^+ . . -»+»+=■=«+ . . . +a
The theorems of motion just cited are expressed by seven integrals,
or equations expressing a law that certain functions of the variables
and of the time remain constant. It is remarkable that akhosta
the seven integrals were found almost from the beginning of the
investigation, no others have since been added; and indeed it hu
recently been shown that no others exist that can be t rpm s iJ ta
an algebraic form. In the case of three bodies these do not suffice
completely to define the motion. In this case, the problem can be
attacked only by methods of approximation, devised so as to meet
the special conditions of each case. The special conditions which
obtain in the solar system are such as to make the necessary ap-
proximation theoretically possible however complex the process
may be. These conditions are:— (1) The smallness of the masses
of the planets in comparison with that of the sun, in consequenre of
which the orbit of each planet deviates but slightly from an ellipse
during any one revolution ; (2) the fact that the orbits of the pUo -
are nearly circular, and the planes of their orbits but slightly it
to each other. The result of these conditions is that all the quantities
required admit of development in series proceeding according to
the powers of the eccentricities and inclinations of the orbits, and
the ratio of the masses of the several planets to the mass of the sua.
Perturbations of the Planets. — Kepler's laws do not cosnpktrly
express the motion of a planet around a central body, except whea
no force but the mutual attraction of the two bodies comes into plsy.
When one or more other bodies form a part of the system, their acton
produces deviations from the elliptic motion, which are called
perturbations. The problem of determining the perturbntioas of the
CELESTIAL MECHANICS!
heavenly bodies is perhapi
ASTRONOMY
805
ps th* most complicated with which tko
has to grapple; and the forms under which
it has to be studied are so numerous that they cannot be easily
arranged under any one head. But there is one conception of
perturbations of such generality and elegance that it forms the
common base of all those methods of determining these deviations
which have high scientific interest. This conception is embodied
in the method of " variation of elements," originally due to J. L.
Lagrange. The simplest method of presenting it starts with the
second view of the elliptic morion already set forth.
We have shown that, when the position of a planet and the
direction and speed of its motion at a certain instant are given,
the elements of the orbit can be determined. We have supposed
this to be done at a certain point P of the orbit, the direction and
speed being expressed by the variables x, y, x* and /. Now, con-
atdcr the values of these same variables expressing the position of
the planet at a second point Q, and the speed with which it passes
that point. With this position and speed the elements of the orbit
can again be determined. Since the orbit is unchanged so long as
no disturbing force acts, it follows that the elements determined by
means of the two sets of values of the variables are in this case the
same. In a word, although the position and speed of the planet and
the direction of its motion are constantly changing, the values of
the elements determined from these variables remain constant.
This fact is fully ex|
constants on one
ciwuivu iiviii uwac TaiwuiCB icuhuu vwit*b»*tk«
expressed by the equations (4) where we have
side of the equation equal to functions of the
this
of
6t.
£
se-
lf.
*y
IS
If
so
its
nt
ey
ay
■er
variables on the other. Functions of the variables
property of remaining constant are termed integrals.
Now let the planet be subjected to any fora
the sun's attraction, — say to the attractioi
To fix the ideas let us suppose that the additk
an impulse received at the moment of passic
first effect will evidently be to chance either th<
tion in which the planet is moving at the n
with the changed velocity we again compul
will be different from the former elements. 1
not repeated, these new elements will again r
repeated, the second impulse will again change
on indefinitely. It follows that, if we go on co
a, b t c, d from the actual values of x, y, x* an<
when the planet is subject to the attraction c
will no longer be invariable, but will slowly \
and year to year. These ever varying eleme
varying elliptic orbit, — not an orbit which , ... ,
describes through its whole course, but an ideal one in which it is
moving at each instant, and which continually adjusts itself to the
actual motion of the planet at the instant. This is called the
osculating orbit
The essential principle of Lagrange's elegant method consists in
determining the variations of this osculating ellipse, the co-ordinates
and velocities of the planet being ignored in the determination.
This may be done because, since the elements and co-ordinates
completely determine each other, we may concentrate our attention
on either, ignoring the other. The reason for taking the elements
as the variables is that they vary very slowly, a property which
facilitates their determination, since the variations may be treated
as small quantities, of which the squares and products may be
neglected in a first solution. In a second solution the squares and
products may be taken account of, and so on as far as necessary.
If the problem is viewed from a synthetic point of view, the stages
of its solution are as follows. We first conceive of the planets as
moving in invariable elliptic orbits, and thus obtain approximate
expressions for their positions at any moment. With these expres-
sions we express their mutual action* or their pull upon each other
at any and every moment. This pull determines the variations of
the ideal elements. Knowing these variations it becomes possible
to represent by integration the value of the elements as algebraic
expressions containing the time, and the elements with which we
started. But the variations thus determined will not be rigorously
exact, because the pull from which they arise has been determined
on the supposition that the planets are moving in unvarying orbits,
whereas the actual pull depends on the actual position of the planets.
Another approximation is, therefore, to be made, when necessary, by
correcting the expression of the pull through taking account of the
variations of the elements already determined, which will give a yet
nearer approximation to the truth. In theory these successive ap-
proximations may be carried as far as we please, but in practice the
labour of executing each approximation is so great that we arc
obliged to stop when the solution is so near the truth that the out-
standing error is less than that of the best observations. Even this
degree of precision may be impracticable in the more complex cases.
The results which arc required to compare with observations are
not merely the elements, but the co-ordinates. When the varying
elements are known these are computed by the equations (2) because,
from the nature of the algebraic relations, the slowly varying elements
are continuously determined by the equations (4), which express
the same relations between the elements and the variables as do
the equations (2) and 00. This method is, therefore, in form at least,
completely rigorous. There arc some cases in which it may be applied
unchanged. But commonly it proves to be extremely long and
cumbrous, and m sd in c atio sa have to be resorted to. Of these
modifications the most valuable in one conceived by P. A. Hansen.
A certain mean elliptic orbit, as near as possible to the actual varying
orbit of the planet* is taken. In this orbit a certain fictitious planet-
is supposed to move according to the law of elliptic motion. Com-
paring the longitudes of the actual and the fictitious planet the
former will sometimes be ahead of the latter and sometimes behind
it. But in every case, if at a certain time /, the actual planet has a
certain longitude, it is certain that at a very short interval dt before
or after I, the fictitious planet will have this same longitude. What
Hansen's method does is to determine a correction dt such that, being
applied to the actual time /. the longitude of the fictitious planet
computed for the time /+«, will give the longitude of the true
planet at the time J. By a number of ingenious devices Hansen
developed methods by which dt could be determined. The computa-
tions are, as a general rule, simpler, and the algebraic expressions
less complex, than when the computations of the longitude itself
are calculated. Although the longitude of the fictitious planet at
the fictitious time is then equal to that of the true planet at the true
time, their radii vectores will not be strictly equal. Hansen, therefore,
shows how the radius vector is corrected so as to give that of the
tn
e have considered only two variables as
de >f the planet, the latter being supposed to
nv Bh this is true when there are any number
of same plane, the fact is that the planets
ra< planes. Hence the position of the plane of
th s continually changing in consequence of
th e problem of determining the changes is,
he thers in perturbations. The method is
ag a of elements. The position and velocity
be o-ordinates, a certain osculating plane is
de nt in which the planet is moving at that
in) ins invariable so long as no third body acts;
wl lition of the plane changes very slowly,
co d the radius vector of the planet as an
im tion.
iriations. — When, following the preceding
mi the elements are expressed in terms of the
tit ! of two classes, periodic and secular. The
fir longitudes of the planets, and always tend
ba » when the planets return to their original
po The others are, at least through long
ne ly progressive. , . .
1 nature of these two classes of variation
ing of the motion of a ship, floating on an
th . „ ^
so m observer on board of her would notice no motion except
th t, suppose the tide to be rising. Then, by continued
ot on, extended over an hour or more, it will be found that,
in meral average, the ship is gradually rising, so that two
di kinds of motion arc superimposed on each other. The
el he rising tide is in the nature of a secular variation, while
th ing is periodic.
e analogy does not end here. If the progressive rise of the
sh . atched for six hours or more, it will be found gradually to
cease and reverse its direction. That is to say, making abstraction
of the pitching, the ship is slowly rising and falling in a total period
of nearly twelve hours, while superimposed upon this slow motion is
a more rapid motion due to the waves. It is thus with the motions
of the planets going through their revolutions. ^ Each orbit continu-
ally changes its form and position, sometimes in one direction and
sometimes in another. But when these changes are averaged
through years and centuries it is found that the average orbit has a
secular variation which, for a number of centuries, may appear as a
very slow progressive change in one direction only. But when this
change is more fully investigated, it is found to be really periodic,
so that after thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds ofthousands
of years, its direction will be reversed and so on continually, like the
rising and falling tide. The orbits thus present themselves to us
in the words of a distinguished writer as Great clocks of eternity
which beat ages as ours beat seconds."
The periodic variations can be r epr es en ted algebraically as the
resultant of a series of harmonic motions in the following way:
Let L be an angle which is increasing uniformly with the time, and
let n be its rate of increase. We put U for its value at the moment
from which the time is reckoned. The general expression for the
angle will then be
Such an angle continually goes through the round of 360* in a
definite period. For example, if the daily motion is 5°, and we
take the day as the unit of time, the round will be completed in
Sdays, and the angle will continually go through the value which it
d 72 days before. Let us now consider an equation of the form
U-a sin (fU+L,).
The value of U will continually oscillate between the extreme
values +a and -a, going through a scries of changes in the — —
8o6
ASTRONOMY
(CELESTIAL MECHANICS
period in which the angle nl+Lo goes through a revolution. In this
case the variation will be simply periodic.
The value of any element of the planet's motion will generally be
represented by the sum of an infinite aerie* of such periodic quantities,
having different periods. For example
V-a sin (n/+U)+*. sin («i+Li)-fc sin (tt+L,) Ac
In this case the motion of U, while still periodic, is seemingly
irregular, being much like that of a pitching snip, which has no one
unvarying period.
In the problems of celestial mechanics the angles within the
parentheses are represented by sums or differences of multiples of
the mean longitudes of the planets as they move round their orbits.
If I be the mean longitude of the planet whose motion we are con-
sidering, and /' that of the attracting planet affecting it, the periodic
inequalities of the elements as well as of the co-ordinates of the
attracted planet, may be represented by an infinite series of terms
like the following:—
a sin (/*-/)+» sin (tI'-Q+c tin (/'-2/)+&c
Here the coefficients of / and V may separately take all integral
values, though as a general rule the coefficients «, b t c, Ac diminish
rapidly when these coefficients become large, so that only small
values have to be considered.
The most interesting kind of periodic inequalities are those known
as " terms of long period." A general idea both of their nature and
of their cause wilfbe gained by taking as a special case one celebrated
in the history of the subject — the great inequality between Jupiter
and Saturn. We begin by showing what the actual fact is in the case
of these two planets. Let
fig*. 3 represent the two
orbits, the sun being at
C. We know that the
period of Jupiter is nearly
twelve years, and that of
Saturn a little less than
thirty years. It will be
seen that these numbers
are nearly in the ratio of
2 to 5. It follows, that
the motions of the mean
longitudes are nearly in
the same proportion re-
versed. The annual
motion of Jupiter is
nearly 30°, that of Saturn
a little more than 13°.
Let us now consider the
effect of this relation upon
the configurations and
relations of the two
planets. Let the line CJ represent the common direction of the
two planets from the sun when they are in conjunction, and let us
follow the motions until they again come into conjunction. This
will occur along a line CRi, making an angle of nearly 240° with CJ.
At this point Saturn will have moved 240° and Jupiter an entire
revolution + 240 *, making 6oo°. These two motions, it will be seen,
are in the proportion 5 : 2. The next conjunction will take place
along CSi, ana the third after the initial one will again take place
near the original position JQ, Jupiter having made five revolutions
and Saturn two.
The result of these repetitions is that, during a number of revolu-
tions, the special mutual actions of the two planets at these three
points of their orbits repeat themselves, while the actions corres-
ponding to the three intermediate arcs arc wanting. Thus it happens
that if the mutual actions are balanced through a period of a few
revolutions only there is a small residuum of Torces corresponding
to the three regions in question, which repeats itself in the same way,
and which, if it continued indefinitely, would entirely change the
forms of the two orbits. But the actual mean motions deviate
slightly from the ratio 2 : 5, and we have next to show how this
deviation results in an ultimate balancing of the forces. The annual
mean motions, with the corresponding combinations, are as follows : —
Jupiter-— n -3<>*-349043
Saturn:—* -12 '221133
2»-6o '69809
5»'-6i -10567
5»'-2»» o -40758
If we make a more accurate computation of the conjunctions from
these data, we shall find that, in the general mean, the consecutive
conjunctions take place when each planet has moved through an
entire number of rcvolutions+242*7*. It follows that the third
conjunction instead of occurring exactly along the line (
along CQi, making an angle of nearly 8* with CQi. The
conjunctions following will be along CR». CS,, CQ«, &c, the law of
progression being obvious.
The balancing of the series of forces will not be complete until the
respective triplets of conjunctions have filled up the entire space
between them. This will occur when the angle whose annual motion
i« <«'-2» has gone through 360°. From the preceding value of
FlC. 4.
5»*— *» we see that this will require a little more than 6&J year*
The result of the continued action of the two planets upon each other
is that during half of this period the motion of one planet Is constantly
retarded and of the other constantly accelerated, while during t!w
other half the effects are reversed. There is thus in the case of e&c*
planet an oscillation of the mean longitude which Increases it aad
then diminishes it to its original value at the end of the period of
883 years.
The longitudes, latitudes and radii vectores of a planet, bant
algebraically expressed as the sum of an infinite periodic series rf
the land we have been describing, it follows that the problem of
finding their co-ordinates at any moment is solved by oompotutg
these expressions. This is facilitated by the construction ol tables
by means of which the co-ordinates can be computed at any time.
Such tables are used in the offices of the national Ephesnerides to
construct ephemerides of the several planets, showing their exact
positions in the sky from day to day.
We pass now to the second branch of celestial mechanics via. that
in which the planets are no longer considered as particles, bat as
rotating bodies of which the dimensions are to be taken into acco-nt.
Such a body, in free space, not acted on by any force except the
attraction of its several parts, will go on rotating for ever ia as
invariable direction. But, in consequence of the centrifugal f«i~r
generated by the rotation, it assumes a spheroidal form, theeqoat rvj
regions bulging out. Such a form we all know to be that of iSe
earth and of the planets rotating on their axes. Let us study the
effect of this deviation from the spherical form upon the attractija
exercised by a distant body.
We begin with the special case of the earth as acted upon by the
sun and moon. Let fig. 4 represent a section of the narth t hrcugh a»
axis AB, ECQ being a diameter of the equator. Let the dotted
lines show the direction of the distant
attracting body. The point E, being
more distant than C, will be attracted
with less force, while Q will be attracted
with a greater force than will the centre
C. Were the force equal on every point 4
of the earth it would have no influence
on its rotation, but would simply draw
its whole mass toward the attracting
body. It is therefore only the difftrenu of the forces on different
parts of the earth that affects the rotation.
Let us, therefore, divide the attracting forces at each point i«rt*
two parts, one the average force, which we may call F, and m •->
for our purpose may be rega r ded as equal to the force acting at C;
the others the residual forces which we mast superimpose upon the
average force F in order that the combination may be equal to the
actual force. It is clear that at Q this residual force as represented
by the arrow will be in the same direction as the actual force. But
at E, since the actual force is less than F, the residual force must
tend to diminish F, and must, therefore, act toward the right, at
shown by the arrow. These residual forces tend to make the %bok
earth turn round the centre C in a clockwise direction. If nothi-f
modified this tendency the result would be to bring the rxnrts
E and Q into the dotted lines of the attraction. In other words the
equator would be drawn into coincidence with the ediptic. Here.
however, the same action comes into play, which keeps a rotating rip
from falling over. (See Gyroscope and Mechanics.) For the sure
reason as in the case of the gyroscope the actual motion of the earth'*
axis is at right angles to the line joining the earth and the attract «v
centre, and without going into the details of the niathematicu
processes involved, we may say that the ultimate mean effect »:'•!
be to cause the pole P of the earth to move at right angles to thr
circle joining it to the pole of the ecliptic. Were the position of t K
latter invariable, the celestial pole would move round it in a circle
Actually the curve in which it moves is nearly a circle; but the
distance varies slightly owing to the minute secular variation in rh?
position of the ecliptic, caused by the action of the planets. 7>»
motion of the celestial pole results in a corresponding revolution H
the equinox around the celestial sphere. The rate of motion
slightly variable from century to century owing to the sreVzr
motion of the plane of the ecliptic. Its period, with the pre** at
rate of motion, would be about 26,000 years, but the actual pernd
is slightly indeterminate from the cause just mentioned.
The residual force just described is not limited to the case of as
ellipsoidal body. It will be seen that the reasoning applies to tSe
case of any one body or system of bodies, the dimensions of wh .»
are not regarded as infinitely small compared with the distance ••?
the attracting body. In all such cases the residual forces virtua *v
tend to draw those portions of the body nearest the attract! -$
centre toward the latter, and those opposite the attracting ceotrr
away from it. Thus we have a tide-producing force tending to de-
form the body, the action of which is of the same nature as the f orre
producing precession. It is of interest to note that, very appn-»>-
mately, this deforming force varies inversely as the cube of tfce
distance of the attracting body.
The action of the sun upon the satellites of the several platen
and the effects of this action are of the same general nature. F *r
the same reason that the residual forces virtually act in oppowt*
directions upon the nearer and more distant portions of a planet
PRACTICAL]
they wiUrirtiiaUy act m the case rf a satellite. When the latter is
between its primary and the sun, the attraction of the latter tcnda to
draw the satellite away from the primary. When the satellite is in
the opposite direction from the sun, the same action tends to draw
toe primary away from the satellite. In both cases, relative to the
primary, the action is the same. When the satellite is in quadrature
the convergence of the lines of attraction toward the centre of the
sun tends to bring the two bodies together. When the orbit of the
satellite ia inclined to that of the primary planet round the sun. the
action brings about a change in the plane of the orbit represented by
a rotation round an axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of
the primary. If we conceive a pole to each of these orbits, deter-
mined by the points in which fines perpendicular to their planes
intersect the celestial sphere, the pole of the satellite orbit will
revolve around the pole of the planetary orbit precisely as the pole
of the earth docs around the pole of the ecliptic the inclination of the
two orbits remaining unchanged.
If a planet rotates on its axis so rapidly as to have a considerable
elliptiaty, and if it has satellites revolving very near the plane of the
equator, the combined actions of the sun and of the equatorial
protuberances may be such that the whole system wiO rotate almost
as if the planes of revolution of the satellites were solidly fixed to
the plane of the equator. This is the case with the seven inner
satellites of Saturn. The orbits of these bodies have a large inclina-
tion, nearly 37*, to the plane of the planet's orbit. The action of the
sun alone would completely throw them outxx? these planes as each
satellite orbit would rotate independently; but the effect of the
mutual action is to keep all of the planes in close coincidence with
the plane of theplanet's equator.
Literature— The modern methods of celestial mechanics may
be considered to begin with Joseph Louis Lagrange, whose theory
of the variation of elements is developed in his Mlcauique analy-
tique. The practical methods of computing perturbations of the
planets and satellites were first exhaustively developed by Pierre
Simon Laplace ia his Micaniqut cUesk. The only attempt since
the publication of this great work to develop the various theories
involved on a uniform plan and mould them into a consistent whole
is that of de Pontecoulant in Tkiorie analytwue dm systhne du
mde (1 629-46, Paris). An approximation to such an attempt is that
__ F. F. Tissexand in his Trail* de mtcanione cUesie (4 vols., Paris).
This work contains a dear and excellent resume of the methods
which have been devised by the leading investigators from the time
of Lagrange until the present, and thus forms the most encyclopaedic
treatise to which the student can refer.
Works less comprehensive than this are necessarily confined to
the elements of the subject, to the development of fundamental
principles and general methods, or to details of special branches.
An elementary treatise on the subject Is F. R. Moulton's Intro-
dwdiem to Celestial Mechanics {London, 1902). Other works with
the same general object are H. A. Resal, Micanique ciirste; and
O. F. Dziobek, TheorU der Planetenbewegunten, The most com-
plete and systematic development of the general principles of the
subject, from the point of view of the modern mathematician, is
found m J. H. Poincare, Les Mithodes nouvelles de la micanique
cileste £j vols., Paris, 1809, 1892, 1893). Of another work of
Poincare, Lecpns de micantque cileste, the first volume appeared in
1905.
Practical Astronomy.
Practical Astronomy, taken in its widest sense, treats of the
instruments by which our knowledge of the heavenly bodies
is acquired, the principles underlying their use, and the methods
by which these principles are practically applied. Our know-
ledge of these bodies is of necessity derived through the medium
of the light which they emit; and it is the development and
applications of the laws of light which have made possible the
additions to our stock of such knowledge since the middle of the
19th century.
At the base of every system of astronomical observation is the law
that, in the voids of space, a ray of light moves in a right line. The
fundamental problem of practical astronomy is that of determining
by measurement the co-ordinates of the heavenly bodies as already
defined. Of the three co-ordinates,the radius vector does not admit
of direct measurement, and must be inferred by a combination of
indirect measurements and physical theories. The other tWo co-
ordinates, which define the direction of a body, admit of direct
measurement on principles applied in the construction and use of
astronomical instruments.
In the first system of co-ordinates already described the funda-
mental axis is the vertical line or direction of gravity at the point
of observation. This is not the direction of gravity proper, or of the
earth's attraction, but the resultant of this attraction combined with
the centrifugal force due to the earth's rotation on its axis. The
most obvious method of realising this direction is by the plumb-line.
In our time, however, this appliance is replaced by either of two
oreers, which admit of much more precise application. These are
the basin of mercury and the spirit-level. The surface of a liquid
at rest is necessarily perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and
ASTRONOMY
807
therefore horisxmtaL Considered as a curved surface, concentric
with the earth, a tangent plane to such a surface is the plane of the
horizon. The problem of measuring from an axis perpendicular to
this plane is solved on the principle that the incident and reflected
rays of light make equal ancles with the perpendicular to a reflecting
surface. It follows that if PO (fig. 5) is the direction of a ray, either
from a heavenly body or from a terrestrial point, impinging at upon
the surface of quicksilver, and reflected in the direction OR, the
vertical line is the bisector OZ, of the angle POR. If the point P
is so adjusted over the quicksilver that the ray is reflected back
P\ • /R
o
Fig. 6.
O
Fig. 5.
on its own path, P and R lying on the same line above 0, then we
know that the line PO is truly vertical. The zenith-distance of an
object is the angle which the ray of .light from it makes with the
vertical direction thus defined.
To show the principle involved in the spirit-level let MN (fig. 6)
be the tube of such a level, fixed to an axis OZ on which it may
revolve. If this axis is so adjusted that in the course of a revolution
around it the bubble of the level undergoes no change of position,
we know that the axis is truly vertical. Any aught deviation from
vertically is shown by the motion of the bubble during the revolu-
tion, which can be measured and allowed for. The level may not
be actually attached to an axis, a revolution of 180° being effected
round an imaginary vertical axis by turning the level end for end.
The motion of the bubble then measures double the inclination of
this imaginary axis, or the deviation of a cylinder on which the level
may rest from horizontality.
The problem of determining the senith distance of a celestial
object now reduces itself to that of measuring the angle between
the direction of the object and the direction of the vertical line
realised in one of these ways. This measurement is effected by a
combination of two instruments, the telescope and the graduated
circle. Let OF (fig. 7) be a section of the telescope, MN being its
M {£ \\
Fxc. 7.
object glass. Let the parallel dotted lines represent rays of light
emanating from the object to be observed, which, for our purpose,
we regardas infinitely distant, a star for example. These rays come
to a focus at a point F lying in the focal plane of the telescope. In
this plane are a pair of cross threads or spider lines which, as the
observer looks into the telescope, are seen as AB and CD (fig. 8).
If the telescope is so pointed that the image of the star is seen in
coincidence with the cross threads, as represented in fig. 8, then we
know that the star is exactly in the
line of sight of the telescope, defined
as the line joining the centre of the
object glass, and the point of inter-
section of the cross threads. If the ^
telescope is moved around so that the
images of two distant points are
successively brought into coincidence
with the cross threads, we know that
the angle between the directions of
these points is equal to that through
which the telescope has been turned.
D
Fig. 8.
This angle Is measured by means of a graduated circle, rigidly
attached to the tube of the telescope in a plane parallel to the line
of sight. When the telescope is turned in this plane, the angular
motion of the line of sight is equal to that through which the curie
has turned. ... .
Stripped of all unnecessary adjuncts, and reduced to a geometric
form, the ideal method by which the senith distance of a heavenrv
body is determined by the combination which we have described is
as follows:— Let OP (fig. 9) be the direction of a celestial body at
which a telescope, supplied with a graduating circle, is pointed. Let
OZ be an axis, as nearly vertical as it can easily be set, rout* 1
8o8
ASTRONOMY
the entire instrument may re
of the body b brought into c
instrument is turned through
he
3
he
ed
t
ist
en
by
a graduated circle, and which is the
zenith distance of the object measured
from the direction of the axis OZ.
This axis may not be exactly vertical.
Its deviation from the vertical line
is determined by the motion of the
bubble of a spirit-level rigidly
attached either to the axis, or to the
telescope. Applying this deviation
to the measured arc, the true zenith
distance of the body is found.
When the basin of quicksilver is used, the telescope, either before
or after being directed toward P, is pointed directly downwards, so
that the observer mounting above it looks through it into the reflect-
ing surface. He then adjusts the instrument so that the cross
threads coincide with their images reflected from the surface of the
quicksilver. The angular motion of the telescope in passing from this
position to that when the celestial object is in the line of sight is the
distance (ND) of the body from the nadir. Subtracting 90* from
(ND) gives the altitude; and subtracting (ND) from 180* gives the
zenith distance.
In the measurement of equatorial co-ordinates, the polar distance
is determined in an analogous way. We determine the apparent
position of an object near the pole on the celestial sphere at any
moment, and again at another moment, twelve hours later, when,
by the diurnal motion, it has made half a revolution. The angle
through the celestial jpole, between these two positions, is double
the polar distance. The pole is the point midway between them.
This being ascertained by one or more stars near it, may be used to
determine by direct measurements the polar distances of other
bodies.
The preceding methods apply mainly to the latitudinal co-ordinate.
To measure the difference between the longitudinal co-ordinates
of two objects by means of a graduated circle the instruments must
turn on an axis parallel to the principal axis of the system of co-
ordinates, and the plane of the graduated circle must be at right
angles to that axis, and, therefore, parallel to the principal co-ordinate
plane. The telescope, in order that it may be pointed in any direc-
tion, must admit of two motions, one round the principal axis, and
the other round an axis at right angles to it. By these two motions
the instrument may be pointed first at one of the objects and then
at the other. The motion of the graduated circle in passing from
one pointing to the other is the measure of the difference between
the longitudinal co-ordinates of the two objects.
In the equatorial system this co-ordinate (the right ascension)
is measured in a different way, by making the rotating earth perform
the function of a graduated circle. The unceasing diurnal motion
of the image of any heavenly body relative to the cross threads of a
telescope makes a direct accurate measure of any co-ordinate except
the declination almost impossible. Before the position of a star can
be noted, it has passed away from the cross threads. This trouble-
some result is utilized and made a means of measurement. Right
ascensions are now determined, not by measuring the angle between
one star and another, but, by noting the time between the transits
of successive stars over the meridian. The difference between these
times, when reduced to an angje, is the difference of the right ascen-
sions of the stars. The principle is the same as that by which the
distance between two stations may be determined by the time
required for a train moving at a uniform known speed to pass from
one station to the other. The uniform speed of the diurnal motion
is 15° per hour. We have already mentioned that in astronomical
practice right ascensions are expressed in time, to that no multi-
plication by 15 is necessary.
m Measures made on the various systems which we have described
give the apparent direction of a celestial object as seen by the
observer. But this- is not the true direction, because the ray of light
from the object undergoes refraction in passing through the atmo-
sphere. It is therefore necessary to correct the observation for this
effect. This is one of the most troublesome problems in astronomy
because, owing to the evef varying density of the atmosphere,
arising from differences of temperature, and owing to the impossi-
bility of determining the temperature with entire precision at any
other point than that occupied by the observer, the amount of
refraction must always be more or less uncertain. The complexity
of the problem will be seen by reflecting that the temperature of the
air inside the telescope is not without its effect. This temperature
may be and commonly is somewhat different from that of the observ-
ing room, which, again, is commonly higher than the temperature of
[HISTORY
the air outside. The uncertainty thus arising in the amonst of the
refraction is least near the zenith, but increases more and more aa the
horizon is approached.
The result of astronomical observations which b ordSnarihr wasted
is not the direction of an object from the observer, but from toe cessai
of the earth. Thus a reduction for parallax is required. Havinr
effected this reduction, and computed the collec ti o n to be apofaetf
to the observation in order to eliminate all known errors to which
the instrument is liable, the work of the practical surnmwi is
completed.
The instruments used in astronomical research are cleat jibed
under their several names. The following are those moat used ia
astrometry: —
The equatorial telescope (c.v.) is an instrument which can he
directed to any point in the sky, and which derives its appeilabra
from its being mounted on an axis parallel to that of the earti.
By revolving on this axis it follows a star in its diurnal motion, m
that the star is kept in the field of view notwithstanding that motioa.
Next in extent of use are the transit instrument and the nserkbas
circle, which are commonly united in a single instrument* tbe transit
circle (g.v.), known also as the meridian circle. This in s trum ent
moves only in the plane of the meridian on a hor iz o n tal east and
west axis, and is used to determine the right a s ce ns ions and de-
clinations of stars. These two instruments or combinations are s
necessary part of the outfit of every important observatory. Aa
adjunct of prime importance, which is necessary to their use, is aa
accurate clock, beating seconds.
Use of Photography.— Beiore the development of photography,
there was no possible way of making observations upon the hesrvrah
bodies except by the eye. Since the middle of the 10th century the
system of photographing the heavenly bodies has been introduced,
step by step, to that it bids fair to supersede eye observations is
many of the determinations of astronomy. (See Photogslafut:
Celestial.)
The field of practical astronomy includes an •
may be regarded as making astronomical science ii
universal. The science is concerned with the heavenly bodies.
The earth on which we live is, to all intents and pu r p ose s , one of
these bodies, and, so far as its relations to tbe heavens are co n ce rned,
must be included in astronomy. The pr o cesses of measuring great
portions of the earth, and of determining geographical — *-
', and detes
require both astronomical observations proper,
made with instruments similar to those of astronomy. Hencegeooesy
may be regarded as a branch of practical astronomy. (S. N.)
History of Astronomy.
A practical acquaintance with the elements of astroneny is
indispensable to the conduct of human life. Hence it is most
widely diffused among uncivilized peoples, whose
existence depends upon immediate and unvarying 2ta»
submission to the dictates of external nature. Having asssssa.
no docks, they regard instead tbe face of the sky;
the stars serve them for almanacs; they hunt and fish, they
sow and reap in correspondence with tbe recurrent order of
celestial appearances. But these, to the untutored imagination,
present a mystical, as well as a mechanical aspect; and barbanc
familiarity with the heavens developed at an early age, through
the promptings of superstition, into a fixed system of observation.
In China, Egypt and Babylonia, strength and continuity were
lent to this native tendency by the influence of a centralized
authority; considerable proficiency was attained in the arts of
observation; and from millennial stores of accumulated data,
empirical rules were deduced by which tbe scope of prediction
was widened and its accuracy enhanced. But no genuine science
of astronomy was founded until the Greeks sublimed experience
into theory.
Already, in tbe third millennium B.C, equinoxes and solstices
were determined in China by means of culminating stars. This
is known from the orders promulgated by the emperor _.
Yao about 2300 B.C., as recorded in the Shu Chung, 2Jj"*
a collection of documents antique in the time of awns*
Confucius (550-478 B.C.). And Yao was merely tbe
renovator of a system long previously established. The Skm
Chung further relates the tragic fate of the official astronomers,
Hsi and Ho, put to death for neglecting to perform the rites
customary during an eclipse of the sun, identified by Professor
S. E. Russell 1 with a partial obscuration visible in northern
China 2136 B.C. The date cannot be far wrong, and it is by far
the earliest assignable to an event of the kind. There is, however,
no certainty that the Chinese were then capable of predicting
1 The Observatory, No*. 231-314, 1895.
HISTORY]
ASTRONOMY
809
eclipses. They were, en the other hand, probably acquainted,
a couple of miflenniums before Meton gave it hit name, with
the nineteen-year cycle, by which solar and lunar yean were
harmonized; 1 they immemoriaily made observations in the
meridian; regulated time by water-docks, and used measuring
instruments of the nature of armUJary spheres and quadrants.
In. or near 11 00 b.c, Chou Kung, an able mathematician,
determined with surprising accuracy the obliquity of the ecliptic;
but his attempts to estimate the sun's distance failed hopelessly
as being grounded on belief in the flatness of the earth. From
of old, in China, circles were divided into 365} parts, so that the
sun described daily one Chinese degree; and the equator began
to be employed as a line of reference, concurrently with the
ecliptic, probably in the second century b.c. Both circles, too,
were marked by star-groups more or less dearly designated and
denned. Cometary records of a vague kind go back in China
to 3996 B.C.; they are intelligible and trustworthy from 6x1 B.C.
onward. Two instruments constructed at the time of Kublai
Khan's accession in 1980 were still extant at Peking in 1881.
Tney were provided with large graduated circles adapted for
measurements of declination and right ascension, and prove
the Chinese to have anticipated by at least three centuries seme
of Tycho Brant's most important inventions. 1 The native
astronomy was finally superseded in the 17th century by the
scientific teachings of Jesuit missionaries from Europe.
Astrolatry was, in Egypt, the prelude to astronomy. The
stars were observed that they might be duly worshipped. The
importance of their heliacal risings, or first visible
Jjjjj** appearances at dawn, for the purposes both of practical
mmm7 . life and of ritual observance, caused them to be syste-
matically noted; the length of the year was accurately
fixed in connexion with the annually recurring Nile-flood; while
the curiously precise orientation of the Pyramids affords a lasting
demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching
the heavens attained in the third millennium B.C. The con-
stellational system in vogue among the Egyptians appears to
have been essentially of native origin; but they contributed
little or nothing to the genuine progress of astronomy.
With the Babylonians the ease was different, although their
science lacked the vital principle of growth imparted to it by
Bat0 their successors. From them the Greeks derived their
immtmm first notions of astronomy. They copied the Baby-
matrw Ionian asterisms, appropriated Babylonian knowledge
—**' of the planets and their courses, and learned to predict
eclipses by means of the " Saros." This is a cycle of 18 years
ix days, or 333 lunations, discovered at an unknown epoch in
Chaldaea, at the end of which the moon very nearly returns to
her original position with regard as well to the sun as to her own
nodes and perigee. There is no getting back to the beginning
of astronomy by the shores of the Euphrates. Records dating
from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) imply that even
then the varying aspects of the sky had been long under expert
observation. Thus early, there is reason to suppose, the star-
groups with which we are now familiar began to be formed.
They took shape most likely, not through one stroke of invention,
but incidentally, as legends developed and astrological persua-
sions became defined.* The zodiacal series in particular seem
to have been reformed and reconstructed at wide intervals of
time (see Zodiac). Virgo, for example, is referred by P. Jensen,
on the ground of its harvesting associations, to the fourth
millennium B.C., while Aries (according to F. K. Ginsel) was
interpolated at a comparatively recent time. In the main,
however, the constellations transmitted to the West from
Babylonia by Aratus and Eudoxus must have been arranged
very much in their present order about 2800 B.C. E. W. Maunder's
argument to this effect is unanswerable.* For the space of the
1 Observations of Comets, translated from the Chinese Annals by
John Williams. F.S.A. (1871). r . , , ^ , ... xr /T% _.
1 I. L. E. Drcyer, Proc. Roy. Iruk Acad. vol. m. No. 7' (Deccrtber
* F. K. Ginsel, " Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der Babylonier,"
C. F. Lehmann, BeiirHge tur alien GeschichU, Heft i. p. 6 (ioox).
* Knowledge and Scientific News, vol. i. pp. 2, 228.
southern sky left blank of stellar emblazonments was necessarily
centred on the pole; and since the pole shifts among the stars
through the effects of precession by a known annual amount,
the ascertainment of any former place for it virtually fixes the
epoch. It may then be taken as certain that the heavens
described by Aratus in 370 B.C. represented approximately
observations made some 2500 years earlier in or near north
latitude 40°
In the course of ages, Babylonian astronomy, purified from
the astrological taint, adapted itself to meet the most refined
needs of civil life. The decipherment and interpretation by die
learned Jesuits, Fathers Epping and Strassmeier, of a number
of clay tablets preserved in the British Museum, have supplied
detailed knowledge of the methods practised in Mesopotamia
in the and century B.C.* They show no trace of Greek influence,
and were doubtless the improved outcome of an unbroken
tradition. How protracted it had been, can be in a measure
estimated from the length of the revolutionary cycles found for
the planets. The Babylonian computers were not only aware
that Venus returns in almost exactly eight years to a given
starting-point in the sky, but they had established similar
periodic relations in 46, 59, 79 and 83 years severally for Mercury,
Saturn, Mars and Jupiter. They were accordingly able to fix
in advance the approximate positions of these objects with
reference to ediptical stars which served as fiducial points for
their determination; In the Ephemerides published year by
year, the times of new moon were given, together with the
calculated intervals to the first visibility of the crescent, from
which Hie beginning of each month was reckoned; the dates
and circumstances of solar and lunar eclipses were predicted;
and due information was supplied as to the forthcoming heliacal
risings and settings, conjunctions and oppositions of .the planets.
The Babylonians knew of the inequality in the daily motion of
the sun, but misplaced by io° the perigee of his orbit. Their
sidereal year was 4$" too Jong,* and they kept the ecliptic
stationary among the stars, making no allowance for the shifting
of the equinoxes. The striking discovery, on the other hand,
has been made by the Rev. F. X. Kugler 1 that the various
periods underlying their lunar predictions were identical with
those heretofore believed to have been independently arrived
at by Hipparchus, who accordingly must be held to have
borrowed from Chaldaea the lengths of the synodic, sidereal,
anomalistic and draconitic months.
A steady flow of knowledge from East to West began in the 7th
century B.C. A Babylonian sage named Berossus founded a
school about 640 B.C. m the island of Cos, and perhaps
counted Thales of Miletus (c. 630-548) among his
pupils. The famous " eclipse of Thales " in 585 B.C.
has not, it Is true, been authenticated by modern
research*; yet the story told by Herodotus appears to intimate
that a knowledge of the Saros, and of the forecasting
facilities connected with it, was possessed by the Ionian
sage. • Pythagoras of Samos (fl. 540-5 xo b.c.) learned onhis travels
in Egypt and the East to identify the morning and m^
evening stars, to recognize the obliquity of the ecliptic, gorm9t
and to regard the earth as a sphere freely poised in
space. Tie tenet of its axial movement was held by many of his
followers— in an obscure form by Philolaus of Crotona after the
middle of the 5th century b.c, and more explicitly by Ecphantus
and Hicetas of Syracuse (4th century B.c), and by Heraclides
of Pontus. Heraclides, who became a disciple of
Plato in 360 B.C., taught in addition that the sun, t*tr
while circulating round the earth, was the centre of
revolution to Venus and- Mercury.* A genuine heliocentric
system, developed by Aristarchus of Samos (fl. 280^264 B.C.),
was described by Archimedes in his A renarius, only to be set aside
.• Astronomlsekes aus Babylon (Freiburg im Breisgxu, 1889).
* Gin**l, toe. ciL Heft U. p. 204.
[ DiebabyUmiscks Mondrccknung, p.«> (»90o)-
Cowell, Month.
S. Newoomb, Asjr. Nack. No.
Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. lxv. 867.
• G. V. Schiaparem, / Precursor* del Copemico, pp. 23-28, Pubbl
dd R. Osservatorio di Brera, No. ail. (1873).
8io
ASTRONOMY
CHISTOKY
Sc*W©/
with disapproval. The long-lived conception of a series of
crystal spheres, acting as the vehicles of the heavenly bodies, and
attuned to divine harmonies, seems to have originated with
Pythagoras himself.
The first mathematical theory of celestial appearances was
devised by Eudoxus of Cnidus (40&-355 b.c.). 1 The problem he
1^,,, attempted to solve was so to combine uniform circular
movements as to produce the resultant effects actually
observed. The sun and moon and the five planets were, with
this end in view, accommodated each with a set of variously
revolving spheres, to the total number of 27. The Eudoxian or
" homocentric " system, after it had been further elaborated by
Callippus and Aristotle, was modified by Apollonius of Perga
(fl. 250-220 B.C.) into the hypothesis of deferents and epicycles,
which held the field for 1800 years as the characteristic embodi-
ment of Greek ideas in astronomy. Eudoxus further wrote two
works descriptive of the heavens, the Enoptron and Phaenomcna,
which, substantially preserved in the Phaenomena of Aratus
(fi. 270 b.c), provided all the leading features of modern stellar
nomenclature.
Greek astronomy culminated in the school of Alexandria.
It was, soon after its foundation, illustrated by the labours of
Aristyllus and Timocharis (c. 320-260 B.C.), who
constructed the first catalogue giving star-positions as
measured from a reference-point in the sky. This
fundamental advance rendered inevitable the detection
of precessional effects. Aristarchus of Samos observed at
Alexandria 280-264 B.C. His treatise on the magnitudes and
distances of the sun and moon, edited by John
ffjai Wallis in 1688, describes a theoretically valid method
for determining the relative distances of the sun and
moon by measuring the angle between their centres when half the
lunar disk is illuminated; but the time of dichotomy being widely
indeterminate, no useful result was thus obtainable. Aristarchus
in fact concluded the sun to be not more than twenty times,
while it is really four hundred times farther off than our satellite.
His general conception of the universe was comprehensive
beyond that of any of his predecessors.
Eratosthenes (276-106 b.c), a native of Cyrene, was summoned
from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euergetes to take charge
of the royal library. He invented, or improved
J2££ armillary spheres, the chief implements of ancient
astrometry, determined the obliquity of the ecliptic at
23° 51' (a value 5* too great), and introduced an effective mode
of arc-measurement Knowing Alexandria and Syene to be
situated 5000 stadia apart on the same meridian, he found the
sun to be 7 x 2' south of the zenith at the northern extremity of
this arc when it was vertically overhead at the southern extremity,
and he hence inferred a value of 252,000 stadia for the entire
circumference of the globe. This is a very close approximation
to the truth, if the length of the unit employed has been correctly
assigned. 1
Among the astronomers of antiquity, two great men stand out
with unchallenged pre-eminence. Hipparchus and Ptolemy
an _ entertained the same large organic designs; they
worked on similar methods; and, as the outcome,
their performances fitted so accurately together that
between them they re-made celestial science. Hipparchus
fixed the chief data of astronomy — the lengths of the tropical and
sidereal years, of the various months, and of the synodic periods
of the five planets; determined the obliquity of the ecliptic and
of the moon's path, the place of the sun's apogee, the eccentricity
of his orbit, and the moon's horizontal parallax; all with ap-
proximate accuracy. His loans from Chaldaean experts appear,
indeed, to have been numerous; but were doubtless independ-
ently verified. His supreme merit, however, consisted in the
establishment of astronomy on a sound geometrical basis. His
acquaintance with trigonometry, a branch of science initiated by
1 G. V. Schiaparelli, / Precursori del Copemico, pp. 23-28, Pubbl.
del R. Osacrvatorio di Brera, No. ix.
* Marie. Hist, des sciences, t. i. p. 79? P< Tannery, Hist, de r astro-
nomie ancienne, ch. v. p. 115.
him, together with his invention of the planisphere, enabled hue
totolve a number of elementary problems; and he was tins led
to bestow especial attention upon the position of the equinox, as
being the common point of origin for measures both is right
ascension and longitude. Its steady retrogression among the
stars became manifest to him in 130 b.c, on comparing has own
observations with those made by Timocharis a century aad a
half earlier; and he estimated at not less than 36" (the true value
being 50") the annual amount of "precession."
The choice made by Hipparchus of the geocentric theory of the
universe decided the future of Greek astronomy. He further
elaborated it by the introduction of "eccentrics," whack
accounted for the changes in orbital velocity of the sun and moon
by a displacement of the earth, to a corresponding extent, from
the centre of the circles they were assumed to describe. This
gave the elliptic inequality known as the "equation of the
centre," and no other was at that time obvious. He attempted
no detailed discussion of planetary theory; bat his catalogue of
xo8o stars, divided into six classes of brightness, or " magni-
tudes," is one of the finest monuments of antique astronomy.
It is substantially embodied in Ptolemy's Almagest (see
Ptolemy).
An interval of 250 years elapsed before the constructive
labours of Hipparchus obtained completion at Alexandria.
His observations were largely, and somewhat arbl- ^^
trarily, employed by Ptolemy. Professor Newcomb,
who has compiled an instructive table of the equinoxes severally
observed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy, with their errors deduced
from Leverrier's solar tables, finds palpable evidence that the
discrepancies between the two series were artificially reconciled
on the basis of a year 6" too long, adopted by Ptolemy 00 trust
from his predecessor. He nevertheless holds the process to have
been one that implied no fraudulent intention.
The Ptolemaic system was, in a geometrical sense, defensible;
it harmonized fairly well with appearances, and physical reason-
ings had not then been extended to the heavens. To the ignorant
it was recommended by its conformity to crude common sense;
to the learned, by the wealth of ingenuity expended in bringing
it to perfection. The Almagest was the consummation of Greek
astronomy. Ptolemy had no successor; he found only commen-
tators, among the more noteworthy of whom wereTheon of
Alexandria (fl. A.D. 400) and his daughter Hypatia (370-415).
With the capture of Alexandria by Omar in 641 , the last glimmer
of its scientific light became extinct, to be rekindled, a century and
a half later, on the banks of the Tigris. The first Arabic transla-
tion of the Almagest was made by order of Harun al-Rashid
about the year 800; others followed, and the Caliph
al-Mamun built in 829 a grand observatory at ^ ^.
Bagdad. Here Albumazar (805-885) watched the skies mmmon.
and cast horoscopes; here Tobit ben Korra (836-
001) developed his long unquestioned, yet misleading theory of
the "trepidation" of the equinoxes; Abd-ar-rahman al-Saf
003-986) revised at first hand the catalogue of Ptolemy;' and
Abulwefa (930-998), like al-SQfi, a native of Persia, made con-
tinuous planetary observations, but did not (as alleged by
L. Seaillot) anticipate Tycho Brahe's discovery of the moon's
variation. Ibn Junis (c. 950-1008), although the scene of his
activity was in Egypt, falls into line with the astronomers of
Bagdad. He compiled the Hakimitc Tables of the planets, and
observed at Cairo, in 977 and 978, two solar eclipses which, ss
being the first recorded with scientific accuracy, 4 were made
available in fixing the amount of lunar acceleration. Nasr
ud-din ( 1 201-1274) drew up the Ilkhanic Tables, and determined
the constant of precession at 51". He directed an observatory
established by Hulagu Khan (d. 1265) at Maraga in Persia, and
equipped with a mural quadrant of 12 ft. radius, besides altitude
and azimuth instruments. Ulugh Beg (1394-1449), a gran&os
of Tamerlane, was the illustrious personification of Tatar
' Published by H. C. Schjellerup in a French translation (St Peters-
burg, 1874).
4 Newcomb, Researches on the Motion of the Moon, Washiagtoa
Observations for 187.1. Appendix iL p. 30.
HISTORY]
ASTRONOMY
8n
astronomy. He founded about 1420 a splendid observatory at
Samarkand, in which he redetermined nearly all Ptolemy's
stars, while the Tables published by him held the primacy for
two centuries. 1
Arab astronomy, transported by the Moors to Spain, nourished
temporarily at Cordova and Toledo. From the latter dty the
Toletaa Tables, drawn up by Arzachel in 1080, took
their name; and there also the Alfonsine Tables,
published in 1253, were prepared under the authority
of Aiphonso X. of Castile. Their appearance signalised
the dawn of European science, and was nearly coincident with
that of the Sphaera Mundi, a text-book of spherical astronomy,
written by a Yorkshireman, John Holywood, known
as Sacro Bosco (d. 1*56). It had an immense vogue,
perpetuated by -the printing-press in fifty-nine
editions. In Germany, during the 15th century, a
brilliant attempt was made to patch up the flaws in Ptolemaic
doctrine. George Purbach (1423-1461) introduced into Europe
mitaft the method of determining time by altitudes employed
by Ibn Junis. He lectured with applause at Vienna
from 1450; was Joined there in 1452 by Regiomontanus (?.#.);
and was on the point of starting for Rome to inspect a manuscript
of the Almagest when he died suddenly at the age of thirty-eight.
Hia teachings bore fruit in the work of Regiomontanus, and of
Wfcftfan Bernhard Walther of Nuremberg (1430-1504), who
fitted up an observatory with clocks driven by
weights, and developed many improvements is practical
astronomy.
Meantime, a radical reform was being prepared in Italy.
Under the searchlights of the new learning, the dictatorship of
Ptolemy appeared no more inevitable than that of Aristotle;
advanced thinkers like Domenico Maria Novara (1454-1504) pro-
mulgated sub rosa what were called Pythagorean opinions; and
they were eagerly and fully appropriated by Nicolaus
Copernicus during his student-years (1406-1505) at
Bologna and Padua. He laid the groundwork of
his heliocentric theory between 1506 and 15x3, and brought it
to completion in De Reeotutiombus Orbium CoeleUktm (1543).
The colossal task of remaking astronomy on an inverted design
was, in this treatise, virtually accomplished. Its reasonings
were solidly founded on the principle of the relativity of motion.
A continuous shifting of the standpoint was in large measure
substituted for the displacements of the objects viewed, which
thus acquired a regularity and consistency heretofore lacking to
them. In the new system, the sphere of the fixed stars no longer
revolved dharnally, the earth rotating instead on an axis directed
towards the celestial pole. The sun too remained stationary,
while the planets, including our own globe, circulated round him.
By this means, the planetary " retrogradations " were explained
as simple perspective effects due to the combination of the earth's
revolutions with those of her sister orbs. The retention, however,
by Copernicus of the antique postulate of uniform circular motion
impaired the perfection of his plan, since it involved a partial
survival of the epicyclical machinery. Nor was it feasible, on
this showing, to place the sun at the true centre of any of the
planetary orbits; so that his ruling position in the midst of
them was illusory. The reformed scheme was then by no means
perfect. Its simplicity was only comparative; many out-
standing anomalies, compromised its harmonious working.
Moreover, the absence of sensible parallaxes in the stellar
heavens seemed inconsistent with its validity; and a mobile
earth outraged deep-rooted prepossessions. Under these dis-
advantageous circumstances, it is scarcely surprising that the
heliocentric theory, while admired as a daring speculation, won
its way slowly to acceptance as a truth.
The Tabulae Prutcuicae, calculated on Copernican principles
by Erasmus Reinhold (15x1*1553), appeared in 15 51. Although
they represented celestial movements far better than the
Alfonsine Tables, large discrepancies were still apparent, and the
desirability of testing the novel hypothesis upon which they
were based by more refined observations prompted a reform of
1 F. Baity, Memoirs Fey, A sir. Society, vol. xiii p. 19.
methods, undertaken almost sibmltaneously by the landgrave
Wilham IV. of Hesse~Cassel (1 532-1592), and by Tycho Brahe.
The landgrave built at Caasel in 1561 the first observa-
tory with a revolving dome, and worked for some years £5^3*"
at a starcatakgue finally left incomplete. Christoph Cmmi,
Rothmann and Joost Burgi (isss-ioja) became his
assistants in 1577 and 1579 respectively; and through the skill
of Burgi, time^eterminationa were made available for measuring
right ascensions. At Caasel, too, the altitude and aaimutli
instrument is believed to have made its first appearance in
tycho'a labours were both more strenuous and more effective.
He perfected the art of pre-telesoopic observation. His instru-
ment* were on a scale and of a type unknown since -, .
the days of Nasir ud-din. At Aagsburg, in 1509, he mSi
ordered the construction of a xo-ft. quadrant, and of a
celestial globe 5 ft. in diameter; he substituted equatorial for
zodiacal armillae, thus definitively establishing the system of
measurements in right ascension and declination; and unproved
the graduation of circular arcs by adopting the method of
" transversals." By these means, employed with consummate
skill, he attained an unprecedented degree of accuracy, and as
an incidental though valuable result, demonstrated the unreality
of the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes.
No more congruous arrangement could have been devised than
the inheritance by Johann Kepler of the wealth of materials
amassed by Tycho Brahe. The younger man's genius Kephe.
supplied what was wanting to his predecessor. Tycho's
endowments were of the practical order; yet he had never
designed his observations to be an end in themselves. He
thought of them as means towards the end of ascertaining the
true form of the universe. His range of ideas was, however,
restricted; and the attempt embodied in his ground-plan of the
solar system to revive the ephemeral theory of Heracjides failed
to influence the development of thought, Kepler, on the
contrary, was endowed with unlimited powers of speculation,
but had no mechanical faculty* He found in Tycho's ample
legacy of first-dass data precisely what enabled him to try,
by the touchstone of fact, the successive hypotheses that he
imagined; and his untiring patience in comparing and calcu-
lating the observations at his disposal was rewarded by a
series of unique discoveries. He long adhered to the tradi-
tional belief that all celestial revolutions must be performed
equably in circles; but a laborious computation of seven re-
corded oppositions of Mars at last persuaded him that the planet
travelled in an ellipse, one focus of which was occupied by the sun.
Pursuing the inquiry, he found that its velocity was uniform
with respect to no single point within the orbit, but that the
areas described, in equal times, by a line drawn from the sun to
the planet were strictly equal. These two principles he extended,
by direct proof, to the motion of the earth; and, by analogy,
to that of the other planets. They were published in 1609 in
De MoHbus SteUae Mortis. The announcement of the third of
" Kepler's Laws " was made ten years later, in De Harmonke
Mundi. It states that the squares of the periods of circulation
round the sun of the several planets are in the same ratio as the
cubes of their mean distances. This numerical proportion, as
being a necessary consequence of the law of gravitation, must
prevail in every system under its sway. It does in fact prevail
among the satellite-families of our acquaintance, and presumably
in stellar combinations as well. Kepler's ineradicable belief in
the existence of some .such congruity was derived from the
Pythagorean idea of an underlying harmony in nature; but his
arduous efforts for its realisation took a devious and fantastic
course which seemed to give little promise of their surprising
ultimate success. The outcome of his discoveries was, not onty
to perfect the geometrical plan of the solar system, but to en-
hance very materially the predicting power of astronomy. The
Rudolphine Tables (Mm, 1627), computed by him from elliptic
elements, retained authority for a century, and have in principle
never been superseded. He was deterred from research into the
• J. L. E. Dreyer, Life of Tycho Brake, p.
$12
ASTRONOMY
Mar.mz. Hit Apposed their tads t»
*»war n-j* vfatrti in traversing their man, base mf
»wn« *i **eir tubr ier particles Co form trains <*m-t»d
*jus son. Ami through the process of
?>*y iitaJy dissolved into f he
assert*/' ■ A* C*m*u&; Ofers^ ed_ Frisck, t_ viL p. ikx) Ibis
s iamrnah le anticipation of the modern theory at fia^-asessnse
w*wm»i»il to ham by his observations of the pest comets
of Mi*
Toe formal astronomy of the anrirnti left Kepler ■«■— iAil
He aimed at nnciing oat the cause as weB as the node of the
staaetary revolution; and his deamnstratioa that the pfcmes
m which they sue described all pass through the am was as
im p orta nt preliminary to a physical npfaimrinm of then. Bat
km <*4Forts to supply sach an npfa nation were rendered futile
by his imperfect apprehension of what motion is m kseif. He
had, it is true, a distinct conception of a force analogous to that
of gravit/, by which cognate bodies tended towards snmm.
JfoWi, however, into identifying it with, magnetism, he hwagfn^rf
eirr.uUtioa in the soar system) to be. —™»«™~i throagh the
material compulsion of fibrous emanations from the son, carried
round by his anal rotation. Ignorance regarding the inertia of
matter drove him to this expedient. The persistence of move-
ment in and to him to imply the persistence of a moving power.
He did not recognize that motion and rest are equally natural,
in the sense of requiring force for their alteration. Yet his
rationale of the tides m Dt MoHbtu SuiUt is not only memorable
ss an astonishing forecast of the principle of reciprocal attraction
in the proportion of mam, bat for its bold eite n sk m to the earth
of the hmar sphere of influence.
Galileo Galilei, Kepler's most e min e nt contemporary, took
• foremost part m dissipating the obscurity that still bong over
the very foundations of mechanical science. He "had, indeed;
precursors and co-operators. Michel Varo of Geneva wrote
eorrertly in 15*4 on the composition of forces; Simon Stevin
of Bruges ( f 54&-16 20) independently demonstrated the principle ;
and G. B. Benedetti expounded in has Sfectdoiiomtm Liber
(Turin, 1 5S5) perfectly clear ideas as to the nature of accelerated
motion, some years in advance of Gableo's dramatic experiments
at Pisa. Yet they were never assimilated by Kepler; while,
on the other hand, the laws of planetary circulation be bad
enounced were strangely ignored by Galileo. The two lines of
inquiry remained for some time apart. Had they at once been
made to coalesce, the true nature of the force controlling celestial
movements should have been quickly recognized. As it was,
the importance of Kepler's generalizations was not fully appre-
ciated until Sir Isaac Newton made them the corner-stone of his
new cosmic edifice.
Galileo's contributions to astronomy were of a different
quality from Kepler's. They were easily intelligible to the general
OsBUo. public; in a sense, they were obvious, since they
could be verified by every possessor of one of the
Dutch perspective-instruments, just then In course of wide and
rapid distribution. And similar results to bis were in fact
independently obtained in various parts of Europe by Christopher
Scheiner at Ingolstadt, by Johann Fabricius at Osteel in Fries-
land , and by Thomas Harriot at Syon House, Isleworth. Galileo
was nevertheless by far the ablest and most versatile of these
early telescopic observers. His gifts of exposition were on a par
with his gifts of discernment. What he saw, he rendered con-
spicuous to the world. His sagacity was indeed sometimes at
fault. He maintained with full conviction to the end of his life
a grossly erroneous hypothesis of the tides, early adopted from
Andrea Caesalpmo; the "triplicate" appearance of Saturn
always remained an enigma to him; and in regarding comets
as atmospheric emanations he lagged far behind Tycho Brahe.
Yf t he unquestionably ranks as the true founder of descriptive
astronomy; while his splendid presentment of the laws of
projff tiles In his dialogue of the "New Sciences 1 ' (Leiden,
16 1«) lent potent aid to the solid csublishment of celestial
mechanics.
Kepler divined its pomdnfiry; box fan thoughts, derailed %
tospakjbjthttaktamki&idmaipetBmybma&t ^^
hint no nvther than to the rough; draft of the
scheme of vortices eiprwnrird nt detan 1 by Rene Descartes a
his Frmdpia Ml am pHar (1644). And this was a jmmwos
caf Ai an The only pr a rlir s hfe mad struck aside
fjonanv The true h winds tinrii of a mechaniral theory of tie
heavens were laid by Kepler's discoveries, nod by GsJDea »
dynamical denmrnstratkus; its con st! ac tion was facilitated b?
the developmen t of m alari a sikal snethoda. Toe inventus
of logarithms* the rise of analytical geometry, and the evafajc:
of B. Cavalierf s " mdtvisflues " into the ixninitesiianl calcnia
afl accompaahed daring the 17th century, immrawirnhly vridenec
the scope of exact astw nos uy. Gradually, too, the nature or
the problem awaiting safarjon came to be apprehended. Jere-
anah tttni o ihs hod some jatnrtinn, previously to 1630, that ibe
morion of the moon was continued by the earth'a gravity, sad
disturbed by the action of the sun. Ismael BooOlaad (1605-
1604) stated in 1645 the tact of planetary circnlarioti under ;ie
sway of a son-force ihi weiing as the inverse acjnare of itr
distance; and the mevitabkness of this same "duplicate ratio'
was separately peicciwed by Robert Hooke, Edmund HaLky
and Sir Chriitopner Wren before Newton's disco very jnmmn
had yet been made pttbhe. Pie was the only man of
ins generation who both recognized the law, and had power t»
demonstrate its vafictity. And this was only a beginning Kb
complete adaevement bad a twofold aspect. It coanasted,
first, in the identification, by strict numerical comparison,
of terrestrial gravity with the mutual attraction of the heave&ly
bodies; secondly, in the following out of its — «*—nfral coc-
sequences throogboat the solar system. Gravitation was thm
showntobethesom mmw iii rgu^^
and satellites; the figure of the rotating earth was successfuEr
erpbinrd by its action on the minuter particles of matter,
tides and the precessioa of the equinoxes proved «iii*»fM» to
wjwningt based on the same principle; and it sntisiactorih/
accounted as well for some of the chief lunar and planetary
inequahties. Newton's investigations, how ev e r, were very far
from being exhaustive. Colossal though his powers we're, they
had limits; and his work could not but remain nntenainated.
since it was by its nature mternrinable. Nor was it possible to
provide it with what could properly be called a sequel. The
synthetic method employed by him was too unwieldy for common
use. Yet no other was just then at hand. Mathematical
analysis needed half a century of cultivation before it was fully
available for the arduous tasks reserved for it They were
accordingly taken up anew by a band of continental inquirers,
primarily by three men of untiring energy and vivid &**
genius, Leonhard Eukr, Alexis Clairault, and Jean cmtnma,
le Rond d'Akmbert. The first of the outstanding *"£"*"
gravitational problems with which they grappled
was the unaccountably rapid advance of the lunar perigee.
But the apparent anomaly disappeared under Euler'a power-
ful treatment in 1749, and his result was shortly afterwards
still further assured by Clairault The subject of planetary
perturbations was next attacked. Eukr devised in 1753 a
new method, that of the " variation of parameters," for their
investigation, and applied it to unravel some of the earths
irregularities in a memoir crowned by the French Academy
in 1756; while in 1757, Clairault estimated the masses of the
moon and Venus by their respective disturbing effects upoa
terrestrial movements. But the most striking incident in the
history of the verification of Newton's law was the return of
Halley's comet to perihelion, on the tath of March 1750. ia
approximate accordance with Clairault's calculation of the
delays due to the action of Jupiter and Saturn. Visual proof
HISTORY]
ASTRONOMY
8t 3
was thus, it might be said, afforded of the harmonious working
of a single principle to the uttermost boundaries of the sun's
dominion.
These successes paved the way for the higher triumphs of
j Joseph Louis Lagrange and of Pierre Simon Laplace. The
subject of the lunar librations was treated by Lagrange
t^jiriaaj*. ^.^ great originality in an essay crowned by the Paris
Academy of Sciences in 1764; and he filled up the lacunae in
his theory of them in a memoir communicated to the Berlin
Academy in 1780. He again won the prize of the Paris Academy
in 1766 with an analytical discussion of the movements of
Jupiter's satellites (Miscellanea, Turin Acad, t iv.); and in
r the same year expanded Euler's adumbrated method of the
variation of parameters into a highly effective engine of per-
turbatipnal research. It was especially adapted to the tracing
out of " secular inequalities," or those depending upon changes
r in the orbital elements of the bodies affected by them, and hence
progressing indefinitely with time ; and by its means, accordingly,
the mechanical stability of the solar system was splendidly
demonstrated through the successive efforts of Lagrange and
Laplace. The proper share of each in bringing about this memor-
1 able result is not easy to apportion, since they freely imparted
and profited by one another's advances and improvements;
1 it need only be said that the fundamental proposition of the
1 invariability of the planetary major axes laid down with restric-
tions by Laplace in 1773, was finally established by Lagrange
in 1776; while Laplace in 1784 proved the subsistence of such
a relation between the eccentricities of the planetary orbits on
1 the one hand, and their inclinations on the other, that an increase
of either element could, in any single case, proceed only to a
very small extent The system was thus shown, apart from
unknown agencies of subversion, to be constructed for indefinite
permanence. The prize of the Berlin Academy was, in 1780,
adjudged to Lagrange for a treatise on the perturbations of
comets; and he contributed to the Berlin Memoirs, 1781-1784,
a set of five elaborate papers, embodying and unifying his
perfected methods and their results.
The crowning trophies of gravitational astronomy in the z8th
century were Laplace's explanations of the " great inequality "
1^^^ of Jupiter and Saturn in 1784, and of the "secular
w acceleration " of the moon in 1 787. Both irregularities
had been noted, a century earlier, by Edmund HaUey; both had,
since that time, vainly exercised the ingenuity of the ablest
mathematicians; both now almost simultaneously yielded their
secret to the same fortunate inquirer. Johann Heinrich Lambert
pointed out in 1773 that the motion of Satum, from being
retarded, had become accelerated. A periodic character was
thus indicated for the disturbance; and Laplace assigned its
true cause m the near approach to commcnsurability in the
periods of the two planets, the cycle of disturbance completing
itself in about 900 (more accurately 929}) years. The lunar
acceleration, too, obtains ultimate compensation, though only
after a vastly protracted term of years. The discovery, just
one hundred years after the publication of Newton's Principia,
of its dependence upon the slowly varying eccentricity of the
earth's orbit signalised the removal of the last conspicuous
obstacle to admitting the unqualified validity of the law of
gravitation. Laplace's calculations, it is true, were inexact.
An error, corrected by J. C. Adams in 1853, nearly doubled
the value of the acceleration deducible from them; and served
to conceal a discrepancy with observation which has since given
occasion to much profound research (see Moon).
The Micanique ctieste, in which Laplace welded into a whole
the items of knowledge accumulated by the labours of a century,
has been termed the M Almagest of the 18th century " (Fourier).
But imposing and complete though the mopument appeared, it
did not long hold possession of the field. Further developments
ensued. The " method of least squares," by which the most
probable result can be educed from a body of observational data,
was published by Adrien Marie Legcndre in 1806, by Car)
Friedrich Gauss in his Theoria Mot us (1809), which described also
a mode of calculating the orbit of a planet from three complete
observations, afterwards turned to important account for the
recapture of Ceres, the first discovered asteroid (see Planets,
Minor). Researches into rotational movement were facilitated
by S. D. Poisson's application to them in 1809 of Lagrange's
theory of the variation of constants; Philippe de Pontecoulant
successfully used in 1829, for the prediction of the impending
return of HaUey's comet, a system of " mechanical quadratures "
published by Lagrange in the Berlin Memoirs for 1778; and In
his Tkiorie anolytique du system* du monde (1846) he modified
and refined general theories of the lunar and planetary revolu-
tions. P. A. Hansen in 1829 {A sir. Nock. Nos. 166-168, 179)
left the beaten track by choosing time as the sole variable, the
orbital elements remaining constant. A. L. Cauchy published
in 1842-1845 a method similarly conceived, though otherwise
developed; and the scope of analysis in determining the move-
ments of the heavenly bodies has since been perseveringry
widened by the labours of Urbain J. J. Leverrier, J. C. Adams,
S. Newcomb, G. W. Hill, E. W. Brown, H. Gylden, Charles
Delaunay, F. Tisserand, H. Poincare and others too numerous to
mention. Nor were these abstract investigations unaccompanied
by concrete results. Sir George Ahy detected in 1831 an in-
equality, periodic in 240 years, between Venus and the earth.
Leverrier undertook in 1839, and concluded in 1876, the formid-
able task of revising all the planetary theories and constructing
from them improved tables. Not less comprehensive has been
the work carried out by Professor Newcomb of raising to a higher
grade of perfection, and reducing to a uniform standard, all the
theories and constants of the solar system. His inquiries afford
the assurance of a nearly exact conformity among its members to
strict gravitational law, only the moon and Mercury showing
some slight, but so far unexplained, anomalies of movement.
The discovery of Neptune in 1846 by Adams and Leverrier
marked the first solution of the " inverse problem " of perturba-
tions. That is to say, ascertained or ascertainable effects were
made the starting-point instead of the goal of research.
Observational astronomy, meanwhile, was advancing to
some extent independently. The descriptive branch found its
principle of development in the growing powers of
the telescope, and had little to do with mathe-
matical theory; which, on the contrary, was closely
allied, by relations of mutual helpfulness, with practical
astronomy, or " astrometry." Meanwhile, the ele-
mentary requirement of making visual acquaintance with the
stellar heavens was met, as regsrds the unknown southern skies,
when Johann Bayer published at Nuremberg in 1603 a ___
celestial atlas depicting twelve new constellations s ^ ap '
formed from the rude observations of navigators across the line.
In the same work, the current mode of star-nomenclature by the
letters of the Greek alphabet made its appearance. rtMM
On the 7 th of November 163 1 Pierre Gassendi watched
at Paris the passage of Mercury across the sun. This was the
first planetary transit observed. The next was that of Venus on
the 24th of November (O.S.) 1639, of which Jeremiah Wwm4fc
Horrocksand William Crab tree were the sole spectators.
The improvement of telescopes was prosecuted by Christiaan
Huygens from 1655, and promptly led to his discoveries of the
sixth Saturnian moon, of the true shape of the Satur- M ^
nian appendages, and of the multiple character of "*
the " trapezium " of stars in the Orion nebula. William Gas-
coigne's invention of the filar micrometer and of the adapta-
tion of telescopes to graduated instruments remained
submerged for a quarter of a century in consequence of c*fca*
his untimely death at Marston Moor (1644). The latter
combination had also been ineffectually proposed in 1634 by Jean
Baptiste Morin (1583-1656); and both devices were recontrived
at Paris about 1667, the micrometer by Adrien Auzout (d. 1691),
telescopic sights (so-called) by Jean Picard (1620-1682), who
simultaneously introduced the astronomical use of pendulum-
clocks, constructed by Huygens eleven years previously. These
improvements were ignored or rejected by Johann
Hcvelius of Danzig, the author of the last important
star-catalogue based solely upon naked-eye 6>
8i4
ASTRONOMY
[HISTORY
He, nevertheless, used telescopes to good purpose in his studies
of lunar topography, and his designations for the chief mountain-
chains and " seas " of the moon have never been superseded.
He, moreover, threw out the suggestion (in his Cometographia,
1668) that comets move round the sun in orbits of a parabolic
form.
The establishment, in 1671 and 1676 respectively, of the
French and English national observatories at once typified and
stimulated progress. The Paris institution, it is true,
lacked unity of direction. No authoritative chief was
assigned to it until 1771. G. D. Cassini, his son
and his grandson were only prim* inter pares. Claude
Perrault's stately edifice was equally accessible to all the more
eminent members of the Academy of Sciences; and researches
were, more or less independently, carried on there by (among
others)Pu'lippedeUHire(i64Cwi7x8),G.F.Maraldi(i665-i72o),
and his nephew, J. D. Maraldi, Jean Picard, Huygens, Olaus
Rttmer and Nicolas de Lacaille. Some of the best instruments
then extant were mounted at the Paris observatory. G. D.
Cassini brought from Rome a 17-ft. telescope by
jLiJLt G. Campani, with which he discovered in 1671 Iapetus,
the ninth in distance of Saturn's family of satellites;
Rhea was detected in 167 a with a glass by the same maker of
34-ft. focus; the duplicity of the ring showed in 1675; and, in
1684, two additional satellites were disclosed by a Campani
telescope of 100 ft. Cassini, moreover, set up an altazimuth in
1678, and employed from about 1682 a " parallactic machine,"
provided with clockwork to enable it to follow the diurnal motion.
Both inventions have been ascribed to Olaus Rttmer, who used
but did not claim them, and must have become familiar with
.. ... their principles during the nine years (167 2-1 681)
r ' spent by him at the Paris observatory. Rttmer, on the
other hand, deserves full credit for originating the transit-circle
and the prime vertical instrument; and he earned undying
fame by his discovery of the finite velocity of light, made at Paris
in 1675 by comparing his observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites at the conjunctions and oppositions of the planet.
The organization of the Greenwich observatory differed
widely from that adopted at Paris. There a fundamental scheme
_. ^ of practical amelioration was initiated by John
Htarrfir*. Fkumsteed, the first astronomer royal, and has never
since been lost sight of. Its purpose is the attainment of so
complete a power of prediction that the places of the sun, moon
and planets may be assigned without noticeable error for an
indefinite future time. Sidereal inquiries, as such, made no part
of the original programme in which the stars figured merely as
points of reference. But these points are not stationary. They
have an apparent precessions! movement, the exact amount
of which can be arrived at only by prolonged and toilsome
enquiries. They have besides " proper motions," detected in
17 18 by E. Halley in a few cases, and since found to prevail
universally. Further, James Bradley discovered in 1728 the
annual shifting of the stars due to the aberration of light (see
Aberration), and in 1748, the complicating eflects upon pre-
cession of the " nutation " of the earth's axis. Hence, the
preparation of a catalogue recording the " mean " positions of
a number of stars for a given epoch involves considerable pre-
liminary labour; nor do those positions long continue to satisfy
observation. They need, after a time, to be corrected, not only
systematically for precession, but also empirically for proper
motion. Before the stars can safely be employed as route-marks
in the sky, their movements must accordingly be tabulated, and
research into the method of such movements inevitably follows.
We perceive then that the fundamental problems of sidereal
science are closely linked up with the elementary and indispens-
able procedures of celestial measurement.
The history of the Greenwich observatory is one of strenuous
efforts for refinement, stimulated by the growing stringency of
theoretical necessities. Improved practice, again, reacted upon
theory by bringing to notice residual errors, demanding the
correction of formulae, or intimating neglected disturbances.
Each increase of mechanical skill claims a corresponding gain in
the subtlety of analysis; and vice versa. And this land of
interaction has gone on ever since Flamsteed rdactanOy
furnished the " places of the moon," which enabled Newton te
lay the foundations of lunar theory.
Edmund Halley, the second astronomer royal, devoted most
of bis official attention to the moon. But his plan of attack was
not happily chosen; he carried it out with deficient m^*.
instrumental means; and has administration (1720*
1742) remained comparatively barren. That of his successor
though shorter, was vastly more productive. James Bradley
chose the most appropriate tasks, and executed them m rm g KB
supremely well, with the indispensable aid of John
Bird (1700-1776), who constructed for him an 8-ft. quadrant
of unsurpassed quality. Bradley's store of observations has
accordingly proved invaluable. Those of 3222 stars, reduced
by F. W. Bcssel in 1818, and again with masterly inight by
Dr A. Auwers in 1882, form the true basis of exact asutmomy,
and of our knowledge of proper motions. Those relating to the
moon and planets, corrected by Sir George Airy, 1 {40-1846.
form part of the standard materials for discussing theories of
movement in the solar system. The fourth astronomer royal,
Nathaniel Bliss, provided in two years a sequel of m ^
some value to Bradley's performance. Nevil Mas-
kelyne, who succeeded him in 1764, set on foot, in 1 767, thr
publication of the Nautical Almanac, and about the same tunc
bad an achromatic telescope fitted to the Greenwich „_^_
mural quadrant. The invention, perfected by John ^ mtm
Dollond in 1757, was long debarred from becoming
effective by difficulties in the manufacture of glass, aggravated
in England by a heavy excise duty levied until 1845. More
immediately efficacious was the innovation made by -^.
John Pond (astronomer royal, 1811-1836) of sub-
stituting entire circles for quadrants. He further introduced,
in 182 1, the method of duplicate observations by direct viwoa
and by reflection, and by these means obtained results of very
high precision. During Sir George Airy's long term of office
(1836-1881) exact astronomy and the traditional A .
purposes of the royal observatory were promoted
with increased vigour, while the scope of research was at the
same time memorably widened. Magnetic, meteorological, a-*±
spectroscopic departments were added to the establishment,
electricity was employed, through the medium of the chroro-
graph, for the registration of transits; and photography was
resorted to for the daily automatic record of the sun's condition
Meanwhile, advances were being made in various parts of the
continent of Europe. Peter Wargentin (1717-1783), secretary
to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, made a special ___
study of the Jovian system. James Bradley had gm*H.
described to the Royal Society on the and of July
17 19 the curious cyclical relations of the three inner satellites,
and their period of 437 days was independently discovered by
Wargentin, who based upon it in 1 746 a set of tables, supersede!
only by those of J. B. J. Delambre in 1702. Among the (ruts
of the strenuous career of Nicolas Louis de Lacaille .
were tables of the sun, in which terms depending upon
planetary perturbations were, for the first time, introduced
(1758); an extended acquaintance with the southern heavens,
and a determination of the moon's parallax from observatioa*
made at opposite extremities of an arc of the meridian 85"
in length. Tobias Mayer of Gttttingen (1723-1762)
originated the mode of adjusting transit-instruments
still in vogue; drew up a catalogue of nearly a thousand
zodiacal stars (published posthumously in 177$); and deduced
the proper motions of eighty stars from a comparison of their
places as given by Olaus Romer in 1706 with those obtained by
himself in 1 7 56. He executed besides a chart and forty drawing!
of the moon (published at Gttttingen in 188 1), and calculated
lunar tables from a skilful development of Euler's theory, (or
which a reward of £3000 was in 1765 paid to his widow by the
British government. They were published by the Board of
Longitude, together with his solar tables, in 1770. The material
interests of navigation were in these works primarily regained;
HISTORY)
ASTRONOMY
8*5
but the imaginative side of knowledge had also potent repre-
r , f , nrft sentatives during the latter half of the iSth century.
In France, especially, the versatile activity of J. J.
Lalande popularized the acquisitions of astronomy, and enforced
its demands ; and he had a German counterpart in J. E. Bode.
Between the time of Aristarchus and the opposition of Mars
in 1672, no serious attempt was made to solve the problem of
the sun's distance. In that year, however, Jean
^/t/J"* Richer at Cayenne and G. D. Cassini at Paris made
mo. combined observations of the planet, which yielded
a parallax for the sun of 9-5*, corresponding to a mean
radius for the terrestrial orbit of 87,000,000 m. This result,
though widely inaccurate, came much nearer to the truth than
any previously obtained ; and it instructively illustrated the
feasibility of concerted astronomical operations at distant parts
of the earth. The way was thus prepared for availing to the full
of the opportunities for a celestial survey offered by the transits
of Venus in 176 1 and 1769. They had been signalized by £.
Halley in 1716 ; they were later insisted upon by Lalande ; an
enthusiasm for co-operation was evoked, and the globe, from
Siberia to Otaheite, was studded with observing parties. The
outcome, nevertheless, disappointed expectation. The instants
of contact between the limbs of the sun and planet defied precise
determination. Optical complications fatally impeded sharpness
of vision, and the phenomena took place in a debateable border-
land of uncertainty. J. F. Encke, it is true, derived from them
in 1822-1824 what seemed an authentic parallax of 8-57', implying
a distance of 95,370,000 m.; but the confidence it inspired was
finally overthrown in 1854 by P. A. Hansen's announcement
of its incompatibility with lunar theory. An appeal then lay
to the 19th century pair of transits in 1874 and 1882; but no
peremptory decision ensued ; observations were marred by the
same optical evils as before. Their upshot, however, had lost
its essential importance ; for a fresh series of investigations
based on a variety of principles had already been started.
Leverrier, in 1858, calculated a value of 8-95' for the solar
parallax (equivalent to a distance of 91,000,000 m.) from the <
" parallactic inequality " of the moon ; Professor Ncwcomb,
using other forms of the gravitational method, derived in 1895
a parallax of 8*76*. Again, since the constant of aberration
defines the ratio between the velocity of light and the earth's
orbital speed, the span of the terrestrial circuit, in other words,
the distance of the sun, is immediately deducible from known
values of the first two quantities. The rate of light-transmission
was accordingly made the subject of an elaborate set of experi-
ments by Professor Newcomb in 1880-1882 ; and the result,
taken in connexion with the aberration-constant as determined
at Pulkowa, yielded a solar parallax of 8-79*, or a distance (in
round numbers) of 93,000,000 m. But the direct or geometrical
mode of attack has still the preference over any of the indirect
plans. Sir David Gill derived a highly satisfactory value of
8*78' for the long-sought constant from the opposition of Mars
in 1877, And from combined heliometer observations at five
observatories in 1888-1889 of the minor planets Iris, Victoria
and Sappho, the apparently definitive value of 8-8o' (equivalent
distance, 92,874,000 m.). But an unlooked-for fresh opportunity
was afforded by the discovery in 1808 of the singularly circum-
stanced minor planet Eros, which occasionally approaches the
earth more nearly than any other heavenly body except the moon.
The opposition of November 1000, though only moderately
favourable, could not be neglected ; an international photographic
campaign was organized at Paris with the aid of 58 observatories;
and the voluminous collected data imply, so far as they have been
discussed, a parallax for the sun a little greater than 8-8*.
(See also Parallax.)
The first specimen of a reflecting telescope was constructed
by Isaac Newton in 1668. It was of what is still called
tfadmitmm " Newtonian " design, and had a speculum a in. in
Jjjjr" 1 * diameter. Through the skill of John Hadley (1682-
mopm. 1743) and James Short of Edinburgh (17 10- 1768)
the instrument unfolded, in the ensuing century, some
of its capabilities, which the labours of William Herschel
SirJoha
Lent
enormously enhanced. Between 1774 and 1 789 he built scores ol
specula of continually augmented size, up to a diameter -_^^
of 4 ft., the optical excellence of which approved itself J^^
by a crowd of discoveries. Uranus (q.v.) was recognized
by its disk on the 13th of March 1781 ; two of its satellites,
Oberon and Titania, disclosed themselves on the nth of January
1787 ; while with the giant 48-in. mirror, used on the " front-
view " plan, Mimas and Enceladus, the innermost Saturnian
moons, were brought to view on the 28th of August and the
17th of September 1789. These were incidental trophies;
HcrscheTs main object was the exploration of the sidereal
heavens. The task, though novel and formidable, was executed
with almost incredible success. Charles Messier (1730-1817) had
catalogued in 1781 103 nebulae ; Herschel discovered 3500,
laid down the lines of their classification, divined the laws of
their distribution, and assigned their place in a scheme of develop-
ment. The proof supplied by him in 1803 that coupled stars
mutually circulate threw open a boundless field of research ;
and he originated experimental inquiries into the construction
of the heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar
statistics. He, moreover, definitively established, in 1783, the
fact and general direction of the sun's movement in space, and
thus introduced an element of order into the maze of stellar
proper motions. Sir John Herschel continued in the
northern, and extended to the southern hemisphere,
his father's work. The third earl of Rosse mounted,
at Parsonstown in 1845, a speculum 6 ft. in diameter, which
afforded the first indications of the spiral structure shown in
recent photographs to be the most prevalent char-
acteristic of nebulae. Down to near the close of the
19th century, both the use and the improvement of
reflectors were left mainly in British hands; but the gift of the
" Crossley " instrument in 1895, to the Lick observatory, and
its splendid subsequent performances in nebular photography,
brought similar tools of research into extensive use among
American astronomers ; and they are now, for many of the
various purposes of astrophysics, strongly preferred to
refractors.
Acquaintance with the asteroidal family began as the 19th
century opened. On the 1st of January 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi
( 1 746-1826) discovered Ceres, at Palermo, while
engaged in collecting materials for his star-catalogues.
A prolonged succession of similar events followed.
But in the mode of detecting these swarming bodies, a typical
change was made on the 22nd of December 1891, MmxWottr
when Dr Max Wolf of Heidelberg photographically
captured No. 323. Repetitions of the feat are now counted by
the score.
Practical astronomy was only secondarily concerned with
the addition of Neptune, on the 23rd of September 1846, to the
company of known planets; but William Lasscll's f nulf
discovery of its satellite, on the 10th of October
following, was a consequence of the perfect figure and high polish
of his 2-ft. speculum. With the same instrument, he further
detected, on the 19th of September 1848, Hyperion, the seventh
of Saturn's attendants, and, on the 24th of October 1851, Ariel
and Umbriel, the interior moons of Uranus. Simultaneously
with Lassell, on the opposite shore of the Atlantic, Bfmt
W. C. Bond identified Hyperion ; and he perceived,
9n the 15th of November 1850, Saturn's dusky ring, independ-
ently observed, a fortnight later, by W. R. Dawes, at Watering-
bury in Kent. With the Washington 26-in. refractor, nUL
on the nth of August 1877, Professor Asaph HaU
descried the moons of Mars, Deimos and Phobos ; and a minute
light-speck, noticed by Professor E. E. Barnard in the close
neighbourhood of Jupiter on the 9th of September Barmmti.
1892, proved representative of a small inner satellite,
invisible with less perfect and powerful instruments than the
Lick 36-in. achromatic. The Jovian system has been reinforced
by three remote and extremely faint members, two
photographed by Professor C. D. Perrine with the
Crossley reflector in 1004-1005, and the third at Gre
8i6
ASTRONOMY
(HISTORY
1908; and a pair of Saturnian moon*/ designated Phoebe and
Themis, were tracked out by Professor W. H. Picker-
ing, in 1898 and 1005 respectively, amid the thicket
of stars imprinted on negatives taken at Arequipa with
the Bruce 24-in. doublet lens. This raises to 26 the number of
discovered satellites in the solar system.
Cometary science has ramified in unexpected ways during the
last hundred years. The establishment of a class of " short-
^^ period " comets by the computations of J. F. Encke
Gomtta ' i n !8 10> a nd of Wilhelm von Biela in 1826, led to the
theory of their " capture " by the great planets, for which a
solid mathematical basis was provided by H. Newton, F. Tisse-
rand and O. Callandreau. An argument for the aboriginal
connexion of comets with the solar system, founded by R. C.
Carrington in i860 upon their participation in its translatory
movement, was more fully developed by L. Fabry in 1803; and
the close orbital relationships of cometary groups, accentuated
by the pursuit of each other along nearly the same track by the
comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882, singularly illustrated the probable
vicissitudes of their careers. The most remarkable event,
however, in the recent history of cometary astronomy was its
MH ^^ assimilation to that of meteors,which took unquestion-
MHaon. a y c cosm j ca j nn ± g^ a consequence of the Leonid
tempest of November 1833. The affinity of the two classes of
objects became known in 1866 through G. V. Schiaparelli's
announcement that the orbit of the bright comet of 1862 agreed
strictly with the elliptic ring formed by the circulating Pcrscid
meteors; and three other cases of close coincidence were soon
afterwards brought to light. Tebbutt's comet in 1881 was the
first to be satisfactorily photographed. The study of such
objects is now carried on mainly through the agency of the
sensitive plate. The photographic registration of meteor-trails,
too, has been lately attempted with partial success. The full
realization of the method will doubtless provide adequate data
for the detailed investigation of meteoric paths.
The progress of science during the 19th century had no more
distinctive feature than the rapid growth of sidereal astronomy
(see Star). Its scope, wide as the universe, can be
r compassed no otherwise than by statistical means,
' and the collection of materials for this purpose involves
most arduous preliminary labour. The multitudinous enrol-
ment of stars was the first requisite. Only one " catalogue
of precision " — Nevil Maskclyne's of 36 fundamental stars-
was available in 1800. J. J. Lalande, however,
published in 1801, in his Hisloire cilestc, the approxi-
mate places of 47,390 from a reobservation of which
the great Paris catalogue (1887-1892) has been compiled. A
valuable catalogue of about 7600 stars was issued by Giuseppe
Pfazai in 1814; Stephen Groombridge determined 4239 at
Blackheath in 1806-1816; while through the joint and successive
work of F. W. Bessel and W. A. Argclander, exact acquaintance
was made with 00,000, a more general acquaintance with the
324,000 stars recorded in the Bonn Durckmusterung (1859-1862).
The southern hemisphere was subsequently reviewed on a similar
duplicate plan by E. Schonfcld (1828-1891) at Bonn, by B. A.
Gould and J. M. Thome at C6rdoba. Moreover, the imposing
catalogue set on foot in 1865 at thirteen observatories by the
German astronomical society has recently been completed; and
adjuncts to it have, from time to time, been provided in the
publications of the royal observatories at Greenwich and the
Cape of Good Hope, and of national, imperial and private
establishments in the United States and on the continent of
Europe. But in the execution of these protracted undertakings,
the human eye has been, to a large and increasing extent, super-
seded by the camera. Photographic star-charting was begun
by Sir David Gill in 1885, and the third and concluding volume
of the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung appeared in 1900. It
gives the co-ordinates of above 450,000 stars, measured by
Professor J. C. Kapteyn at Groningcn on plates taken by C. Ray
Woods at the Cape observatory. And this comprehensive work
was merely preparatory to the International Catalogue and
Chart, the production of which was initiated by the resolutions
SMNwaf
of the Paris Photographic Congress of 1887. Eighteen observa-
tories scattered north and south of the equator divided the sky
among them; and the outcome of their combined operations
aimed at the production of a catalogue of at least 2.000,000
strictly determined stars, together with a colossal map in 22 000
sheets, showing stars to the fourteenth magnitude, in number*
difficult to estimate. (See Photography, Celestial.)
The arrangement of the stars in space can be usefully dis-
cussed only in connexion with their apparent light-power, 01
" magnitude." Photometric catalogues, accordingly, n ,
form an indispensable part of stellar statistics; and ««*
their construction has been zealously prosecuted. f^
The Harvard Photometry of 4260 ludd stars was **■"■'
issued by Professor E. C. Pickering in 1884, the Umemetna
Nova Oxoniensis, giving the relative lustre of 2784 stars, bv
C. Pritchard in 1885. The instrument used at Harvard was 1
" meridian photometer," constructed on the principle of polariza-
tion; while the " method of extinctions/' by means of a wedfr
of neutral-tinted glass, served for the Oxford detenninatieaa.
At Potsdam, some 17,000 stars have been measured by C. H G
Mailer and P. F. F. Kempf with a polarising photometer; bat
by far the most comprehensive work of the kind is the Harvard
Photometric Durckmusterung (1901-1903), embracing all stars
to 7-5 magnitude, and extended to the southern pole by measure-
ments executed at Arequipa. The embarrassing subject of photo-
graphic photometry has also been attacked by ProfessorFkkcriBg
The need is urgent of fixing a scale, and defining standards
of actinic brightness; but it has not yet been successfully set
The investigation of double stars was carried on from 1S10
to 1850 with singular persistence and ability at Dorpat and
Pulkowa by F. G. W. Struve, and by his son and ^^
successor, O. W. Struve. The high excellence of the ufmM
data collected by them was a combined result of their
skill, and of the vast improvement in refracting t elesco pe s
due to the genius of Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826). Among
the inheritors of his renown were Alvan Clark and Alvan G.
Clark of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; and the superb defec-
tion of their great achromatics rendered practicable the diviskft
of what might have been deemed impossibly close star -pain.
These facilities were remarkably illustrated by Professor S. W.
Burnham's record of discovery, which roused fresh enthusiasm
for this line of inquiry by compelling recognition of the extra-
ordinary profusion throughout the heavens of compound objects.
Discoveries with the spectroscope have ratified and extended
this conclusion.
Only spurious star-parallaxes had claimed the attention of
astronomers until F. W. Bessel announced, in December i8jS,
the perspective yearly shifting of 61 Cygni in an ellipse ^^^
with a mean radius of about one-third of a second. mm*bx.
Thomas Henderson (1 798-1844) had indeed measured
the larger displacements of a Centauri at the Cape in 183^-181 j.
but delayed until 1839 to publish his result. Out of seven!
hundred stars since then examined, seventy or eighty ha\t
yielded fairly accurate, though very small parallaxes. But this
amount of knowledge, however valuable in itself, is 12 1 terry
inadequate to the needs of sidereal research; and various
attempts have accordingly been made, chiefly by Professors
J. C. Kapteyn and Simon Ncwcomb, to estimate, through the
analysis of their proper motions, the " mean parallax " of stars
assorted by magnitude. And the data thus arrived at are
reassuringly self-consistent. A wide photographic survey, bv
which parallaxes might be secured wholesale, has further been
recommended by Kapteyn; but b unlikely to be undertaken
in the immediate future.
The exhaustive ascertainment of stellar parallaxes, combined
with the visible facts of stellar distribution, would enable as
to build a perfect plan of the universe in three dimes-
sions. Its perfection would, nevertheless, be under- £2s»
mined by the mobility of all its constituent parts.
Their configuration at a given instant supplies no information
as to their configuration hereafter unless the mode and laws of
their movements have been determined. Hence, one of the leading
HISTORY]
ASTRONOMY
817
inducements to the construction of exact and comprehensive
catalogues has been to elicit, by comparisons of those for widely
separated epochs, the proper motions of the stars enumerated
in them. Little was known on the subject at the beginning of the
xoth century. William Herschel founded his determination in
1783 of the sun's route in space upon the movements of thirteen
stars; and he took into account those of only six in his second
solution of the problem in 1805. But in 1837 Argelander
employed 390 proper motions as materials for the treatment of
the same subject; and L. Struve had at his disposal, in 1887,
no less than 2800. From the re-observation of Lalande's stars,
after the lapse of not far from a century, J. Bossert was enabled
to deduce 2675 proper motions, published at Paris in four
successive memoirs, 1887-1002; and the sum-total of those
ascertained probably now exceeds 6000. Yet this number,
although it represents a portentous expenditure of labour, is
insignificant compared with the multitude of the stellar throng;
nor had any general tendency been discerned to regulate what
seemed casual Sittings until Professor Kapteyn, in 1004, adverted
to the prevalence among all the brighter stars of opposite stream-
flows towards two " vertices " situated in the Milky Way (see
Star) . The assured general fact as regards the direction of stellar
movements was that they included a common parallactic element
due to the sun's translation. And it is by the consideration
of this partial accordance in motion that the advance through
space of the solar system has been ascertained.
The apex of the sun's way was fixed by Professor Newcomb
in 1898 at a point about 4 S. of the brilliant star Vega; but
was shifted nearly 7 to the S.W. by J. C. Kapteyn's inquiry
in iqox; so that the range of uncertainty as to its position
continues unsatisfactorily wide. The speed with which our
system progresses is, on the other hand, fairly well known.
It cannot differ much from 12J m. a second, the rate, assigned
to it by Professor W. W. Campbell in 1902. He employed in
his discussion the radial velocities of 280 stars, spectroscopically
determined; and the upshot signally exemplified the community
of interests between the rising science of astrophysics and the
.^ ancient science of astrometxy. Their characteristic
pmj tfrr, purposes are, nevertheless, entirely different. The
positions of the heavenly bodies in space, and the
changes of those positions with time, constitute the primary
subject of investigation by the elder school; while the new
astronomy concerns itself chiefly with the individual
peculiarities of suns and planets, with their chemistry,
physical habitudes and modes of luminosity. Its
distinctive method is spectrum analysis, the invention and
development of which in the 19th century have fundamentally
altered the purpose and prospects of celestial inquiries.
A beam of sunlight admitted into a darkened room through
a narrow aperture, and there dispersed into a vario-tinted band
WoOastoa. by ^ e Interposition of a prism, is not absolutely
continuous. Dr W. H. Wollaston made the experiment
in 1802, and perceived the spaces of colour to be interrupted
by seven obscure gaps, which took the shape of lines owing to
his use of rectangular slit. He thus caught a preliminary
m _ glimpse of the " Fraunhofer lines," so called because
aot*r. Joseph Fraunhofer brought them into prominent
notice by the diligence and insight of his labours upon
them in 1814-1815. He mapped 324, chose out nine, which he
designated by the letters of the alphabet, to be standards of
measurement for the rest, and ascertained the coincidence in
position between the double yellow ray derived from the flame
of burning sodium and the pair of dark lines named by him " D "
in the solar spectrum. There ensued forty-five years of groping
for a law which should clear up the enigma of the solar reversals.
Partial anticipations abounded. The vital heart of the matter
was barely missed by W. A. Miller in X845, by L. Foucault in
1849, by A. J.Angstrdm in 1853, by Balfour Stewart in 1858;
while Sir George Stokes held the solution of the problem in the
Khvhbott. h ou>ow °f hi* band from 1852 onward. But it was the
synthetic genius of Gustav Kirchhoff which first gave
unity to the scattered phenomena, and finally reconciled what was
n 14
elicited in the feboratory with what was observed in the sun.
On the 15th of December 1859 he communicated to the Berlin
Academy of Sciences the principle which bears his name. Its
purport is that glowing vapours similarly circumstanced absorb
the identical radiations which they emit. That is to say, they
stop out just those sections of white light transmitted through
them which form their own special luminous badges. Moreover,
if the white light come from a source at a higher temperature
than theirs, the sections, or lines, absorbed by them show dark
against a continuous background. And this is precisely the
case with the sun. Kirchhoff's principle, accordingly, not only
afforded a simple explanation of the Fraunhofer lines, but
availed to found a far-reaching science of celestial chemistry.
Thousands of the dark lines in the solar spectrum
agree absolutely in wave-length with the bright rays ofta0
artificially obtained from known substances, and $ua.
appertaining to them individually. These substances
must then exist near the sun. They are in fact suspended In a
state of vapour between our eyes and the photosphere, the
dazzling prismatic radiance of which they, to a minute extent,
intercept, thus writing their signatures on the coloured scroll
of dispersed sunshine. By persistent research, powerfully aided
by the photographic camera and by the concave gratings invented
by H. A. Rowland (1 848-1 901) in 1882, about forty terrestrial
elements have been identified in the sun. Among them, iron,
sodium, magnesium, calcium and hydrogen are conspicuous;
but it would be rash to assert that any of the seventy forma
of matter provisionally enumerated in text-books are wholly
absent from his composition.
Solar physics has profited enormously by the abolition of
glare during total eclipses. That of the 8th of July 1842 was
the first to be efficiently observed; and the luminous „_.„
appendages to the sun disclosed by it were such as
to excite startled attention. Their investigation has
since been diligently prosecuted. The corona was photographed
at Konigsberg during the totality of the 28th of July 1851;
similar records of the red prominences, successively obtained
by Father Angelo Secchi and Warren de la Rue, as the shadow-
track crossed Spain on the x8th of July i860, finally demonstrated
their solar status. The Indian eclipse of the x8th of August
1868 supplied knowledge of their spectrum, found to include
the yellow ray of an exotic gas named by Sir Norman Lockyer
" helium." It further suggested, to Lockyer and P. Janssen
separately, the spectroscopic method of observing these objects
in daylight. Under cover of an eclipse visible in North America
on the 7th of August 1869, the bright green line of the corona
was discerned; and Professor C. A. Young caught the " flash
spectrum " of the reversing layer, at the moment of second
contact, at Xerez de la Frontera in Spain, on the 22nd of December
1870. This significant but evanescent phenomenon, which
represents the direct emissions of a low-lying solar envelope,
was photographed by William Shackleton on the occasion of an
eclipse in Novaya Zemlya on the 9th of August 1896; and it
has since been abundantly registered by exposures made during
the obscurations of x8o8, xooo, xoox and 1005. A singular and
unlooked-for result of eclipse-work has been to include the
corona within the scope of solar periodicity. Heinrich Schwabe
established, in 1851, the cyclical variation, in eleven years, of
spot-frequency; terrestrial magnetic disturbances manifestly
obeyed the same law; and the peculiar winged aspect of the
corona disclosed by the eclipse of the 29th of July 1878, at an
epoch of minimum sun-spots, intimated to A. C. Ranyard a
theory of coronal types, changing concurrently with the fluctua-
tions of spot-activity. This was amply verified at subsequent
eclipses.
The photography of prominences was, after some preliminary
trials by C. A. Young and others, fully realized in 1891 by
Professor George £. Hale at Chicago, and independ-
ently by Henri Deslandres at Paris. The pictures were
taken, in both cases, with only one quality of light,
the violet ray of calcium, the remaining superfluous
beams being eliminated by the agency of a doub*- -
8i8
ASTRONOMY
[HISTORY
last-named expedient had been described by Janssen in 1867.
Kale devised on the same principle the " spectroheliograph,"
an instrument by which the sun's disk can be photographed in
calcium-light by imparting a rapid movement to its image
relatively to the sensitive plate; and the method has proved
in many ways fruitful.
The likeness of the sun to the stars has been shown by the
spectroscope to be profound and inherent. Yet the general
agreement of solar and stellar chemistry does not
exclude important diversities of detail. Fraunhofer
was the pioneer in this branch. He observed, in 1833,
dark lines in stellar spectra which Kirchhoff's discovery
supplied the means of interpreting. The task, attempted by
G. B. Donati in i860, was effectively taken in hand, two years
later, by Angelo Secchi, William Huggins and Lewis M. Ruther-
ford. There ensued a general classification of the stars by Secchi
into four leading types, distinguished by diversities of spectral
pattern; and the recognition by Huggins of a considerable
number of terrestrial elements as present in stellar atmospheres.
Nebular chemistry was initiated by the same investigator when,
on the 29th of August 1864, he observed the bright-line spectrum
of a planetary nebula in Draco. About seventy analogous
objects, including that in the Sword of Orion, were found by him
to give light of the same quality; and thus after seventy-three
years, verification was brought to William Herschel's hypothesis
of a "shining fluid" diffused through space, the possible raw
material of stars. In 1874, Dr H. C. Vogel published a modifica-
tion of Secchi's scheme of stellar diversities, and gave it organic
meaning by connecting spectral differences with advance in
" age." And in 1895, he set apart, as in the earliest stage of
growth, a new class of " helium st&»," supposed to develop
successively into Sirian, solar, Antarian, or alternatively into
carbon stars.
On the 5th of August 1864, G. B. Donati analysed the light of
a small comet into three bright bands. Sir William Huggins
repeated the experiment on Winnecke's comet in 1868,
obtained the same bands, and traced them to their
Snoctnot
origin from glowing carbon-vapour. A photograph of
the spectrum of Tebbutt's comet, taken by him on the 34th
of June x88i, showed radiations of shorter wave-lengths but
identical source, and .in addition, a percentage of reflected solar
light marked as such by the presence of some well-known
Fraunhofer lines. Further experience has generalized these
earlier results. The rule that comets yield carbon-spectra has
scarcely any exceptions. The usual bands were, however,
temporarily effaced in the two brilliant apparitions of 1883 by
vivid rays of sodium and iron, emitted during the excitement of
perihelion-passage.
The adoption, by Sir William Huggins in 2876, of gelatine or
dry plates in celestial photography was a change of decisive
import. For it made long exposures possible; and
only with long exposures could autographic impres-
sions be secured of such faint objects as nebulae, tele-
scopic comets, and the immense majority of stars, or
of the dim ranges of stellar and nebular spectra. The first
conspicuous triumph of the new " spectrographs " art thus
established was the record by Huggins in 2879 of the dispersed
light of several " white " or Sirian stars, in which the chief traits
of absorption were the rhythmical series of hydrogen-lines, then
memorably discovered. Again by Sir William Huggins, the
spectrum of the Orion nebula was photographed on the 7th of
March 1882; and the method has gradually become nearly ex-
clusive in the study of nebular emanations. The "Draper
Catalogue " of 10,351 stellar spectra was published by Professor
£. C. Pickering in 1890. The materials for it were rapidly
accumulated by the use of an objective prism, that is, of a prism
placed in front of, instead of behind the object-lens, by which
means the spectra of all the stars in the field, to the number often
of many score, imprinted themselves simultaneously on the
sensitive plate. The progress of this survey was marked by a
number of important discoveries of " new " and variable stars
and of spectroscopic binaries, mainly through the acumen of
Mrs WQHamina Paton Fleming of Harvard College in scratiniriag
the negatives forming the data for the great catalogue.
The principle that the refrangibOity of light is altered by end-
on motion was enunciated by Christian Doppler of Prague in i&ax
The pitch of a steam-whistle quite obviously rises and
falls as the engine to which it is attached approaches JJEbJjjJ
and recedes from a stationary auditor; and light-
pulses are modified like sound-waves by velocity in the line cf
sight. They are crowded together and therefore rendered shorter
and more frequent by the advance of their source, but draws
apart and lengthened by its recession. These effects vary »-t-ii
the rate of motion, which they consequently serve to measure;
and they are produced indifferently by movements of the
spectator or of the light-source. But Doppler's idea that they
might be detected by colour-change was entirely illusory. I:
would apply only if the spectrum had no infra-red and ultra-
violet extensions. These, however, since they share the grarol
lengthening or shortening of wave-length through motion, are
thereby shifted, to a certain definite extent, into visibility, and
so produce accurate chromatic compensation. Integrated UsjhL
accordingly, tells nothing about velocity; but analysed light
does, when it includes bright or dark rays the normal positions of
which are known. The distinction was pointed out by HippcJ>te
Fizeau in 2848. By comparison with their analogues in the
laboratory it can be determined whether, in which direction, asd
how much, lines of recognized origin are displaced in the spectra
of the heavenly bodies. This subtle mode of research was made
available by Sir William Huggins m 2868. He employed it, with
an outcome of striking promise, to measure the radial speed d
some of the brighter stars. In the following year. Sir Norxaaa
Lockyer was enabled to prove, by its means, the extraordinary
vehemence of chromospheric disturbances, the bright prominence-
rays in his spectroscope betraying, through their opposite sniff-
ings, movements and counter-movements up to xso m. a second,
while its validity and refinement were, in 2871, vouched for by
H. C. Vogel's observations on the 9th of June 287 1, of differences
due to the sun's rotation in the refrangibility of Fraunhofer lines
derived respectively from the east and west limbs. Stellar line-
of-sight work, however, made no satisfactory progress until, in
2888, Vogel changed the venue from the eye to the camera. A
high degree of precision in measurement thus became attainable,
and has since been fully attained. Not only the grosser facts *
concerning radial velocity, but variations in it so small as a mile,
or less, per second, have been recorded and interpreted in terms
of deep meaning. For the investigation of the general scheme
of sidereal structure, the multiplication of results of the kind is
indispensable. But as yet, the recessional or approaching: move-
ments of only a few hundred stars have been registered; and this
store of information is scanty indeed compared with the needs of
research. How the stars really move in space, and how the me
travels among them, can be ascertained only with the aid of
materials collected by the spectrograph, which has now fortu-
nately been brought to comply with the arduous conditions of
exactitude requisite for collaboration with the transit instrument
and its allies, the clock and chronograph. And here, to their
great mutual advantage, the old and the new astronomies meet
and join forces.
Authorities. — R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy (2853).
Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, An Historical Survey of the Astronomy ef
the Ancients (1863); J. B. f. Dclambre, Hist, ie Vastr. ancienne
Hist, de rastr. au noyen age; Hist, de t'astr. modem*; HisL it
Vast*, au XVI II* *ttefr; 7 S. BaiUy, Histoire de Vmttromomw
(5 vols., 2775-2787); J. F. Wcidler, Historia Astronomiao (1741).
J. H. Midler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde (1873); R. WcH.
Geschiehte der Astronomie (1876); Handbuch der Astronomie (tflco-
2893); W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductim Sciences-, A. M. Clerkr.
Hut. of Astronomy during the ioth m Century (4U1 ed., IOM); A
,. h.H. Martin,
lypotheses astronomiqiies,'* Mtmotm
de /' InstUut, t. xxx. (Paris, 2881); P. Tannery. Reekerthes tv
l f histoire de V astronomie ancienne (2893) ; O. Gnippe, Die mosmistmtn
System* der Criechen (2852) ; G. V. Sehiaparellf, / Procursori id
Copernico (1873); Le Sfere Omoeentriche dt Budosso (1875).
P. Jensen, Kosmologie der Babyhnier (2890); F. X. Kttgfcr, D*
nut. oj Astronomy aurtng cm /out century \atn en., 191
Berry, HisL of Astronomy (1898) ; J. K. Schaubach. Cestkit
griechischen Astronomie bis auf Eratosthenes (2803); Th. H. 1
1 Memoire sur l'histoire des hypotheses astronomiqiies,'* U
ASTROPALIA— ASTRUC
babyioniscke liondruknungitgoo); J. Eppjng and J. N.
meier, Astronomisckes aus Babylon (1889); F. K. Ginzel, Dit
8l9
Strass-
„ m r _ . t Die astro-
nomiscken Kenntnisse der Babylonier (1901) : C. L. Idelcr, Historiscke
Untersucknngen fiber die astronomiuken Beobacktnngen der Allen
(1806); Handbuch der math. Ckrenologie (2 vols., 1825-1826);
Untersvckungtn fiber den Ursprnng der Stemnamen (1809); G.
Costard, History of Astronomy (1767); J. Narrien, An Historical
Account of ike Origin and Progress of Astronomy (1833); J. L. E.
Dnytr, Hist, of tke Planetary Systems (1906) ;G. W. HOI. " Progress
of Celestial Mechanics," The Observatory, vol. xix.0896). (A.M.C.)
ASTROPALIA (classical Astypalaea), an island, with good
harbours, in the south part of the Aegean, situated in 36-5° N.
and immediately west of 26*5° E. It was colonized by Megara,
and its constitution and buildings are known from numerous
inscriptions. The Roman emperors recognized it as a free state,
and in the middle ages it was called Stampalia, and belonged to
the noble Venetian family of Quirini. It was taken by the Turks
in the x6th century, and is now noted for its sponges. The
customs and dress of the people, who speak a patois of romaic
origin, are interesting.
ASTROPHYSICS, the branch of astronomical science which
treats of the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies. So
long as these bodies could be known to men only as points or
disks of light in the sky, no such science was possible. Even
later, when the telescope was the only instrument of research,
knowledge on this subject was confined to the appearances
presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less probable
inferences as to the nature of their surfaces. When, in the third
quarter of the 19th century, spectrum analysis was applied to
the light coming to us from the heavenly bodies, a new era in
astronomical science was opened up of such importance that the
body of knowledge revealed by this method has sometimes been
termed the " new astronomy." The development of the method
has been greatly assisted by photography, while the application
of photometric measurements has been a powerful auxiliary in
the work. It has thus come about that astrophysics owes its
recent development, and its recognition as a distinct branch of
astronomical science, to the combination of the processes involved
in the three arts of spectroscopy, photography and photometry.
The most general conclusions reached by this combination may
be summed up as follows: —
1. The heavenly bodies are composed of like matter with that
which we find to make up our globe. The sun and stars are
found to contain the more important elements with which
chemistry has made us acquainted. Iron, calcium and hydrogen
may be especially mentioned as three familiar chemical elements
which enter largely into the constitution of all the matter of the
heavens. It would be going too far to say that all the elements
known to us exist in the sun or the stars; nor is the question
whether the rarer ones can or cannot be found there of prime
importance. The general fact of identity in the main constituents
b the one of most fundamental importance. It would be going
too far in the other direction to claim that all the elements
which compose the heavenly bodies are found on the earth.
There are many lines in the spectra of the stars, as well as of
the nebulae, which are not certainly identified with those belong-
ing to any elements known to our chemistry. The recent dis-
coveries growing out of the investigation of newly discovered
forms of radiation lead to the conclusion that the question of
the forms of matter in the stars has far wider range than the
simple question whether any given element is or is not found
outside our earth. The question is rather that of the infinity
of forms that matter may assume, including that most attenuated
form found in the nebulae, which seem to be composed of matter
more refined than even the atoms supposed to make up the matter
around us.
2. The second conclusion is that, as a general rule, the
incandescent heavenly bodies are not masses of solid or liquid
matter as formerly assumed, but mainly masses either of gas,
or of substances gaseous In their nature, so compressed by the
gravitation of their superincumbent parts toward a common
centre that their properties combine those of the three forms of
matter known to us. We have strong reason to believe that
even the sun, though much denser than the general average of
the stars, may possibly be characterized as gaseous rather than
solid. Probabilities also seem to favour the view that this may,
to a certain extent, be true of the four great planets of our
system. The case of bodies like our earth and Mars, which are
solid either superficially or throughout, is probably confined to
the smaller bodies of the universe. C.
3. A third characteristic which seems to belong to the great
bodies of the universe is the very high temperature of their
interior. With a modification to be mentioned presently, we
may regard them as intensely hot bodies, probably at a tempera-
ture higher than any we can produce by artificial means, of which
the superficial portions have cooled off by radiation into space.
A modification in this proposition which may hereafter be
accepted involves an extension of our ideas of temperature, and
leads us to regard the interior heat of the heavenly bodies as due
to a form of molecular activity similar to that of which radium
affords so remarkable an instance. This modification certainly
avoids many difficulties connected with the question of the
interior heat of the earth, sun, Jupiter and probably all the
larger heavenly bodies.
A limit is placed on our knowledge of astrophysics which, up
to the present time, we have found no means of overstepping.
This is imposed upon us by the fact that it is only when matter
is in a gaseous form that the spectroscope can give us certain
knowledge as to its physical condition. So long as bodies are
in the solid state the light which they emit, though different in
different substances, has no characteristic so precisely marked
that detailed conclusions can be drawn as to the nature of the
substance emitting it. Even in a liquid form, the spectrum of
any kind of matter is less characteristic than that of gas. More'
over, a gaseous body of uniform temperature, and so dense as
to be non-transparent, does not radiate the characteristic
spectrum of the gas of which it is composed. Precise conclusions
are possible only when a gaseous body is transparent through
and through, so that the gas emits its characteristic rays— or
when the rays from an incandescent body of any kind pass
through a gaseous envelope at a temperature lower than that of
the body itself. In this case the revelations of the spectroscope
relate only to the constitution of the gaseous envelope, and not
to the body below the envelope, from which the light emanates
The outcome of this drawback is that our knowledge of the
chemical constitution of the stars and planets is still confined
to their atmospheres, and that conclusions as. to the constitution
of the interior masses which form them must be drawn by other
methods than the spectroscopic one.
When the spectroscope was first applied in astronomy, it was
hoped that the light reflected from living matter might be found
to possess some property different from that found in light re-
flected from non-living matter, and that we might thus detect
the presence of life on the surface of a planet by a study of its
spectrum; but no hope of this kind has so far been realised.
We have, in this brief view of the subject, referred mainly to
the results of spectrum analysis. Growing out of, but beyond
this method is the beginning of a great branch of research which
may ultimately explain many heretofore enigmatical phenomena
of nature. The discovery of radio-activity may, by explaining
the interior heat of the great bodies of the universe, solve a
difficulty which since the middle of the 19th century has been
discussed by physicists and geologists — that of reconciling the
long duration which geologists claim for the crust of the earth
with the period during which physicists have deemed it possible
that the sun should have radiated heat. Evidence is also
accumulating to show that the sun and stars are radio-active
bodies, and that emanations proceeding from the sun, and
reaching the earth, have important relations to the phenomena
of Terrestrial Magnetism and the Aurora.
The subject of Astrophysics does not admit of so definite a sub*
division as that of Astrometry. The conclusions which researches
relating to it have so far reached are treated in the articles
Stau; Sum; Comet; Nebula; Aukoea Polaris, &c. (S. N.)
ASTRUO, JKAR (1084-2766), French physician and Biblical
critic, was born on the 19th of March 1684 at Sauve, :_
820
ASTURA— ASTURIAS
He graduated in medicine at Montpellier in 1703, and in 1710
he was appointed to the chair of anatomy at Toulouse, which
he retained tiil 17x7, when he became professor of medicine
at Montpellier. Subsequently he was appointed successively
superintendent of the mineral waters of Languedoc (1721), first
physician to the king of Poland (1720), and regius professor
of medicine at Paris (1731). He died on the 5th of May 1766
at "Paris. Of his numerous works, that on which his fame
principally rests is the treatise entitled De M or bis Venereis libri
sex, 1736. In addition to other medical works he published
anonymously Conjectures sur les mtmoires origmaux dont U
parait que Moyse s'esl servi pour composer le /tire de la Genese,
(1753)1 in which he pointed out that two main sources can be
traced in the book of Genesis; and two dissertations on the
immateriality and immortality of the soul, 1755.
See Hauck, Realencyk. /. pros. Theol., 1897, vol. ii. pp. 163*170.
ASTURA, formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the coast
of Latium, Italy, 7 m. S.E. of Antium, at the S.E. extremity
of the Bay of Antium. The name also belongs to the river which
flowed into the sea immediately to the S.E., at the mouth of
which there was, according to Strabo, an anchorage. The
medieval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin of Swabia
vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozaa in 1268,
is built upon the foundations of a very large villa, of opus re-
ticulohtm with later additions in brickwork, and with a small
harbour attached to it on the south-east Remains of buildings
also exist behind the sand dunes, which possibly mark the line
of the channel which separated the island from the mainland,
and these may have belonged to the post-station on the Via
Severiana. As far as can be seen at present, there are remains
of only one villa on the island itself; 1 but along the coast a mile
to the north-west a line of villas begins, which continues as far
as Antium. To the south-east, on the other hand, remains are
almost entirely absent, and this portion of the coast seems to
have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now.
The island seems to have existed as such in the time of Pope
Honorius III. Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero,
whither he retired on the death of his daughter Tullia in 45 B.C.
It appears to have been unhealthy even in Roman times; accord-
ing to Suetonius, both Augustus and Tiberius contracted here
the illnesses which proved fatal to them.
See T. Ashby, in MUanges de VfLccie Francois* de Rome (1905),
p. 207. , (T. As.)
ASTURIAS* an ancient province and principality of northern
Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Old
Castile, S. by Leon and W. by Galicia. Pop. (1900) 627,069;
area, 4205 sq. m. By the division of Spain in 1833, the province
took the name of Oviedo, though not to the exclusion, in
ordinary usage, of the older designation. A full description of
its modem condition is therefore given under the heading
Ovudo; the present article being confined to an account of
its physical features, its history, and the resultant character
of its inhabitants. Asturias consists of a portion of the northern
slope of the Cantabrian Mountains,and is covered in all directions
with offshoots from the main chain, by which it is almost com-
pletely shut in on the south. The higher summits, which often
reach a height of 7000-8000 ft., are usually covered with snow
until Jury or August, and the whole region is one of the wildest
and most picturesque parts of Spain. Until the first railway was
opened, in the middle of the 19th century, few of the passes
across the mountains were practicable for carriages, and most
of them are difficult even for horses. A narrow strip of level
moorland, covered with furze and rich in deposits of peat, coal
and amber, stretches inland, from the edge of the sheer cliffs
which line the coast, to the foot of the mountains. The province
is watered by numerous streams and rivers, which have hollowed
out deep valleys; but owing to the narrowness of the level
tract, their courses are short, rapid and subject to floods. The
most important is the Nalon or Pravia, which receives the waters
of the Caudal, the Trubia and the Narcea, and has a course
1 Serviua, in speaking of it as oppidum, mutt be referring to the
post-station.
of 62 m.; after it rank the Navia and the Sella. The <
of these rivers are rarely navigable, and along the entire littoral,
a distance of 130 m., the only, important harbours axe at Gijoa
and Aviles.
A country so rugged, and so isolated by land and sea, natar&lN-
served as the last refuge of the older races of Spain when hard
pressed by successive invaders. Before the Roman conquest,
the Iberian tribe of Astures had been able to maintain itscW
independent of the Carthaginians, and to extend its territory
as far south as the Douro. It was famous for its wealth in hones
and gold. About 25 B.C., the Romans subjugated the district
south of the Cantabrians, to which they gave the name of
Augustana. Their capital was Asturica Augusta, the modern
Astorga, in Leon. The warlike mountaineers of the northern
districts, known as Transmontana, never altogether abandoned
their hostility to the Romans, whose rule was ended by the
Visigothic conquest, late in the 5th century. In 713. two years
after the defeat and death of Roderick, the last Visigothic king,
all Spain, except Galicia and Asturias, fell into the hands of the
Moors. One of the surviving Christian leaders, Pelayo t be Goth,
took refuge with three hundred followers in the celebrated cave
of Covadonga, or Cobadonga, near Cangas de Onfs, and from this
hiding-place undertook the Christian reconquest of Spain. The
Asturians chose him as their king in 718, and although Gahria
was lost in 734, the Moors proved unable to penetrate into the
remoter fastnesses held by the levies of Pelayo. After his death
in 737. the Asturians continued to offer the same heroic resistance,
and ultimately enabled the people of Galicia, Leon and Castile 10
recover their liberty. The title of prince of Asturias, conferred
on the heir-apparent to the crown of Spain, dates from 13S&
when it was first bestowed on a Castilian prince. The title of
count of Covadonga is assumed by the lungs of Spain. In modera
times Asturias formed a captaincy-general, divided into Asturias
d'Oviedo, which corresponds with the limits of the ancient prin-
cipality, and Asturias de Santillana, which now constitutes the
western half of Santander.
Owing to their almost entire immunity from any alien domina-
tion except that of the Romans and Goths, the Asturians iray
perhaps be regarded as the purest representatives of the Ibenao
race; while their dialect (linguaje bable) is sometimes held to be
closely akin to the parent speech from which modern Castilian is
derived. It is free from Moorish idioms, and, like Galirian and
Portuguese it often retains the original Latin / which rwatM
changes into k. In physique, the Asturians are like the Galicians.
a people of hardy mountaineers and fishermen, finery built, but
rarely handsome, and with none of the grace of the f« ?ti lHn or
Andalusian. Unlike the Galicians, however, they are remarkable
for their keen spirit Of independence, which has been fostered
by centuries of isolation. Despite the harsh land4aws ar.J
grinding taxation which prevent them, with all their indust.7
and thrift, from securing the freehold of the patch of grojed
cultivated by each peasant family, the Asturians regard them-
selves as the aristocracy of Spain. This pride in their land, race
and history they preserve even when, as often happens, they
emigrate to other parts of the country or to South America, ai 4
earn their living as servants, water-carriers, or, in the case d
the women, as nurses. They make admirable soldiers and saik-rv
but lack the enterprise and commercial aptitude of the Basques
and Catalans; while they are differentiated from the inhabitants
of central and southern Spain by their superior industry, tci
perhaps their lower standard of culture. It is. on the whole.
true that by the exclusion of the Moors they lost their opportunity
of playing any conspicuous part in the literary and arti^u
development of Spain. One class of the Asturians deserv;'*
special mention is that of the nomad cattle-drovers known ^
Baqucros 01 Vaqueros, who tend their herds on the raountaja* «>i
Leitaricgos in summer, and along the coast in winter; forming a
separate caste, with distinctive customs, and rarely or Dtm
intermarrying with their neighbours,
For the modem condition of the principality (Including dun**,
fauna and flora), tee S. Canals, Astunas: tuformacion N>e-r n
preunU estado (Madrid, 1900); and G. Caaal, Memoria* de iufe*M
ASTYAGES— ASYLUM
821
natural y mSdka de Astoria* (OvSrdD, 1900). Far the history and
antiquities, there is much that is valuable in Asturias monummUU,
epierdfica y diplom&tica, Ac, by C, M. Vigil (Madrid, 1887)— folio,
with maps and illustrations. See also F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga,
Monografiad* Asturias (Oviedo, 1899).
ASTYA0E8, the last king of -the Median empire. In the
inscriptions of Nabonidus the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder
from Abu Habba V R 64, col. 1,3a; Annals, published by Pinches,
Tr. Soc. Bibi. Arch. vii. col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he
was the son of Cyaxares and reigned thirty-five years (584-550
B.C.); his wife was Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes of Lydia
(Herod, i 74) . About his reign we know little, as the narrative of
Herodotus, which makes Cyrus the grandson of Astyages by his
daughter Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of Harpagus,
who as general of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus,
alone seems to contain an historical clement, as Harpagus and his
family afterwards obtained a high position in the Persian empire.
From the inscriptions of Nabonidus we learn that Cyrus, king of
Anshan (Susiana), began war against him in 553 B.C.; in 550,
when Astyages marched against Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and
he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus occupied and plundered
Ecbatana. The captive king was treated fairly by Cyrus ( Herod.
i. 130), and according to Ctesias (Pers. 5, cf. Justin i. 6) made
satrap of Hyrcania, where he was afterwards slain by Oebares
against the will of Cyrus, who gave him a splendid funeral.
Alexander Poryhistor and Abydenus in their excerpts from
Berossus, which Eusebius {Chron. i. pp. 29 and 37) and Syncellus
(p. 306) have preserved, give the name Astyages to the Median
king who reigned in the time of the fall of Nineveh (606 B.C.),
and became father-in-law of Nebuchadrezzar, This is evidently
a mistake; the name ought to be Cyaxares (in the fragments of
the Jewish history of Alexander Polyhistor, in Euseb. Praep.
Em. ix. 30, the name is converted into Astibaras, who, according
to the unhistorical list of Ctesias, was the father of Astyages), and
there is no reason to invent an earlier king Astyages I., as some
modern authors have done. .The Armenian historians render the
name Astyages by Ashdahak, i.e. Azhi Dahaka (Zohak), the
mythical king of the Iranian epics, who has nothing whatever to
do with the historical king of the Medes. (Ed. M.)
ASTYLAR (from Gr. A-, privative, and orOXot, a column),
an architectural term given to a class of design in which neither
columns nor pilastera are used for decorative purposes; thus the
Ricardi and Strozzi palaces in Florence ate astylar in their
design, in contradistinction to Palladio's palaces at Vicenza,
which are columnar.
ASUNCI6N (Nuzstra Senora dc la Asuncx6n), a city and
port of Paraguay, and capital of the republic, on the left bank of
the Paraguay river in 25 16' 04* S., 57 42' 40* W. v and 970 m.
above Buenos Aires. Pop. (est. in 1000) 52,000. The port is
connected with Buenos Aires and Montevideo by regular lines of
river steamers, which are its only means of trade communication
with the outer world, and with the inland town of Villa Rica
(95 m.) by a railway worked by an English company. The city
faces upon a curve in the river bank forming what is called the
Bay of Asunci6n, and is built on a low sandy plain, rising to pretty
hillsides overlooking the bay and the low, wooded country of
the Chaco on the opposite shore. The general elevation is only
353 ft above sea-leveL Asunci6n is laid out on a regular plan, the
credit for which is largely due to Dictator Franria; the principal
streets arc paved and lighted by gas and electricity ; and telephone
and street-car services are maintained. The climate is hot but
healthful, the mean annual temperature being about 72 F.
The city is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, and con-
tains a large number of religious edifices. It has a national
college and public library, but no great progress in education has
been made. The most prominent edifice in the city is the palace
begun by the younger Lopez, which is now occupied by a bank.
There are some business edifices and residences of considerable
architectural merit, but the greater part are small and incon-
spicuous, a majority of the residences being thatched, mud-
walled cabins. Considerable progress was made during the last
two decades of the 19th century, however, notwithstanding
misgovernment and the extreme poverty of the people. Asuncion
was founded by Ayolas in 1535, and is the oldest permanent
Spanish settlement on the La Plata. It was for a long time the
seat of Spanish rule in this region, and later the scene of a bitter
struggle between the church authorities and Jesuits. Soon after
the declaration of independence in 181 1, the city fell under the
despotic rule of Dr Francia, and then under that of the elder and
younger Lopez, through which its development was greatly
impeded. It was captured and plundered by the Brazilians in
1869, and has been the theatre of several revolutionary outbreaks
since then, one of which (1905) resulted in a blockade of several
months' duration. (A. J. L.)
ASVINS, in Hindu mythology, twin deities of light. After
Indra, Agni and Soma, they are the most prominent divinities
in the Rig-Veda, and have more than fifty entire hymns addressed
to them. Their exact attributes are obscure. They appear
to be the spirits of dawn, the earliest bringers of light in the
morning sky; they hasten on in the clouds before Dawn and
prepare the way for her. In some hymns they are called sons
of the sun; in others, children of the sky; in others, offspring of
the ocean. They are youngest of the gods, bright lords of lustre,
honey-hued. They are inseparable. The sole purpose of one
hymn is to compare them with different twin objects, such as
eyes, hands, feet and wings. They have a common wife, Surya.
They are physicians, protectors of the weak and old, especially
of elderly unmarried women. They are the friends of lovers,
and bless marriages and make them fruitful.
Sec A. A. Macdonell. Vcdic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
ASYLUM (from Gr. d-, privative, and oi)\rj, right of seizure),
a place of refuge. In ancient Greece, an asylum was an " inviol-
able " refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit and in search of
protection. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars
were inviolable, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by
force any person or thing once under the protection of a deity.
But it was only in the case of a small number of temples that
this protecting right of a deity was recognized with common
consent. Such were the sanctuaries of Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia,
of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of Apollo at Delos;
they were, however, numerous in Asia Minor. They guaranteed
absolute security to the suppliant within their limits. The
right of sanctuary, originally possessed by all temples, appears
to have become limited to a few in consequence of abuses of it.
Asyhuns in this sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum
of Romulus (Livy i. 8), which was probably the altar of Veiovis,
cannot be considered as such. Under Roman dominion, the
rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at first confirmed, but
their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius. Under
the Empire, the statues of the emperors and the eagles of the
legions were made refuges against acts of violence. Generally
speaking, the classes of persons who claimed the rights of asylum
were slaves who had been maltreated by their masters, soldiers
defeated and pursued by the enemy, and criminals who feared
a trial or who had escaped before sentence was passed. (See
treatises De Asylis Graecis, by Fdrster, 1847; Jaenisch, 1868;
Barth, 1888.)
With the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum
or sanctuary (q.v.) became attached to the church or churchyard.
In modern times the word asylum has come to mean an institu-
tion providing shelter or refuge for any class of afflicted or
destitute persons, such as the blind, deaf and dumb, &c, but
more particularly the insane. (See Insanity.)
ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asiU', Ger. Asyireckf), in
international law, the right which a state possesses, by virtue
of the principle that every independent state is sole master
within its boundaries, of allowing fugitives from another country
to enter or sojourn upon its territory. Extradition (q.v.) treaties
aTe undertakings between states curtailing the exercise of the
right of asylum in respect of refugees from justice, but the con-
ditions therein laid down invariably show that nations regard
the maintenance of this right of asylum as intimately connected
with their right of independent action, however weak as states
they may be, on their own soil. The neutral right to granr
asylum to belligerent forces is now governed by *rtM** a 5
822
ATACAMA— ATALANTA
and 59 of the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention of
the 29th of July 1899, relating to the Laws and Customs of
War on Land. (See War.) (T. Ba.)
ATACAMA, a province of northern Chile, bounded N. and S.
respectively by the provinces of Antofagasta and Coquimbo, and
extending from the Pacific coast E. to the Argentine boundary
line. It has an area of 30,729 sq. m., lying in great part within
the Atacama desert region (see below), and a population (1902)
of 71446. The silver and copper mines of the province are
numerous, some of them ranking among the most productive
known, but the majority are worked with limited capital and on
a small scale. The silver ore was first discovered in 183 a by a
shepherd at a place which bears his name, Juan Godot The
nitrate and borax deposits are extensive and productive, and
common salt is a natural product of large areas in the elevated
desert regions of the Andes. The exports include copper and
silver and their ores, nitrate of soda, borax, guano and other
minerals in small quantities. The capital, Copiapo (est pop.
8991 in 1902), is situated on a small river of the same name 37 m.
from the coast and 51 m. south-east by rail from Caldera, the
principal port of this great mining district. - Before 1842, when
guano began to attract notice as an exportable product, Atacama
was considered as Bolivian territory, and Coquimbo the extreme
northern province of Chile. ' In that year Chile decided to explore
the desert coast, and in 1843 that part of the desert extending
north to the 26th parallel was organized into the province oi
Atacama.
ATACAMA, DESERT OF, an arid, barren and saline region of
western South America, covering the greater part of the Chilean
provinces of Atacama and Antofagasta, the Argentine territory
of Los Andes, and the south-western corner of the Bolivian
department of Potosf . The higher elevations are known as the
Puna de Atacama, which is practically a continuation southward
of the great puna region of Peru and Bolivia. It is a broken,
mountainous region, volcanic in places, saline in others, and
ranges from 7000 to 13.500 ft in general elevation. Its cul-
minating ridges are marked by an irregular line of peaks and
extinct volcanoes extending north by east from about 28° S.
into southern Bolivia. On the eastern side, occasional rainfalls
occur and streams from the snow-clads peaks produce some slight
displays of fertility, but the general aspect of the plateaus, which
are dry and cold in winter and in summer are swept by rain-
storms and covered by occasional tufts of coarse grass, is barren
and forbidding. They are also broken by great saline lagoons
and dry salt basins. ' This region forms the Argentine territory
of Los Andes and is habitable in places. On the western slope
the land descends gradually to the Pacific, being broken into great
basins, or terraces, by mountainous ridges in its higher elevations,
widening out into gently-sloping sandy plains below, famous
for their nitrate deposits, and terminating on the coast with
sharply-sloping bluffs, having an elevation of 800 to 1500 ft.,
and looking from the sea like a range of flat-topped hills. This
desolate region, which is rainless and absolutely barren, and
was considered worthless for three and a half centuries, is now
a treasure-house of mineral wealth, abounding in copper, silver,
lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, nitrates and borax. ' It is occupied
by many mining settlements, and includes some of the most
productive copper and silver mines of the world.
See L. Darapsky, " Zur Geographic dcr Puna de Atacama," Zeits.
Ces. Erdk. tu Berlin, 1899; G. E. Church, "South America: an
Outline of its Physical Geography," Geographical Journal, 1901 ;
John Ball, Notes of a Naturalist in South America (London, 1887) ;
F. O'Driacoll, " A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic,"
Geographical Journal, 1904. (A. J. L.)
ATACAMITE, a mineral found originally in the desert of
Atacama, and named by D. de Gallizen in 1801. It is a cupric
oxychloride, having the formula CuCl t .3Cu(OH),, and crystallis-
ing in the orthorhombic system. Its hardness is about 3 and
its specific gravity 3- 7, while its colour presents various shades of
green, usually dark. Atacamite is a comparatively rare mineral,
formed in some cases by the action of sea-water on various
copper-ores, and occurring also as a volcanic product on Vesuvian
lavas, Some of the finest crystals have been yielded by the
copper-mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It
occurs also, with malachite, at Bcmbe, near Ambriz, in West
Africa. From one of its localities in Chile, Los Remotinos, it
was termed Remolinite by Brooke and Miller. Atacamite, in
a pulverulent state, was formerly used as a pounce under the
name of " Peruvian green sand," and was known in Chile as
arsenilk). (F. W. R.*)
ATAHUALLPA (ataku, Lat. virtus, and aUpa t tweet), " the
last of the Incas " (or Yncas) of Peru, waa the son of the ruler
Huayna Capac, by Pacha, the daughter of the conquered sove-
reign of Quito. His brother Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac
in 1527; for, as Atahuallpa was not descended on both sides
from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered him illegitimate.
He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito. A jealous feeling
soon sprang up between him and Huascar, who insisted that
Quito should be held as a dependent province of his empire.
A civil war broke out between the brothers, and, about the time
when the Spanish conqueror Pixarro waa beginning to move
inland from the town of San Miguel, Huascar had been defeated
and thrown into prison, and Atahuallpa had become Inca.
Pizarro set out in September 1532, and made for Cazamarca,
where the Inca was. ' Messengers passed frequently betw e ea
them, and the Spaniards on their march were hospitably received
by the inhabitants. - On the 15th of November, Pizarro entered
Caxamarca, and sent his brother and Ferdinando de Solo to
request an interview with the Inca. On the evening of the nest
day, Atahuallpa entered the great square of Caxamarca, accom-
panied by some five or six thousand men, who were either un-
armed or armed only with short clubs and slings concralnrt
under their dresses. Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were planted
in readiness in the streets opening off the square. The interview
was carried on by the priest Vicente de Valverde, who addressed
the Inca through an interpreter. ■ He stated briefly and dog-
matically the principal points of the Christian faith and the
Roman Catholic policy, and concluded by calling upon Atahuallpa
to become a Christian, obey the commands of the pope, give
up the administration of his kingdom, and pay tribute to Charles
V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands.
To this extraordinary harangue, which from its own nature
and the faults of the interpreter must have been completely
unintelligible, the Inca at first returned a very temperate answer.
He pointed out what seemed to him certain difficulties in the
Christian religion, and declined to accept as monarch of his
dominions this Charles, of whom he knew nothing. He then took
a bible from the priest's hands, and, after looking at it, threw
it violently from him, and began a more impassioned speech,
in which he exposed the designs of the Spaniards, and upbraided
them with the cruelties they had perpetrated. The priest
retired, and Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The
Spaniards rushed out suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished
and defenceless, were cut down in hundreds. Pizarro himself
seized the Inca, and in endeavouring to preserve him alive,
received, accidentally, on his hand the only wound inflicted
that day on a Spaniard. ' Atahuallpa, thus treacherously cap-
tured, offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and
fulfilled his engagement; but Pizarro still detained him, until
the Spaniards should have arrived in sufficient numbers to
secure the country. • While in captivity, Atahuallpa gave secret
orders for the assassination of his brother Huascar, and also
endeavoured to raise an army to expel the invaders. His plans
were betrayed, and Pizarro at once brought him to trial. He
was condemned to death, and, as being an idolater, to death
by fire. Atahuallpa, however, professed himself a Christian,
received baptism, and his sentence was then altered into death
by strangulation (August 29, 1533). - His body was afterwards
burned, and the ashes conveyed to Quito. (See also Pebc:
History.)
ATALANTA, in Greek legend, the name of two Greek heroine*
(1) The Arcadian Atalanta was the daughter of Iasius or IasiM
and Qymene. At her birth, she had been exposed on a hill,
her father having expected a son. At first she was suckled by a
she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen, among whom she grew
ATARGATIS— ATCHISON
823
up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of the chase,
tike the virgin goddess Artemis. At the Calydonian boar-hunt
her arrows were the first to hit the monster, for which its head
and hide were given her by Melcager. At the funeral games
of Pelias, she wrestled with Peleus, and won. For a long time
she remained true to Artemis and rejected all suitors, but
Meilanion at last gained her love by his persistent devotion.
She was the mother of Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven against
Thebes (Apollodorus ail. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 99). (2) The
Boeotian Atalanta was the daughter of Schoeneus. She was
famed for her running, and would only consent to marry a suitor
who could outstrip her in a race, the consequence of failure being
death. Hippomenes, before starting, had obtained from Aphro-
dite three golden apples, which he dropped at intervals, and
Atalanta, stopping to pick them up, fell behind. Both were
happy at the result; but forgetting to thank the goddess for
the apples, they were led by her to a religious crime, and were
transformed into lions by the goddess Cybele (Ovid, Metam.
x. 560; Hyginus, Fab. 185). . The characteristics of these
two heroines (frequently confounded) point to their being
secondary forms of the Arcadian Artemis.
ATARGATIS, a Syrian deity, known to the Greeks by a
shortened form of the name, Derketo (Strabo xvi. c. 785; Pliny,
Nat. Hist. v. 23. 81), and as Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura
(Lucian, de Dea Syria). She is generally described as the
" fish-goddess." The name is a compound of two divine names;
the first part is a form of the Himyaritic 'Atktar, the equivalent
of the Old Testament Ashtorelk, the Phoenician Astarte (q.v.),
with the feminine ending omitted (Assyr. Ishtar); the second
is a Palmyrene name *Atke (jx. tempus opportunum), which
occurs as part of many compounds. As a consequence of the
first half of the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly,
been identified with Astarte. The two deities were, no doubt,
of common origin, but their cults are historically distinct. In
2 Mace. xii. 26 we find reference to an Atargateion or Atergateion
(temple of Atargatis) at Carnion in Gilead (cf. z Mace. v. 43),
but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not Palestine,
but Syria proper, expecially at Hierapolis (?.*.), where she had
a great temple. From Syria her worship extended to Greece,
Italy and the furthest west. Lucian and Apuleius give descrip-
tions of the beggar-priests who went round the great cities
with an image of the goddess on an ass and collected money.
The wide extension of the cult is attributable largely to Syrian
merchants; thus we find traces of it in the great seaport
towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have been
found bearing witness to its importance. Again we find the
cult in Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slave's and mercenary
troops, who carried it even to the farthest northern limits of
the Roman empire. In many cases, however, Atargatis and
Astarte are fused to Such an extent as to be indistinguishable.
This fusion is exemplified by the Carnion temple, which is
probably identical with the famous temple of Astarte at Ash-
taroth-Karnaim.
Atargatis appears generally as the wife of Hadad (Baal).
They are the protecting deities of the community. Atargatis,
in the capacity of xoXi©0x<w, wears a mural crown, is the ancestor
of the royal house, the founder of social and religious life, the
goddess of generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of
phallic emblems), and the inventor of useful appliances. Not
unnaturally she is identified with the Greek Aphrodite. By the
conjunction of these many functions, she becomes ultimately
a great Nature-Goddess, analogous to Cybele' and Rhea (see
Great Mother or the Gods) ; in one aspect she typifies the
function of water in producing life; in another, the universal
mother-earth (Macrobius, Saturn, i. 23); in a third (influenced,
no doubt, by Chaldaean astrology), the power of destiny. The
legends are numerous and of an astrological character, intended
to account for the Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish
(see the story in Athenaeus viii. 37, where Atargatis is derived
from 4r«p rAnJot," without Gatis,"— a queen who is said to
have forbidden the eating of fish). Thus Diodorus Siculus,
using Ctesias, tells how she fell in love with a youth who was
worshipping at the shrine of Aphrodite, and by him became the
mother of Semiramis, the Assyrian queen, and how in shame
she flung herself into a pool at Ascalon or Hierapolis and was
changed into a fish (W. Robertson Smith in Eng. Hist. Rev. ii.,
1887). In another story she was hatched from an egg found
by some fish in the Euphrates and by them thrust on the bank
where it was hatched by a dove; out of gratitude she persuaded
Jupiter to transfer the fish to the Zodiac (cf. Ovid, Fast. ii.
459-474* Metam. v. 331).
See articles s.v. in Herzog-Hauck, Reakncyk. (1897), hy W. Bau-
dissin; and Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyc.; Fr. Baethgen, Beitrdge sur
Semit. Rtligumgfisch. (1888); R. Pietschmann, Gesch. der Phdnitier
(1889).
ATAULPHUS (the Latinized form of the Gothic Ataulf,
" Father-wolf," from atto, father, and vulfs, wolf; mod. Germ.
Adolf, Latinized as Adolphus, the form used by Gibbon for the
subject of thisarticle), king of the Goths (d. 41 5). On the death
of Alaric (q.v.) his followers acclaimed his brother-in-law Ataul-
phus as king. In 4x2 he quitted Italy and led his army across
the Alps into GauL Here he fought against some of the usurpers
who threatened the throne of Honorius; he made some sort of
compact with that emperor and, in 414, he married his sister
Pladdia, who had been since the siege of Rome a captive in the
camp of the Goths. The ex-emperor Attalus danced- at the
marriage festival, which was celebrated with great pomp at
Narbonne. In 415 Ataulphus crossed the Pyrenees into Spain
and died at Barcelona, being assassinated by a groom. The
most important fact in his history is his confession, recorded by
Orosius, that he saw the inability of his countrymen to rear a
civilized or abiding kingdom, and that consequently his aim
should be to build on Roman foundations and blend the two
nations into one.
ATAVISM (from Lat. atoms, a great-great-great-grandfather
or ancestor), the term given in biology to the reproduction in a
living person or animal of the characteristics of an ancestor more
remote than its parents (see Heredity). Loosely used, it con-
notes a reversion to an earlier type. Individuals reproduce
unexpectedly the traits of earlier ancestors, and ethnologists
and criminologists frequently explain by " atavism " the occur-
rence of degenerate species of man; but the whole subject is
complicated by other possible explanations of such phenomena,
included in the scientific study of normal " variation. 1 '
ATBARA (Bahr-tl-Aswad, or Black River), the most northern
affluent of the river Nile, N.E. Africa. It rises in Abyssinia to
the N.W. of Lake Tsana, unites its waters with a number of
other rivers which also rise in the Abyssinian highlands, and
flows north-west 800 m. till its junction at Ed Damer with the
Nile (q.v.). The battle of the Atbara, fought near Nakheila,
a place on the north bank of the river about 30 m. above Ed
Damer, on the 8th of April 1898, between the khalifa's forces
under Mahmud and Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's
Anglo-Egyptian army, resulted in the complete defeat of the
Mahdists and the capture of their leader, and paved the way for
the decisive battle of Omdurman on the 2nd of September
following (see Egypt: Military Operations).
ATCHISON, a city and the county-seat of Atchison county,
Kansas, U.S. A., on the west bank of the Missouri river, which
is navigable at this point but is utilized comparatively little for
commerce. Pop. (1800) 13,963; (1900) 15,722, of whom 25*08
were of negro descent and 1308 were foreign-born; (1910)
16,429. Atchison is served by the Atchison, Topeka 8c Santa F6.
the Chicago, Burlington ft Qulncy, the Chicago, Rock Island
ft Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is the seat
of Midland College (Lutheran, 1887), St Benedict's College
(Roman Catholic, 1858) for boys, Mt. Scholastics Academy
(Roman Catholic) for girls, and Western Theological Seminary
(Evangelical-Lutheran, 1893); a state soldiers' orphans' home
is also located here. Atchison's situation and transportation
facilities make it an important supply-centre, its trade in grains
and live-stock being particularly large; it has large railway
machine shops, and its principal manufactures are flour, furniture,
lumber, hardware and drags. The value of the dry's factory
824
ATE— ATHABASCA
products increased from $2,093,469 in 1900 to $4,052,274 in 1905,
or 936%. Atchison was founded in 1854 by pro-slavery
partisans, and was named in honour of their leader, David Rice
Atchison, a United States senator. The city was quickly sur-
passed by Leavenworth in commercial importance, and during
the Kansas struggle was never of great political importance.
Its first city charter was granted in 1858. The Atchison Globe
(established 1878) is one of the best-known of western papers.
ATE, in Greek mythology, the personification of criminal
folly, the daughter of Zeus and Eris (Strife). She misled even
Zeus to take a hasty oath, whereby Heracles became subject to
Eurysthcus. Zeus thereupon cast her by the hair out of Olympus,
whither she did not return, but remained on earth, working evil
and mischief (Iliad, six. 91). She is followed by the Litae
(Prayers), the old and crippled daughters of Zeus, who are able
to repair the evil done by her (Iliad, ix. 502) In later times
Ate is regarded as the avenger of sin (Sophocles, Antigone,
614, 625;
1&,
See J. Girard. Le Sentiment reHgteux en Grtce (1869) ; T. F. Schcrer,
De Gratcorum Ales Notione atque Indole (1858) ; E. Bercn, Bedeutung
dew Ate bet Aexhyios (1876); C. Lehrs, Popiddre Aufs&lze aus dent
AUertkum (1875); L. Schmidt, Die Ethih der alien Grteeken (1882).
ATELLA, an ancient Oscan town of Campania, 9 m. N. of
Naples and 9 m. S. of Capua, on the road between the two. It
was a member of the Campanian confederation, and shared the
fortunes of Capua, but remained faithful to Hannibal for a
longer time; the great part of the inhabitants, when they
could no longer resist the Romans, were transferred by him to
Thurii, and the town was reoccupied in 211 by the Romans,
who settled the exiled inhabitants of Nuceria there. The fate
of Atella at the end of the war, when the latter were able to
return to their own city, is unknown. Cicero was in friendly
relations with it, and exerted influence that it might retain its
property in Gaul, so that it is obvious that it had then recovered
municipal rights. The town is mainly famous as the cradle of
early Roman comedy, the Fabulae Atellanae (see below). Some
remains of the town still exist, including a tower of the city wall
in brick.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), p. 379,
ATBLLAKAB FABULAE (" Atellan fables "), the name of a
sort of popular comedy amongst the ancient Romans. The
name is derived from Atella, an Oscan town in Campania; for
this reason, and from their being also called Osci ludi, it has been
supposed that they were of Oscan origin and introduced at Rome
after Campania had been deprived of its independence. It
seems highly improbable that they were performed in the Oscan
language. Mommsen, however, rejects their Oscan origin
altogether; he regards them as purely Latin, the scene merely
being laid at Atella to avoid causing offence by placing it at
Rome or one of the Latin cities. These plays, or rather sketches,
contained humorous descriptions of country as contrasted with
town life, and found their subjects amongst the lower classes
of the people.. The subjects alone were decided upon before
the performance began; the dialogue was improvised as it
proceeded. The Atellanae contained certain stock, characters,
like the Italian harlequinades: Maccus (the fool), Bucco (fat-
chaps), Pappus (daddy), Dossennus (sharper); monsters and
bogeys like Manducus, Py tho, Lamia also made their appearance.
The performers were the sons of Roman citizens, who did not
lose their rights as citizens, and were allowed to serve in the
army: professional actors were excluded. The simple prose
dialogues were probably varied by songs in the rude Saturnian
metre: the language was that of the common people, accom-
panied by lively gesticulation and movements. They were
characterized by coarseness and obscenity. In the time of Sulla
a literary form was given to the Atellanae by Pomponius of
Bononia and Novius, who made them regular written comedies.
Living persons seem to have been attacked, and even the doings
of the gods and heroes of mythology burlesqued. From this
time the Atellanae were used as after-pieces and performed
by professional actors. In 46 B.C. they were ousted by the
mimes, but regained popularity during the reign of Tiberius
(chiefly owing to a certain Mummius), until they were definitely
superseded by and merged in the mimes. They beW their
ground in the small towns and villages of Italy during the !a*t
days of the empire; they probably lingered on into the middle
ages, and were the origin of the Italian CommedU ddV arte.
The scanty fragments of Pomponius and Noviut are collected is
Ribbcck's Comicorum Romanorum Reliquiae; see also Musk, Dt
Fabulis Atellanis (1840); and art. Latin Literature.
.ATESTB (mod. Este,q.v.) f an ancient town of Venetia, at tbr
southern foot of the Euganean hills, 43 ft. above sea-lerc!,
2 2 m. S. W. of Patavium (Padua) . The site was occupied in very
early times, as the discoveries since z 882 show. Large cemeteries
have been excavated, which show three different periods Iron
the 8th century B.C. down to the Roman domination. In the
first period (Italic) cremation burials closely approximating tc
the Villanova type are found; in the second 1 (Venetian) the
tombs are constructed of blocks of stone, and silulae (broaec
buckets), sometimes decorated with elaborate designs, arc
frequently used to contain the cinerary urns; in the th-r-
(Gallic), which begins during the 4th century B.C., tbo_ci-
cremation continues, the tombs are much poorer, the ossuam-
being of badly baked rough clay, and show traces of Gz*\ v
influence, and characteristics of the La-Tene civilization. TV.
many important objects found in these excavations are preserv.-j
in the local museum. * See G. Ghirardini in Notizi* degii Scr: : .,
Monument i dei Lincei, ii. (1893) 161 seq., vii. (1897) 5 seq., x
(1001) 5 seq.; AUi del Congresso Internationale di Scicr;
Storiette (Rome, 1004), v. 279 seq. Inscriptions show that th.
national language asserted its existence even after A teste ci-tr
into the hands of the Romans. When this occurred is not knovi u .
boundary stones of 135 B.C. exist, which divide the territory t-i
Ateste from that of Patavium and of Vicetia, showing that the
former extended from the middle of the Euganean hills to the
Atesis (mod. Adigc, from which Ateste no doubt took its narr*.
and on which it once stood). ' After the battle of Actiurr.
Augustus settled veterans from various of his legions in this
territory, Ateste being thenceforth spoken of as a colony. It
appears to have furnished many recruits, especially for the
cohortes urbonae. It appears but little in history, though i»s
importance is vouched for by numerous inscriptions, the majority
of which belong to the early Empire. (T. As ">
ATH, or Aath, an ancient town of the province of Mainz at,
Belgium, situated on the left bank of the Dender. Pop. (iJkot
9868; (1904) 11,201. Formerly it was fortified, but after tV
change in the defensive system of Belgium in 1858 the fort res-
was dismantled and its ramparts superseded by boulevard-
Owing to a fire caused by lightning its fine church of St Juli. n.
dating from the 14th century, which had escaped serious injur*
during many wars, was destroyed in 1817 (since rebuilt). 11 i>
left the Tour Burbant as its sole relic of the middle ages. Thr-
tower formed part of the donjon of the fortress erected by
Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut, about the year 1 1 50. Near Ath
is the fine castle of Beloeil, the ancient seat of the princely
family of Ligne. Ath is famous for its gild of archers, w-hr.sr
butts are erected on the plain of the Esplanade in the centre cj
the town. The town militia has the privilege of being armri
with bows and crossbows. Ath is also well known in Hainaut
for its annual fete called It jour de ducasse — dncasse being the
Walloon word for kermesse (fete). On this occasion a processioa
escorting figures of two giants, Goliath, called locally Goyasse,
and Samson, forms the chief feature of the celebration. The
emperor Joseph II. stopped it for its " idolatrous " character,
but this act was one of the causes of the Brabant revolution of
1789. The procession, revived in 1700, was again stopped by
the French republicans five years later, but was revived under
the Empire, and has flourished ever since.
ATHABASCA (Athapescow), or Elk, a river and lake of the
province of Alberta, Canada. The river rises in the Rocky
Mountains near the Yellowhead Pass in 52° 10' N. and 1 17* 10'
W., and flows north-east as far as Athabasca Landing, and thence
north into Lake Athabasca. It is 740 m. long and has a number
of important tributaries, including the McLcod, Pembina, Lesser
1 This is by some authorities divided into two.
ATHALARIC— ATHANASIUS
825
Slave, which drains the Wee of that name, and Clearwater.
Athabasca lake is 105 m. long, west to east, from 20 to 33 m. wide,
has an area of 3085 sq. m., and is 690 ft above the sea. It dis-
charges its waters northward by Slave river and the Mackenzie
system to the Arctic Ocean. On its north shore the country is
high and rocky; on the south, sandy and barren. Shallow-
draught steamers navigate the lake and river, and Lesser
Slave lake and river, with one interruption— at Grand Rapids
near the mouth of the Clearwater river.
ATHALARIC (516-534), king of the Ostrogoths, grandson of
Theodoric, became king of the Ostrogoths in Italy on his grand-
father's death (526). As he was only ten years old, the regency
was assumed by his mother Amalasuntha (q.v.). The murmurs of
the Gothic nobles procured for their young sovereign too early
emancipation from the schoolroom. He drank heavily, and
indulged in vicious excesses which ruined his constitution. He
died on the 2nd of October 534.
ATHALIAH, in the Bible, the daughter of Ahab, and wife of
Jehoram, king of Judah. After the death of Ahaziah, her son,
she usurped the throne and reigned for six years. She is said
to have massacred all the members of the royal house of
Judah (2 Kings xi. 1-3), but a similar atrocity is also ascribed
to Jehu (2 Kings x. 12-14); ™& °o tft notices contrast 2 Chron.
xxi. 1 7. The sole survivor Joash was concealed irT the temple by
his aunt, Jehosheba, wife of the priest Jchoida (2 Chron. xxii. 11).
These organized a revolution in favour of Joash, and caused
Athaliah and her adherents to be put to death (2 Kings xi.;
2 Chron. xxii. 10-12, xxiii., xxiv. 7).
The story of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Racine's
best tragedies. It has been musically treated by Handel and
Mendelssohn.
ATHAMAS, in Greek mythology, king of the Minyae in
Boeotian Orehomenus, son of Aeolus, king of Thessary, or of
Minyas. His first wife was Ncphcle, the cloud-goddess, by whom
he had two children, Phrixus and Helle (see Argonauts).
Athamas and his second wife Ino were said to have incurred the
wrath of Hera, because Ino had brought up Dionysus, the son of
her sister Scmele, as a girl, to save his life. Athamas went mad,
and slew one of his sons, Lcarchus; Ino, to escape the pursuit of
her frenzied husband, threw herself into the sea with her other
son Melicertes. Both were afterwards worshipped as marine
divinities, Ino as Leucothea, Melicertes as Palaemon (Odyssey
▼■ 333). Athamas, with the guilt of his son's murder upon him,
was obliged to flee from Boeotia. He was ordered by the orade to
settle in a place where he should receive hospitality from wild
beasts. This he found at Phthiotis in Thessary, where he
surprised some wolves eating sheep; on his approach they fled,
leaving him the bones. Athamas, regarding this as the fulfilment
of the oracle, settled there and married a third wife, Thcmisto.
The spot was afterwards called the Athamanian plain (Apollo-
dorus i. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 1-5; Ovid, Ueiam. iv. 416, Fasti,
vi. 485; Valerius Flaccus i. 277).
According to a local legend, Athamas was king of Halos in
Phthiotis from the first (Schol. on Apoll. Rhodius ii. 5x3). After
his attempt on the life of Phrixus, which was supposed to have
succeeded, the Phthiots were ordered to sacrifice him to Zeus
Laphystius, in order to appease the anger of the gods. As he was
on the point of being put to death, Cytissorus, a son of Phrixus,
suddenly arrived from Aea with the news that Phrixus was still
alive. Athamas's life was thus saved, but the wrath of the gods
was unappeased, and pursued the family. It was ordained that
the eldest born of the race should not enter the council-chamber;
if he did so, he was liable to be seized and sacrificed if detected
(Herodotus vii. 197). The legend of Athamas is probably
founded on a very old custom amongst the Minyae — the sacrifice
of the first-born of the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius.
The story formed the subject of lost tragedies by Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides and other Greek and Latin dramatists.
ATHAMAGILD (d. 547) became king of the Visigoths (in
Spain) in 534, having invoked the aid of the emperor Justinian for
his revolt against his predecessor Agila. Athanagild, when him-
self king, vainly tried to oust his late allies from the footing which
they had gained in Spain, nor were the Greeks finally expelled
from Spain till seventy years later. Athanagild himself is chiefly
remembered for the tragic fortunes of his daughters Brunechildis
and Gavleswintha, who married two Frankish brother kings,
Sigebert and Chilperic Athanagild died (" peacefully," as the
annalist remarks) in 547.
ATHANARIC (d. 381), a ruler of the Visigoths from about 366
to 38a Hie bore the title not of king but of judge, a title which
may be compared with that of ealdorman among the Anglo-
Saxon invaders of Britain. Athanaric waged, from 367 to 369,
an unsuccessful war with the emperor Valens, and the peace by
which the war was ended was ratified by the Roman and Gothic
rulers meeting on a barge in mid-stream of the Danube. Athan-
aric was a harsh and obstinate heathen, and his short reign was
chiefly famous for his brutal persecution of his Christian fellow-
countrymen. In 376 he was utterly defeated by the Huns,
who a few years before had burst into Europe. The bulk of the
Visigothic people sought refuge within the Empire in the region
now known as Bulgaria, but Athanaric seems to have fled into
Transylvania. Being attacked there by two Ostrogothic chiefs
he also, in 381, sought the protection of the Roman emperor.
Theodosius I. received him courteously, and he "was profoundly
impressed by the glories of Constantinople, but on the fifteenth
day after his arrival he died, and was honoured by the emperor
with a magnificent funeral.
ATHANASfUS (293-373), bishop of Alexandria and saint, one
of the most illustrious defenders of the Christian faith, was born
probably at Alexandria. Of his family and of his early education
nothing can be said to be known. According to the legend, the
boy is said to have once baptized some of his playmates and
thereupon to have been taken into his house by Bishop Alexander,
who recognized the validity of this proceeding. It is certain
that Athanasius was young when he took orders, and that he
must soon have entered into close relations with his bishop,
whom, after the outbreak of the Arian controversy, he accom-
panied as archdeacon to the council of Nicaea. In the sessions
and discussions of the council he could take no part; but in
unofficial conferences he took sides vigorously, according to his
own evidence, against the Arians, and was certainly not without
influence. He had already, before the opening of the Council,
defined his personal attitude towards the dogmatic problem in
two essays, Against the Gentiles and On the Incarnation, without,
however, any special relation to the Arian controversy.
The essay On the Incarnation is the loeus chssicus for the
presentation of the teaching of the ancient church on the subject
of salvation. In this the great idea that God himself had entered
into humanity becomes dominant. The doom of death under
which mankind had sighed since Adam's fall could only then be
averted, when the immortal Word of God (A670S) assumed a
mortal body, and, by yielding this to death for the sake of all,
abrogated once for all the law of death, of which the power had
been spent on the body of the Lord. Thus was rendered possible
the leading back of mankind to God, of which the sure pledge
lies in the grace of the resurrection of Christ. Athanasius would
hear of no questioning of this religious mystery. In the catch-
word Homousios, which had been added to the creed at Nicaea,
he too recognized the best formula for the expression of the
mystery, although in his own writings he made but sparing use
of it. He was in fact less concerned with the formula than with
the content Arians and Scmi-Arians seemed to him to be
pagans, who worship the creature, instead of the God who
created all things, since they teach two gods, one having no
beginning, the other having a beginning in Time and therefore
of the same nature as the heathen gods, since, like them, he is a
creature. Athanasius has no terms for the definition of the
Persons in the one "Divine" (r6 0e*oi»), which are in their
substance one; and yet he is certain that this "Divine" is not
a mere abstraction, but something truly personal: " They are
One," so he wrote later in his Discourses against the Arians,
" not as though the unity were torn into two parts, which outside
the unity would be nothing, nor as though the unity bore two
names, so that one and the same is at one time Father and «•••«
826
ATHANASIUS
his own Son, as the heretic Sabeilius imagined. But they are
two, for the Father is Father, and the Son is not the same, but,
again, the Son is Son, and not the Father himself. But their
Nature (4>i>oi$) is one, for the Begotten is not dissimilar (Art/iotos)
to the Begetter, but his image, and everything that is the
Father's is also the Son's."
Five months after the return from the council of Nicaea
Bishop Alexander died; and on the 8th of February 326
Athanasius, at the age of thirty-three, became his successor.
The first years of his episcopate were tranquil; then the storms
in which the remainder of his life was passed began to gather
round him. The council had by no means composed the divi-
sions in the Church which the Arian controversy had provoked.
Arius himself still lived, and his friend Eusebius of Nicomedia
rapidly regained influence over the emperor Constantine. The
result was a demand made by the emperor that Arius should be
readmitted to communion. Athanasius stood firm, but many
accusers soon rose up against one who was known to be under
the frown of the imperial displeasure. He was charged with
cruelty, even with sorcery and murder. It was reported that a
bishop of the Mcletian party (see Meletius) in the Thebaid,
of the name of Arsenius, had been unlawfully put to death by
him. He was easily able to clear himself of these charges ; but
the hatred of his enemies was not relaxed, and in the summer of
335 he was peremptorily ordered to appear at Tyre, where a
council had been summoned to sit in judgment upon his conduct.
There appeared plainly a predetermination to condemn him,
and he fled from Tyre to Constantinople to appeal to the emperor
himself. Refused at first a hearing, his perseverance was at
length rewarded by the emperor's assent to his reasonable request
that his accusers should be brought face to face with him in the
imperial presence. Accordingly the leaders of the council, the
most conspicuous of whom were Eusebius of Nicomedia and his
namesake of Caesarea, were summoned to Constantinople.
Here they did not attempt to repeat their old charges, but found
a more effective weapon to their hands in a new charge of a
political kind— that Athanasius had threatened to stop the
Alexandrian corn-ships bound for Constantinople. It is very
difficult to understand how far there was truth in the persistent
accusations made against the prince-bishop of Alexandria.
Probably there was in the very greatness of his character and
the extent of his popular influence a certain species of dominance
which lent a colour of truth to some of the things said against
him. On the present occasion his accusers succeeded at once in
arousing the imperial jealousy. Without obtaining a hearing,
he was banished at the end of 335 to Treves in Gaul This was
the first banishment of Athanasius, which lasted about one year
and a half. It was brought to a close by the death of Constantine,
and the accession as emperor of the West of Constantine II.,
who, in June 337, allowed Athanasius to return to Alexandria.
He reached his see on the 23rd of November 337, and, as he
himself has told us, " the people ran in crowds to sec his face;
the churches were full of rejoicing; thanksgivings were every-
where offered up ; the ministers and clergy thought the day
the happiest in their lives." But this period of happiness was
destined to he short-lived. His position as bishop of Alexandria
placed him, not under his patron Constantine, but under Con-
stantius, another son of the elder Constantine, who had succeeded
to the throne of the East. He in his turn fell, as his father had
done in later years, under the influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia,
who in the latter half of 339 was transferred to the see of Con-
stantinople, the new seat of the imperial court. A second
expulsion of Athanasius was accordingly resolved upon. The old
accusationsagainst him were revived, and he was further charged
with having set at naught the decision of a council. On the
x8th of March 339 the exarch of Egypt suddenly confronted
Athanasius with an imperial edict, by. which he was deposed
and a Cappadocian named Gregory was nominated bishop in.
bis place. On the following day, after tumultuous scenes,
Athanasius fled, and four days later Gregory was installed by the
aid of the soldiery. On the first opportunity, Athanasius went
to Rome, to " lay his case before the church." A synod assembled
at Rome in the autumn of 340, and the great council — probably
that which met at Sardica in 342 or 343, where the Orientals
refused to meet the representatives of the Western church-
declared him guiltless. This decision, however, had no immediate
effect in favour of Athanasius. Constantius continued for some
time implacable, and the bold action of the Western bishop*
only incited the Arian party in Alexandria to fresh severities.
But the death of the intruder Gregory, on the 26th of June 345.
opened up a way of reconciliation. Constantius decided to yk id
to the importunity of his brother Constans, who had succeeded
Constantine II. in the West; and the result was the restoration
of Athanasius for the second time, on the 21st of October 346.
Again he returned to Alexandria amid the enthusiastic demon-
strations of the populace, which is described by Gregory of
Nazianzus, in his panegyric on Athanasius, as streaming forth
like " another Nile " to meet him afar off as he approached the
city.
The six years of his residence in the West had given Athanasius
the opportunity of displaying a momentous activity. He made
long journeys in Italy, in Gaul, and as far as Belgium. Every-
where he laboured for the Nicene faith, and the impression
made by his personality was so great that to hold fast the
orthodox faith and to defend Athanasius were for many people
one and the same thing. This was shown when, after the death
of the emperor Constans, Constantius became sole ruler of East
and West With the help of counsellors more subtle Uua
discerning, the emperor, with the object of uniting the various
parties in the Church at any cost, sought for the moat colourless
possible formula of belief, which he hoped to persuade all the
bishops to accept. As his efforts remained for years fruitless,
he used force. " My will is your guiding-line," he exclaimed in
the summer of 355 to the bishops who had assembled at Milan
in response to his orders. A series of his most defiant opponents
had to go into banishment, Libcriusof Rome, Hilarius of Poitiers
and Hosius of Corduba, the last-named once the confidant of
Constantine and the actual originator of the Homousias, and
now nearly a hundred years old. At length came the turn of
Athanasius, now almost the sole upholder of the banner of the
Nicene creed in the East. Several attempts to expel him failed
owing to the attitude of the populace. On the night of the 8th-
9th of February 356, however, when the bishop was holding the
Vigils, soldiers and police broke into the church of Theonas.
Athanasius himself has described the scene for us : "I was
seated upon my chair, the deacon was about to read the psalm,
the people to answer, ' For his mercy endureth for ever.* The
solemn act was interrupted; a panic arose." The bishop, who
was at first unwilling to save himself, until he knew that his
faithful followers were in safety, succeeded in escaping, leaving
the town and finding a hiding-place in the country. The solitudes
of Upper Egypt, where numerous monasteries and hermitages had
been planted, seem at this time to have been his chief shelter.
In this case benefit was repayed by benefit, for Athanasius during
his episcopate had been a zealous promoter of asceticism and
monachism. With Anthony the hermit and Pachomius the
founder of monasteries, he had maintained personal relations,
and the former he had commemorated in his Lift of Anthony.
During his exile his time was occupied in writing on behalf of
his cause, and to this period belong some of his most important
works, above all the great Oration* or Discourses against tkt
Arians, which furnish the best exposition of his theological
principles.
During bis absence the see of Alexandria was left without a
pastor. It is true that George of Cappadocia had taken his
place; but he could only maintain himself for a short while
(February 357-October 358). The great majority of the popula-
tion remained faithful to the exile. At length, in November 361,
the way was opened to him for his return to his see by the death
of Constantius. Julian, who succeeded to the imperial throne,
professed himself indifferent to the contentions of the Church,
and gave permission to the bishops exiled in the late reign 10
return home. Among others, Athanasius availed himself of this
permission, and in February 362 once more seated himself upon
ATHAPASCAN— ATHEISM
827
his throne, amid the rejoicing* of the people. He had begun his
episcopal labours with renewed ardour, and assembled his bishops
in Alexandria to decide various important questions, when an
imperial mandate again— for the fourth time — drove him from
his place of power. The faithful gathered around him weeping.
" Be of good heart," he said, " it is but a cloud: it will pass."
His forecast proved true; for within a few months Julian had
closed his brief career of pagan revival. As early as September
363, Athanasius was able to travel to Jovian, the new emperor,
who had sent him a letter praising his Christian fidelity and
encouraging him to resume his work. He returned to Alexandria
en the aoth of February 364. With the emperor he continued
to maintain friendly relations; but the period of repose was
short. In the spring of 365, after the accession of Valens to the
throne, troubles again arose. Athanasius was once more com-
pelled to seek safety from his persecutors in concealment (October
365), which lasted, however, only for four months. In February
366 he resumed his episcopal labours, in which he henceforth
remained undisturbed. On the and of May 373, having con-
secrated one of his presbyters as his successor, he died quietly
in his own house.
Athanasius was a man of action, but he also knew how to use
his pen for the furtherance of his cause. He left a large number
of writings, which cannot of course be compared with those of
an Origen, a Basil, or a Gregory of Nyssa. Athanasius was no
systematic theologian. All his treatises are occasional pieces,
born of controversy and intended for controversial ends. The
interest in abstract exposition of clearly formulated theological
ideas is everywhere subordinate to the polemical purpose. But
all these writings are instinct with a living personal faith, and
serve for the defence of the cause; for it was not about words
that he was contending. Even those who do not sympathise
with the cause which Athanasius steadfastly defended cannot
but admire his magnanimous and heroic character. If he was
imperious in temper and inflexible in his conception of the
Christian faith, he possessed a great heart and a great intellect,
inspired with an enthusiastic devotion to Christ As a theologian,
his main distinction was his zealous advocacy of the essential
divinity of Christ. Christianity in its Arian conception would
have evaporated in a new polytheism. To have set a dam
against this process with the whole force of a mighty personality
constitutes the importance of Athanasius in the world's history.
It is with good reason that the Church honours him as the
" Great," and as the " Father of Orthodoxy."
The best edition of the works of Athanasius is the so-called Maurine
edition of Bernard de Montfaucon in 3 vols. (Paris, 1698) ; this was
enlarged in the 3rd edition by Giusttniani (4 vols., Padua, I77£)» and
is printed in this form in Migne's Patrologia, vols, xxv.-xxvhi. An
English translation of selections, with excellent introductions to the
several writings, was published by Archibald Robertson in the Library
of the Nicene and Post- Niccne Fathers t second series, vol. 4 (Oxford
and New York, 1892). There is no biography satisfactory from the
modern point of view. Studies preliminary to such a biography
began to be published by E. Schwartz in his essays, " Zur Geschichte
des Athanasius " (in the Nackrkhten der konigluhen Gesettschaft der
Wissenschaften s* Gdttingen, 1904, &c). The life of Athanasius,
however, is so completely intertwined with the history of his time
that it is permissible to refer, for a knowledge of him, to the general
descriptions which will be found at the close of the article Arius. Of
the older literature, Tillemont's Mfmoires pour servir a I'histoire
eccUsiastique des six premiers siicles, vols. vi. and viii., are still a mine
of material for the historian. Of the newer literature the following
deserve to be read: — Johann Adam Mdhler, Athanasius der Grosse
und die Kirche seiner Zeit, a vols. (2nd ed., Mainz, 1844); and
Fr. Boehringer, " Arius und Athanasius," Die Kirche Christi und
ihre Zeugen, vol. i. part 2 (and ed., Stuttgart, 1874). (G. K.)
ATHAPASCAN, a widely distributed linguistic stock of North
American Indians, the chief tribes included being the Chippe-
wyan, Navajo, Apache, Jicarilla, Lipan, Hupa and Wailaki.
The Athapascan family is geographically divided into Northern,
Pacific and Southern. The Northern division (Tinneh or Dene)
is about Alaska, and the Yukon and Mackenzie rivers, — the
eponymous " Athabasca " tribe living round Lake Athabasca,
in the province of Alberta in Canada. The Pacific division
covers a strip of territory, some 400 m. in length, from Oregon
southwards into California. The Southern division includes
Arizona and New Mexico, parts of Utah, Colorado, Kansas and
Texas, and the northern part of Mexico. The typical tribes are
those of the Northern division.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
ATHARVA VEDA, the fourth book of the Vedas, the ancient
scriptures of the Brahman religion. Like the other Vedas it is
divided into Samhita, Brahmanas and Upanishads, representing
the spiritual element and its magical and nationalistic develop-
ment. The mantras or sayings composing the Samhita of the
Atharva Veda differ from those of the other Vedas by being in
the form of spells rather than prayers or hymns, and seem to
indicate a stage of religion lower than that of the Rig Veda.
ATHEISM (from Gr. &-, privative, and 0cfe, God), literally
a system of belief which denies the existence of God. The
term as generally used, however, is highly ambiguous. Its
meaning varies (a) according to the various definitions of deity,
and especially (6) according as it is (i.) deliberately adopted
by a thinker as a description of his own theological standpoint,
or (iL) applied by one set of thinkers to their opponents. As
to (a), it is obvious that atheism from the standpoint of the
Christian is a very different conception as compared with
atheism as understood by a Deist, a Positivist, a follower of
Euhcmerus or Herbert Spencer, or a Buddhist. But the ambi-
guities arising from the points of view described in (b) are much
more difficult both intellectually and in their practical social
issues. Thus history shows how readily the term has been used
in the most haphazard manner to describe even the most-trivial
divergence of opinion concerning points of dogma. In other
words, " atheism " has been used generally by the orthodox
adherents of one religion, or even of a single sect, for all beliefs
which are different or even differently expressed. It is in fact
in these cases, like " heterodoxy," a term of purely negative
significance, and its intellectual value is of the slightest The
distinction between the terms " religion " and " magic " is,
in a similar way, often due merely to rivalry between the
adherents of two or more mutually exclusive religions brought
together in the same community. When the psalmist declares
that " the fool hath said in his heart, there is no God," he
probably does not refer to theoretical denial, but to a practical
disbelief in God's government of human affairs, shown in dis-
obedience to moral laws. Socrates was charged with " not
believing in the gods the dty believes in." The cry of the heathen
populace in the Roman empire against the Christians was
" Away with the atheists! To the lions with the Christians!"
The ground for the charge was probably the lack of idolatry
in all Christian worship. Spinoza, for whom God alone existed,
was persecuted as an atheist. A common designation of Knox
was " the atheist," although it was to him " matter of satisfac-
tion that our most holy religion is founded on faith, not on*
reason."
In its most scientific and serious usage the term is applied
to that state of mind which does not find deity (i.e. either one
or many gods) in or above the physical universe. Thus it has
been applied to certain primitive savages, who have been
thought (e.g. by Lord Avebury in his Prehistoric Times) to have
no religious belief; it is, however, the better opinion that there
are no peoples who are entirely destitute of some rudimentary
religious belief. Jn the second place, and most usually, it is
applied to a purely intellectual, metaphysical disbelief in the
existence of any god, or of anything supernatural. In this con-
nexion it is usual to distinguish three types of atheism: — the
dogmatic, which denies the existence of God positively; the
sceptical, which distrusts the capacity of the human mind to
discover the existence of God; and the critical, which doubts the
validity of the theistic argument, the proofs for the existence
of God. That the first type of atheism exists, in spite of the
denials of those who favour the second or the third, may be
proved by the utterances of men like Feuerbach, Flourens or
Bradlaugh. " There is no God," says Feuerbach, " it is clear
as the sun and as evident as the day that there is no God, '
still more that there can be none." With greater pr
828
ATHELM— ATHENA
Flourens declares " Our enemy is God. Hatred of God is the
beginning of wisdom. If mankind would make true progress,
it must be on the basis of atheism." Bradlaugh maintained
against Holyoake that he would fight until men respected the
name "atheist." The answer to dogmatic atheism, that it
implies infinite knowledge, has been well stated in John Foster's
Essays, and restated by Chalmers in his Natural Theology, and
its force is recognized in Holyoake's careful qualification of the
sense in which secularism accepts atheism, " always explaining
the term atheist to mean 'not seeing God' visually or inferen-
tially, never suffering it to be taken for anti-theism, that is, hating
God, denying God— as haling implies personal knowledge as
the ground of dislike, and denying implies infinite knowledge
as the ground of disproof." But dogmatic atheism is rare com-
pared with the sceptical type, which is identical with agnosticism
(q.v.) in so far as it denies the capacity of the mind of man to
form any conception of God, but is different from it in so far as
the agnostic merely holds his judgment in suspense, though, in
practice, agnosticism is apt to result in an attitude towards religion
which is hardly distinguishable from a passive and unaggressive
atheism. The third or critical type may be illustrated by
A Candid Examination of Theism by " Fhysicus " (G. J. Romanes),
in which the writer endeavours to establish the weakness of the
proofs for the existence of God, and to substitute for theism
Spencer's physical explanation of the universe, and yet admits
how unsatisfying to himself the new position is. " When at
times I think, as think at times I must, of the appalling contrast
between the hallowed glory of that creed which once was mine,
and the lonely mystery of existence as now I find it — at such
times I shall ever feel it impossible to avoid the sharpest pang
of which my nature is susceptible."
Atheism has to meet the protest of the heart as well as the
argument of the mind of mankind. It must be judged not only
by theoretical but by practical arguments, in its relations either
to the individual or to a society. Voltaire himself, speaking
as a practical man rather than as a metaphysician, declared
that if there were no God it would be necessary to invent one;
and if the analysis is only carried far enough it will be found
that those who deny the existence of God (in a conventional
sense) are all the time setting up something in the nature of
deity by way of an ideal of their own, while fighting over the
meaning of a word or its conventional misapplication.
ATHELM (d. 923), English churchman, is said to have been
a monk of Glastonbury before his elevation in 909 to the sec of
Wells, of which he was the first occupant. In 9x4 he became
archbishop of Canterbury.
ATHELNEY, a slight eminence of small- extent in the low
level tract about the junction of the rivers Tone and Parrctt in
Somersetshire, England. It was formerly isolated by marshes
and accessible only by boat or artificial causeway, and under
these conditions it gained its historical fame as the retreat of
King Alfred in 878-879 when he was unable to withstand the
incursions of the Danes. After regaining his throne he founded
a monastery here in gratitude for the retreat afforded him by
the island; no traces of it exist above ground, but remains have
been excavated. There was also found here, in 1693, the cele-
brated Alfred jewel, bearing his name, and preserved in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. An inscribed pillar commemorat-
ing the king was set up in 1801. The name of Athclncy signifies
the Isle of Princes (A.S. jEthelingaea). Athelney is a railway
station on a branch of the Great Western line.
ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called
Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas), one of the most important
goddesses in Greek mythology. With Zeus and Apollo, she
forms a triad which represents the embodiment of all divine
power. No satisfactory derivation of the name Athena has
been given 1 ; Palhs, at first an epithet, but after Pindar used
l O. Gruppe (Gricehische Mythologie, ii. p. 1194) thinks that it
probably means " without mother's milk," either in an active or in
a passive sense—" not riving suck," or" unsuckled." in her char-
acter as the virgin goddess, or as springing from the head of Zeus.
Jn support of this view he refers to Hcsychius (fc&wor >AX«) and
a parage in Alhcnagoras {Ltgutio Pro Christianis, 17), *here it is
by itself, may possibly'be connected with roXXojrij (" maiden *)•
Athena has been variously described as the pure aether, the
storm-cloud, the dawn, the twilight; but there is little evidence
that she was regarded as representing any of the physical pow< n
of nature, and it is better to endeavour to form an idea of ha
character and attributes from a consideration of facr cult-
epithets and ritual. According to the legend, her father Zeus
swallowed his wife Metis ("counsel"), when pregnant w.th
Athena, since he had been warned that his children by her
might prove stronger than himself and dethrone him. Hephaes-
tus (or Prometheus) subsequently split open his bead with a
hatchet, and Athena sprang forth fully armed, uttering a l>-d
shout of victory (Hesiod, Theogony, 886; Pindar, Ctjmf : '
vii. 35). In Crete she was said to have issued from a ek< c
burst asunder by Zeus. According to Roscher, the manner <*
her birth represents the storm-cloud split by lightning; Farr • '.
(Cults of the Creeh States, i. p. 285) sees in it an indication that
as the daughter of Metis, Athena was already invested with a
mental and moral character, and explains the swallowing «*
Metis (for which compare the story of Cronus and his childrer j
by the desire to attribute an extraordinary birth to one in whoa
masculine traits predominated. Inanother account (as TptTOT***.e '
she is the daughter of the river Triton, to which various localiiio
were assigned, and wherever there was a river (or lake) of that
name, the inhabitants claimed that she was born there. It is
probable that the name originated in Boeotia (C. O. MlUct,
Geschichten heUenischer Slamme, t. pp. 351-357; but see Macaa
on Herodotus, iv. 180), whence it was conveyed by colonists
to Cyrcne and thence to Libya, where there was a river Triton.
Here some local divinity, a daughter of Poseidon, connected
with the water and also of a warlike character, was identified
by the colonists with their own Athena. In any case, it is
fairly certain that Tritogeneia means " water-born/' although
an old interpretation derived it from rpirui, a supposed BocoiLlb
word meaning " head," which further points to the name having
originated in Boeotia. Roscher suggests that the localization
of her birthplace in the extreme west points to the western sea,
the home of cloud and storm. %
In Homer Athena already appears as the goddess of counsel,
of war, of female arts and industries, and the protectress o(
Greek cities, this last aspect of her character being the most
important and pronounced. Hence she is called voXxos,
ToXtouxofj in many Greek states, and is frequently associated
with Zcfe roXicfo. The most celebrated festival of the city-
goddess was the Panathcnaea at Athens and other places.
Other titles of kindred meaning are dpxTTY*™* (" founder ")
and vavaxaU, the protectress of the Achaean league. At Athens
she presided over the phratries or clans, and was known as
ararovpfa and tparpla, and sacrifice was offered to her at the
festival Apaturia. The title pririjp, given her by the inhabitants
of Elis, whose women, according to the legend, she had blessed
with abundance of children, seems at variance with the genera Uy-
recognized conception of her as xap6ivoi;b\xt pn^yp may bc~r
the same meaning as Kovporptx+m, the fosterer of the your.f.
in harmony with her aspect as protectress of civic and fam : !j
life. At Alalcomenae, near the Tritonian lake in Boeotia,
she was aXataopcpqts (" defender "). Her temple, which was
pillaged by Sulla, contained an ivory image, which was said to
have fallen from heaven. The inhabitants claimed that tV:
goddess was born there and brought up by a local hero ALJ-
comeneus. Her images, called Palladia, which guarded ihe
heights (cf. her epithets dxpfa, «panda), represented her v.iih
shield uplifted, brandishing her spear to keep off the foe. T' c
cult of Athena Itonia, whose earliest scat appears to have bo -1
amongst the Thessalians, who used her name as a battle -cry,
made its way to Coronca in Boeotia, where her sanctuary wai
the seat of the Pambocotian confederacy. The meaning of
Itonia is obscure: DUmmler connects it with faum, the
" willow-beds " on the banks of the river Coralios (the river
stated that Athena was sometimes called *A*sXfi or •AJ*X* For
Pallas, he prefers the old etymology from v*XXw (to " shake "), rather
in the sense of " earth-shaker " than " laucc-Lrandisher."
ATHENA
829
of the maiden, «.«. Athena); Jcbb (on Bacchylides, fr. xi. a)
suggests a derivation from (but, the goddess of the "onset."
At Thebes she was worshipped as Athena Onka or Onga, of
equally uncertain derivation (possibly from byms, "a height ").
Peculiar to Arcadia is the title Athena Alea, probably *" warder
off of evil/' although others explain it ass' 4 warmth," and see
in it an allusion to her physical nature as one of the powers of
light. Farnell {Culls, p. 275) points out that at the same time
she is certainly looked upon as in some way connected with
the health-divinities, since in her temple she is grouped with
Aacleptus and Hygteia (see Hyciiia).
She already appears as the goddess of counsel (voXOfovXm)
in the Iliad and in Hcsiod. The Attic bouleutae took the oath
by Athena Boulaia; at Sparta she was ayopala, presiding over
the popular assemblies in the market-place; in Arcadia /uTxorim,
the discoverer of devices. The epithet rpovoka (" forethought ")
is due, according to Farnell, to a confusion with vpovaia, referring
to a statue of the goddess standing " before a shrine," and arose
later (probably spreading from Delphi), some time after the
Persian wars, in which she repelled a Persian attack on the
temples " by divine forethought "; another legend attributes
the name to her skill in assisting Leto at the birth of Apollo and
Artemis. With this aspect of her character may be compared
the Hesiodic legend, according to which she was the daughter
of Metis. Her connexion with the trial of Orestes, the introduc-
tion of a milder form of punishment for justifiable homicide,
and the institution of the court t6 M YlaWa&Ly, show the
important part played by ber in the development of legal ideas.
The protectress of cities was naturally also a goddess of war.
As inch she appears in Homer and Hesiod and in post-Homeric
legend as the slayer of the Gorgon and taking part in the battle
of the giants. On numerous monuments she is represented as
apdo, '• the warlike," K«n46pos, " bringer of victory," holding
an im~.ge of Nike (q.v.) in her outstretched hand (for other
similar epithets see Roscher 's Lexikon) . She was also the goddess
of the arts of war in general; ffrotxeta, she who draws up the
ranks for battle, f oxmjpta, she who girds herself for the fray.
Martial music (cp. 'A0^r? o&\nyt, •' trumpet ") and the Pyrrhic
dance, in which she herself is said to have taken part to com-
memorate the victory over the giants, and the building of
war-ships were attributed to her. She instructed certain of
her favourites in gymnastics and athletics, as a useful training
for war. The epithets bnria, xaXtftrts, baiiaatmnx, usually
referred to her as goddess of war-horses, may perhaps be reminis-
cences of an older religion in which the horse was sacred to her.
As a war-goddess, she is the embodiment of prudent and
intelligent tactics, entirely different from Ares, the personi-
fication of brute force and rashness, who is fitly represented as
suffering defeat at her hands. She is the patroness and pro-
tectress of those heroes who are distinguished for their prudence
and caution, and in the Trojan War she sides with the more
civilized Greeks.
The goddess of war develops into the goddess of peace and the
pursuits connected with it. She is prominent as the promoter of
agriculture in Attic legend. The Athenian hero Erechtheus
( Erich thonius), originally an earth-god, is her foster-son, with
whom she was honoured in the Erechtheum on the Acropolis.
Her oldest priestesses, the dew-sisters — Aglauros, Herse, Pan-
drosos — signify the fertilization of the earth by the dew, and
were probably at one time identified with Athena, as surnames
of whom both Aglauros and Pandrosos are found. The story
of the voluntary sacrifice of the Attic maiden Aglauros on behalf
of her country in time of war (commemorated by the ephebi
taking the oath of loyalty to their country in her temple), and
of the leap of the three sisters over the Acropolis rock (see
Erechtheus), probably points to an old human sacrifice.
Athena also gave the Athenians the olive-tree, which was
supposed to have sprung from the bare soil of the Acropolis,
when smitten by her spear, close to the horse (or spring of water)
produced by the trident of Poseidon, to which he appealed in
support of his claim to the lordship of Athens. She is also con*
nectcd with Poseidon in the legend of Erechtheus, not as being
in any way akin to the former in nature or character, but as
indicating the contest between an old and a new religion. This
god, whose worship was introduced into Athens at a later date
by the Ionian immigrants, was identified with Erechtheus-
Erichthonius (for whose birth Athena was in a certain sense
responsible), and thus was brought into connexion with the
goddess, in order to effect a reconciliation of the two cults.
Athena was said to have invented the plough, and to have
taught men to tame horses and yoke oxen. Various arts were
attributed to her— shipbuilding, the goldsmith's craft, fulling,
shoemaking and other branches of industry. As early as Homer
she takes especial interest in the occupations of women; she
makes Hera's robe and her own peplus, and spinning and weaving
are often called " the works of Athena." The custom of offering
a beautifully woven peplus at the Panathenaic festival is con-
nected with her character as Ergane the goddess of industry. 1
As patroness of the arts, she is associated with Hephaestus (one
of her titles is 'H^ourrla) and Prometheus, and in Boeotia she was
regarded as the inventress of the flute. According to Pindar,
she imitated on the flute the dismal wail of the two surviving
Gorgons after the death of Medusa. The legend that Athena,
observing in the water the distortion of her features caused by
playing that instrument, flung it away, probably indicates that
the Boeotians whom the Athenians regarded with contempt,
used the flute in their warship of the Boeotian Athena. The
story of the slaying of Medusa by Athena, in which there is no
certain evidence that she played a direct part, explained by
Roscher as the scattering of the storm-cloud, probably arose
from the fact that she is represented as wearing the Gorgon's
head as a badge.
As in the case of Aphrodite and Apollo, Roscher in his Lexikon
deduces all the characteristics of Athena from a single conception
— that of the goddess of the storm or the thunder-cloud (for a
discussion of such attempts see Farnell, Cults, i. pp. 3, 263).
There seems little reason for regarding her as a nature-goddess
at all, but rather as the presiding divinity of states and cities,
of the arts and industries — in short, as the goddess of the whole
intellectual side of human life.
Except at Athens, little is known of the ceremonies or festivals
which attended her worship. There wc have the following.
(1) The ceremony of the Three Sacred Ploughs, by which the
signal for seed-time was given, apparently dating from a period
when agriculture was one of the chief occupations of her
worshippers. (2) The Procharisteria at the end of winter, at
which thanks were offered for the germination of the seed.
(3) The Scirophoria, with a procession from the Acropolis to
the village of Skiron, in the height of summer, the priests who
were to entreat her to keep off the summer heat walking under
the shade of parasols (oictpov) held over them; others, however,
connect the name with onlpot (" gypsum "), perhaps used for
smearing the image of the goddess. (4) The Osckophoria, at the
vintage season, with races among boys, and a procession, with
songs in praise of Dionysus and Ariadne. (5) The Chalkeia (feast
of smiths), at which the birth of Erechtheus and the invention
of the plough were celebrated. (6) The Plynteria and CoUynteria,
at which her ancient image and peplus in the Erechtheum and
the temple itself were cleaned, with a procession in which bunches
of figs (frequently used in lustrations) were carried. (7) The
Arrhephoria or Errephoria (perhaps ^Ersepkori a, " dew-bear-
ing "), at which four girls, between seven and eleven years of
age, selected from noble families, carried certain unknown
sacred objects to and from the temple of Aphrodite " in the
gardens " (see J E. Harrison, Classical Renew, April 1889).
(8) The Panalhenaea, at which the new robes for the image of
the goddess were carried through the city, spread like a sail on
a mast. The reliefs of the frieze of the cella of the Parthenon
enable us to form an idea of the procession. Athletic games,
open to all who traced their nationality to Athens, were part of
this festival. Mention should also be made of the Argive
1 According to J. E. Harrison in Classical Review (June i*' "*
Athena Ergane is the goddess of the fruits of the field and t*
creation of children.
830
ATHENAEUM— ATHENAGORAS
ceremony, at which the xoanon (ancient wooden statue) of Athena
was washed in the river Inachus, a symbol of her purification
after the Gigantomachia.
The usual attributes of Athena were the helmet, the aegis,
the round shield with the head of Medusa in the centre, the lance,
an olive branch, the owl, the cock and the snake. Of these the
aegis, usually explained as a storm-cloud, is probably intended
as a battle-charm, like the Gorgon's head on the shield and the
faces on the shields of Chinese soldiers; the owl probably
represents the form under which she was worshipped in primitive
times, and subsequently became her favourite bird (the epithet
yXawouwii, meaning " keen-eyed " in Homer, may have originally
signified " owl-faced "); the snake, a common companion of the
earth deities, probably refers to her connexion with Erechtheus-
Erichthonius.
As to artistic representations of the goddess, we have first the
rude figure which seems to be a copy of the Palladium; secondly,
the still rude, but otherwise more interesting, figures of her,
as e.g. when accompanying heroes, on the early painted vases;
and thirdly, the type of her as produced by Pheidias, from which
little variation appears to have been made. Of his numerous
statues of her, the three most celebrated were set up on the Acro-
polis. (1) Athena Partkenos, in the Parthenon. It was in ivory
and gold, and 30 ft. high. She was represented standing, in a long
tunic; on her head was a helmet, ornamented with sphinxes
and grifiins; on her breast was the aegis, fringed with serpents
and the Gorgon's head in centre. In her right hand was a Nike
or winged victory, while her left held a spear, which rested on a
shield on which were represented the battles of the Amazons
with the giants. (2) A colossal statue said to have been formed
from the spoils taken at Marathon, the so-called Athena
Prontackos. (3) Athena Lemnia, so called because it had been
dedicated by the Athenian deruchies in Lemnos. In this she
was represented without arms, as a brilliant type of virgin beauty.
The two last statues were of bronze. From the time of Pheidias
calm earnestness, self-conscious might, and clearness of intellect
were the main characteristics of the goddess. The eyes, slightly
cast down, betoken an attitude of thoughtfulness; the forehead
is clear and open; the mouth indicates firmness and resolution.
The whole suggests a masculine rather than a feminine form.
From Greece the worship of Athena extended to Magna
Graecia, where a number of temples were erected to her in various
places. In Italy proper she was identified with Minerva (q.v,).
See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie; W. H. Roachcr's
Lexikon der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnairt des
antiauiUs (s.v. "Minerva"); L. Preller, Grieckiscke Mythologie',
W. Ft. Roschcr, " Die Gnindhedcutung der Athene." in Nektar und
Ambrosia (1883); F. A. Voigt, " Beitrage zur Mythologie des Ares
und Athena," in Leiptiger Studien, iv. (1881); L. R. Farnell, Tke
Cults of the Greek States, L (1896); J. E. Harrison. Prolegomena to
Ike Study of Greek Religion (loot), for the festivals especially r
Q. Gruppe, Grieckiscke Mytkolog te. If. ' % " ' ■ -• • ~
•iechiscke Mythologie, It. (1007). In the article Greek
Art, fig. 21 represents Athena in the act of striking a prostrate
giant; fig. 38 a statuette of Athena Partheaos, a replica of the work
of Pheidias. (J- H. F.)
ATHENAEUM, a name originally applied in ancient Greece
('Astyatoi') to buildings dedicated to Athena, and specially used
as the designation of a temple in Athens, where poets and men of
learning were accustomed to meet and read their productions.
The academy for the promotion of learning which the emperor
Hadrian built (about A.D. 135) at Rome, near the Forum, was also
called the Athenaeum. Poets and orators still met and discussed
there, but regular courses of instruction were given by a staff of
professors in rhetoric, jurisprudence, grammar and philosophy.
The institution, later called Schola Romans, continued in high
repute till the 5th century. Similar academies were also founded
in the provinces and at Constantinople by the emperor Theodosius
II. In modern times the name has been applied to various
academies, as those of Lyons and Marseilles, and the Dutch high
schools; and it has become a very general designation for literary
clubs. It is also familiar as the title of several literary periodicals,
notably of the London literary weekly founded in 1828.
ATHKNAEU8, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and
grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and the beginning
of the 3rd century a j>. Suidas only teOs us that he lived" in tie
times of Marcus "; but the contempt with which be speaks of
Commodus (died 192) shows that he survived that emperor
Athenaeus himself states that he was the author of a treatise en
the tkratta—a. kind of fish mentioned by Archippus mad other
comic poets— and of a history of the Syrian kings, both of wfcica
works are lost. We still possess the Deipnosopkistae, which may
mean dinner-table philosophers or authorities on banquets, is
fifteen books. The first two books, and parte off the third.
eleventh and fifteenth, are only extant in epitome, but otherwise
we seem to possess the work entire. It is an immense store-hoc*
of miscellaneous information, chiefly on matters connected « '.:
the table, but also containing remarks on music, songs, dance*
games, courtesans. It is full of quotations from writers who*
works have not come down to us; nearly 800 writers and 2500
separate writings are referred to by Athenaeus; and he boasts *
having read 800 plays of the Middle Comedy alone. The ptac ct
the Deipnosopkistae is exceedingly cumbrous, and a badly carried
out. It professes to be an account given by the author to ha
friend Timocrates of a banquet held at the house of Laurentivi
(or Larentius), a scholar and wealthy patron of art. It is tiros a
dialogue within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato, bat a
conversation of sufficient length to occupy several days (thongs
represented as taking place in one) could not be conveyed ia a
style similar to the short conversations of Socrates- Among thr
twenty-nine guests are Galen and Ulpian, but they are ai
probably fictitious personages, and the majority take no part e:
the conversation. If Ulpian is identical with the famous jurat.
the Deipnosopkistae must have been written after Ins death ( j r * .
but the jurist was murdered by the praetorian guards, whereas
Ulpian in Athenaeus dies a natural death. The oonvenatjoa
ranges from the dishes before the guests to literary matters of
every description, including points of grammar and criticism;
and they are expected to bring with them extracts from the poets,
which are read aloud and discussed at table. The whole is but a
clumsy apparatus for displaying the varied and extensive reading
of the author. As a work of art it can take but a low tank, bat
as a repertory of fragments and morsels of information it is
invaluable.
Editio princep*. Aldine, 1534: Casaubon, 1597-1600;
hauser. 1 801-1807; Dindorf, 1827; Meineke, 1850-1867
1887-1890; English translation by Yonge in Bohn'a
Library.
ATHENAGORAS, a Christian apologist of the and century a.©,
was, according to an emendator of the Paris Codes 451 of the
1 x th century, a native of Athens. The only sources of informa-
tion regarding him are a short notice by Philip of Side, is
Pamphylia (c. a.d. 420), and the inscription on his principal work,
Philip— or rather the compiler who made excerpts from him —
says that he was at the head of an Alexandrian school (the
catechetical), that he lived in the time of Hadrian and
Antoninus, to whom he addressed his Apology, and that Clement
of Alexandria was his pupil; but these statements are more than
doubtful. The inscription on the work describes it as the " Em-
bassy of Athenagoras, the Athenian, a philosopher and a Christian
concerning the Christians, to the Emperors Marcus Aurehus
Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus, &c." This state-
ment has given rise to considerable discussion, but from it and
internal evidence the date of the Apology (II/Mo/Ma w««i Xp-
anaiwr) may be fixed at about a.d. 177. Athenagoras is also the
author of a discourse on the resurrection of the body, which is not
authenticated otherwise than by the titles on the various manu-
scripts. In the Apology, after contrasting the judicial treaUnest
of Christians with that of other accused persons, be refutes the
accusations brought against the Christians of atheism, eating
human flesh and licentiousness, and in doing so takes occasion
to make a vigorous and skilful attack on pagan polytheism and
mythology. The discourse on the resurrection answers objections
to the doctrine, and attempts to prove its truth from considers-
tions of God's purpose in the creation of man, His justice and the
nature of man himself. Athenagoras is a powerful and dear
writer, who strives to comprehend his opponents' views and is
ATHENODORUS— ATHENS
831
acquainted with the classical writers. He used the Apology
of Justin, but hardly the works of Aristides or Tatian. His
theology is strongly tinged with Platonism, and this may account
for his falling into desuetude. His discussion of the Trinity has
some points of speculative interest, but it is not sufficiently
worked out; he regards the Son as the Reason or Wisdom of the
Father, and the Spirit as a divine effluence. On some other
points, as the nature of matter, the immortality of the soul and
the principle of sin, his views are interesting.
Editions.— J. C. Th. Eg. de Otto, Corpus Apol. Christ. Saoc. II.
voL vii. (Jena, 1857); E. Schwartz in Texts und Untersuckungen,
tv. a (Leipzig, 1891).
Translations.— Humphreys (London, 1714); B. P. Pratten
(Ante-Nic. Fathers, Edinburgh, 1867).
Lite rat ore.— A. Hatfiack.GeKa.derefcar. LitL pp. 526-558, and
similar works by O. Bardenhewer and A. Ehrhard ; Herzog-Hauck.
JUaUncyh.% G. Kroger, Early Chr. Lit, p. 130 (where additional
literature is cited). In 1559 and 161a appeared in French a work
on Trm and Perfect Love, purporting to he a translation from the
Creek of Athenagoras; it is a palpable forgery.
ATHENODORUS, the name of two Stoic philosophers of the
xst century B.C., who have frequently been confounded.
1. Atbenodorus Cananitks (c. 74 b.c.-aj). 7), so called
from his birthplace Canana near Tarsus (not Cana in Cilida nor
Canna in Lycaonia), was the son of one Sandon, whose name
indicates Tarsian descent, not Jewish as many have held. He
was a personal friend of Strabo, from whom we derive our know-
ledge of his life/ He taught the young Octavian (afterwards
Augustus) at Apollonia, and was a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes.
Subsequently he appears to have travelled in the East (Petra and
Egypt) and to have made himself famous by lecturing in the
great cities of the Mediterranean. Writing in 50 B.C., Cicero
speaks of him with the highest respect (cf. Ep. ad. Att. t xvi.
xi. 4, 14. 4), a fact which enables us to fix the date of his birth
as not later than about 74. His influence over Augustus was
strong and lasting. He followed him to Rome in 44, and is said to
have criticized him with the utmost candour, bidding him repeat
the letters of the alphabet before acting on an angry impulse.
In later years he was allowed by Augustus to return to Tarsus
in order to remodel the constitution of the city after the
degenerate democracy which had misgoverned it under Boethus.
He succeeded (c. 15-10 B.C.) in setting up a timocratic oligarchy
in the imperial interest (see Tarsus). Sir W. M. Ramsay is
inclined to attribute to the influence of Athenodorus the striking
resemblances which can be established between Seneca and Paul,
the latter of whom must certainly have been acquainted with his
teachings. According to Eusebius and Strabo he was a learned
scientist for his day, and some attribute to him a history of
Tarsus. He helped Cicero in the composition of the De OJfuiis.
His works are not certainly known, and none are extant (See
Sir W. M. Ramsay in the Expositor, September 1906, pp. 268 S.)
a. Athenodorus Cordyuon, also of Tarsus, was keeper of
the library at Pergamum, and was an old man in 47 B.C. In his
enthusiasm for Stoicism he used to cut out from Stoic writings
passages which seemed to him unsatisfactory. He also settled
in Rome, where he died in the house of the younger Cato.
Among others of the name may be mentioned (3) Athenodorus
or Taos, who played the cithara at the wedding oi Alexander the
Great and Statira at Susa (324 B.C.); (4) a Greek physician of the
1st century A.D., who wrote on epidemic diseases; and two sculptors,
of whom (5) one executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus which the
Spartans dedicated at Delphi after Aegospotami ; and (6) the other
was a son of Alexander of Rhodes, whom he helped in the Laocoon
group.
ATHENRY, a market town of county Galway, Ireland, 14 m.
inland (E.) from Galway on the Midland Great Western main
line. Pop. (1001) 853. Its name is derived from Ath-na-riogh,
the ford of kings; and it grew to importance after the Anglo-
Norman invasion as the first town of the Burgs and Ber-
minghams. The walls were erected in 1211 and the castle in
1238, and the remains of both are noteworthy. A Dominican
monastery was founded with great r»agnificence by Myler de
Bermingham in 1241, and was repaired by the Board of Works
in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of 1464 little is left
The town returned two members to the Irish parliament from
the time of Richard II. to the Union; but it never recovered
from the wars of the Tudor period, culminating in a successful
siege by Red Hugh O'Donnell in 2596.
ATHENS ['Aftffcu, Athenoe, modern colloquial Greek 'AMjva],
the capital of the kingdom of Greece, situated in 23° 44' E.
and 37 58' N., towards the southern end of the central and
principal plain of Attica. The various theories with regard to
the origin of the name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is
conceivable that, with the other homonymous Greek towns,
such as Athenae Diades in Euboea, 'Affipo* may be connected
etymologically with Mot, a flower (cf. Fireme, Florence);
the patron goddess. Athena, was probably called after the place
of her cult.
I. Topography and Antiquities
The Attic plain, rd tcoW, slopes gently towards the coast of
the Saronic Gulf on the south-west; on the east it is overlooked
by Mount Hymettus (3369 ft.); on the north-east by Pentelicus
or Brilessus (3635 ft.) from which, in ancient and modern times,
an immense quantity of the finest marble has been quarried;
on the north-west by Parnes (4636 ft), a continuation of the
Boeotian Cithaeron, and on the west by Aegaleus (1532 ft.),
which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. In the centre
of the plain extends from north-east to south-west a series of
low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the
south in the sharply pointed Lycabettus (11x2 ft), now called
Hagios Georgios from the monastery which crowns its summit.
Lycabettus, the most prominent feature in the Athenian land-
scape, directly overhung the ancient city, but was not included
in its walls; its peculiar shape rendered it unsuitable for fortifica*
tion. The Turcovuni ridge, probably the ancient Anchesmus,
separates the valley of the Cephisus on the north-west from
that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the ancient city
on the south-west The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus, enters
the sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an in-
significant stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus,
is totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient
forests on both mountains, and the consequent denudation of
the soil. Separated from Lycabettus by a depression to the
south-west, through which flows a brook, now a covered drain
(probably to be identified with the Eridanus), stands the re-
markable oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (5x2 ft), rising
precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit was
partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the flat area was
subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of re-
taining walls. Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower
rocky eminence of the Areopagus, 'ApuotT&yot (377 ft), the seat
of the famous council; the name (see also Areopagus) has been
connected with Ares, whose temple stood on the northern side
of the hill, but is more probably derived from the 'Apol or
Eumenides, whose sanctuary was formed by a cleft in its north-
eastern declivity. Farther west of the Acropolis are three eleva-
tions; to the north-west the so-called " Hill of the Nymphs "
(341 ft), on which the modern Observatory stands; to the west
the Pnyx, the meeting-place of the Athenian democracy (351 ft),
and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still
crowned with the remains of the monument of Phil6pappus.
A cavity, a little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally
supposed to be the ancient Barathron or place of execution.
To the south-east of the Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley
of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus (436 ft.). The distance from
the Acropolis to the nearest point of the sea coast at Phakrum
is a little over 3 m.
The natural situation of Athens was such as to favour the
growth of a powerful community. For the first requisites of a
primitive settlement— food supply and defence — it ,
afforded every advantage. The Attic plain, notwith-
standing the lightness of the soil, furnished an adequate 1
supply of cereals; olive and fig groves and vineyards
were cultivated from the earliest times in the valley of
the Cephisus, and pasturage for sheep and goats was abundV
The surrounding rampart of mountains was broken toward
832
ATHENS
ITOPOGRAPHY
north-cast by an open tract stretching between Hymettus and
Pentelicus towards Marathon, and was traversed by the passes of
Decclea, Phyle" and Daphne* on the north and north-west, but
the distance between these natural passages and the city was
sufficient to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land
force. On the other hand Athens, like Corinth, Megara and
Argos, was sufficiently far from the sea to enjoy security against
the sudden descent of a hostile fleet. At the same time the
relative proximity of three natural harbours, Peiracus, Zea and
Munychta, favoured the development of maritime commerce
and of the sea power which formed the basis of Athenian hege-
mony. The climate is temperate, but liable to sudden changes;
the mean temperature is 63°-i F. ( the maximum (in July) oo -oi,
the minimum (in January) 3i°-$S- The summer heat is moder-
ated by the sea-breeze or by cool northerly winds from the
mountains (especially in July and August). The clear, bracing
air, according to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and
aesthetic character of the people and endowed them with mental
and physical energy. For the architectural embellishment of
the city the finest building material was procurable without
difficulty and in abundance; Pentelicus forms a mass of white,
transparent, blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat
similar in appearance, but generally of a bluer hue, was obtained
from Hymettus. For ordinary purposes grey limestone was
furnished by Lycabettus and the adjoining hills; limestone
from the promontory of Act6 (the co-called "poros" stone),
and conglomerate, were also largely employed. For the ceramic
art admirable material was at hand in the district north-west of
the Acropolis. For sculpture and various architectural purposes
white, fine-grained marble was brought from Paros and Naxos.
The main drawback to the situation of the city lay in the in-
sufficiency of its water-supply, which was supplemented by an
aqueduct constructed in the time of the Peisistratids and by
later water-courses dating from the Roman period. A great
number of wells were also sunk and rain-water was stored in
cisterns.
For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the
natural features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of
the architectural structures or remnants, a process demanding
high technical competence, acute judgment and practical ex-
perience, as well as wide and accurate scholarship. The building
material and the manner of its employment furnish evidence no
less important than the character of the masonry, the design and
Timotss * nc mo ^ n °f ornamentation. # The testimony afforded
4, by inscriptions is often of decisive importance, especially
Mkantaa tBat °f commemorative or votive tablets or of boundary-
tBsg stones found in situ; the value of this evidence is, on
JLpL- the other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former
v ^ mr ' removal of building material already used and its in-
corporation in later structures. Thus sepulchral inscriptions have
been found on the Acropolis, though no burials took place there
in ancient times. In the next place comes the evidence derived
from the whole range of ancient literature and specially from de-
scriptions of the city or its different localities. The earliest known
description of Athens was that of Diodorus, 6 vtparyrfa, who lived
in the second half of the 4th century b.c Among his successors were
Potemonof Ilium (beginning uf 2nd century B.c.),whosc great «w/uc^
vcpt^Yiio-itgaveaminutcaccountofthevotiveotteringson the Acropolis
and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and Heliodorus (second half of
the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of
Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only
some fragments remain. In the period between a.d. 141 and 159
Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great
age were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments
of the Roman period had already been completed. The first thirtv
chapters of his invaluable Description of Creeceirtpifiyncit rijt 'EXXifos)
arc devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. Pausanias makes
no claim to exhaustiveneas; he selected what was best worth
noticing (rd AiioXoyurara). His account, drawn up from notes
taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial
importance for topographical rcM-arch, owing to his method of
describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the
course of nis walks. His accuracy, which has been called in question
by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by recent exca-
vations at Athens and elsewhere. The list of ancient topographers
close* with Pauvinias. The literature of succeeding centuries fur-
nishes only isolated references; the more important arc found in
the scholia on Aristophanes, the lexicons 01 Hcsyrhius, Photiu*
and others, and the Elymologicum Magnum. The notices of Athens
during the earlier middle a^r« arc scanty in the extreme. In 1395
Niccolo da Martoni, a pilgrim from the Holy Land, visited Athena
and wrote a description of a potion of the city. Of the work of
Cyriac of Ancona, written about 1450, only some fragment* maui*
which are well supplemented by the contemporaneous descrif *i» -
of the capable observer known as the " Anonym us of Milan." T %
treatises in Greek by unknown writers belong to the same pa**i
The Dutchman Joannes Meursiua (1579-1639) wrote three d»
quisitiona on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venkr **
1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, iccli: i . ,
the descriptions of De la Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coror
and others. The systematic study of Athenian topography «*.
begun in the I7th century by French residents at Athens, the con- i*
Giraud and Cnataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit c< ir
French physician Jacques Spon and the Englishman, Sir Go -
Wheler or Wheeler (1650-1723), fortunately took place before t t
catastrophe of the Parthenon in 1687; Span's Voyage d* Italic te
Dalmatic, de Crlce el du Levant, which contained the first scieiitu*
description of the ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Under .
Journey into Greece, in 1682. A period of British activity in rac*A ?
followed in the 18th century. The monumental work of Jas<i
Stuart and Nicholas Revet t, who spent three years at Athens (i;*i-
I 754). marked an epoch in the progress of Athenian topography * r J
is still indispensable to its study, owing to the demolition 01 anc*''
buildings which began about the middle of the 18th century. To
this period also belong the labours of Richard Pococke and Rir 1 - iri
Dalton. Richard Chandler, E. D. Clarke and Edward Doffs r 1
The great work of W. M. Leake {Topography of Athens amd ike D*w* %
2nd cd., 18,11) brought the descriptive literature to an cad and ■in-
augurated the period of modem scientific research, in which Genets
archaeologists have played a distinguished part.
Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected light <■•
the art, the monuments and the topography of the andent city.
Numerous and costly excavations have been carried out jsjbbs*
by the Greek government and by native and foreign gmmem^.
scientific societies, while accidental discoveries have been
frequently made during the building of the modern town. The
museums, enriched by a constant inflow of works ai art and in-
scriptions, have been carefully and scientifically arranged. *r.4
afford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of tbe
past generation. Improved means of communication have enat U.-4
many acute observers to apply the test of scrutiny on the »pot to
theories and conclusions mainly based on literary evidence; fK«
foreign schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, Irrd
valuable aid to students of all nationalities, and lec tu res, are fre-
quently delivered in the museums and on the more interesting ar i
important sites. The native archaeologists of the p r e sen t day b> '4
a recognized position in the scientific world ; the patriotic sroehnent
of former times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warr*d
their judgment, has been merged in devotion to science for its c « a
sake, and the supervision of excavations, as well as the control J
the art-collections, h now in highly competent hands. Athem ha*
thus become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and
a basis for research in every part of the Greek world. The attention
of many students has naturally been concentrated on the anexe:
city, the birthplace of European art and literature, and a great
development of investigation and discussion in the special donas
of Athenian archaeology has given birth to a voluminous literature.
Many theories hitherto universally accepted have been called tss
question or proved to be unsound : the views of Leake, for inst&nrr.
have been challenged on various points, though many of his con-
clusions have been justified and confirmed. The supreme import jt
of a study of Greek antiquities on the spot, long understood bi
scholars in Europe and in America, has gradually cosne to be rcr*^-
nized in England:, where a close attention to ancient texts, not al«4-v»
adequately supplemented by a course of local study and ob*rr\ at»>c
formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative attitude in regard to ir*
problems of Greek archaeology. Since the foundation of the German
Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to a large extent ber****
a speciality of German scholars, among whom >\ilhelm Durplt »-.
occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great architect ura.
attainments and unrivalled local knowledge. Many of his bold *r i
novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while otKr*
have met with general acceptance, except among scholars of the
more conservative type.
Prehistoric Athens.— Numerous traces of the " Mycenaean "
epoch have recently been brought to light in Athens and its
neighbourhood. Among the monuments of this age
discovered in the surrounding districts arc the rock-
hewn tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a
landslip in 1877, and the domed sepulchre at Mcnidi, m^r
the ancient Acharnae, excavated by Lolling In 1879. Other
" Mycenaean " landmarks have* been laid bare at Ekc^
Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna. These structures, however, are
of comparatively minor importance in point of dimensions and
decoration; they were apparently designed as places or sepulture
for local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated
in the Athenian realm by the awouueptx (synoerismj attributed
antiqwiiw ATHENS
to Theseus. The titration of the Acropolis, dominating the
surrounding plain and possessing easy communication with
the sea, favoured the formation of a relatively powerful state —
inferior, however, to Tiryns and Mycenae; the myths of Cecrops,
Erechtheu9 and Theseus bear witness to the might of the princes
who ruled in the Athenian citadel, and here we may naturally
expect to find traces of massive fortifications resembling in some
degree those of the great ArgoKd cities. Such in fact have been
brought to light by the modern excavations on the Acropolis
(1885-1880). Remains of primitive polygonal walls which un-
doubtedly surrounded the entire area have been found at various
points a little within the circuit of the existing parapet. The
best-preserved portions are at the eastern extremity, at the
northern side near the ancient " royal " exit, and at the south-
western angle. The course of the walls can be traced with a few
interruptions along the southern side. On the northern side are
the* foundations of a primitive tower and other remains, appar-
ently of dwelling-houses, one of which may have been the vwupto
66fjos 'Etatfflp* mentioned by Homer (Od. vii. 81). Among the
foundations were discovered fragments of " Mycenaean " pottery.
The various approaches to the citadel on the northern side—
the rock-cut flight of steps north-east of the Erechtheum (g.v.),
the stairs leading to the well Clepsydra, and the intermediate
passage supposed to have furnished access to the Persians— are
all to be attributed to the primitive epoch. Two pieces of poly-
gonal wall, one beneath the bastion of Nike Apteros, the other in
a direct line between the Roman gateway and the door of the
Propylaea, are all that remain of the primitive defences of the
main entrance.
These early fortifications of the Acropolis, ascribed to the
primitive non-heDenic Pelasgi, must be distinguished from
Tb pwif* **** ^ >c ^ as «* cum or Pdargicum, which was in all prob-
Jfc J^7*^ ability an encircling wall, built round the base of the
citadel and furnished with nine gates from which it
derived the name of Enneapylon. Such a wall would be required
to protect the dusters of dwellings around the Acropolis as well
as the springs issuing from the rock, while the gates opening
in various directions would give access to the surrounding
pastures and gardens. This view, which is that of E. Curtius,
alone harmonizes with the statement of Herodotus (vi. 137) that
the wall was " around " (rtpL) the Acropolis, and that of Thucy-
dides (h\ 17) that it was " beneath " (6x6) the fortress. Thus
it would appear that the citadel had an outer and an inner line
Of defence in prehistoric times. The space enclosed by the outer
wall was left unoccupied after the Persian wars in deference
to an oracular response apparently dictated by military con-
siderations, the maintenance of an open zone being desirable
for the defence of the citadel. A portion of the outer wall has
been recognized in a piece of primitive masonry discovered
near the Odeum of Hcrodes Atticus; other traces will probably
come to light when the northern and eastern slopes of the
Acropolis have been completely explored. Leake, whom Frazer
follows, assumed the Pelasgicum to be a fortified space at the
western end of the Acropolis; this view necessitates the assump-
tion that the nine gates were built one within the other, but
early antiquity furnishes no instance of such a construction;
Ddrpfeld believes it to have extended from the grotto of Pan
to the sacred precinct of Asdepius. The well-known passage
of Lucian (Piscator, 47) cannot be regarded as decisive for any
of the theories advanced, as any portion of the old enceinte
dismantled by the Persians may have retained the name in later
times. The Pelasgic wall enclosed the spring Clepsydra, beneath
the north-western corner of the Acropolis, which furnished a water-
supply to the defenders of the fortress. The spring, to which a
Staircase leads down, was once more included in a bastion during
the War of Independence by the Greek chief Odysseus.
To the " Pelasgic " era may perhaps be referred (with Curtius
And Milchhoier) the immense double terrace on the north-eastern
Tb* Payx. "^P* °* ^* e ^y* ^°5 '*' ^ v "*)» ^ u PP er Portion
of which is cut out of the rock, while the lower is
enclosed by a semicircular wall of massive masonry; the theory
of these scho]ars,'however f that the whole precinct was a sanctuary
833
of the Peksgian Zeus cannot be regarded as proved, nor is it
easy to abandon the generally received view that this was the
scene of the popular assemblies of later times, notwithstanding
the apparent unsuitability of the ground and the insufficiency
of room for a large multitude. These difficulties are met by
the assumption that the semicircular masonry formed the base
of a retaining-wall which rose to a considerable height, supporting
a theatre-like structure capable of seating many thousand
persons. The masonry may be attributed to the 5th century;
the chiselling of the immense blocks is not " Cyclopean." Pro-
jecting from the upper platform at the centre of the chord of
the semicircular area is a cube of rock, n ft, square and 5 ft
high, approached on either side by a flight of steps leading to the
top; this block, which Curtius supposes to have been the
primitfve altar of Zeus T^irre*, may be safely identified with
the orators' bema, d >a$ex kv r# Uvkvi (Aristoph Pax, 680).
Plutarch's statement that the Thirty Tyrants removed the
bema so as to face the land instead of the sea is probably due to
a misunderstanding. Other cubes of rock, apparently altars,
exist in the neighbourhood. There can be little doubt that the
Pnyx was the seat of an ancient cult; the meetings of the
Ecclesia were of a religious character and were preceded by a
sacrifice to Zeus 'Ayopcuos; nor is it conceivable that, but for
its sacred associations, a site would have been chosen so unsuit-
able for the purposes of a popular assembly as to need the
addition of a costly artificial auditorium.
The Pnyx, the Hill of the Nymphs and the Museum Hill are
covered with vestiges of early settlements which extend to a
considerable distance towards the south-east in the Rock .
direction of Phalcrum. They consist of chambers of dwWags
various sizes, some of which were evidently human ***
habitations, together with cisterns, channels, scats, *•***
steps, terraces and quadrangular tombs, all cut in the rock.
This neighbourhood was held by Curtius to have been the site
of the primeval rock city, Kpavh* *6Xis (Aristoph. Ach. 75),
anterior to the occupation of the Acropolis and afterwards
abandoned for the later settlement It seems inconceivable,
however, that any other site should have been preferred by the
primitive settlers to the Acropolis, which offered the greatest
advantages for defence; the Pnyx, owing to its proximity
to the centres of civic life, can never have been deserted, and
that portion which lay within the dty walls must have been
fully occupied when Athens was crowded during the Pelopon-
nesian War. Some of the rock chambers originally intended
for tombs were afterwards converted, perhaps under pressure
of necessity, into habitations, as in the case of the so-called
" Prison of Socrates," which consists of three chambers horizon-
tally excavated and a small round apartment of the "beehive "
type. The remains on the Pnyx and its neighbourhood cannot
all be assigned to one epoch, the prehistoric age. The dwellings
do not correspond in size or details with the undoubtedly pre-
historic abodes on the Acropolis. In view of the ancient law
which forbade burial within the city, the tombs within the
circuit of the dty walls must either be earlier than the time of
Themistodes or several centuries later; in the similar rock-
tombs on the neighbouring slopes of the Acropolis and Areopagus
both Mycenaean and Dipylon pottery have been found. But
the numerous vertically excavated tombs outside the walls
are of late date and belong for the most part to the Roman
period.
The Areopagus is now a bare rock possessing few architectural
traces. The legend of its occupation by the Amazons (Aeschylus,
Eum. 68x seq.) may be taken as indicating its military
importance for an attack on the Acropolis; ^^ Artop^gifS*
Persians used it as a point d'appui for their assault.
The seat of the old oligarchical coundl and court for homidde
was probably on its eastern height. Here were the altar of Athena
Anna and two stones, the Xiflos *T/9pc<i*, on which the accuser,
and the XiAff 'AixuSdat, on which the accused, took their
stand. Beneath, at the north-eastern corner, is the deft which
formed the sanctuary of the Sejiwii, or Erinyes. There is
no reason for disturbing the associations connected with &'
834
spot as the scene of St Paul's address to the~Atheflians (E.
Gardner, Anc. Athens, p. 505).
Hellenic Period. — While modern research has added consider-
ably to our knowledge of prehistoric Athens, a still greater light
has been thrown on the architecture and topography of the city
in the earlier historic or " archaic " era, the subsequent age of
Athenian greatness, and the period of decadence which set in with
the Macedonian conquest; the first extends from the dawn of
history to 480-479 »-c, when the city was destroyed by the
Persians; the second, or classical, age closes in 322 B.C., when
Athens lost its political independence after the Lamian War;
the third, or Hellenistic, in 146 B.C., when the state fell under
Roman protection. We must here group these important epochs
together, as distinguished from the later period of Roman rule,
and confine ourselves to a brief notice of their principal monu-
ments and a record of the discoveries by which they have been
illustrated in recent years.
The earliest settlement on the Acropolis was doubtless soon
increased by groups of dwellings at its base, inhabited by the
dependents of the princes who ruled in the stronghold.
j^to* These habitations would naturally in the first instance
"jranafe" he in close proximity to the western approach; after
«m. the building of the Pelasgicum they seem to have
extended beyond its walls towards the south and south-west —
towards the sea and the waters of the Ilissus. The district thus
occupied sloped towards the sun and was sheltered by the
Acropolis from the prevailing northerly winds. The Thesean
synoecism led to the introduction of new cults anji the foundation
of new shrines partly on the Acropolis, partly in the inhabited
district at its base both within and without the wall of the
Pelasgicum. Some of the shrines in this region are mentioned
by Thucydides in a passage which is of capital importance for
the topography of the city at this period (ii. 15). By degrees
the inhabited area began to comprise the open ground to the
north-west, the nearer portion of the later Ceramicus, or " potters'
field " (afterwards divided by the walls of Themistodes into the
Inner and Outer Ceramicus), and eventually extended to the
north and east of the citadel, which, by the beginning of the
5th century B.C., had become the centre of a circular or
wheel-shaped city, toXx-oi rpoxoeMos 6xpa K&prjva (Oracle apud
Herod, vii. 140). To this enlarged dty was applied, probably
about the second half of the 6th century, the special designation
to aVrv, which afterwards distinguished Athens from its port,
the Pciraeus; the Acropolis was already 4 «6Xtf (Thucyd. ii. 15).
The city is supposed to have been surrounded by a wall before
the time of Solon, the existence of which may be deduced from
Thucydides* account of the assassination of Hipparchus (vi. 57),
but no certain traces of such a wall have been discovered;
the materials may have been removed. to build the walls of
Themistodes.
The centre of commerdal and dvic life of the older group of
communities, as of the greater dty of the classical age, was the
_ Agora or market. Here were the various public
Agortk buildings, which, when the power of the princes on
the dtadcl was transferred to the archons, formed the
offices of the administrative magistracy. The site of the primitive
Agora (Apxafo iyopt) was probably in the hollow between the
Acropolis and the Pnyx, which formed a convenient meeting-
place for the dwellers on the north and south sides of the fortress
as well as for its inhabitants. In the time of the Pcisistratids
the Agora was enlarged so as to extend over the Inner Ceramicus
on the north-west, apparently reaching the northern declivities
of the Areopagus and the Acropolis on the south. After the
Persian Wars the northern portion was used for commerdal,
the southern for political and ceremonial purposes. In the
southern were the Orchestra, where the Dionysiac dances took
place, and the famous statues of Harmodius and Aristogdton
by Antenor which were carried away by Xerxes; also the
Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the Gods,the Bouleuterium,
or council-chamber of the Five Hundred, the Prytaneum, the
hearth of the combined communities, where the guests of the
state dined, the temple of the Dioscuri, and the Tholus, or Skiaa.
ATHENS IANTW7ITIES
a circular stone-domed building In which the Prytanek west
maintained at the public expense; in the northern were the
Leocorium, where Hipparchus was slain, the *roa £o0tXic4,
the famous otoa roudXn, where Zeno taught, and other struc-
tures. The Agora was commonly described as the " Ceramicus,"
and Pausanias gives it this name; of the numerous rwriktings
which he saw here scarcely a trace remains; their position, for
the most part, is largdy conjectural, and the exact boundaries
of the Agora itself are uncertain. What are perhaps the remains
of the <rroA /WtXuri}, in which the Archon Basileus held ms
court and the Areopagus Council sat in later times, were brought
to light in the winter of 1897-1898, when excavation* were
carried out on the eastern slope of the " Tneseum " hUL Here
was found a rectangular structure resembling a temple, but with
a side door to the north; it possessed a portico of six Cohans.
The north slope of the Areopagus, where a number of early
tombs were found, was also explored, and the limits of the
Agora on the south and north-west were approximately ascer-
tained. A portion of the main road leading from the Djpyfaa
to the Agora was discovered.
In 1892 Dtirpfdd began a series of excavations in the district
between the Acropolis and the Pnyx with the object of deter-
mining the situation of the buildings described by __
Pausanias as existing in the neighbourhood of the 2L*.
Agora, and more especially the position of the. Ennea- tnam.
crunus fountain. The Enneacrunus has hitherto
been generally identified with the spring Callirrhoe in the bed of
the Hissus, a little to the south-east of the Orympieom; H b
apparently, though not explidtly, placed by Thucydides (ii- 15)
in proximity to that building, as well as the temple of Dionysus
h> Td/iPM and other shrines, the temples of Zeus Olympras
and of Ge and the Pythium, which he mentions as situated
mainly to the south of the Acropolis. On the other hand,
Pausanias (i. 14. x), who never deviates without reason from the
topographical order of his narrative, mentions the Ennracnums
in the midst of his description of certain buildings which were
undoubtedly in the region of the Agora, and unless he Is guilty
of an unaccountable digression the Enneacrunus which he saw
must have lain west of the Acropolis. It is now generally
agreed that the Agora of classical times covered the low ground
between the hill of the " Theseum," the Areopagus and the
Pnyx; and Pausanias, in the course of his description, appears
to have reached its southern end. The excavations revealed
a main road of surprisingly narrow dimensions winding up from
the Agora to the Acropolis. A little to the south-west of the
point where the road turns towards the Propylaea was found a
large rock-cut cistern or reservoir which Dttrpf dd identifies with
the Enneacrunus. The reservoir is supplied by*a conduit of
6th-century tiles connected with an early stone aqueduct, the
course of which is traceable beneath the Dionysiac theatre and
the royal garden in the direction of the Upper Hissus. These
elaborate waterworks were, according to D&pfeld, constructed
by the Pcisistratids in order to increase the supply from the
andent spring Callirrhoe; the fountain was furnished with nine
jets and henceforth known as Enneacrunus. This identitkatwo
has been hotly contested by many scholars, and the question
must still be regarded as undedded. An interesting confirmation
of Dtirpfeld's view is furnished by the map of Guittet and Coronelfi,
published in 1672, in which the Enneacrunus is depicted as a
well with a stream of running water in the neighbourhood of the
Pnyx.' The fact that spring water is not now found in this
locality is by no means fatal to the theory; recent ettgineering
investigations have shown that much of the surface water of
the Attic plain has sunk to a lower level. In front of the reservoir
is a small open space towards which several roads converge;
dose by is a triangular endosure of polygonal masonry, in which
were found various relics relating to the worship of Dionysus,
a very andent wine-press (Xuftfe) and the remains of a smal
temple. Built over chis early precinct, which Dftrpfeld identifies
with the Dionysium av Mfivats, or Lenaeuoe, is a basiBca-
shaped building of the Roman period, apparently sacred to
Bacchus; in this was found an inscription containing the rules
ANTIQUITIES)
ATHENS
835
of tJbesodetyofthelobaccH. There fr an obvious difficulty in
assuming that Mjftrai, in the sense of " marshes," existed in
this confined area, but stagnant pods may still be seen here
In winter. Dtopfcld's identification of the Dionyunm, h XIjimis
cannot be regarded as proved; his view that another Pythium
and another Olympfeum existed in this neighbourhood is still
less probable; bat the incondusiveness of these theories does
not necessarily invalidate his identification of the Enneaarunus,
vith regard to the position of which the language of Thucydides
is far from dear. Another enclosure, a little to the south, is
proved by an inscription to have been a sanctuary of the hitherto
unknown hero Amynos, with whose cult those of Asclepius and
the hero Dexion were here associated; under the name Dexion,
the poet Sophocles is said to have been worshipped after his
death. The whole district adjoining the Areopagus was found
to have been thickly built over; the small, mean dwelling-houses
intersected by narrow, crooked lanes convey a vivid idea of the
contrast between the modest private residences and the great
public structures of the andent city.
The age of the Peisistratids (560-5x1 B.C.) marked an era in
the history of Athenian topography. The greatest of their
f%0 foundations, the temple of Olympian Zeus, will be
Aea+my referred to later. Among the monuments of their
*■* rule, in addition to the enlarged Agora and the
***■*■* Enneacrunus, were the Academy and perhaps the
Lyceum. The original name of the Academy may have been
Hccademia, from Hecademus, an early proprietor (but see
Academy, Greek). The famous seat of the Platonic philosophy
was a gymnasium enlarged as a public park by Cimon; it lay
about a mile to the north-west of the Dipylon Gate, with which
it was connected by a street bordered with tombs. The Lyceum,
where Aristotle taught, was originally a sanctuary of Apollo
Lyceius. Like the Academy, it was an enclosure with a gym-
nasium and garden; it lay to the east of the dty beyond the
Diocharean Gate.
Little was known of the buildings on the Acropolis in the
pre-Persian period before the great excavations of 1 885-1888,
which rank among the most surprising achievements of
modern research. The results of these operations, which were
conducted by the Archaeological Sotiety under the direction of
Kawadias and Kawerau, must be summarized with the utmost
y^ brevity. The great deposits of sculpture and pottery
AcropoSt now unearthed, representing all that escaped from the
acftwf <*• ravages of the Persians and the burning of the andent
flw * <M shrines, afford a startling revelation of the development
wan> of Greek art in the 7th and 6th centuries. Numbers
of statues— among them a series of draped and richly-
coloured female figures— masterpieces of painted pottery, only
equalled by the Attic vases found in Magna Grecia and Etruria,
and numerous bronzes, were among the treasures of art now
brought to light. All belong to the " archaic " epoch; only a
few remains of the greater age were found, including some frag-
ments of sculptures from the Parthenon and Erechthcum. We
are prindpally concerned, however, with the results which add to
our knowledge of the topography and architecture of the Acro-
polis. The entire area of the summit was now thoroughly ex-
plored, the excavations being carried down to the surface of the
rock, which on the southern side was found to slope outwards to a
depth of about 45 ft. In the lower strata were discovered the
remnants of Cyclopean or prehistoric architecture already men-
tioned. Of later date, perhaps, are the limestone polygonal
retaining walls on the west front, which extended on either side
of the early entrance. Of these a portion may probably be
attributed to the Peisistratids, in whose time the Acropolis once
more became the stronghold of a despotism. Its fortifications,
though not increased, were apparently strengthened by the
Tyrants. To its embellishment they probably contributed the
older ornamental entrance, facing south-west, the precursor of
the greater structure of Mnesides (see Profyxaea) and the
colonnade of the " Hecatompedon," or earlier temple of Athena,
at this time the only large sacred edifice on the dtadcL The
name was subsequently applied to the cells, or eastern chamber,
flat oaf
of the Parthenon, which is exactly 100 ft long, and also became
a popular designation of the temple itself.
The andent Hecatompedon may in all probability be identified
with an early temple, also 100 ft. long, the foundations of which
were pointed out in 1885 by Ddrpfdd on the ground
immediately adjoining the south side of the Erech-
thcum, On this spot was apparently the primitive
sanctuary of Athena, the rich temple (rtww njoj) of
Homer (//. ii. 549), in which the cult of the goddess was associated
with that of Erechtheus; the Homeric temple is identified by
Furtwlngler with the " compact house of Erechtheus " (Od. viL
8x), which, he holds, was not a royal palace, but a place of wor-
ship, and traces of it may perhaps be recognized in the fragments
of prehistoric masonry endosed by the existing foundations.
The foundations seem to bdong to the 7th century, except those
of the colonnade, which was possibly added by Peisistratus.
According to Dftrpfdd, this was the " old temple " of Athena
Polias, frequently mentioned in literature and inscriptions, in'
which was housed the most holy image ({oaro) of the goddess
which fell from heaven; it was burnt, but not completely
destroyed, during the Persian War, and some of its external
decorations were afterwards built into the north wall of the
Acropolis; it was subsequently restored, he thinks, with or
without its colonnade— in the former case a portion of the
peristyle must have been removed when the Erechtheum was
built so as to make room for the porch of the maidens; the
building was set on fire in 406 b.c. (Xen. Hell. L 6. x), and the
conflagration is identical with that mentioned by Demosthenes
(In Timocr, xxiv. 155); its "opisthodomos" served as the
Athenian treasury in the 5th and 4U1 centuries; the temple is the
opxcHos wwt rqs HoXiafa mentioned by Strabo (ix. 16),
and it was still standing in the time of Pausanias, who applies to
it the same name (i. 27. 3). The condusion that the foundations
are those of an old temple burnt by the Persians has been generally
accepted, but other portions of DOrpfdcVs theory— more especi-
ally his assumption that the temple was restored after the Persian
War— have provoked much controversy. Thus J. G. Frazer
maintains the hitherto current theory that the earlier temple of
Athena and Erechtheus was on the site of the Erechtheum;
that the Erechthcum inherited the name Apxalot vt&n from its
predecessor, and that the " opisthodomos " in which the treasures
were kept was the west chamber of the Parthenon; Furtwangler
and Milchhdfcr hold the strange view that the " opisthodomos "
was a separate building at the east end of the Acropolis, while
Penrose thinks the building discovered by Ddrpfdd was possibly
the Cecropeum. E. Curtius and J. W. White, on the other hand,
accept Dorpfdd's identification, but believe that only the
western portion of the temple or opisthodomos was rebuilt after
the Persian War. Admitting the identification, we may perhaps
condude that the temple was repaired in order to provide a
temporary home for the venerated image and other sacred
objects; no traces of a restoration exist, but the walls probably
remained standing after the Persian conflagration. The removal
of the andent temple was undoubtedly intended when the
Erechtheum was built, but superstition and popular feding may
have prevented its demolition and the removal of the £6avov to
the new edifice. The temple consisted of an eastern cella with
pronaos; behind this was the opisthodomos, divided into three
chambers— possibly treasuries— with a portico at the western end.
The peristyle, if we compare the measurements of the stylobate
with those of the drums built into the wall of the Acropolis, may
be conduded to have consisted of six Doric columns at the ends
and twdve at the sides. In one of the pediments was a giganto-
machy, of which some fragments have been recovered.
In 1806 excavations with the object of exploring the whole
northern and eastern slopes of the Acropolis were begun by
Kawadias. The pathway between the dtadd and. n*
the Areopagus was found to be so narrow that it is irotto*$of
certain the Panathcnaic procession cannot have taken ?""ff*
this route to the Acropolis. On the north-west rock ApoUo *
the caves known as the grottoes of Pan and Apollo were
deared out; these consist of a slight high-arched indentation
8 3 6
ATHENS
{ANTIQUITIES
immediately to the east of the Clepsydra and a double and
somewhat deeper cavern a little farther to the east. In the first
mentioned are a number of niches in which irfyocc* (votive
tablets) were placed: some of these, inscribed with dedications to
Apollo, have been discovered. The whole locality was the seat of
the ancient cult of this deity, afterwards styled " Hypacracus,"
with which was associated the legend of CreUsa and the birth
of Ion. The worship of Pan was introduced after the Persian
wars, in consequence of an apparition seen by Pheidippides,
the Athenian courier, in the mountains of Arcadia. Another
cave more to the west was revealed by the demolition of
the bastion of Odysseus. To the east a much deeper and hitherto
unknown cavern has been revealed, which Kawadias identifies
with the grotto of Pan. Close to it arc a series of steps hewn in
the rock which connect with those discovered in 1886 within the
Acropolis wall. Farther cast is an underground passage leading
eastward to a cave supposed to be the sanctuary of Aglaurus
where the ephebi took the oath; with this passage is connected
a secret staircase leading up through a cleft in the rock to the
precinct of the Errcphori on the Acropolis. It is conceivable
that the priestesses employed this * v exit when descending on their
mysterious errand.
In the fifty years between the Persian and the Pcloponnesian
wars architecture and plastic art attained their highest perfection
„_ in Athens. The almost complete destruction of the
buildings on the Acropolis and in the lower dty, among
them many temples and shrines which religious senti-
tA0WMttMot mcn t m ight otherwise have preserved, facilitated the
|M ^*" realization of the magnificent architectural designs
of Thcmistocles, Cimon and Pericles, while the rapid
growth of the Athenian empire provided the state with the
necessary means for the execution of these sumptuous projects.
Of the great monuments of this epoch few traces remain except
on the Acropolis. After the departure of the Persians the first
necessity was the reconstruction of the defences of the dty and
the citadel. The walls of the dty, now built under the direction
of Thcmistocles, embraced a larger area than the previous
circuit, with which they seem to have coincided at the Dipylon
Gate on the north-west where the Sacred Way to Eleusis was
joined by the principal carriage route to the Peiraeus and the
roads to the Academy and Colonus. The other more important
gates 'were the Pciraic and Mclitan on the west; the Itonian on
the south leading to Phalerum, the Diomcan and Diocharean on
the east, and the Acharnian on the north. The wall, which was
strengthened with numerous towers, enclosed the quarters of
Collytus on the north, Mclitc on the west, Limnae on the south-
west and south, and Diomea on the east. The scanty traces
which remain have not been systematically excavated except
in the neighbourhood of the Dipylon; the discovery of sepulchral
tablets built into the masonry illustrates the statement of
Thucydidcs with regard to the employment of such material
in the hasty construction of the walls. The circuit has been
practically ascertained in its general lines, though not in details;
it is given by Thucydidcs (ii. 13. 7) as 43 stades (about
5} m.) exclusive of the portion between the points of junc-
tion with the long walls extending to the Peiraeus, but the
whole circumference cannot have exceeded 37 stades. Possibly
Thucydidcs, who in the passage referred to is dealing with
the question of defence, included a portion of the contiguous
long walls in his measurement; this explanation derives
probability from his underestimate of the length of the long
walls.
The design of connecting Athens with the Peiraeus by long
parallel walls is ascribed by Plutarch to Thcmistocles. The
tl Long Walls " (rd noxph. rdxn, rd aiokXri) consisted
«t«*r of (l > *** " Nortn WaU " (»* M™ ' T£ W* )» < 3 > *e
HWb.- "Middle" or " South WaU" (rd 6id nktrov Ttl X <x, Plato,
Corg. SS5 e; to vimov t6x<*)'* and (3) the "Phaleric
Wall " (rd *«\7jpt«dv r£x««). The north and Phaleric walls
were perhaps founded by Cimon, and were completed about
-"1 the early administration of Pericles; the middle wall
out 445 b.c. The lines of the north and middle walls
have been ascertained from the remnants still existing m the
18th century and the scantier traces now visible.* The sorts
wall, leaving the dty circuit at a point near the modern Observa-
tory, ran from north-east to south-west near the present ro*J
to the Peiraeus, until it reached the Peiraeus walls a little to the
east of their northernmost bend. The middle wall, beginxunf
south of the Pnyx near the Mditan Gate, gradually approach* 1
the northern wall and, following a parallel course at an interval
of 550 ft, diverged to the east near the modern New PnsJeroa
and joined the Peiraeus walls on the height of Munychia where
they turn inland from the sea. The course of the Phakric wa&
has been much disputed. The widely-received view of Curtroi
that it ran to Cape Kolias (now Old Phalerum) on the east ef
the Phaleric bay is not accepted by recent topographers. The
exigences of the defensive system planned by Themistocles could
only have been satisfied by a juncture of the Phaleric wall witJ*
that of the Peiraeus. The existence of any third wall was denied
by Leake, according to whose theory the southern parallel waJ
would be identical with the Phaleric The language of Thucy-
dides, however, seems decisive with regard to the existence c*
three walls. "The Phaleric wall, branching from the dty circuit
at some point farther east than the middle or south wall, may
have followed the ridge of the Sikelia heights, where some traca
of fortifications remain, and then traversed the Phalerum p^ J
till it reached the Peiraeus defences at a point a little to the
north-west of their junction with the middle wall. The Phalenc
wall, proving indefensible, was abandoned towards the dose of
the Pcloponnesian war; with the other two walls it was com-
pletely destroyed after the surrender of the dty, and was cot
rebuilt when they were restored by Conon in 393 ax. The
parallel walls fell into decay, during the Hellenistic period, aad
according to Strabo (ix. 396) were once more demalwhwi by
Sulla.
The great advantages which the Peiraic promontory with its
three natural harbours offered for purposes of defence and
commerce were first recognized by Themistocles, in _.
whose archonship (493 B.C.) the fortifications of the riilla|
Peiraeus were begun. Before his time the Athenians
used as a port the roadstead of Phalerum at the north-eastern
corner of Phalerum bay partly sheltered by Cape Kolias. As
soon as the building of the city walls had been completed,
Themistocles resumed the construction of the Peiraeus defences,
which protected the larger harbour of Cantharus on the west
and the smaller ports of Zea and Munychia (respectively south-
west and south-east of the Munychia heights), terminating in
moles at their entrances and enclosing the entire promontory en
the land and sea sides except a portion of the south-west shore
of the peninsula of Acte. The walls, built of finely compacted
blocks, were about xo ft. In thickness and upwards of 60 ft n
height, and were strengthened by towers. The town was Lud
out at great expense in straight, broad streets, intersecting each
other at right angles, by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus
in the time of Pericles. In the centre was the Agora of Hippo*
damus; on the western margin of the Cantharus harbour
extended the emporium, or Digma, the centre of conuncrcui
activity, flanked by a scries of porticoes; at its northern end.
near the entrance to the inner harbour, was another Agora. ca
the site of the modern market-place, and near it the jaaxpd area,
the corn depot of the state. This inner and shallower harbour,
perhaps the *ox£d* \ift^y, was afterwards excluded from the
town precinct by the walls of Conon, which traversing its opextkx
on an embankment (rd &d pkvw x&/«a) ran round the outer shore
of the western promontory of Eetionea, previously endoscd,
with some space to the north-west, by the wider circuit of
Themistocles. In the harbours of Zea and Munychia traces mxr
be seen of the remarkable series of galley-slips in which the
Athenian fleet was built and repaired. The galley-slips around
Zea were roofed by a row of gables supported by stone columu,
each gable sheltering two triremes. Among the other noteworthy
buildings of the Peiraeus were the arsenal (cutuo&m) of Philo
and the temples of Zeus Soter, the patron god of the sailors, of
the Cnidian Artemis, built by Cimon, and of Artemis Munychia,
ANTIQUITIES)
ATHENS
»37
situated near the fort on the Munychia height; traces of a temple
of Asclepius, of two theatres and of a hippodrome remain. The
fine marble lion of the classical period which stood at the mouth
of the Cantharus harbour gave the Feiraeus its medieval and
modern names of Porto Leone and Porto Draco; it was carried
away to Venice by Morosini.
In 1870 the Greek Archaeological Society undertook a series
of excavations in the Outer Ceramicus, which had already been
j^ partially explored by various scholars. The opera-
tions, which were carried on at intervals till 1800,
resulted in the discovery of the Dipylon Gate, the
principal, entrance of ancient Athens. The Dipylon
consists of an outer and an inner gate separated by an oblong
courtyard and flanked on either side by towers; the gates were
themselves double, being each composed of two apertures
intended for the incoming and outgoing traffic. An opening in
the city wall a little to the south-west, supposed to have been
the Sacred Gate (ttpa tGXij), was In all probability an outlet
for the waters of the Eridanus. This stream, which has hitherto
been regarded as the eastern branch of the Ilissus rising at
Kaesariane, has been identified by Dotpfcld with a brook
descending from the south slope of Lycabettus and conducted in
an artificial channel to the north-western end of the city, where
it made its exit through the walls, eventually joining the Ilissus.
The channel was open in Greek times, but was afterwards covered
by Roman arches; it appears to have served as the main drain
of the city. Between this outlet and the Dipylon were found a
boundary-stone, inscribed Ipot KcpapcuroO, which remains in its
place, and the foundations of a large rectangular building,
possibly the Pompeium, which may have been a robing-room
for the processions which passed this way. On either side of the
Dipylon the walls of Themistocles, faced on the outside by a
later wall, have been traced for a considerable distance. The
excavation of the outlying cemetery revealed the unique " Street
of the Tombs " and brought to light a great number of sepulchral
monuments, many of which remain in situ. Especially note-
worthy are the stela* (reliefs) representing scenes of leave-taking,
which, though often of simple workmanship, are characterized
by a touching dignity and restraint of feeling. In this neighbour-
hood were found a great number of tombs containing vases of all
periods, which furnish a marvellous record of the development
of Attic ceramic art. A considerable portion of the district
remains unexplored.
The Acropolis had been dismantled as a fortress after the
expulsion of Hippias; its defenders against the Persians found
it necessary to erect a wooden barricade at its entrance.
, The fortifications were again demolished by the
Persians, after whose departure the existing north
wall was erected in the time of Themistocles; many
columns, metopes and other fragments from the
buildings destroyed by the Persians were built into it,
possibly owing to haste, as in the case of the city walls,
but more probably with the design of commemorating the
great historic catastrophe, as the wall was visible from the
Agora. The fine walls of the south and east sides were built by
Cimon after the victory of the Eurymedon, 468 B.C.; they
extend considerably beyond the old Pelasgic circuit, the inter-
vening space being filled up with earth and the debris of the
ruined buildings so as to increase the level space of the summit.
On the northern side Cimon completed the wall of Themistocles
at both ends and added to its height; the ground behind was
levelled up on this side also, the platform of the Acropolis thus
receiving its present shape and dimensions. The staircase leading
down to the sanctuary of Aglaurus was enclosed in masonry
At the south-western corner, on the right of the approach to the
old entrance, a bastion of early masonry was encased in a
rectangular projection which formed a base for the temple of
Nike. The great engineering works of Cimon provided a
suitable area for the magnificent structures of the age of
Pericles.
The greater monuments of the classical epoch on the Acropolis
are described in separate articles (see Parthenon, Exxcbthetjm,
Propylaea). Next in interest to these noble structures is the
beautiful little temple of Athena Nike, wrongly designated Nike
Apteros (Wingless Victory), standing on the bastion already
mentioned; it was begun after 450 b.c, and was prob- Tftf mom
ably finished after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian mmauom
War. The temple, which is entirely of Pentetic marble, <*• Acw
is amphiprostyle tetrastyle, with fluted Ionic columns, ****
resting on a stylobate of three steps; its length is 27 ft, its
breadth 18} ft, and its total height, from the apex of the pedi-
ment to the bottom of the steps, 33 ft. The frieze, running round
the entire building, represents on its eastern side a number of
deities, on its northern and southern sides Greeks fighting with
Persians, and on its western side Greeks fighting with Greeks.
Before the east front was the altar of Athena Nike. The irregularly
shaped precinct around the temple was enclosed by a balustrade
about 3 ft a in. in height, decorated on the outside with beautiful
reliefs representing a number of winged Victories engaged in the
worship of Athena, The elaborate treatment of the drapery,
enveloping these female figures suggests an approach to the
mannerism of later times; this and other indications point to
the probability that the balustrade was added in the latter years
of the Peloponnesian War. The temple was still standing in
1676; some eight years later it was demolished by the Turks,
and its stones built into a bastion; on the removal of the bastion
in 1835 the temple was successfully reconstructed by Ross with
the employment of little new material. At either corner of the
Propylaea entrance were equestrian statues dedicated by the
Athenian knights; the bases with inscriptions have lately been
recovered. From the inner exit of the Propylaea a passage led
towards the east along the north side of the Parthenon; almost
directly facing the entrance was the colossal bronze statue of
Athena (afterwards called Athena Promachos) by Pheidias,
probably set up by Cimon in commemoration of the Persian
defeat The statue, which was 30 ft high, represented the god-
dess as fully armed; the gleam of her helmet and spear could be
seen by the mariners approaching from Cape Sunium (Pausanias
i. 28). On both sides of the passage were numerous statues,
among them that of Athena Hygeb, set up by Pericles to
commemorate the recovery of a favourite slave who was injured
during the building of the Parthenon, a colossal bronze image
of the wooden horse of Troy, and Myron's group of Marsyas with
Athena throwing away her flute. Another statue by Myron, the
famous Perseus, stood near the precinct of Artemis Brauronia.
In this sacred enclosure, which lay between the south-eastern
corner of the Propylaea and the wall of Cimon, no traces of a
temple have been found. Adjoining it to the east are the
remains of a large rectangular building, which was apparently
fronted by a colonnade; this has been identified with the
XaX*o04«i7, a storehouse of bronze implements and arms, which
was formerly supposed to lie against the north wall near the
Propylaea. Beyond the Parthenon, a little to the north-east,
was the great altar of Athena, and near it the statue and altar
of Zeus Polieus. With regard to the buildings on the cast end of
the Acropolis, where the present museums stand, no certainty
exists; among the many statues here were those of Xanthippus,
the father of Pericles, and of Anacreon. Immediately west of the
Erechtheum is the Pandroseum or temenos of Pandrosos, the
daughter of Cecrops, the excavation of which has revealed no
traces of the temple (va6$) seen here by Pausanias (i. 27). The
site of this precinct, in which the sacred olive tree of Athena
grew, has been almost certainly fixed by an inscription found in
the bastion of Odysseus. At its north-western extremity is a
platform of levelled rock which may have supported the altar of
Zeus Hypsistus. Farther west along the north wall of the Acro-
polis, is the space probably occupied by the abode and playground
of the Errephori. Between this precinct and the Propylaea were
a number of statues, among them the celebrated heifer of Myron,
and perhaps his Erechtheus; the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias.
and his effigy of his friend Pericles.
The reconstruction of the city after its demolition by the
Persians was not carried out on the lines of a definite plan like
that of the Peiraeus. The houses were hastily repaired, and the
838
ATHENS
(ANTIQUITIES
aitlw
narrow, crooked streets remained; the influence o! Themistocles,
who mimed at transferring the capital to the Pefraeus, was
llv cay probably directed against any costly scheme of restor-
ation, except on the Acropolis. The period of Cimon's
administration, however, especially the interval be-
tween his victory on the Eurymedon and his ostracism
(468-461 B.C.), was marked by great architectural activity in
the lower city as well as on the citadel. To his time may be
referred many of the buildings around the Agora (probably
rebuilt pn the former sites) and elsewhere, and the passage, or
ipitiot, from the Agora to the Dipylon flanked by long porticos.
The Theseum or temple of Theseus, which lay to the east of the
Agora near the Acropolis, was built by Cimon: here he deposited
the bones of the national hero which he brought from Scyros
about 470 B.C. The only building in the city which can with
certainty be assigned to the administration of Pericles is the
Odeum, beneath the southern declivity of the Acropolis, a
structure mainly of wood, said to have been built in imitation
of the tent of Xerxes: it was used for musical contests and the
though not established, may be regarded as practically certain,
notwithstanding the difficulty presented by the subjects of the
sculptures, which bear no relation to Hephaestus. The tempk
is a Doric peripteral hexastyle in antis, with xj oolumnn at the
sides; its length is 104 ft, it* breadth 45! ft, its height, to the
top of the pediment, 33 ft. The sculptures of the pediments
have been completely lost, but their design has been ingeniously
reconstructed by Sauer. The frieze of the entablature ron Ut a n
sculptures only in the metopes of the east front and in those
of the sides immediately adjoining it; the frontal metopes
represent the labours of Heracles, the lateral the exploits of
Theseus. As in the Parthenon, there is a sculptured sophoros
above the exterior of the cells walls; this, however, extends
aver the east and west front* only and the east ends of the
sides; the eastern sophoros represents a battle-scene wits
seated deities on either hand, the western a centaiirotnachia.
The temple is entirely of Pentelic marble, except the foundatiocs
and lowest step of the stylobate, which are of Peiraic stone, and
the sophoros of the cells, which is in Parian marble. The
rehearsal of plays. Of the various temples in which statues by
Pheidias, Alcamenes and other great sculptors are known to
have been placed, no traces have yet been discovered; excavation
has not been possible in a large portion of the lower city, which
has always been inhabited. The only extant structures of the
classical period are the Hephaesteum, the Dionysiac theatre,
and the choragic monument of Lysicrates. The remains of a
small Ionic temple which were standing by the Uissus in the
time of Stuart have disappeared.
The Hephaesteum, the so-called Theseum, is situated on a
slight eminence, probably the Colonus Agoraeus, to the west
ma* of the Agora. The best preserved Greek temple in
the world, it possesses no record of its origin; the
style of its sculptures and architecture leads to the
conclusion that it was built about the same time
Parthenon-, it seems to have been finished by 421
i.e. It has been known as the Theseum since the middle
ages, apparently because some of its sculptures represent the
exploits of Theseus, but the Theseum was an earlier sanctuary
on the east of the Agora (see above). The building has been
supposed by Curtius, Wachsmuth and others to be the Heraclcum
in Melite, but its identification with the temple of Hephaestus
and Athena seen in this neighbourhood by Pausanias (i. 14. 6),
preservation of the temple is due to its conversion into a church
in the middle ages.
The Dionysiac theatre, situated beneath the south side of the
Acropolis, was partly hollowed out from its declivity. The
representation of plays was perhaps transferred to
this spot from the early Orchestra in the Agora at the
beginning of the 5th century B.C.; it afterwards
superseded the Pnyx as the meeting-place of the
Ecclesia. The site, which had been accurately deter- "
mined by Leake, was explored by Strack in 186a, and the
researches subsequently undertaken by the Greek Archaeo-
logical Society were concluded in 1879. It was not, however,
till 1886 that traces of the original circular Greek orchestra were
pointed out by Ddrpfeld. The arrangements of the stage and
orchestra as we now see them belong to Roman times; the
cotea or auditorium dates from the administration of the orator
Lycurgus (337-323 B.C.), and nothing is left of the theatre xa
which the plays of Sophocles were acted save a few small remnants
of polygonal masonry. These, however, are sufficient to mark
out the circuit of the ancient orchestra, on which the subsequent!/
built proscenia encroached. The oldest stage-building was
erected in the time of Lycurgus; it consisted of a rectangular
hall with square projections («-apaax*>ia) on either side; id
ANTIQUITIES]
ATHENS
«39
front of this wis built in late Greek or early Roman timet a
stage with a row of columns which intruded upon the orchestra
apace, a later and larger stage, dating from the time of Nero,
advanced still farther into the orchestra, and this was finally
faced (probably in the 3rd century aj>.) by the " bema " of
Fhaedrus, a platform-wall decorated with earlier reliefs, the
slabs of which were cut down to suit their new position. The
remains of two temples of Dionysus have been found adjoining
the stoa of the theatre, and an altar of the same god adorned
with masks and festoons; the smaller and earlier temple probably
dates from the 6th century B.C., the larger from the end of the
5 th or the beginning of the 4th century.
Immediately west of the theatre of Dionysus is the sacred
precinct of Asdepius, which was excavated by the Archaeological
Society in 1876-1878. Here were discovered the foundations
of the celebrated Asdepieum, together with several inscriptions
and a great number of votive reliefs offered by grateful invalids
and valetudinarians to the god of healing. Many of the reliefs
belong to the best period of Greek art A Doric colonnade with
a double row of columns was found to have extended along the
base of the Acropolis for a distance of 54 yds.; behind it in a
chamber hewn in the rock is the sacred well mentioned by
Pausamas. The colonnade was a place of resort for the patients;
a large building close beneath the rock was probably the abode
of the priests.
The beautiful choraglc monument of Lysicrates, dedicated
in the archonship of Euaenetus (335-334 i.e.), is the only survivor
r^ of a number of such structures which stood in the
' Street of the Tripods " to the east of the Dionysiac
r theatre, bearing the tripods given to the successful
cboragi at the Dionysiac festival It owes its pre-
' servation to its former inclusion in a Capuchin convent.
The monument consists of a small circular temple of Pentelic
marble, 21) ft in height and 9 ft. in diameter, with six engaged
Corinthian columns and a sculptured frieze, standing on a rect-
angular base of Peiraic stone. The delicately carved convex
roof, composed of a single block, was surmounted by the tripod.
The spirited reliefs of the frieze represent the punishment
of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus and their transforma-
tion into dolphins. Another choragic monument was that of
Thrasyllus, which faced a cave in the Acropolis rock above the
Dionysiac theatre. A portion of another, that of Nidas, was
used to make the late Roman gate of the Acropolis. In one
of these monuments was the famous Satyr of Praxiteles.
The Cynosarges, from earliest times a sanctuary of Herades,
later a celebrated gymnasium and the school 01 Antbthenes
the Cynic; has hitherto been generally supposed to
have occupied the site of the Monastery of the Asomati
on the eastern slope of Lycabettus; its situation,
however, has been fixed by Dorpfeld at a point a little to the
south of the Oiympieum, on the left bank of the Ilissus. Here
a series of excavations, carried out by the British School in
1896-1897 under the direction of Cecil Smith, revealed the
foundations of an extensive Greek building, the outlines of which
correspond with those of a gymnasium; it possessed a large
bath or cistern, and was flanked on two sides by water-courses.
An Ionic capital found here possibly belonged to the palaestra*
The identification, however, cannot be regarded as certain in
the absence of inscriptions.
With the loss of political liberty the age of creative genius
in Athenian architecture came to a dose. The era of decadence,
n. of honorary statues and fulsome inscriptions, began.
The embellishments which the dty received during
the Hellenistic and Roman periods were no longer the
artistic expression of the religious and political life of
a great commonwealth; they were the tribute paid
to the intellectual renown of Athens by foreign potentates or
dilettanti, who desired to add their names to the list of its
illustrious dtixens and patrons. Among the first of these benefac-
tions was the great gymnasium of Ptolemy, built in the neigh-
bourhood of the Agora about a so B.C. Successive princes of
the dynasty of Pcrgamum interested themselves in the adorn-
nw&aw
ment of the dty: Attains I. set up a numoer of bronse statues 00
the Acropolis; Eumenes II. built the long portico west of the
Dionysiac theatre, which was excavated and identified in 1877;
Attalus II. erected the magnificent Stoa near the Agora, the re-
mains of which were completely laid bare in 1898-iooa and have
been identified by an inscription. The Stoa consisted of a series
of sx chambers, probably shops, faced by a double colonnade,
the outer columns being of the Doric order, the inner unfluted,
with lotus-leaf capitals; it possessed an upper storey fronted
with Ionic columns.
The greatest monument, however, of the Hellenistic period
is the colossal Oiympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, " unum
in terris inchoatum pro magnitudine dd" (Livy _ ..
xlL so), the remains of which stand by the Ilissus JEi;
to the south-east of the Acropolis. The foundations
of a temple were laid on the site— probably that of an andent
sanctuary— by Peisistratus, but the building in its ultimate
form was for the greater part constructed under the auspices
of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, king of Syria, by the Roman
architect Coasuttus in the interval between 174 b.c and 164 B.c,
the date of the death of Antiochus. The work was then suspended
and its proposed resumption in the time of Augustus seems not
to have been realised; finally, in a. d. 199, the temple was
completed and dedicated by Hadrian, who set up a chrys-
elephantine statue of Zeus in the cella. The substructure was
excavated in 1883 by F. C Penrose, who proved the correctness
of DBrpfeld's theory that the building was octostyle; its length
was 318 ft, its breadth 13s ft. With the exception of the
foundations and two lower steps of the stylobate, it was entirely
of Pentelic marble, and possessed 104 Corinthian columns,
56 ft. 7 in. in height, of which 48 stood in triple rows under the
pediments and 56 in double rows at the sides; of these, 16 re-
mained standing in 185s, when one was blown down by a storm.
Fragments of Doric columns and foundations were discovered,
probably intended for the temple begun by Peisistratus, the
orientation of which differed slightly from that of the later
structure. The peribolos, a large artificial platform supported
by a retaining wall of squared Peiraic blocks with buttresses,
was excavated in 1898 without important results; it is to be
hoped that the stability of the columns has not been affected
by the operations.
The Raman Period.— After 146 B.C. Athens and its territory
were induded in the Roman province of Achaea. Among the
earlier buildings of this period is the Horologhim n§Bmt
of Andronicus of Cyrrhus (the " Tower of the Winds"), *■*» «f
still standing near the eastern end of the Roman Agora. *•**■■*•
The building may belong to the and or 1st century B.C.; ****
it is mentioned by Varro (De re nut. iii. 5. 17), and therefore
cannot be of later date than 35 B.C. It is an octagonal marble
structure, 4a ft. in height and 26 ft in diameter; the eight sides,
which face the points of the compass, are furnished with a
frieze containing inartistic figures in relief representing the
winds; below it, on the sides facing the sun, are the lines of a
sun-dial The building was surmounted by a weathercock in the
form of a bronze Triton; it contained a water-dock to record the
time when the sun was not shining.
The capture and sack of Athens by Sulla (March 1, 86 B.C.)
seems to have involved no great injury to its architectural
monuments beyond the burning of the Odeum of «•*•»
Perides; a portion of the dty wall was raxed, the ma* o#
groves of the Academy and Lyceum were cut down, JJJ5J - **
and the Pdraeus, with its magnificent arsenal and otter **
great buildings, burnt to the ground. After this catastrophe
the benefactors of Athens were for the most part Romans; the
influence of Greek literature and art had begun to affect the
conquering race. The New, or Roman, Agora to the north of
the Acropolis, perhaps mainly an oil market, was constructed
after the year 27 b.c. Its dimensions were practically determined
by excavation in 1800-1891. It consisted of a large open rect-
angular space surrounded by an Ionic colonnade in to which opened
a number of shops or storehouses. The eastern gate was adorned
with four Ionic column* on the outside and two on the inside, the
Imgtoi
84O
western entrance being the well-known Doric portico of Athena
Archegetis with an inscription recording its erection from
donations of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The whole conclave
may be compared with the enclosed bazaars or khans of Oriental
cities which are usually locked at night. The Agrippeum, a
covered theatre, derived its name from Vipsanius Agrippa,
whose statue was set up, about 27 B.C., beneath the north wing
of the Acropolis propylaea, on the high rectangular base still
remaining. At the eastern end of the Acropolis a little circular
temple of white marble with a peristyle of Ionic columns
was dedicated to Rome and Augustus; its foundations were dis-
covered during the excavations of 1885-1888. The conspicuous
monument which crowns the Museum Hill was erected as the
mausoleum of Antiochus Philopappus of Commagene, grandson
of Antiochus Epiphanes, in a.d. 114-1x6. Excavations carried
out in 1808-1899 showed that the structure was nearly square;
the only portion remaining is the slightly curved front, with three
niches between Corinthian pilasters; in the central niche is
the statue of Philopappus.
The emperor Hadrian was the most lavish of all the benefactors
of Athens. Besides completing the gigantic Olympieum he
enlarged the circuit of the city walls to the east,
enclosing the area now covered by the royal and
public gardens and the Constitution Square. This was
the City of Hadrian (Hadrianapolis) or New Athens
(Novae Athenae), a handsome suburb with numerous
villas, baths and gardens; some traces remain of its walls,
which, like those of Themistodes, were fortified with rect-
angular towers. An ornamental entrance near the Olym-
pieum, the existing Arch of Hadrian, marked the boundary
between the new and t he old cities. The arch is surmounted by a
triple attic with Corinthian columns; the frieze above the key-
stone bears, on the north-western side, the inscription ott* eta'
'A&rjvai, Qr}<rion ^ Tplv iroXit, and on the south-eastern, ate" eta*
• AeptaroC xal obxl 6q<reut xiXit. One of the principal monuments
of Hadrian's munificence was the sumptuous library, in all
probability a vast rectangular enclosure, immediately north of
the New Agora, the eastern side of which was explored in 1885-
1886. A portion of its western front, adorned with monolith
unfluted Corinthian columns, is still standing— the familiar
" Stoa of Hadrian "; another well-preserved portion, with six
pilasters, runs parallel to the west side of Aeolus Street. The
interior consisted of a spacious court surrounded by a colonnade
of 100 columns, into which five chambers opened at the eastern
end. A portico of four fluted Corinthian columns on the western
aide formed the entrance to the quadrangle. This cloistered
edifice may be identified with the library of Hadrian mentioned
by Pausanias; the books were, perhaps, stored in a square
building which occupied a portion of the central area. Strikingly
similar in design and construction is a large quadrangular build-
ing, the foundations of which were discovered by the British
School near the presumed Cynosarges; this may perhaps be the
Gymnasium of Hadrian, which Pausanias tells us also possessed
too columns. A Pantheon and temples of Hera and Zeus
PanheUenius were likewise built by Hadrian; the aqueduct,
which he began, was completed by Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-
161) ; it was repaired in 1 861-1869 and is still in use.
The Stadium, in which the Panathenaic Games were held,
was first laid out by the orator Lycurgus about 330 B.C. It was
Thm an oblong structure filling a natural depression near
the left bank of the Uissus beneath the eastern de-
clivity of the Ardettus hill, the parallel sides and
semicircular end, or atfxrfiorj, around the arena being
partially excavated from the adjoining slopes. The
immense building, however, which was restored in
1896 and the following years, was that constructed in Pentelic
marble about aj>. 143 by Tiberius Claudius Herodes Atticus, a
wealthy Roman resident, whose benefactions to the dty rivalled
those of Hadrian. The scats, rising in tiers, as in a theatre,
accommodated about 44,000 spectators; the arena was 670 ft.
in length and 109 ft. in breadth. The Odeum, built beneath the
south-west slope of the Acropolis after a.o. 161 by Herodes
ATHENS imodeiln
Atticus in memory of his wife Regula, is comparatively »u
preserved; it was excavated in 1848 and in 1857-1858, Tbe
plan is that of the conventional Roman theatre; the st&j
circular auditorium, which seated some 5000 persons, is, ujc
that of the Dionysiac theatre, partly hollowed from the rock
The orchestra is paved with marble squares. The facade- :.-
Peiraic stone, displays three storeys of arched windows. T*
whole building was covered with a cedar roof. The Stad_-
had been already completed and the Odeum had not yet Ur:
built when Pausanias visited Athens; these buildings were tie
last important additions to the architectural monuments of iir
ancient dty (J- D- B )
IL The Mode&n City
At the conclusion of the Greek War of Independence, Aifcer.
was little more than a village of the Turkish type, the poti >
built houses dustering on the northern and eastern slopes •*
the Acropolis. The narrow crooked lanes of this quarter vU
contrast with the straight, regularly laid-out streets of the modrre
dty, which extends to the north-west, north and east of the
ancient dtadel. The greater commercial advantages offm-i
by Nauplia, Corinth and Patras were outweighed by the histo- .
daims of Athens in the choice of a capital for the newly fouo^
kingdom, and the seat of government was transferred hit:*?
from Nauplia in 1833/ The new town was, for the most p&r M
laid out by the German architect SchauberL It contains seven:
squares and boulevards, a large public garden, and many haci-
some public and private edifices. A great number of the puli:
institutions owe their origin to the munificence of patr^u:
Greeks, among whom Andreas Syngros and George A vexed but
be especially mentioned. The royal palace, designed by Friedr.cs
von Gartner (1792-1847)1 is * tastdess structure; attached to
it is a beautiful garden laid out by Queen Amelia, which contains
a well-preserved mosaic floor of the Roman period. On the
south-east is the newly built palace of the crown prince. The
Academy, from designs by Thcophil Hansen (18x3-1891), is con-
structed of Pentelic marble in the Ionic style: the colonnade)
and pediments are richly coloured and gilded, and may perhaps
convey some idea of the ancient style of decoration. Close by a
the university, with a colonnade adorned with pain tings, and
the Vallianean library with a handsome Doric portico of Peatcbi
marble. The observatory, which is connected with the xsi-
versity, stands on the summit of the Hill of the Nymphs; hit
the Academy, it was erected at the expense of a wealthy Gretk.
Baron Sina of Vienna. In the public garden is the Zeppricn 1
large building with a Corinthian portico, intended for the dbp'i)
of Greek industries; here also is a monument to Byron, crrCrj
in 1896. The Boule, or parliament-house, possesses a cons^c:-
able library. Other public buildings are the Polytechnic Insti:--.r
built by contributions from Greeks of Epirus, the theatre, lit
Arsakeion (a school for girls), the Varvakeion (a gymnasium
the military school (*xoX^ «kXsrlc<*»), and several hospitals a::
orphanages. The cathedral, a large, modern structure, is devu.
of architectural merit, but some of the smaller, ancknt. Byzas-
tine churches are singularly interesting and beautiful. Amcr j
private residences, the mansion built by Dr Schliemann, the
discoverer of Troy, is the most noteworthy; its decorations in
in the Pompeian style.
The museums of Athens have steadily grown in hnporunrt
with the progress of excavation. They are admirably arranged
and the remnants of ancient art which they contain
have fortunately escaped injudicious restoration. n "" 1
The National Museum, founded in 1866, is especially rich b
archaic sculptures and in sepulchral and votive reliefs. A cop*
of the Diadumenos of Polyditus from Ddos, and temple scrip-
tures from Epidaurus and the Argive Heraeum, ace among i\t
more notable of its recent acquisitions. It also possesses the
famous collection of prehistoric antiquities found by SchlicnMim
at Tiryns and Mycenae, other " Mycenaean " objects discovered
at Nauplia and in Attica, as well as the still earlier remain* ex-
cavated by Tsountas in the Cydades and by the British School
at Phylakopi in Mdos; terra-oottaa from Tanagra and Asii
noDERNi ATHENS
Ifinor; bronzes from Olympia, Delphi and efoewnere, and
mmerous painted vases, among them the unequalled white
ekylhi from Athens and Eretria. The Epigraphical Museum
ontains an immense number of inscriptions arranged by H. G.
Lolling and A. Wilhelm of the Austrian Institute. The Acropolis
Museum (opened 1878) possesses a singularly interesting collec-
ion of sculptures belonging to the " archaic " period of Greek
Lit, all found on the Acropolis; here, too, are some fragments
>f the pedimental statues of the Parthenon and several reliefs
rom its frieze, as well as the slabs from the balustrade of the
temple of Nike. The Polytechnic Institute contains a museum
>f interesting objects connected with modern Greek life and
history. In the Academy is a valuable collection of coins
superintended by Svoronos. Of the private collections those* of
Schliemann arid Karapanos are the most interesting: the latter
contains works of art and other objects from Dodona. There is
a small museum of antiquities at the Peiracus.
Owing to the numbers and activity of its institutions, both
native and foreign, for the prosecution of research and the
encouragement of classical studies, Athens has become
once more an international seat of learning. The
a££T Greek Archaeological Society, founded in 1837,
numbers some distinguished scholars among its
members, and displays great activity in the conduct of excava-
tions. Important researches at Epidaurus, EleusiS, Mycenae,
Amydae and Rhamnus may be numbered among its principal
undertakings, in addition to the complete exploration of the
Acropolis and a series of investigations in Athens and Attica.
The French £cole d'Athenes, founded in 1846, is under the
scientific direction of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-
lettres. Among its numerous enterprises have been the extensive
and costly excavations at Delos and Delphi, which have yielded
such remarkable results. The monuments of the Byzantine
epoch have latterly occupied a prominent place in its investiga-
tions. The German Archaeological Institute, founded in 1874,
has carried out excavations at Thebes, Lesbos, Paros, Athens and
elsewhere; it has also been associated in the great researches at
Olympia, Pergamum and Troy, and in many other important
undertakings. The British School, founded in 1886, has been
unable, owing to insufficient endowment, to work on similar Hues
with the French and German institutions; it has, however,
carried out extensive excavations at Megalopolis and in Melos,
as well as researches at Abae, in Athens (presumed site of the
Cynosarges), in Cyprus, at Naueratis and at Sparta. It has
also participated in the exploration of Cnossus and other im-
portant sites in Crete. The American School, founded in 1882, is
supported by the principal universities of the United States.
In addition to researches at Sicyon, Plataea, Eretria and else-
where, it has undertaken two works of capital importance — the
excavation of the Argive Heraeum and of ancient Corinth.
An Austrian Archaeological Institute was founded in 1898.
Notwithstanding certain disadvantages inherent in its situa-
tion, the trade and manufactures of Athens have considerably
increased in recent years. Industrial and commercial
Activity is mainly centred at the Peiracus, where
8 doth and cotton mills, 45 cognac distilleries, 14 steam
flour mills, 8 soap manufactories, 13 shipbuilding and
engineering works, chair manufactories, dye works, chemical
works, tanneries and a dynamite factory have been established.
The shipbuilding and engineering trades are active and advan-
cing. The export trade is, however, inconsiderable, as the
produce of the local industries is mainly absorbed by home
consumption. The principal exports arc wine, cognac and
marble from Pentelicus. As a place of import, the Peiraeus
surpasses Patras, Syra and all the other Greek maritime towns,
receiving about 53 % of all the merchandise brought into Greece.
The principal imports are coal, grain, manufactured articles and
artides of luxury. The total value of exports in 1004 was
£459.56$; of imports, £2,459,278. The number of ships entered
and cleared in 1905 was 5000 with a tonnage of 5-796,59°
tons, of which 4x6, with a tonnage of 609,822 tons, were
British.
84I
The Peiraeus, which had never revived since its destruction by
the Romans in 86 B.C., was at the beginning of the 19th century
a small fishing village known as Porto Leone. When
Athens became the capital in 1S33 the andent name of JS^ug,
its port was revived, and since that time piers and
quays have been constructed, and spacious squares and broad
regular streets have been laid out. The town now possesses an
exchange, a large theatre 1 , a gymnasium, a naval school, munidpal
buildings and several hospitals and charitable institutions erected
by private munificence. The harbour, in which ships of all nations
may be seen, as well as great numbers of the picturesque sailing
craft engaged in the coasting trade, is somewhat difficult of
access to larger vessels, but has been improved by the con-
struction of new breakwaters and dry docks. The port and
the capital are now connected by railway with Corinth and the
principal towns of the Morea; the line opening up communi-
cation with northern Greece and Thessaly, when its proposed
connexion with the Continental railway system has been effected,
will greatly enhance the importance of the Peiraeus, already one
of the most flourishing commercial towns in the Levant
The population of Athens has* rapidly increased. In 1834 it
was below 5000; in 1870 it was 44,5*°*, » 1870, 63,374; in
1889, 107,251 ; in 1896, 1 1 1,486. The Peiraeus, which m^^
in 1834 possessed only a few hundred inhabitants, uJtT*'
in 1879 possessed 21,618; in 1889,34,327; in 1896,
43,848. The total population of Athens in 1907 was 167,479
and of Peiraeus 67,982. (J. D. B.)
III. History
t. The Prehistoric Ptriod.—The history of primitive Athens
is involved in the same obscurity which enshrouds the early
development of most of the Greek city-states. The Homeric
poems scarcely mention Attica, and the legends, though numerous,
are rarely of direct historical value. In the Minoan epoch Athens
is proved by the archaeological remains to have been a petty
kingdom scarcely more important than many other Attic com-
munities, yet enjoying a more unbroken course of development
than the leading states of that period. This accords with the
cherished tradition which made the Athenians children of the
soil, and free from admixture with conquering tribes. Many
legends, however, and the later state organization, point to an
immigration of an " Ionian " aristocracy in late Mycenaean days.
These Ionian newcomers are almost certainly responsible for the
absorption of the numerous independent communities of Attica
into a central state of Athens under a powerful monarchy (see
Theseus), for the introduction of new cults, and for the division
of the people into four tribes whose names — Geleontes, Hopletes,
Argadcis and Aegicoreis — recur in several true Ionian towns.
This centralization of power (Synoecism), to which many Greek
peoples never attained, laid the first foundations of Athenian
greatness. But in other respects the new constitution tended to
arrest development. When the monarchy was supplanted in the
usual Greek fashion by a hereditary nobility — a process accom-
plished, according to tradition, between about 1000 and 683
b.c. — all power was appropriated by a privileged class of
Eupatridae (?.*.); the Geomori and Demiurgi, who formed
the bulk of the community, enjoyed no political rights. It was
to their control over the machinery of law that the Eupatridae
owed their predominance. The aristocratic council of the
Areopagus (q.v.) constituted the chief criminal court, and
nominated the magistrates, among whom the chief archon (q.v.)
passed judgment in family suits, controlled admission to the
genos or clan, and consequently the acquisition of the franchise.
This system was further supported by religious prescriptions
which the nobles retained as a corporate secret. Assisted no
doubt by their judicial control, the Eupatridae also tended to
become sole owners of the land, redudng the original freeholders
or tenants to the position of serfs. During this period Athens
seems to have made little use of her militia, commanded by the
polemarch, or of her navy, which was raised in spedal local
divisions known as Naucraries (see Nauckasy); hence no
military esprit de corps could arise to check the Eupatrid
842
ATHENS
[H1MUK1
ascendancy. Nor did the commons obtain relief through any
commercial or colonial enterprises such as those which alleviated
social distress in many other Greek states. The first attack upon
the aristocracy proceeded from a young noble named Cylon, who
endeavoured to become tyrant about 630 B.C. The people helped
to crush this movement; yet discontent must have been rife
among them, for in 621 the Eupatrids commissioned Draco (?.».)>
a junior magistrate, to draft and publish a code of criminal law.
This was a notable concession, by which the nobles lost that
exclusive legal knowledge which had formed one of their main
instruments of oppression.
a. The Rise of Athens. — A still greater danger grew out of the
widespread financial distress, which was steadily driving many
of the agricultural population into slavery and threatened the
entire state with ruin. After a protracted war with the neigh-
bouring Megarians had accentuated the crisis the Eupatridae
gave to one of their number, the celebrated Solon (?.?), free
power to remodel the whole state (594). By his economic
legislation Solon placed Athenian agriculture once more upon
a sound footing, and supplemented this source of wealth by
encouraging commercial enterprise, thus laying the foundation
of his country's material prosperity. His constitutional reforms
proved less successful, for, although he put into the hands of
the people various safeguards against oppression, he could not
ensure their use in practice. After a period of disorder and
party-feud among the nobles the new constitution was superseded
in fact, if not in form, by the autocratic rule of Peisistratus (q.v.) t
and his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. The age of despotism,
which lasted, with interruptions, from 560 to 510, was a period
of great prosperity for Athens. The rulers fostered agriculture,
stimulated commerce and industry (notably the famous Attic
ceramics), adorned the city with public works and temples,
and rendered it a centre of culture. Their vigorous foreign policy
first made Athens an Aegean power and secured connexions with
numerous mainland powers. Another result of the tyranny was the
weakening of the undue influence of the nobles and the creation
of a national Athenian spirit in place of the ancient clan-feeling.
The equalization of classes was already far advanced when
towards the end of the century a nobleman of the Alcmaeonid
family, named Cleisthenes (q.v.), who had taken the chief part
in the final expulsion of the tyrants, acquired ascendancy as
leader of the commons. The constitution which he promulgated
(508/7) gave expression to the change of political feeling by
providing a national basis of franchise and providing a new
state organization. By making effective the powers of the
Ecclesia (Popular Assembly) the Boulft (Council) and Heliaea,
Cleisthenes became the true founder of Athenian democracy.
; This revolution was accompanied by a conflict with Sparta
and other powers. But a spirit of harmony and energy now
breathed within the nation, and in the ensuing wars Athens
worsted powerful enemies like Thebes and Chalds (506). A
bolder stroke followed in 500, when a force was sent to support
the Ionians in revolt against Persia and took part in the sack
of Sardis. After the failure of this expedition the Athenians
apparently became absorbed in a prolonged struggle with Aegina
(q.v.). In 493 the imminent prospect of a Persian invasion
Drought into power men like Themistocles and Miltiades (qq.v.) t
to whose firmness and insight the Athenians largely owed, their
triumph in the great campaign of 400 against Persia. After a
second political reaction, the prospect of a second Persian war,
and the naval superiority of Aegina led to the assumption of a
bolder policy. In 483 Themistocles overcame the opposition of
Aristides (q.v.), and passed his famous measure providing for a
large increase of the Athenian fleet. In the great invasion of
480-479 the Athenians displayed an unflinching resolution which
could not be shaken even by the evacuation and destruction of
their native city. Though the traditional account of this war
exaggerates the services of Athens as compared with the other
champions of Greek independence, there can be no doubt that
the ultimate victory was chiefly due to the numbers and efficiency
of the Athenian fleet, and to the wise policy of her great statesman
Themistocles (see Salamts, Plataea).
3. Imperial Athens.— After the Persian retreat and thr
reoccupation of their dty the Athenians continued the war wit
unabated vigour. Led by Aristides and Cimon they rendrwd
such prominent service as to receive in retain the formal leader-
ship of the Greek allies and the presidency of the newly formec
Delian League. (q.v.). The ascendancy acquired in these yean
eventually raised Athens to the rank of an Imperial state. For
the moment it tended to impair the good relat ion s which hxi
subsisted between Athens and Sparta since the first days of tie
Persian peril. But so long as Cimon'* influence prevailed tin
ideal of " peace at home and the complete humiliation of Pena
was steadily unheld. Similarly the internal policy of Atfcen
continued to be shaped by the conservatives. The only ncu >
innovations since the days of Cleisthenes had been the redact..:
of the archonship to a routine magistracy appointed partly b.
lot (487), and the rise of the ten elective strategi (generals) u
chief executive officers (see Steatecus). But the triumph -■
the navy in 480 and the great expansion of commerce ar:
industry had definitely shifted the political centre of grari .
from the yeoman class of moderate democrats to the more ra&r_
party usually stigmatized as the "sailor rabble." Ths-.r
Themistocles soon lost his influence, his party eventually foe::
a new leader in Ephialtes and after the failure of Cimon's fort r
policy (see Cm on) triumphed over the conservatives. The jror
461 marks the reversal of Athenian policy at home and abrac.
By cancelling the political power of the Areopagus and ap-
plying the functions of the popular law-courts, Ephiaito
abolished the last checks upon the sovereignty of the commcu.
His successor, Pericles, who commonly ranked as the " complete
of the democracy," merely developed the full democracy so u
to secure its effectual as well as its theoretical supremacy. Tie
foreign policy of Athens was now directed towards an ahnos
reckless expansion (see Pericles). The unparalleled success r*
the Athenian arms at this period extended the bounds of emp*r?
to their farthest limits. Besides securing her Aegean possessk =a
and her commerce by the defeat of Corinth and Aegina. bo
last rivals on sea, Athens acquired an extensive doimiuoc ia
central Greece and for a time quite overshadowed the Spaxtaa
land-power. The rapid loss of the new conquests after 44*
proved that Athens lacked a sufficient land-army to deiea£
permanently so extensive a frontier. Under the guidance of
Pericles the Athenians renounced the unprofitable rivalry wits
Sparta and Persia, and devoted themselves to the consolidatios
and judicious extension of their maritime influence.
The years of the supremacy of Pericles (443-439) are on tbe
whole the most glorious in Athenian history. In actual extesi
of territory the empire had receded somewhat, but in point d
security and organization It now stood at its height. The Debit
confederacy lay completely under Athenian control, and 'If
points of strategic importance were largely held by derocbo
(q.v.; see also Pericles) and garrisons. Out of a citizen bod>
of over 50,000 freemen, reinforced by mercenaries and slaw a
superb fleet exceeding 300 sail and an army of 30,000 dr.*-:
soldiers could be mustered. The city itself, with its fortificat * :
extending to the port of Pciraeus, was impregnable to a !*ri
attack. The commerce of Athens extended from Egypt asi
Colchis to Etruria and Carthage, and her manufactures, whri
attracted skilled operatives from many lands, found a ready sac
all over the Mediterranean. With tolls, and the tribute of l4
Delian League, a fund of 9700 talents (£3,300,000) was amasrc
in the treasury.
Yet the material prosperity of Athens under Pericles *n
less notable than her brilliant attainments in every held c
culture. Her development since the Persian wars had bee:
extremely rapid, but did not reach its climax till the latter pan
of the century. No dty ever adorned herself with such an ana)
of temples, public buildings and works of art as the Athens of
Pericles and Pheidias. Her achievements in literature are hardly
less great. The Attic drama of the period produced many gnat
masterpieces, and the scientific thought of Europe in the depart-
ments of logic, ethics, rhetoric and history mainly owes its ©ripn
to a new movement of Greek thought which was largely fostered
HISTORY]
ATHENS
843
by the patronage of Pericles himself. Besides producing
numerous men of genius herself Athens attracted all the great
intellects of Greece. The brilliant summary of the historian
Thucydides in the famous Funeral Speech of Pericles (delivered
in 430), in which the social life, the institutions and the culture
of his country are set forth as a model, gives a substantially true
picture of Athens in its greatest days.
This brilliant epoch, however, was not without its darker side.
The payment for public service which Pericles had introduced
may have contributed to raise the general level of culture of the
citizens, but it created a dangerous precedent and incurred the
censure of notable Greek thinkers, Moreover, all this prosperity
was obtained at the expense of the confederates, whom Athens
exploited in a somewhat selfish and illiberal manner. In fact
it was the cry of " tyrant city " which went furthest to rouse
public opinion in Greece against Athens and to bring on the
Peloponnesian War (q.v.) which ruined the Athenian empire
(43 x-404). The issue of this conflict was determined less by any
intrinsic superiority on the part of her enemies than by the
blunders committed by a people unable to carry out a consistent
foreign policy on its own initiative, and served since Pericles
by none but selfish or short-sighted advisers. It speaks well for
the patriotic devotion and discipline of her commons that
Athens, weakened by plague and military disasters, should have
withstood for so long the blows of her numerous enemies from
without, and the damage inflicted by traitors within her walls
(see Antiphon, Theramenes).
4. The Fourth Century.— After the complete defeat of Athens
by land and sea, it was felt that her former services on behalf
of Greece and her high culture should exempt her from total
ruin. Though stripped of her empire, Athens obtained very
tolerable terms from her enemies. The democratic constitution,
which had been supplanted for a while by a government of
oligarchs, but was restored in 403 after the latter's misrule had
brought about their own downfall (see Critias, Theramenes,
Thrasybulus), henceforth stood unchallenged by the Greeks.
Indeed the spread of democracy elsewhere increased the prestige
of the Athenian administration, which had now reached a high
pitch of efficiency. Athenian art and literature in the 4th century
declined but slightly from their former standard; philosophy
and oratory reached a standard which was never again equalled
in antiquity and may still serve as a model In the wars of the
period Athens took a prominent part with a view to upholding
the balance of power, joining the Corinthian League in 395,
and assisting Thebes against Sparta after 378, Sparta against
Thebes after 369. Her generals and admirals, Conon , Iphicrates,
Chabrias, Timotheus, distinguished themselves by their military
skill, and partially recovered their country's predominance in
the Aegean, which found expression in the temporary renewal
of the Delian League {q.v.). By the middle of the century Athens
was again the leading power in Greece. When Philip of Macedon
began to grow formidable she seemed called upon once more
to champion the liberties of Greece. This ideal, when put
forward by the consummate eloquence of Demosthenes and
other orators, created great enthusiasm among the Athenians,
who at times displayed all their old vigour in opposing Philip,
notably in the decisive campaign of 338. But these outbursts
of energy were too spasmodic, and popular opinion repeatedly
veered back in favour of the peace-party. With her diminished
resources Athens could not indeed hope to cope with the great
Macedonian king; however much we may sympathize with the
generous ambition of the patriots, we must admit that in the
light of hard facts their conduct appears quixotic
5. The Hellenistic Period.— Philip and Alexander, who
sincerely admired Athenian culture and courted a zealous
co-operation against Persia, treated the conquered city with
marked favour. But the people would not resign themselves
to playing a secondary part, and watched for every opportunity
to revolt. The outbreak headed by Athens after Alexander's
death (323) led to a stubborn conflict with Macedonia. After
his victory the regent Antipatcr punished Athens by the loss of
her remaining dependencies, the proscription of her chief patriots,
and the disfranchisement of 12,006 citizens. The Macedonian
garrison which was henceforth stationed in Attic territory
prevented the city from taking a prominent part in the wars
of the Diadochi. Cassander placed Athens under the virtual
autocracy of Demetrius of Phalerum (317-307), and after the
temporary liberation by Demetrius Poliorcetes (306-300),
secured his interests through a dictator named Lachares, who
lost the place again to Poliorcetes after a siege (295). After a
vain attempt to expel the garrison in 287, the Athenians regained
their liberty while Macedonia was thrown into confusion by the
Celts, and in 279 rendered good service against the invaders
of the latter nation with a fleet off Thermopylae. When Anti-
gonus Gonatas threatened to restore Macedonian power in
Greece, the Athenians, supported perhaps by the king of Egypt,
formed a large defensive coalition; but in the ensuing " Chrem-
onidean War " (266-263) * naval defeat off Andros led to their
surrender and the imposition of a Macedonian garrison. The
latter was finally withdrawn in 229 by the good offices of Aratus
(q.v.). At this period Athens was altogether overshadowed
in material strength by the great Hellenistic monarchies and
even by the new republican leagues of Greece; but she could
still on occasion display great energy and patriotism. The
prestige of her past history had now perhaps attained its zenith.
Her democracy was respected by the Macedonian kings; the
rulers of Egypt, Syria, and especially of Pcrgamuxn, courted her
favour by handsome donations of edifices and works of art,
to which the citizens replied by unbecoming flattery, even to
the extent of creating new tribes named after their benefactors.
If Athens lost her supremacy in the fields of science and scholar-
ship to Alexandria, she became more than ever the home of
philosophy, while Menander and the other poets of the New
Comedy made Athenian life and manners known throughout the
civilized world.
6. Relations with the Roman Republic.— In 228 Athens
entered into friendly intercourse with Rome, in whose interest
she endured the desperate attacks of Philip V. of Macedonia
(200-109). In return for help against King Perseus she ac-
quired some new possessions, notably the great mart of Delos,
which became an Athenian clcruchy (166). By her treacherous
attack upon the frontier-town of Oropus (156) Athens indirectly
brought about the conflict between Rome and the Achaean
League which resulted in the eventual loss of Greek independence,
but remained herself a free town with rights secured by treaty.
In spite of the favours displayed by Rome, the more radical
section of the people began to chafe at the loss of their inter-
national importance. This discontent was skilfully fanned by
Mithradates the Great at the outset of his Roman campaigns.
His emissary, the philosopher Aristion, induced the people to
declare war against Rome and to place him in chief command.
The town with its port stood a long siege against^Sulla, but was
stormed in 86. The conqueror allowed his soldiers to loot, but
inflicted no permanent punishment upon the people. This
war left Athens poverty-stricken and stripped of her commerce:
her only importance now lay in the philosophical schools, which
were frequented by many young Romans of note (Cicero,
Atticus, Horace, &c). Greek became fashionable at Rome, and
a visit to Athens a sort of pilgrimage for educated Romans
(cf. Propertius iv. 21: "Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci
cogor Athenas "). In the great civil wars Athens sided with
Pompey and held out against Caesar's lieutenants, but received
a free pardon " in consideration of her great dead." Similarly
the triumvirs after Philippi condoned her enthusiasm for the
cause of Brutus. Antony repeatedly made Athens his bead-
quarters and granted her several new possessions, including
Eretria and Aegina— grants which Octavian subsequently
revoked.
7. The Roman Empire. — Under the new settlement Athens
remained a free and sovereign city— a boon which she repaid
by zealous Caesar-worship, for the favours bestowed upon her
tended to pauperize her citizens and to foster their besetting
sin of calculating flattery. Hadrian displayed his special
fondness for the city by raising new buildings and re''
844
ATHENS
IHISTORY
financial distress. He amended the constitution in some respects,
and instituted a new national festival, the Fanhellenica. In the
period of the Antonines the endowment of professors out of the
imperial treasury gave Athens a special status as a university
town. Her whole energies seem henceforth devoted to academic
pursuits; the military training of her youth was superseded
by courses in philosophy and rhetoric; the chief organs of
administration, the revived Areopagus and the senior Strategus,
became as it were an education office. Save for an incursion
by Goths in a.d. 267 and a temporary occupation by Alaric in
595, Athens spent the remaining centuries of the ancient world
in quiet prosperity. The rhetorical schools experienced a
brilliant revival under Constantine and his successors, when
Athens became the alma mater of many notable men, including
Julian, Libanius, Basil and Gregory of Nazianzus, and in her
professors owned the last representatives of a humane and
moralized paganism. The freedom of teaching was first curtailed
by Thcodosius I.; the edict of Justinian (529), forbidding the
study of philosophy, dealt the death-blow to ancient Athens.
The authorities for the history of ancient Athens will mostly be
found under Greece: History, and the various biographies. The
following books deal with special periods or subjects only.* — (1)
Early Athens: W. Wardc Fowler, The City- State, ch. vi. (London,
1893). (2) The fifth and fourth centuries: the "Constitution of Athens."
ascribed to Xenophon ; W. Oncken, A then und Hellas (Leipzig, 1865) ;
U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, A us Kydathen (Berlin, 1880);
L. Whibley, Political Parties at Athens (Cambridge, 1889) ; G. Gilbert,
Beitrage zur inneren Geschichte Athens (Leipzig, 1877); J. Beloch,
Die aUische Polilik sett Perikles (Leipzig. 1884). (3) The Hellenistic
and Roman periods: J. P. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought, from
?2j to 146 (London, 1887), chs. v., vi., xviL ; A. Holm, Creek History
Eng. trans., London, 1898), iv. chs. vi. and xxiii.; Wilamowitz-
MoellcndorfF, Antigonos von Karystos (Berlin, 1881), pp. 178-291;
VV. Capes, University Life in Ancient Athens (London, 1877); A.
Dumont, Essai sur I'Ephibie attique (Paris, 1875). (4) The Latin
rule: G. Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford ed., 1877), vol. iv. ch. vi.
(5) Constitutional History: The Aristotelian Constitution of
Athens"; U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und A then
(Berlin and Leipzig, 1893), v °l- "•'• G. Gilbert, Greek Constitutional
Antiquities (Eng. trans., London, 1895), pp. 95-453; A. H. T.
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History (Oxford, 1896),
ch. vi. ; J. W. Hcadlam. Election by Lot at Athens (Cambridge, 1891).
.(6) Finance and statistics: A. Boeckh, The Public Economy of the
Athenians (Eng. trans., London, 1828}; Ed. Meyer, Forschungen
tur alien Geschichte (Halle, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 140-195. (7) Inscrip-
tions: Corpus Inscriptionum A Iticarum, with supplements (Berlin,
1873-1895). (8) Coins: B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford,
1887), pp. 309-328. (M. O. B. C.)
8. Bytantine Period. — The city now sank into the position
of a provincial Byzantine town. Already it had been robbed
of many of its works of art, among them the Athena Promachos
and the Parthenos of Pheidias, for the adornment of Constanti-
nople, and further spoliation took place when the church of St
Sophia was built in a.d. 532. The Parthenon, the Erechtheum,
the " Thcseum " and other temples were converted into Christian
churches and were thus preserved throughout the middle ages.
The history of Athens for the next four centuries is almost a
blank; the city is rarely mentioned by the Byzantine chronicles
of this period. The emperor Constantine II. spent some months
here in a.d. 662-663. In 869 the see of Athens became an arch-
bishopric. In 095 Attica was ravaged by the Bulgarians under
their tsar Samuel, but Athens escaped; after the defeat of
Samuel at Bclasitza (1014) the emperor Basil II., who blinded
15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, came to Athens and celebrated
his triumph by a thanksgiving service in the Parthenon (1018).
From the Runic description on the marble lion of the Peiraeus it
has been inferred that Harold Hardraada and the Norsemen
in the service of the Byzantine emperors captured the Peiraeus
in 1040, but this conclusion is not accepted by Grcgorovius
(bk. i. pp. 170-172). Like the rest of Greece, Athens suffered
greatly from the rapacity of its Byzantine administrators. The
letters of Acominatus, archbishop of Athens, towards the close
of the 1 2th century, bewail the desolate condition of the city in
language resembling that of Jeremiah in regard to Jerusalem.
9. Period of Latin Rule: 1204-1458. — After the Latin con-
quest of Constantinople in 1204, Otho de la Roche was granted
the lordship of Athens by Boniface of Montferrat, king of Thessa-
lonica, with the title of Megaskyr (utya% icbpun - great lord) . Ha
nephew and successor, Guy I., obtained the title duke of Athens
from Louis IX, of France in 1258. On the death of Guy II ,
last duke of the house of la Roche, in 1308, the dochy pa^-d
to his cousin, Walter of Brienne. He was expelled in 131 x by
his Catalonian mercenaries; the mutineers bestowed the duchy
" of Athens and Neopatras " on their leader, Roger Deslaur. i~i
in the following year, on Frederick of Aragon, king of Sir.. ; .
The Sicilian kings ruled Athens by viceroys till 1385, when the
Florentine Nerio Acciajuoli, lord of Corinth, defeated t>=
Catalonians and seized the city. Nerio, who received the ti:'e
of duke from the king of Naples, founded a new dynasty. H -■
palace was in the Propylaea; the lofty " Tower of the FruL«
which adjoined the south wing of that building, was pos* ..;
built in his time. This interesting historical monument *^
demolished by the Greek authorities in 1874, notwithstancr^
the protests of Penrose, Freeman and other scholar*, l.s
Acciajuoli dynasty lasted till June 1458, when the Acropir.*
after a stubborn resistance was taken by the Turks under Oru.
the general of the sultan Mahommed II., who had occupied it
lower city in 1456. The sultan entered Athens in the folio*--*
month; he was greatly struck by its ancient monuments az:
treated its inhabitants with comparative leniency.
10. Period of Turkish Rule: 1458-1833.— Alter the Ttui&
conquest Athens disappeared from the eyes of Western d\i Lo-
tion. The principal interest of the following centuries lies 3
the researches of successive travellers, who may he said t»
have rediscovered the city, and in the fate of its ancient xdo% .-
ments, several of which were still in fair preservation at lk
beginning of this period. The Parthenon was transform
into a mosque; the existing minaret at its south-western corra
was built after 1466. The Propylaea served as the resafecce
of the Turkish commandant and the Erechtheum as his ham.
In 1466 the Venetians succeeded in occupying the city, b-.t
failed to take the Acropolis. About 1645 a powder mmg&nu
in the Propylaea was ignited by lightning and the upper porti »
of the structure was destroyed. Under Francesco Morale
the Venetians again attacked Athens in September 1687; 1
shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused 1
powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode, and the budi v
was rent asunder. After capturing the Acropolis the Veaetuss
employed material from its ancient edifices in repairing its w^.*
They withdrew in the following year, when the Turks set £r
to the city. The central sculptures of the western pediment cf
the Parthenon, which Morosini intended to take to Venice, »ci*
unskilfully detached by his workmen, and falling to the groL="
were broken to pieces. Several ancient monuments were m^
ficed to provide material for a new wall with which the Tu&
surrounded the city in 1778.
During the 18th century many works of art, which sHB re-
mained in situ, fell a prey to foreign collectors. The reran* s.
to London in 18 12 of most of the remaining sculptures of lH?
Parthenon by Lord Elgin possibly rescued many of them fits
injury in the period of warfare which followed. In 1821 ti*
Greek insurgents surprised the city, and in 1822 captured *>
Acropolis. Athens again fell into the hands of the Turks in 1 5 *
who bombarded and took the Acropolis in the following y;r
the Erechtheum suffered greatly, and the monument of Trra-
syllus was destroyed. The Turks remained in possession of •*».
Acropolis till 1833, when Athens was chosen as the capital «■:
the newly established kingdom of Greece; since that date !>.
history of the city forms part of that of modern Greece. ,' s »:
Greece: History, modern.)
General Bibliography.— W. M. Leake. Topography of AC -
and the Demi (2nd ed., London, 1841); C. Wachsmuth, Die s -
Aihen im A iter t hum (vol. i.. Leipzig, 1874; vol. ti. part i.. Lru.-.c
1890); E. Burnouf, La Ville el lacropoU d Athena aux diw
(poques (Paris, 1877); F. C. Penrose, Principles of Athenian A' • ■
lecture (London, 1888); J. E. Harrison. Mythology and Kf .- - :
of Ancient Athens (London, 1800); E. Curtius and A. Mil-M t
Stadtgeschichte von A then (Berlin, 1891): H. Hitrigand H. illume.
Pausanias (text and commentary; vol. i., Berlin, i&>6>; j <•
Frazer, Pausanias (translation and commentary: 6 voU.. L t** >\
1898. The commentary on Pausanias' description of AUic%
ATHENS— ATHERSTONE
845
contained in vol. u. with supplementary notes in vol. v., it an invalu-
able digest of recent researches) ; H. Omont, A (hints au XVII* siicle
(Paris, 1898, with plans and views of the town and acropolis and
drawing* of the sculptures of the Parthenon); J. H. Middleton and
E. A. Gardner, Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings (London,
1900); E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens (London, 1902); W. Iudcich.
"Topographic von Aiken (Munich, 1905; forming vol. in. part 11. second
half, in 3rd edition of I. von M (liter's Handbuch der Mass. Alter turns-
ictssenschafl). The history of excavations on the Acropolis is sum-
marised in M. L. d'Ooge, Acropolis of Athens (1909); see also
A. Bottichcr, Die Akropolis von Alhen (Berlin, 1888): O. Jahn,
Pausaniae descriptio arcis A thenar um (Bonn, 1900) ; A. Furtwiingler,
Masterpieces of Greeh Sculpture (appendix; London. 1R95); A.
Milchhofer. Vber die alien BurgheUigtumer in Alhen (Kiel, 1899).
For the Parthenon, A. Michaefis, Der Parthenon (texts and plates,
Leipzig, 1871); L. Magne, Le Parthenon (Paris, 1805); J. Durm,
Der Zusland der anliken athenischen Bauwcrken (Berlin, 1895);
F. C. Penrose in Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects for
1897; N. M. Balanos in *E*b«pif r*f ««0«A»4cr«tt (Athens.
August 25, 1898). For the Diony«iac theatre, A. E. Haigh, The
Attic Theatre (Oxford, 1889); VV. Dorpfcld and E. Pcisch, Das
griechische Theater (Athens, 1896); Puchstcin, Die gr\trh\\che Buhnc
(Berlin, 1901). For the " Tneseum," B. Sauer, Das sogenannte
Theseian (Leipzig, 1899). For the Pciraeus, E. I. Angelopoulos,
n«pi n«po«di «ol tA» Atjifewr rfrrt (Athens, 1898). For the
Attic Dcmcs, A. Milchhofer, Vntersuckungen tiier die Demenordnung
des Kletsthenes (in transactions of Berlin Academy, Berlin, 1895);
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencychptidie der class. Altertumswisiensckaft
(supplement, part i, article "Athenai"; Stuttgart, 1903). For
the controversies respecting the Agora, the Enncacrunus and the
topography of the town in general, see W. Dorpfcld, passim in
Atheniscke Miltheilungen; C. Wachsmuth, " Neue Bcitrage zur
Topographic von Athtn," in Abhandlungen der sachsischen GeselU
sckafl der WissenuhafUn (Leipzig, 1897). A. Milchhofer, " Zur
Topographic too Athen." in Berlin, philol. Wochensehrift (1900),
Nos. 9, ii, 12. For the Byzantine and medieval periods, William
Miller, Latins in the Levant (London. 1908); F. Cregorovius,
Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelaller (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889).
Periodical Literature. Mittkeilungen des hais. deutsch. arch. Instiluts
(Athens, from 1876); Bulletin jde correspondance hellenique (Athens,
from 1877); Papers of the American School (New York, 1882-1807);
Annual of the British School (London, from 1894); Journal of
Hellenic studies (London, from 1880); American Journal of Archae-
ology (New York, from 1885); Jakrbuth des hais. deutsch. arch.
Instiluts (Berlin, from 1886). The best maps are those in Die Karten
ton Atlika, published with explanatory text by the German Ar-
chaeological Institute (Berlin, 1881). Sec also Baedeker's Greece
(London, 1895); Murray's Greece and the Ionian Islands (London,
1900); Guide Joanne, vol. i. Athena et ses environs (Paris, 1896);
Meyer's Turhei und Griethenlander (5th ed.. 1901). (J- D. B.)
ATHENS, a city and the county -seat of Clarke county, Georgia,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 73 m. E. by N. of
Atlanta, Pop. (1890) 8639; (1900) 10,245, of whom 5100
were negroes and only 114 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
14,913. It is> served by the Georgia, the Central of Georgia, the
Southern, the Seaboard Air Line and the Gainesville Midland
railways. Athens is an important educational centre. It was
founded in 1801 as the seat oLthe university of Georgia, which
had been chartered in 1785. Franklin College, the academic
department of the university, was opened in 1 801 , and afterwards
the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (the School
of Science, 187 a), the State Normal School (co-educational, 1891),
the School of Pharmacy (1903), the University Summer School
(1003), the School of Forestry (1906), and the Georgia State
College of Agriculture (1906), also branches of the university,
were established at Athens, and what had been the Lumpkin
Law School (incorporated in 1859) became the law department
of the university in 1867. Branches of the university not in
Athens are: the North Georgia Agricultural College (established
in 1871 ; became a part of the university in 1872), at Dahloncga;
the medical department, at Augusta (1873; founded as the
Georgia Medical College in 1829); the Georgia School of Tech-
nology (1885), at Atlanta; the Georgia Normal and Industrial
College for Girls (1889), at Milledgeville; and the Georgia
Industrial College for Colored Youth (1800), near Savannah.
At Athens also are several secondary schools, and the Lucy Cobb
Institute (for girls), opened in 1858 and named in honour of a
daughter of its founder, Gen. T. R. R. Cobb (1823-1862). The
city has various manufactures, the most important being
fertilizers, cotton goods, and cotton-seed oil and cake; the value
of the total factory product in 1905 was $1,158,205, an increase
©f 709% in nvc years. Athens was chartered as a city in 1872.
ATHENS, a village and the county-seat of Athens county,
Ohio, U.S. A., in the township of Athens, on the Hocking river,
about 76 m. E.S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 2620; (1900)
3066; (1910) 5463; of the township (1910) 10,156. It
is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, the Toledo
& Ohio Central (Ohio Central Lines), and the Hocking Valley
railways. The village is built on rolling ground rising about
70 ft. above the river (which nearly encircles it), and commands
views of some of the most beautiful scenery in the state. There
are several ancient mounds in the vicinity. Athens is the seat
of Ohio University (co-educational), a state institution estab-
lished in 2804, and having in 1908 a college of liberal arts,
a state normal college (1902), a commercial college, a college
of music and a state preparatory school In 1908 the Univer-
sity had 53 instructors and 1386 students. South of the village,
and occupying a fine situation, is a state hospital for the insane.
In the vicinity there are many coal mines, and among the manu-
factures are bricks, furniture, veneered doors, and shirts. The
municipality operates the water-works. When the Ohio Com-
pany, through Manasseh Cutler, obtained from congress their
land in what is now Ohio, it was arranged that the income from
two townships was to be set aside " for the support of a literary
institution." In 1795 the townships (Athens and Alexander}
were located and surveyed, and in 1800 Rufus Putnam and two
other commissioners, appointed by the Territorial legislature,
laid out a town, which was also called Athens. Settlers slowly
came; the town became the county-seat in 1805, was incor-
porated as a village in 181 1, and was le-incorporated in 1828.
ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON (1813-1898), British
geologist, one of the pioneers in South African geology, was
born in 1813, in the district of Uitenhage, Cape Colony. ■ Having
qualified as M.D. he settled in early life as a medical practitioner
at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming F.R.C.S. In 1839
his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date he
" devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice "
to the pursuit of geological science. In 2857 he published an
account of the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described
more fully by R. Tate, Quart. Journal Geol. Soc. t 2867). lie also
obtained many fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and pre-
sented specimens to the British Museum. These were described
by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone's identification in 2867 as a
diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near the junction of the
Rict and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the establishment of the
great diamond industry of South Africa. He encouraged the
workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention to the
diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders
of the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in
1895; and for some years previously he was a member of the
Cape parliament. He died at Grahamstown, on the 26th of
June 1898.
Sec the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, Natural Science, vol. xiv.
(January 1899).
ATHERSTONE, a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary
division of Warwickshire, England, 102 J m. N.W. from London
by the London & North- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248.
It lies in the upper valley of the Anker, under well-wooded
hills to the west, and is on the Roman Watling Street, and the
Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St Mary is rebuilt,
excepting the central tower and part of the chancel. The chief
industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie
ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Mcrevalc, founded in 2249;
they include the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and
other remains exhibiting beautiful details of the 24th century.
Coal is worked at Baxtcrley, j m. west of Alherstone.
Atherstone (Aderestone, Edrtdestone, Edrit he stone), though not
mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient
origin, A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is
traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman
road have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is men-
tioned in DomcKlay among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the
widow of Leofric. In the reign of Henry 1 1 1, it passed to the monks
of Bee in Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual
fair at the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of
a market every Tuesday. This market became so much frequc'
8 4 6
ATHERTON— ATHLETIC SPORTS
Chat in 1319 • Coll was levied upon all goods coming into the town,
in order to defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated
by the constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all
goods passing over the bridge called Fcldenbrigge near Atherstone.
The September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In
the reign of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at
Atherstone by Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however,
never rose to much importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was
valued at 30 shillings and 3 pence only.
ATHERTON, or Chowbent, an urban district in the Leigh
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W.
of Manchester on the London & North- Western and Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1001) 16,2 1 1 . The cotton factories
are the principal source of industry; there are also ironworks
and collieries. The manor was held by the local family of
Atherton from John's reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage
to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his
eldest daughter and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, after-
wards the second Lord Lilford. Up to 1 891 the lord of the manor
held a court-leet and court-baron annually in November, but
in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local board the market
tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the courts have
lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton. Silk-
weaving, formerly an extensive industry, has now almost
entirely decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645.
James Wood, who became Nonconformist minister in the chapel
at Atherton in 1691, earned fame and the familiar title of
" General " by raising a force from his congregation, uncouth ly
armed, to fight against the troops of the Pretender (17 15).
ATHETOSIS (Gr. ofcrof, " without place "), the medical term
applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of
the hands and feet. The fingers are separately flexed, and
extended, abducted and adducted in an entirely irregular way.
The hands as a whole are also moved, and the arms, toes and feet
may be affected. The condition is usually due to some lesion of
the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and is especially common
in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so called), and is
then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is more
usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is
first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected:
but later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over
the limbs affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis
are first noticed. This never develops, however, where there is
no recovery of voluntary power. Its distribution is thus nearly
always hemiplegic, and it is often associated with more or less
mental impairment. The movements may or may not continue
during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than a moment
by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements.
The prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually con-
tinues unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally
occurs in slight cases, or even complete recovery.
ATHIAS, JOSEPH (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was
born in Spain and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the
Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667) are noted for beauty of execution
and the general correctness of the text. He also printed a
Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a year after the
appeara nce o f the edition by Uri Phoebus.
ATHLETE (Gr. MXip^; Lat. athleta), in Greek and Roman
antiquities, one who contended for a prize (dtfXor) in the games;
now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength.
Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian,
gymnastic, or any other competitions, the name became re-
stricted to the competitors in gymnastic contests, and, later,
to the class of professional athletes. Whereas in earlier times
competitors, who were often persons of good birth and position,
entered the lists for glory, without any idea of material gain,
the professional class, which arose as early as the 5th century
b.c, was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with whom the
better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up athletics
entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers, moralists
and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the pro-
fession of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to
the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment
of the Autolycus is well known. The training for the contetfs
was very rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance ,
this was prescribed by the aJeiples, whose duty it also was t?
anoint the athlete's body. At one time the principal fowl
consisted of fresh cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. After
wards meat was introduced, generally beef or pork; but thr
bread and meat were taken separately, the former at btcakf a»*
the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the quantity was unlimiini
and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights must have bcc.
if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous, is
addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra.
the athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, liin-*
weights, bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather &j<-k
filled with sand or flour, taming bulls, &c. Boxers had to practo*
delving the ground, to strengthen their upper limbs. The cucv
petitions open to athletes were running, leaping, throwing tfet
discus, wrestling, boxing and the pancratium, or combiru*., .3
of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last was the highest
achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only fox men at
extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, havir^
their bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the caestus, a strap c;
leather round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of met J
in the fist, which was sometimes employed with great barbari.v
An athlete could begin his career as a boy in the contests <<•,
apart for boys. He could appear again as a youth against te
equals, and though always unsuccessful, could go on compio^
till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred, it being assun* J
that after this period of life he could not improve. The nv -t
celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been ban- J
down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposlhcjics, Polydamas, PromachLs
and Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar form
athletes, appears to have still maintained its reputation to a:
least the time of Alexander the Great; for in the British Musrca
arc to be seen six prize vases carried off from the games at
Athens by natives of that district These vases, found in the
tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of day, and painted
on one side with a representation of the contest in which tber
were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas Atbrn
with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in son*
cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens,
from which the exact year can be determined.
Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt tafes
place from the earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 11)
professional Greek athletes were first introduced at Rome tn
M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186 B.C. After the institution of ibe
Actian games by Augustus, their popularity increased, until
they finally supplanted the gladiators. In the time of tfc*
empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each with*
temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profes&ioc
although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, «is
looked upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it a
a rare thing to find a Roman name amongst the athletes on in-
scriptions. The system was entirely, and the athletes themselves
nearly always, Greek. (See also Games, Classical)
Krausc, Gvmnastik unH Agonist ik der HeUtnen (1841): Frird&adrr.
SUUngesckichU Roths, ii. ; Reisch, in Pauly-Wiwowa, Ksalmcyc.
ATHLETIC SPORTS. Various sports, were cultivated mart
hundred years before the Christian era by the Egyptians x-4
several Asiatic races, from whom the early Greeks undoubted!?
adopted the elements of their athletic exercises (see Athlete 1 .
which reached their highest development in the Olympic gam?
and other periodical meetings of the kind (see Games, Classicai
The original Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain were an athlcir
race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic literature aboc- :
in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman conquest a
England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to ti*
joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the
quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and othe*
pastimes on green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeds
centuries are for the most part silent concerning the sports of
the folk, except such as were regarded as a training for war. as
archery, while they love to record the prowess of the kings and
ATHLETIC SPORTS
847
their courts. Thus it Is told of Henry V. that he M was so swift
a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow or other engine,
would take a wild buck in a large park." Several romances of
the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (Sports and Pastimes of Ike
People of Engloiuf), chronicle the fact that young men of good
family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of
the general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the
people, it is evident that they were indulged in very largely,
since several English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail,
and even prohibit, certain popular pastimes, on the ground that
they seduced the people from the practice of archery. Thus
Edward III. prohibited weight-putting by statute. Nevertheless
a variety of this exercise, " casting of the barre f " continued to
be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the favourite
sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it.
The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a
matter of history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of
general athletic revival. We even find his secretary, Richard
Pace, advising the sons of noblemen to practise their sports and
" leave study and learning to the children of meaner people,"
and Sir William Forest, in his Poesye of Princeetye Practice, thus
admonishes his high-born readers:—-
" In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence.
Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence
Stone, barre or plummett. or such other things-,
It not refusetb any prince or kynge."
Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on Athletics In the
Badminton series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas
Elyot, who wrote at about the same period, deprecated too much
study and flogging for schoolboys, saying: " A discrete master
may with as much or more ease both to himself and his scho'Ier
lead him to play at tennis or shoote." Elyot recommends the
perusal of Galen's De sanitate tuenda, and suggests as suitable
athletic exercises within doors " deambulations, labouryng with
poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy stone or
barre, playing at tennis," and dwells upon " rennyng " as a
" good exercise and laudable solace." It is probable that the
disciples of the " new learning," who had become prominent
in Sir Thomas's time, endeavoured to combat the influence of
athletic exercises, their point of view being exemplified by the
dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his Toxopkiius, declares that
" running, leaping and quoiting be too vile for scholars."
In the z6th century the great football match played annually
at Chester was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which
took place in the presence of the mayor. A list of the common
sports of that time is contained in some verses by Randel Holme,
a minstrel of the North country, and makes mention of throwing
the sledge, jumping, " wrestling," stool-ball (cricket), running,
pitching the bar, shooting, playing loggets, " nine holes or ten
pins," " football by the shinnes," leap-frog, morris, shove-groat,
leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many other outdoor
and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare and
the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which
formed an important feature in school life and at every fair.
The Stuart kings were warm encouragers of sport, the Basilikon
Doron of James I., written for his son, containing a recom-
mendation to the young prince to practise " running, leaping,
wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at the caitch, or tennise,
archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair and pleasant field
games."
An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great
Britain with high and low for the past five centuries, no other
country comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland
and Scotland lagged behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed,
so far as history and legend record, Ireland boasts of by far the
most ancient organized sports known, the Tailtln Games, or
Lugnasad, traditionally established by Lugaid of the Long Arm,
one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his foster-mother
Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries these
games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though
the almost constant wars which harried the country finally
destroyed their organization, yet the Irish have always been,
and still are, a very important factor in British athletics, as well
as in America and the colonies.
The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats
of strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the
character of whose country and mode of life have, however,
prevented organised athletics from attaining the same prominence
as in England. Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games
held at Braemar, Bridge of Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places
have served to bring into prominence many athletes of the first
class, although the records, on account of the roughness of the
grounds, have not generally vied with those made farther south.
The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his
.native soil, and the development of athletics in the United
States and the British colonies has kept step with that of the
mother-land. Upon the continent of Europe sports have
occupied a more or less prominent place in the life of the nations,
but their development has been but an echo of that in Great
Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the
institution of the modern Olympic games.
About the year 181 a the Royal Military College at Sandhurst
inaugurated regular athletic sports, but the example was not
followed until about 1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrews-
bury and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich came to
the front, the " Crick Run " at Rugby having been started in
1837. At the two great English universities there were no
organised sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College,
Oxford, held a meeting; this example has been followed, one '
after the other, by the other colleges of both institutions. The
first contest between Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford
in 1864, the programme consisting of eight events, of which four
were won by each side. The same year saw the first contest of
the Civil Servants, still an annual event.
In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for
" gentlemen amateurs," most of its members being old university
men. Its first championship meeting, held in that year, was the
beginning of a series afterwards continued to the present day by
the Amateur Athletic Association, founded in 1880, which has
jurisdiction over British athletic sports. The most important
individual English athletic organization is the London Athletic
Club, which antedated the Amateur Athletic Club, and whose
meetings have always been the most important events except
the championships.
In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place
about the year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National
Association of Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888,
became the Amateur Athletic Union. This body controls
athletics throughout the United States, and is allied with the
Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in
matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings,
and has control over the following branches of sport: basket-
ball, billiards, boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur
Fencers' League of America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives),
running, jumping, walking, weight-putting (hammer, shot,
discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse, pole-vaulting, swimming,
tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic Union has
eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate
Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and
the Western Intercollegiate Association. The* first American
intercollegiate athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873,
only three universities competing, though the next year there
were eight and in 187 5 thirteen. Professional athletes in America
are confined almost entirely to base-ball, boxing, bicycling,
wrestling and physical training.
The Canadian athletic championships are held independently
of the American. Annual championship meetings are also held
in South Africa, New Zealand and the different states of Australia.
For the Australasian championships New Zealand joins with
Australia.
The organization of university sports in America differs from
that at Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control
on the part of the university authorities, and where a man is
eligible to represent his college or university while in residence
848
ATHLETIC SPORTS
In nearly all American universities and colleges athletic and other
sports are under the general control of faculty committees, to
which the undergraduate athletic committees are subordinate,
and which have the power to forbid the participation of any
student who has not attained a certain standard of scholarship.
For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American university
was allowed to represent his university in any sport for longer
than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the
most important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton
and Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only
students who have been in residence one year should play in
'varsity teams in any branch of athletics and that no student
should play longer than three years. This, together with many,
other reformatory changes, was directly due to a widespread
outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in
American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too
evident desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of
the training equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many
of the large institutions— the Yale Athletic Association held a
surplus of about $100,000 (£20,000) in December 1005, after
deducting immense amounts for expenses. The new rule against
the participation of freshmen in 'varsity sports was to discourage
the practice of offering material advantages of different kinds to
promising athletes, generally those at preparatory schools, to
induce them to become students at certain universities.
At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to
consist of those events recognized in the championship, pro-
grammes of the different countries. Those in the competitions
between Oxford and Cambridge are the 100 yards, 440 yards,
880 yards, i-mile and 3 -mile runs; im yards hurdle-race;
high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the
weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the
4-mile and 10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races;
the 2-mile steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American
intercollegiate programme is identical with that of the Oxford-
Cambridge meeting, except that a 2-mile run takes the place of
the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added. The American A.A.U.
programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440 yards, 880
yards, i-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race;
220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throw-
ing the hammer; throwing 56-lb weight; putting 16-tb shot;
throwing the discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running
contests are called " track athletics," and the rest " field "
events.
International athletic contests of any importance have, with
the exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken
place between Britons, Americans and Canadians, the conti-
nental European countries having as yet produced few track or
field athletes of the first class, although the interest in sports
in general has greatly increased in Europe during the last ten
years. In 2844 George Seward, an American professional runner,
visited England and competed with success against the best
athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called " Deerfoot," a
full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward's triumphs.establish-
ing running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian,
C. C. Mclvor, champion sprinter of America, went to England,
but failed to beat his British professional rivals. In 1881
L. E. Myers of New York and E. E. Merrill of Boston competed
successfully in England, Myers winning every short-distance
championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the walking
championships save the 7 -miles. The same year W. C. Da vies
of England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like
several other British runners who have had success in America,
be competed under the colours of an American club. In 1 88 2 the
famous English runner, W. G. George, ran against Myers in
America in races of 1 mile, i mile and § mile, winning over the
first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went to England and
made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000 yards,
and world's records over i mile and 1 200 yards. The next year
he won both the British i-mile and i-mile championships. The
same year a team of Irish athletes, among them W. J. M. Barry,
won several Canadian championships. In s888 a team of the
Manhattan Athletic Club, New York, competed In England with
fair success, and during the same season an Irish team fran
the Gaelic Athletic Association visited America without im..*i
success. In 1 800 a team from the Salford Harriers was invi u A . to
America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the cvidcr • v
commercial character of the enterprise caused its failure. Or*
of the Harriers, E. W. Parry, won the American steepltchi*
championship. The next year saw another visit to Eurcr,
of the Manhattan athletes, who had fair success in England ar *
won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London Athletic ('.-.'•
team competed in New York against the New York Ath). .
Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new recoV;
being established. During the previous summer (1 804) occur? . c
the first of the international matches between British rr.d
American universities which still retain their place as the cv <t
interesting athletic event. In that contest, which took place 11
Queen's Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by 5$ to 3I errxiv
The next summer Cambridge, as the champion English univerv.t \ .
visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In 1890 bc:i>.
British universities competed at Queen's Club against the crtr-
bined athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the <v* i
event. The return match took place between the same uni-
versities at New York in the summer of 1901, the Ameriri-i
winning 6 to 3 events. In 1004 Harvard and Yale beat Oxkri
and Cambridge at Queen's Club by the same score.
Outside Great Britain and America the most importart
athletic events are undoubtedly the revived Olympic gaxm
They were instituted by delegates from the different nations who
met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894, principally at the insturv
tion of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result being the formation
of an International Olympic Games Committee with Baron de
Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be he'd
every fourth year in a different country. The first moderr
Olympiad took place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1806, in tte
ancient stadium, which was rebuilt through the liberality of 1
Greek merchant and seated about 45,000 people. The programme
of events included the usual field and track sports, gymnastk*.
wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis, fencing, rifle and revolver
shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the Marathon race art
bicycle racing. Among the contestants were representatives u
nearly every European nation, besides Americansand Australians.
Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion and wis
inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men
from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, thongs
none of them held American championships, succeeded ta
winning every event for which they were entered. The Marathoo
race of 42 kilometres (26 miles), commemorative of the fame js
run of the Greek messenger to Athens with the news of the
victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The secr»r.d
Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Bnu e
was poorly represented, but American athletes won eighierc
of the twenty-four championship events. The third Olympic
was held at St Louis in the summer of 1904 in connexion *iti
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, its success being due ic
great measure to James E. Sullivan, the physical director of t>*
Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the president of the Amenc 1-
Olympic Games Committee. The games were much nwr
numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports ot
all kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests icr
aborigines. In the track and field competitions the Americas
athletes won every championship except wetght-throwirt
(56 lb) and lifting the bar. The sports of the savages, imcri
whom were American Indians, Africans of several tribes. Moru*
Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were disappoint u-z .
their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow atv
arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to I*
feeble compared with those of white races. The American^ 4
Indians made the best showing.
The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with iSr
cosmopolitan character of the revival of these celebrated gan.ts
of their ancestors, and resolved to give the revival a nx>re
definitely Hellenic stamp by intercalating an additional s
ATHLONE— ATHOLL
849
to take place at Athens, in the middle of the quadrennial period.
Their action was justified by the success which attended the
first of this additional series at Athens in 1006. This success
may have been partly due to the personal interest taken in the
games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the presence
of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and
princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned
it was generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in
America bad the games acquired the same prestige as those
held on the classical soil of Greece. In 1906 the governments
of Germany, France and the United States made considerable
grants of money to defray the expenses of the competitors
from those countries. These games aroused much more interest
in England than the earlier ones in the scries, but though upwards-
of fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were
by no means representative in all cases of the best British
athletics. The American representatives were slightly less
numerous, but they were more successful. It was noteworthy
that no British or Americans took part in the rowing races in the
Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or shooting com-
petitions. The Marathon race, by far the most important
event in the games, was won in 1006 by a British athlete,
M . D. Sherring, a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total
of 75 prizes, the British 39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28.
The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London
in connexion with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year.
An immense sensation was caused by the finish for the Marathon
race from Windsor Castle to the stadium in the Exhibition
grounds in London. The first competitor to arrive was the
Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical collapse
was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to
be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was there-
fore disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the
winner; a special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen
Alexandra. In the whole series of contests the United Kingdom
made 38 wins, the Americans 22, and the Swedes 7. In the
Olympic games proper, British athletes, including two wins by
colonials from Canada and Africa, scored as successes, and the
Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the British,
including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the
latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which
they won 9, while British competitors secured only two of minor
importance.
For records, Ac, see the annual Sporting and Athletic Register; for
the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook's volume, published
in connexion with the Olympiad of 1908.
ATHLONE, a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on
both banks of the Shannon. Fop. of urban district (1001)
66x7. The urban district, under the Local Government (Ireland)
Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath, but the same area is
divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary divisions of
South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m.
W. from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and
is also served by a branch from Portarlington of the Great
Southern & Western line, providing an alternative and some-
what longer route from the capital. The main line of the
former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch
N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon
divides the town into two portions, known as the Leinster side
(east), and the Connaught side (west), which are connected by a
handsome bridge opened in 1844. There is a swivel railway
bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this point are obviated
by means of a lock communication with a basin, which renders
the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The
steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the
river, and some trade by water is carried on with Limerick,
and with Dublin by the river and the Grand and Royal canals.
Athlone is an important agricultural centre, and there are
woollen factories. The salmon fishing both provides sport and
is a source of commercial wealth. There are two parish churches,
St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th century,
of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of earlier
11 15
date. There are thsec Romas Catholic chapels, a court-house
and other public offices. Early remains include portions of thti
castle, of the town walls ^576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a
Franciscan foundation. On several islands Of the picturesque
Lough Ree, to the north, are ecclesiastical and other remains.
The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection
of the castle and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey,
bishop of Norwich and justiciar of Ireland, in mo. It became
the seat of Che presidency of Connaught under Elizabeth, and
withstood a siege by the insurgents in 1641. In the war of
1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the greatest
importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first
by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by
General Godart van. Ginkel (q.v.), who, on the 30th of June
1691 , in the face of the Irish, forded the river and took possession
of the town, with the loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was sub-
sequently created earl of Athlone, and his descendants held the
title till it became extinct in 1844. In 1797 the town was
strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works covering
15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an
armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men.
The works are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by
James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament,
and one member to the imperial parliament till 1885.
ATHOL, a township of Worcester county, northern Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061,
of whom 986 were foreign-born;. '(19x0 U.S. census) 8536.
Its surface is irregular and hilly. The village of Athol is on
Miller's river, and is served by the Boston & Albany and the
Boston & Maine railways. The streams of the township furnish
good water-power, and manufactures of varied character are
its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was
incorporated as a township in 176a. It was named by its.
largest landowner CoL James Murray, after the ancestral home
of the Murrays, dukes of Atholl.
See L. B. Caswell, Atkoi, Mass., Post and Present (Athol, 1899).
ATHOLU FARU AND DUKES OF. The Stewart line of the
Scottish earls of Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl
in 1595, the earldom reverting to the crown, had originated
with Sir John Stewart of Balveny (d. 1512), who was created
earl of Atholl about M57 (new charter 1481). The 5th earl's
daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of Tulli*
bardine (cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour
of Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom
of Atholl in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus
passed to the Murray line, and John Murray, their only son
(d. 1643), was accordingly acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the
ist of, the Murrays) in 1629.
John Stewart, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. z 579),
son of John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray,
succeeded his father in i$4*. He supported the government
of the queen dowager, and in 1560 was one of the three nobles
who voted in parliament against the Reformation and the
Confession of Faith, -and declared their adherence to Roman
Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the league
against HUntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated
at Corrichie in October 156a, and he supported the projected
marriage of Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from
France In 1561 he was appointed one of the twelve privy coun-
cillors, and on account of his religion obtained a greater share
of the queen's favour than either Murray or Maitland. He was
one of the principal supporters of the marriage with Darnley,
became the leader of the, Roman Catholic nobles, and with
Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully
protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray's attempts to regain
his ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly
attended mass in the queen's chapel, and was especially trusted
by Mary in her project of reinsuring Roman Catholicism. The
fortress of Tantallon was placed in his keeping, and in 1565 he
was made lieutenant of the north of Scotland. He is described
the same year by the French ambassador as " tres grand catho-
lique hard! et vaillant et remuant, comma Ton diet, ir
85°
ATHOLL
jugement et experience." He had no share in the murders of
Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined
the Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders
against her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her im-
prisonment at Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the
coronation of James, and was included in the council of regency
on Mary's abdication. He, however, was not present at Langside
in May 1 568, and in July became once more a supporter of Mary,
voting for her divorce from Bothwell (1569). In March 1570 he
signed with other lords the joint letter to Elizabeth asking for
the queen's intercession and supporting Mary's claims, and was
present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in opposi-
tion to the assembly of the king's party at Edinburgh. In 1 574
he was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened
with excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with
the ministers and being allowed till midsummer to overcome
his scruples. He had failed in 1 57 3 to prevent Morton's appoint-
ment to the regency, but in 1578 he succeeded with the earl of
Argyll in driving him from office. On the 24th of March James
took the government into his own hands and dissolved the
regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton,
were made members of the council, while on the 39th Atholl
was appointed lord chancellor. Subsequently, on the 34th of
May, Morton succeeded in getting into Stirling Castle and in
regaining his guardianship of James. Atholl and Argyll, who
were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of assistance from
that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of 7000 men,
when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all
Included in the government While on his way from a banquet
held on the 30th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconcilia-
tion, Atholl was seised with sudden illness, and died on the 35th,
not without strong suspicions of poison. He was buried at St
Giles's cathedral in Edinburgh. He married (i> Elizabeth,
daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly, by whom he had
two daughters, and (3) Margaret, daughter of Malcolm Fleming,
3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he had
John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom
in default of male heirs reverted to the crown.
John Muvxay, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above),
died in 1643. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the
men of Atholl for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess
of Argyll in Stirling Castle in 164a
John Muuat, snd earl and xst marquess of Atholl (1631-1703),
son of the 1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell
of Glenorchy, was born on the and of May 1631. In 1650 he
joined in the unsuccessful attempt to liberate Charles II. from
the Covenanters, and in 1653 was the chief supporter of Glen-
cairn's rising, but was obliged to surrender with his two regiments
to Monk on the and of September. 1654. At the restoration
Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff of
Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a commis-
sioner for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670
colonel of the king's horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the
exchequer, and in 1673 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and
an extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of
Tullibardine by the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on
the 7th of February 1676 he was created marquess of Atholl,
earl of Tullibardine, viscount of Balqohidder, Lord Murray,
Bal venie and Gask. He at first zealously supported Lauderdale's
tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678, called the " Highland
Host," in which Atholl was one of the chief leaders, he joined
in the remonstrance to the king concerning the severities inflicted
upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his office of justice-
general and passed over for the chancellorship in 168 1. In 1679,
however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig; in July
x68o he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 168 1 president
of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of
Argyll, and invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll
after his return from abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The
excessive severities with which he was charged in this campaign
were repudiated with some success by him after the Revolution. 1
1 A. Lang, HUU 0/ Scotland, iii. 407.
The same year he was reappointed lord privy teal, and in 1687
was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the order.
At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, show—
no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but final!) 12
April 1689 wrote to William to declare his allegiance-, and in Mjy
took part in the proclamation of William and Mary as king a=d
queen at Edinburgh. But on the occasion of Dundee's insarm •
tion he retired to Bath to drink the waters, while the balk of t*s
followers joined Dundee and brought about in great meaatsR
the defeat of the government troops at Kilhecrankie. He »m
then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned dun*
August. In 1600 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot &?c
subsequently in further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1601 he
received a pardon, and acted later for the government in the
pacification of the Highlands. He died on the 6th of May 1 ;cj
He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley, 7th earl of DerL t
(through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the sover-
eignty of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter. s_i
sons, of whom John became and marquess and 1st duke of AtbcC
Charles was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married
Margaret, daughter of Sir Robert Nairne, xst Lord Kairnt,
becoming in her right and Lord Nairne.
JOHNMuaiAY,3nd marquess and rstdukeof Atholl ( 1 660-1 724V
was bom on the 34th of February 1660, and was styled durizr
his father's lifetime Lord Murray, till 1606, when he was created
earl of Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the
Revolution in 1688, taking the oaths in September 1680, but wz*
unable to prevent the majority of ms dan, during his father a
absence, from joining Dundee under the command of his brother
James. In 1693 as one of the commissioners he snowed great
energy in the examination into the massacre of Glencoe and in
bringing the crime home to its authors. In 1604 he obtained a
regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696 secretary
of state, and from 1696 to 1608 was high commissioner. In the
latter year, however, he threw up office and went into oppositioa.
At the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and ji
1703 lord privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded
his father as and marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June at
was created duke of Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of
Strathtay and Strathardle, Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmoad
and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie and Gask. In 1734
he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1 704 an unsnecej*-
ful attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke
of Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite ptct
against Queen Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert
Ferguson, and Atholl sent a memorial to the queen on tbe
subject, which resulted in Queensberry's downfall. But he trli
nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of office in October
1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the govern-
ment, and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed
the Union during the years x 705-1 707, and entered into a project
for resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the Li
of the Cameronianst but nevertheless did not refuse a compensa-
tion of £1000. According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 orf
the best men in the kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion,
however, of the invasion of 1708 he took no part, on the score U
illness, and was placed under arrest at Blair Castle. On the
downfall of the Whigs and the advent of the Tories to power,
Atholl returned to office, was chosen a representative peer m
the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 17x3 was an extraordinary lord
of session, from 17x3 to 1714 was once more keeper of the privy
seal, and from 1713 to 17 14. was high commissioner. On the
accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at
the rebellion of 17x5, while three of his sons joined the Jacob: k*,
he remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted ia
various ways, on the 4th of June 17x7 apprehending Robert
Macgregor (Rob Roy), who, however, succeeded in escapare.
He died on the 14th of November 1734. He raamed u>
Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of Hamilton.
by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John
was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of
Tullibardine. and James succeeded his father as and duke oa
ATHOLL— ATHOS
851
mccDunt of the share taken by his elder brother in the rebellion;
and (2) Mary, daughter of William, Lord Rosa, by whom he had
three sons and several daughters.
The Atholl Chronicles have been privately printed by the 7th duke
of Atholl (b. 1840). See alsc-S. Cowan. Three Celtic Earldoms (1009)-
ATHOLL, or Atholb, a district in the north of Perthshire,
Scotland, covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It js bounded
on the N. by Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by
Forfarshire, on the S. by Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W.
by Lochaber. The Highland railway bisects it diagonally from
Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shins. It is traversed by
the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel,
Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Carry and Glen
Tilt are the chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel
the principal lakes. The population mainly centres around
Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair AtholL The only cultivable soil
occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but the deer-forest and
the shootings on moor and mountain axe among the most
extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla
(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was
under the rule- of a Celtic mormaer (thane or earl) until the
union of the Pfcts and Scots under Kenneth Macaipme in 843.
The duke of Atholl's seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House.
What is called Atholl brose is a compound, in equal parts, of
whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was fiat commonly used
in the district for hoarseness and sore throat
ATHOS (Gr. "Ayiov "Opos; Turk. Aineros; ItaL UonU Santo),
the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which
extend, like the prongs of a trident, southwards from the
coast of Macedonia (European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea.
Before the 19th century the name Athos was usually confined
to the terminal peak of the promontory, which was itself known
by its ancient name, Acte. The peak rises like a pyramid, with
a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft., and can
be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the
slopes of Olympus on the west. Ob the isthmus are distinct
traces of the canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece
in 480 B.C. The peninnua is remarkable for the beauty of its
scenery, and derives a peculiar interest from its unique group of
monastic communities with their medieval customs and institu-
tions, their treasures of Byzantine art and rich collections of
documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with a breadth varying
from 4 to 7 m. ; its whole area belongs to the various monasteries.
It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and
Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus
few traces remain-, some inscriptions discovered on the sites
were published by W. M. Leake (Travels •» N Greece, 183s*
Hi. 140) and Kinch. The legends of the monks attribute the
first religious settlements to the age of ConsUntine (274-337),
but the hermitages are first mentioned in historical documents
of the oth century. It is conjectured that the mountain was at
an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers were
increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions (726-
842) The M coenobian M rule to which many of the monasteries
still adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the
great monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved
by the emperor Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and
female mw— ■» were excluded from the holy mountain. In
1060 the community was withdrawn from the authority of the
patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic was
practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the
Latins m 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks,
this reminded them of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them
to appeal for protection to Pope Innocent III., who gave them
a favourable reply Under the Palaeologi (1*60-1453) they
recovered then- prosperity, and were enriched by gifts from
various sources. In the 14th century the peninsula became the
chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the monasteries
were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the
mystical Hesychasts
Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks
after the capture of Salonica (4430), their privileges were respected
by successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish govern-
ment, which is represented by a resident kaimokam, and the
community is allowed to maintain a small police force. Under
the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general
affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly
(*foo|is) of twenty members, one from each monastery; a
committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled epistatae
(fcrurara), forms the executive. The president of the committee
(6 rpCnot) is also the president of the assembly, which holds its
sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of government since
the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all belong
to the order of St Basil, are: Laura (4 AaOpa), founded in 063;
Vatopedi (BaroirMtov), said to have been founded by the
emperor Theodosius; Rossikon (Tuwurip), the Russian
monastery of St Pantelehnon; Quuandari (XiXiarrApM>r:
supposed to be derived from xIXim ta&pes orxtXca AcoKropia),
founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1150-1195);
Iveron (4 no*) rdf 'I/typw), founded by Iberians, or Georgians;
Esphigmenu (rev 'Eaipiynkpov: the name is derived from the con-
fined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush (KovrXov/iofa});
Pandocratoros (toG IIarro«paropds); Philotheu (*iXo0«ov);
Caracallu (roO KopaxdXXev); St Paul (rov lylov UabXov);
St Denis (ro6 Aylov Aiorurlov); St Gregory (roO e\yiov
rprryoplov); Simopetra (Si/iorerpa); Xeropotimu (rov
2irpo*ora/Mv)', St Xenophon (rou lylov ZerotQvros); Dochiariu
(Aoxttopelov); Constamonftu (Kowora porirov) ; Zographu
(rov Zwypft^ov)'; and SUvronikftu (rov Zravpomrtrov, the last
built, founded in 1545). Tnc "coenobian "monasteries (koo>6-
0ta), each under the rule of an abbot (tyevjioor), are subjected
to severe discipline, the brethren are clothed alike, take their
meals (usually limited to bread and vegetables) in the refectory,
and possess no private property. In the " idiorrhythmic "
monasteries (toioppvflpa), which are governed by two or three
annually elected wardens (Mrpown), a less stringent rule
prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement the fare of
the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the
several monasteries are twelve sketae (wrot) or monastic
settlements, some of considerable sue, in which a still more
ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several
farms (ueroxla), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining
habitations (iceXMa) and hermitages (foxirrijpta). The monas-
teries, with the exception of Rossikon (St Pantelehnon) and the
Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliandari and Zographu, are occupied ex-
clusively by Greek monks. The large skete of St Andrew and
some others belong to the Russians; there are also Rumanian
and Georgian sketae. The great monastery of Rossikon, which
is said to number about 3000 inmates, has been under a Russian
abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the principal centres
of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the Levant.
The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony with
the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with
ample means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity Of
adding to their possessions on the holy mountain; their encroach-
ments are resisted by the Gi-eek monks, whose wealth, however,
was much diminished by the secularization of their estates in
Rumania(i864). The population of the holy mountain numbers
from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks (xaXbytpoi), the
remainder being lay brothers (nxruuol). The monasteries,
which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles
enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a
wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed
from the sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious
services, occupy themselves with husbandry, fishing and
various handicrafts; the standard of intellectual culture is not
high. A large academy, founded by the monks of Vatopedi In
1749, for a time attracted students from all parts of the East,
but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The
muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series
of documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and
princes, sigiHo of the patriarchs, typica, irades and other
documents, the study of which will throw an important light
on the political and ecclesiastical history and social Hie of the
852
ATHY— ATKINSON
East from the middle of the xoth century. Up to comparatively
recent timet a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was
preserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during
the War of Greek Independence (1821-1819) by the Turks, who
employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges;
others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who,
it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been
sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed
to Moscow and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed
by fire in 1891, and that of St Paul in 1005. There is now little
hope of any important discovery of classical manuscripts. The
codices remaining in the libraries are for the most part theological
and ecclesiastical works. Of the Greek manuscripts, numbering
about x 1,000, 66x8 have been catalogued by Professor Spyridion
Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not include the
MSS. in some of the sketae, or those in the libraries of Laura and
Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been
prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi
and Laura have been catalogued by Bcnessevich in the supple-
ment to vol. ix. of the Buantiyskiy Vremennik (St Petersburg,
1904). The Slavonic and Georgian MSS. have not been cata-
logued. Apart from the illuminated MSS., the mural paintings,
the mosaics, and the goldsmith's work of Mount Athos are of
infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The frescoes
in general date from the 15th or x6th century: some are attri-
buted by the monks to Panselinos, " the Raphael of Byzantine
painting," who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi.
Most of them have been indifferently restored by local artists,
who follow mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles
of which are embodied in a work of iconography by the monk
Dionysius, said to have been a pupil of Panselinos. The same
spirit of conservatism is manifest in the architecture of the
churches, which are all of the medieval Byzantine type. Some
of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an earthquake
in X905.
Authorities. — R. N. C. Curzon. Visits to Monasteries t* the
Levant (London, 1849); J- P. FaHmerayer, Fragmenta aus dem
Orient (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1845) ; V. Langlois, Le Mont Athos
el ses monastires, with a complete bibliography (Paris, 1867);
Duchesne and Bayet, Mhnoire sur une mission en Macidoine ei ou
Mont Athos (Paris. 1876); Tener and Pullan, Bytaniine Architecture
'London, 1864); H. Brockhaus, Die Kunst In den Athoskldsiern
Leipzig, 1 891); A. Riley, Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks
x London, 1887); S. Lambros, Catalogue of the Creek Manuscripts
en Mount Athos (* vols., Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); M. I. Gedeon,
6 'A3uh (Constantinople, 1885) ; P. Meyer, " Beitrilge cur Kennt-
niss der neucren Geschichte und des gegenw&rtigen Zustaodes der
Athoskldster," in ZeitschriftfUrKirchengeschichte, 1890; Die Hauplur-
kundenfiir die Geschichte der Athoskldster (Leipzijg.ityi) ; G. Millet,
I. Pargoire and L. Petit, Recueil des inscriptions ckrliiennes de
V Athos (Paris, 1904); H. Gelzcr, Vom Heitigen Bergs und aus
Makedonien (Leipzig, 1904); K. Vlachu (Blachos), 'H X«p*6r*w row
'Aylov'Opovt (Athens, 1903) ; G. Smurnakes, Td "Aytor "Opot 'Apx«o-
\oyla ifiovt'Kdw, (Athens, 1904). (J- *>• B.)
ATHY (pronounced Athy), a market- town of Co. Kildare,
Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of
Dublin on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1001) 3599. It is intersected by the
river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of five arches.
The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed from
the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from
a king of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are
picturesque remains of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th
century, and White Castle built in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by
a member of the family whose name it bears, and still occupied.
Both were erected to defend the ford of the Barrow. There are
also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with slight
monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two
members to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain,
is aided by excellent water communication, by a branch of the
Grand Canal to Dublin, and by the river Barrow, navigable
from here to Waterford harbour.
ATINA* the name of three ancient towns of Italy.
x. A town (mod. Atena) of Lucania, upon the Via PopHlia,
7 m. N. of Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, an
the vaUey of the river now known as Diano. Its ancient import-
ance is vouched for by its walls of rough cyclopean work, wluci
may have had a total extent of some a m. (sec G. Patrcrai il
N otitic degli scavi, 1897, 1x2; 1901, 408). The date of thru
walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent excavations, whi. -
led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the earliest ob je< u
showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century ax
not having produced any decisive evidence on the paint. T-
the Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre sxi
numerous inscriptions.
2. A town (mod. Atina) of the Volsd, xs xn. N. of CasrEiEv
and about 14 xn. E. of Arpmnm, on a hill 1607 ft above sea-k>*:
The walls, of carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, arr
still preserved in parts, and the modern town does not fill t> .-
whole area which they enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prospen. ~<
country town, which had not as yet fallen into the hands of larrt
proprietors; and inscriptions show that under the empire it *. *
still flourishing. One of these last is a boundary atone relit rr
to the assignation of lands in the time of the Gracchi, of wfcai
six other examples have been found in Campania and T-**r^ *i»
3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, H.N. in. 131.
ATITLAN, or Santiago de Atitlan, a town in the departmrtt
of Solola, Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atirlaz.
Pop. (1905) about 9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinni-if:
is the chief industry. Lake Atitlan is 24 m. long and 10 o.
broad, with 64 m. circumference. It occupies a crater more thaa
xooo ft deep and about 4700 ft above sea-level. The peaks U
the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, culminating near its
southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000 ft.) and Atitlia
(x 1,7x9 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small mouctjja
torrents, It has no visible outlet, but probably communicates
by an underground channel with one of the rivers which dras
the Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood
The town of Solola (q.v.) is near the north shore of the lake.
ATKINSON, EDWARD (1837-1005), American economic,
was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, on the xoth of February
1827. For many years he was engaged in managing varices
business enterprises, and became, in 1877, president of the
Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a po*
which he held till his death. He was a strong controversiaLi«t
and a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking .
railways, cotton manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the
money question. He was appointed in 1887 a special commissioner
to report upon the status of bimetallism in Europe. He also
made a special study of mill construction and fire preventing
and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called the
" Aladdin oven." He was an active supporter of anti-imperial-
ism. He died at Boston on the 1 ith of December 1905.
His principal works were Right Methods of Preventing Firrj ra
Mills (1881); Distribution of Products (1885). Industrial Pngre**
of the Nation (1889); Taxation and Work (1893); Sciema e*
Nutrition (10th ed., 1898).
ATKINSON, SIR HAktRY ALBERT (183x1802), Brite>>
colonial statesman, prime minister and speaker of the legislative
council, New Zealand, was bora at Chester in 1831, and in i£;;
emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand, where he became a fanner.
In i860 the Waitara war broke out, and from its outset Atkinsc a,
who had been selected as a captain of the New Plymouth Volun-
teers, distinguished himself by his contempt for sppearaixTs
and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and courarc
which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome
and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this wc r t
he was made a major of militia, and thanked by the government
Elected to the house of representatives in 1865, he joined Sir
Frederick Weld's ministry at the end of November 1864 a*
minister of defence, and, during eleven months of office, *»
identified with the well-known " self-reliance " policy a proposal
to dispense with imperial regulars, and meet the Maori with
colonials only. Parliament accepted this principle, but turned
out the Weld minist ry for other reasons. For four years Atkinson
was out of parliament; m October 1873 he re-entered it. ar.d
a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius YogcL
ATLANTA
853
Ten months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude
for finance that, except during six months in 1876, he thence-
forth, held that post whenever his party was in power. From
October 1874 to January 1801 Atkinson was only out of office
for about five years. Three times he was premier, and he was
always the most formidable debater and fighter in the ranks
of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party
which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led
in succession. It was he who was mainly responsible for the
abolition of the provinces into which the colony was divided
from 1853 to 1876. He repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879,
and substituted a property-tax. He greatly reduced the cost
of the public service in 1880, and again in 1888. In both these
yean he raised the customs duties, amongst other taxes, and
gave them a quaai-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck
10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the
salary of the governor by one-third, and the pay and number
of ministers and members of parliament. By these resolute steps
revenue was increased, expenditure checked, and the colony's
finance reinstated. Atkinson was an advocate of compulsory
national assurance, and the leasing as opposed to the selling of
crown lands. Defeated in the general election of December 1800,
he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative council.
There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of the
28th of June 189a. he was struck down by heart disease and
died in a few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never
popular, be was esteemed as a vigorous, upright and practical
statesman. He was twice married, and had seven children, of
whom three sons and a daughter survived him. (W. P. R.)
ATLANTA, the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A.,
and the county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of
1000*1175 ft., in the N.W. part of the state, near the Chatta-
hoochee river. Pop. (i860) 9554; (1880) 37*409; (1890)
*5»S3i; (1000) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were negroes and
3531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154*839. It js served by the
Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard
Air Line, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters
the city over the Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines),
the Louisville & Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic,
and the Atlanta & West Point railways. These railway com-
munications, and the situation of the city (on the Piedmont
Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams flowing into
the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico,
have given Atlanta its popular name, the " Gate City of the
South," Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius
being x| m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union
Depot (the new station is called the Terminal); large additions
have been made beyond this circle, including West End, Inman
Park on the east, and North Atlanta-. Among the best residence
streets are Peachtree and West Peachtree streets to the nocth,
and the older streets to the south of the business centre of the
city— Washington Street, Whitehall, Pry or and Capitol Avenues.
Among the principal office buildings are the Empire, the Equit-
able, the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the
Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler
buildings; and there are many fine residences, particularly in
Peachtree and Washington streets, Inman Park and Ponce de
Leon Circle. Among prominent public buildings are the State
Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law library of about 65,000
volumes and a collection of portraits of famous Georgians, the
north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an equestrian
statue (unveiled in 1007) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904),
a distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War
and governor of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the
Carnegie library, in which the young men's library, organised
in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post office building; and
the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city). The principal
parks are; the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the Piedmont
Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International
Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L. P. Grant,
an Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged
by the city (in its south-east comer is Fort Walker); the Lake-
wood, 6 m. south of the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned
by an electric railway company and having mineral springs and a
fine baseball ground. Four miles south of the centre of Atlanta
is Fort McPherson, an important United States military post,
occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks for the
accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large
monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in
Oakland, " To the unknown Confederate Dead," is a reproduction
of the Lion of Luceme; in West View Cemetery (4 m. west
of the city) is a memorial erected by the United Confederate
Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the Chatta-
hoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence
the water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity
of 55,000,000 gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public
spirit and enterprise, to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and
1895 bear witness. The air is bracing, largely because of the
city's altitude; the mean annual temperature is 6o-8° F. (winter
44*-i°, spring 60-5°, summer 77 , autumn 61-5°).
Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school
system was organised in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of
Technology, founded in 1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the
university of Georgia; the Atlanta College of Physicians and
Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of the Atlanta
Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical
College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medidne
(1905); the Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta
Theological Seminary (1001, Congregational), the only theo-
logical school of the denomination in the South in 1908; the
Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College of Pharmacy
(1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the following
institutions for negroes— Atlanta University, founded in 1869,
which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher
education of negroes, standing particularly for "culture"
education (as opposed to industrial training), which has done
particularly good work in the department of sociology, under
the direction of Prof. W. E. B. du Bois (b. 1868), one of the
most prominent teachers of negro descent in the country, and
which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University, founded in
1870 by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Educational Society
of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College,
founded in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist
Episcopal, founded in 1882, and opened in, 1885), which has
college preparatory, scientific, academic, normal and mission-
ary, courses, correspondence courses in English and theology,
an industrial department, and departments of law, theology
(Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art;
the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal,
chartered in x888), which has its buildings just outside the city
limits; and the Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist)
opened in x88j as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary— the
present name being adopted in 1883 in honour of the parents
of Mrs John D. Rockefeller— and incorporated in x888. At
Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m. east-north-
east of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white girls;
connected with the college is a school of music, art and expres-
sion, and an academy.
The city's principal charitable institutions are the Grady
Memorial hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and
named in honour of Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital;
the Baptist Tabernacle Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial
hospital; St Joseph's infirmary; the Municipal hospital for
contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden home. Three
miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers' home, for
aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated
Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1005.
The principal newspapers are the Constitution (morning),
edited from 1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (185X-1889V
one of the most eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to
promote the reconciliation of the North and the South after the
1 Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell
(b. 1863): and Joel Chandler Hams was long a member -' -*-
editorial staff.
85+
ATLANTA
Civil War, and whose statue stands opposite the post office;
the Journal (evening), of which Hoke Smith (b. 1855), a pro-
minent political leader, secretary of the interior in President
Cleveland's cabinet in 1893- 1806, and later governor of Georgia,
was long the proprietor; and the Georgian (evening), founded
in 1006 as a Prohibition organ.
As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first
among the cities of Georgia. In 1007 its whosesale and retail
trade was estimated at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive
two-fifths of the total freight delivered in the state of Georgia.
From 1895 to 1007 the bank clearings increased from about
$65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In recognition of the city's
financial strength, Atlanta has been designated by the secretary
of the treasury as one of the cities whose bonds will be accepted
as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the Southern head-
quarters for a number of fire and life insurance companies, and
is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance
business written and reported to resident agents, the annual
premium receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an import-
ant horse and mule market, and handles much tobacco.
The development of manufactures has been especially notable.
In 1880 the capital invested in manufacturing industries was
approximately $2,468,000; in 1800 it was $9,508,962; in 1900
it had increased to $16,045,156; and in 1905, when only estab-
lishments under the " factory system " were counted in the
census, to $21,631, 162. In 1900 the total product was valued
at $16,707,027, and the factory product at $14,4x8,834; and in
1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650, an increase
of 78*6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods
(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value
of the dty's manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products,
lumber, patent medicines, confectionery, men's clothing, mat-
tresses, spring-beds and other furniture. Since 1904 part of the
power utilized for manufacturing has been obtained from the
Chattahoochee river, 25 m. from the city. There are many
manufactories just outside the dty limits.
History. — Atlanta owes its origin to the development of
pioneer railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic,
the first road built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the
present site of Atlanta was chosen as its southern terminal,
which it reached in 1843, and which was named " Terminus."
The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then projected branches
to Terminus in order to connect with the Western & Atlantic,
and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of
1843 changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter
of Governor Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847
changed this to Atlanta. The population in 1850 was 2572;
in i860, 9554. Manufacturing interests soon became important,
and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of Confederate
military factories and a depot or supplies. In 1864 it was
the objective point of the first stage of General William T.
Sherman's invasion of Georgia (see Ammucan Civil Wax), which
is therefore generally known as the "Atlanta campaign."
After the battles around Marietta ($.».), and the crossing of
the Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman
continued his advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations
was directed primarily to the seizure of the Decatur railway,
by which the Confederate commander, General J. £. Johnston,
might receive support from Virginia and the Carolinas. The
three Union armies under Sherman's command, outnumbering
the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the
16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G. H. Thomas)
on the right marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper
Chattahoochee on Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J. M.
Schofield) in the centre direct on Decatur, and the Army of the
Tennessee (Gen. J. B. McPherson) still farther east towards
Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to meet the
enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced
by Gen. J. B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack
Thomas as soon as that general should have crossed Peachtree
Creek (6 m. north of the dty) and thus isolated himself from Scho-
fi»iH ^ad McPherson. Sherman's confidence in Thomas and h»
troops was, however, justified. Hood's attack (battle of 1
tree Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, an "
and McPherson dosed up at the greatest speed. Hood bad to
retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the
three Union armies gradually converged on the north and east
sides of the dty. But Hood, who had been put in command as a
fighting general, was soon ready to attack afresh. This time
he placed Gen. W. J. Hardee's corps, the largest of his army,
to the south of Atlanta, fadng the left flank of McPbersoo'i
army. As Hardee's attack rolled up the Union army from left
to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issae
from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee
opened his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta).
The troops of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven
back, and their commander, McPherson, killed; but presently
the Federals re-formed and a severe struggle ensued, m which
most of Hood's army joined. The veterans of the Army of the
Tennessee, led by Gen. J. A. Logan, offered a stubborn resistance,
however, and Schofield'* army now intervened. After prolonged
attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off,
with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates
now abandoned all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based
themselves on Jonesboro' and the Macon railway. Sherman
quickly realized this, and the Army of the Tennessee, bow
commanded by Gen. O. O. Howard, was counter-marched iron
left to right, until it formed up on the right of the Union hot
about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The railway
from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as be fell
back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to
Thomas's camps. Hood had meanwhile extended his entrench-
ments southwards to cover the Macon railway, and Howard's
movement led to another engagement (battle of Ezra Church,
July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore the
brunt of Hood's attack. The Confederates were once more
unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the " fighting "
policy ordered by the Confederate government was counter-
manded. Sherman's cavalry had hitherto failed to do seriomi
damage to the railway, and the Federal general now proceeded
to manoeuvre with bis main body so as to cut off Hood from ha
Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard at Ezra
Church, Schofidd led this advance, but the new Confederate
lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications
was then begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry
raid effected but slight damage to the line, anjl Sherman now
dedded to take his whole force to the south side. This appar-
ently dangerous movement (August 25) is a remarkable illustra-
tion of Sherman's genius for war, and in fact succeeded com-
pletely. Only a small force was left to guard the Chattanooga
railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas ia
the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after
some sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro', September x). The
defence of Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood's forces retreated
southward the same evening, and on the and of September the
Union detachment left behind on the north side entered Atlanta
unopposed.
Ail dtizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned
Into a military camp, and when Sherman started on his *' March
to the Sea/' on the 15th of November, a large part of the dty
was burned. Consequently the present dty is a product of the
post-bellum development of Georgia. The military government
of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868 Atlanta was
made the capital of the state.
In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in
Atlanta. This was American, even local, in character; its
inception was due to a desire to improve the cultivation and
manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the notice of the
whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the
Southern states during the last quarter of the roth century.
In 1887 the Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The
Cotton States and International Exposition, also held at Atlanta,
in 1895, attracted widespread attention, and had exhibits from
thirty-seven states and thirteen foreign countries.
ATLANTIC— ATLANTIC OCEAN
»55
ATLANTIC, a city and the county-eeat of Cass county, Iowa,
U.S.A., on East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of
Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4351; (1900) 5046; (1005, state
census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910) 4560. It is served by
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by an inter-
urban electric line connecting 'with Ettthorn and Kimballton,
and is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among
its manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour,
umbrellas, drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-
works and electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as
a city in i860.
ATLANTIC CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and
137 m. S. by W. of New York. Pop. (1800) 13,055; (1900)
27.838, of whom 6513 were of negro descent and 3189 were
foreign-born; (19x0 census) 46,150. It is served by the
Atlantic City (Philadelphia ft Reading) and the West Jersey &
Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the
largest and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United
States, and has numerous fine "hotels. The city extends for $ m.
along a low sandy island (Absecon Beach), xo m. long by } m.
wide, separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of salt
water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly covered with water
at highest storm tide. There are good bathing, boating, sailing,
fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A " Board Walk " stretches
along the beach for about 5 m.— the newest part of it is of
concrete — and along or near this walk are the largest hotels,
and numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk
into the ocean extend several long piers. Other features of the
place are the broad driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an auto-
mobile boulevard. There are several seaside sanitorhims and
hospitals, including the Atlantic City hospital, the Mercer
Memorial home, and the Children's Seashore home. On the
north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft high.
The municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged
here and are shipped hence in large quantities. There was a
settlement of fishermen on the island in the latter part of the
16th century. In 185a a movement was made to develop it as
a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after the completion of
the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth of the
place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of
April xooa.
ATLANTIC OCEAN, a belt of water, roughly of an S-ahape,
between the western coasts of Europe and Africa and the eastern*
ExfMt. c <«i*ts of North and South America. It extends
northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the
Great Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar
boundaries are taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles,
although in discussing the configuration and circulation it is
impossible to adhere strictly to these limits. The Atlantic
Ocean consists of two characteristic divisions, the geographical
equator forming a fairly satisfactory line of division into North
and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by tar the best-known
of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable for the
immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of
enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and
Hudson Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and
Black Sea, the North Sea and the Baltic The North Atlantic
is connected with the Arctic Basin by four main channels: (1)
Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide, communicating with the gulfs
and straits of the North American Arctic archipelago; (a)
Davis Strait, about aoo m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay; (3)
Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide;
and (4) the " Norwegian Sea," about 400 m. wide, extending
from Iceland to the Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and
the coast of Norway. The width of the North Atlantic in lat. 6o°,
approximately where it breaks up into the branches just named,
is nearly aooo m.; in about lat. 50* N. the coasts of Ireland
and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then
increases rapidly to lat. 40* N., and attains its maximum of
4500 m. in lat. 15° N.; farther south the minimum breadth is
reached between Africa and South America, Cape Palmas being
only 1600 m. distant from Cape St Roque. In marked contrast
to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished by great simplicity
of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it attains its
greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in lat
35° S. the width is 3700 m.
The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas
connected with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq.
kilometres, or 10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the
area is 45,641,000 sq. kilometres ot 13,262,000 sq. m. The area
of the South Atlantic is 43>455>ooo sq. kilometres, or 12,637,000
sq. m. Although not the most extensive of the great oceans,
the Atlantic has by far the largest drainage area. The " long
slopes " of the continents on both sides are directed towards the
Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of a large pro-
portion of the great rivers of the world, including the St Lawrence,
the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La
Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and
the great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic Sir J.
Murray estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic
to be 13,433,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000
sq. m., nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean,
and almost precisely four times the area draining to the Indian
Ocean. Murray's calculations give the amount of precipitation
received on this area at 15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river
discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.
The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a
submarine ridge running from north to south from about fat.
50° N. to lat 40° S., almost exactly in the central
line, and following the §-shape of the coasts. Over
this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms.
Towards its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau
of the Azores, and in about 50° N. lat. it merges with the " Tele-
graph Plateau," which extends across nearly the whole ocean
from Ireland to Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel
the depths diminish towards the north-east, two long submarine
ridges of volcanic origin extend north-eastwards to the south-
west of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands, and these, with their
intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge connecting' Green-
land, through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with North-
western Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The
mean depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maxi-
mum depth nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the
Atlantic is thus cut off from the Arctic basin, with which the
area north of the ridge has complete deep-water communication.
This intermediate region, which has Atlantic characteristics
down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths belongs more
properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of
Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs
extend southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern
Ocean, the deep water coming dose to the land all the way down
on both sides. In these troughs the depth is seldom much less
than 3000 fathoms, and this is exceeded in a series of patches
to which Murray has given the name of " Deeps." In the eastern
trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay in 20 W. long.,
Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa,
Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the
Liberian coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo.
The western trough extends northwards into Davis Strait,
forming a depression in the Telegraph plateau; to the south of
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep
and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east of the Bahamas
Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in the
Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained
(70 m. north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship " Blake " in
1883. Immediately to the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller
Makarov Deep; and off the coast of South America are Tiaard
Deep and Havergal Deep.
Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1 003-1004 our knowledge
of the form of the sea bottom south of 40° S. lat. was almost
wholly derived from the soundings of the expedition of Si- ' r
Ross in the M Erebus " and " Terror " (1839-1843).
856
ATLANTIC OCEAN
bathymetrical maps published were largely the result of deduc-
tions based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68° 34' S. lat.,
ta° 49' W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000
fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this
sounding to be erroneous; the " Scotia " obtained samples of
bottom, in almost the same spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms.
Combining the results of recent soundings, Dr W. S. Bruce, the
leader of the Scottish expeditipn, finds that there is a ridge
" extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet Island, and
from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a
forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham's Land,
and through South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the
South American continent." Again, the central ridge of the
South Atlantic extends a thousand miles farther south than was
supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just described, between
the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group.
The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic
basin may be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S.
" Challenger " (1873-1876), and the German ship " Gazelle "
(1874-1876), the French expedition in the " Travailleur " (1880),
and the U.S. surveying vessel " Blake " (1877 and later). Large
numbers of additional soundings have been made in recent years
by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. the prince of Monaco,
the German " Valdivia " expedition under Professor Chun (1898),
and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1004).
The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of
islands. The only continental groups, besides some islands in
y.y~f f the Mediterranean, are Iceland, the British Isles,
Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the Falkland*,
and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the
Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan
da Cunha and Bouvet Island.
The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G.
Mtma Karstens, 2047 fathoms. If we include the enclosed
.sad seas, the North Atlantic Has a mean depth of 1800
~ fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of
2067 fathoms.
The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by
a deposit of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and
3000 fathoms, or about 60 % of the whole. At a depth of about
3009 fathoms, i.e. in the " Deeps," the Globigerina ooze gradu-
ally' gives place to red clay. In the shallower tropical waters,
especially on the central ridge, considerable areas are covered by
Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the shells of pelagic
molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in high
southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue
muds, red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the
amount of organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron
in the matter brought down by the great rivers to produce blue
muds), green muds and sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.
The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the
other great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most
geologists include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view
they adopt as to its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while
they regard the basin of the Pacific as of great antiquity, believe
the Atlantic to date only from the Mesozoic age. Neumayr
finds evidence of the existence of a continent between Africa
and South America, which protruded into the central North
Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the
Atlantic had substantially its present form during the Cretaceous
period.
In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the
waters of the Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and
totribm- southern divisions separately. The heat equator, or
Hmmmi line of maximum mean surface temperature, starts
JJUJ"" from the African coast in about 5° N. lat., and closely
follows that parallel to 40 W. long., where it bends
northwards to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which
the temperature is a little over 8o° F., the gradient trends some-
what to the east of north, and the temperature is slightly higher
on the western than on the eastern side until, an 45 N. lat., the
isothermal of 6o° F. runs nearly east and west. Beyond this
parallel the gradient is directed towards the north-west, and
temperatures are much higher on the European than on the
American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general
form of the isothermals remains the same, except that Instead
of an equatorial maximum belt there is a focus of mafrimua
temperature off the eastern coast of the United States. This
focus occupies a larger area and becomes of greater relative
intensity as the depth increases until, at 500 fathoms, it become
an elongated belt extending right across the ocean in about
30° N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of maximum
disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic
off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at
least 1000 fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually
becomes more and more uniform. The communication between
the Atlantic and Arctic basins being cut off, as already described.
at a depth of about 300 fathoms, the temperatures in the Nor*
wegian Sea below that level are essentially Arctic, usually below
the freezing-point of fresh water, except where the distribution
is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals of mesa
surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower
latitudes of an co-shape, temperatures being higher on the
American than on the African side. In latitudes south of 30 4 S.
the curved form tends to disappear, the lines running more and
more directly east and west. Below the surface a focus of maxi-
mum temperature appears off the coast of South America m
about 30° S. lat., and of minimum temperature north and north-
east of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at
about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond
which depth the lines tend to become parallel and to run east
and west, the gradient slowly diminishing.
The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its
saltest waters are found at the surface in two belts, c
east and west in the North Atlantic between 20° and
30° N. lat., and another of almost equal salinity
extending eastwards from the coast of South America in to* to
20 S. lat. Iii the equatorial region between these belts the
salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part. Nona
of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily
fresher as latitude increases until the channels opening into tr*
Arctic basin are reached. In all of these water of relatively
high salinity usually appears for a long distance towards the
north on the eastern side of the channel, while on the westera
side the water h comparatively fresh; but great variations occur
at different seasons and in different years. In the higher latitude*
of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes steadily and trcis
to be uniform from east to west, except near the soutbtD
extremity of South America, where the surface waters are %cry
fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface
is as yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by
a single observation. The chief facts already established are
the greater saitness of the North Atlantic compared with the
South Atlantic at all depths, and the low salinity at all depths
in the eastern equatorial region, off the Gulf of Guinea.
The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite
character. In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces o4
Africa and South America produce comparatively little
effect in disturbing the normal planetary circulation
The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is very
marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and
at that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land
cuts it off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which
rests on the coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near
the Gulf of Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the
latitude of the Cape, we find the region where, on account of
the uninterrupted sea surface right round the globe, the planetary
circulation is developed to the greatest extent known; the
pressure gradient is steep, and the region is swept continuous iv
by strong westerly winds4-thc " roaring forties.*'
In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting
wind circulation are very largely modified by the enormous
areas of land and frozen sea which surround the ocean on three
aides. The tropical belt of high pressure persists ail the yea/
ATLANTIS
857
round, hot the immense demand for air to supply the ascending
currents over the heated land surfaces in summer causes the
normal descending movement to be largely reinforced; hence the
" North Atlantic anticyclone" is much larger, and its circulation
more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the
winter months pressure is relatively high over North America,
Western Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities
of air are brought down to the surface, and circulation must be
kept up by ascending currents over the ocean. The Atlantic
anticyclone is, therefore, at its weakest in winter, and on its polar
side the polar eddy becomes a trough of low pressure, extending
roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan Mayen, and traversed
by a constant succession of cyclones. The net effect of the
surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal variations
of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its type.
In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas
the meteorological equator remains permanently north of the
geographical equator, moving between it and about xi° N. lat.
The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest
in its action is the trade winds, and. this is, therefore, the most
effective in producing drift movement of the surface waters.
The trade winds give rise, in the region most exposed to their
influence, to two westward-moving drifts — the equatorial
currents, which are separated in parts of their course by currents
moving in the opposite direction along the equatorial belt.
These last may be of the nature of " reaction " currents; they
are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current. On
reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial
current splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch,
r ^ the Brazil current, is deflected southwards and follows
^ m the coast as a true stream current at least as far as
the river Plate. The second branch proceeds north-westwards
towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the waters of
the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the
< -shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf
of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the
West Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably
the most rapid and most voluminous stream current in the world,
the Gulf Stream, which runs along the coast of North America,
separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water, the " cold
wall," to a point off the south-east of Newfoundland. At this
point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from the Labrador
current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set up under
the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is generally
called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift
approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two
parts, one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa,
the Canaries current, and another turning northwards and
passing to the west of the British Isles. Most of the Canaries
current re-enters the northern equatorial, but a certain proportion
keeps to the African coast, unites with the equatorial return
currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of Guinea. This last
feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure; it is probably
to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the coast the
prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal,
are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and
the place of the water thus removed is filled up by water derived
either from lower levels or from " reaction " currents.
The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream
drift have been the object of more careful and more extended
study than all the other currents of the ocean put together,
except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream itself. The cruises of the
"Porcupine" and "Lightning," which led directly to the
despatch of the "Challenger" expedition, were altogether
within its " sphere of influence "; so also was the great Nor-
wegian Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been
further explored by the German expedition in the as. " National,"
the Danish " Ingolf " expedition, and the minor expeditions
of the " Michael San," " Jackal," " Research," &c, and since
% 00a it has been periodically examined by the International
Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done by
the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging
to the mercantile marine of various countries. It may now
be taken as generally admitted that the current referred to
breaks into three main branches. The first passes northwards,
most of it between the Faeroc and Shetland Islands, to the coast
of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which, as Nanscn has
shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger
stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes
up the Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These
branches are separated from one another at the surface by
currents moving southwards: one passes east of Iceland; the
second, the Greenland current, skirts the east coast of Greenland;
and the third, the Labrador current already mentioned, follows
the western side of Davis Strait
The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents
in the South Atlantic has already been described. On the polar
side of the high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the
control of the " roaring forties," and on reaching South Africa
part of this is deflected and sent northwards along the west
coast as the cold Benguella current which rcjows the equatorial.
In the central parts of the two high-pressure areas there is
practically no surface circulation. In the North Atlantic this
region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed (Sargassum
buccijerum), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea
is bounded, roughly, by the lines of ao°-35° N. lat. and 40°-7s°
W. long.
The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded
as consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up
against the land, as. by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift
currents, it appears to penetrate to very considerable depths;
the escaping stream currents are at first of great vertical thickness
and part of the water at their sources has a downward movement.
In the case of the Gulf Stream, which is not much impeded by
the land, this descending motion is relatively slight, being
perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the water;
it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the
European-African side the descending movement is more
marked, partly because the coast-line is much more irregular
and the northward current is deflected against it by the earth's
rotation, and partly because of the outflow of salt water from
the Mediterranean; here the movement is traceable to at least
1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water across the
Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the Iceland-
Shetland ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of
the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, dose
down to the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from
melting ace are probably quite shallow. The second part of the
circulation in the depth is the slow " creep " of water of very
low temperature along the bottom. The North Atlantic being
altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and the vertical
circulation being active, this movement is here practically
non-existent; bat in the South Atlantic, where communication
with the Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can
be traced to the equator and even beyond.
The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The
tidal wave of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly
round the globe from east to west, generates a secondary wave
between Africa and South America, which travels north at a
rate dependent only on the depth of the ocean. With this " free "
wave is combined a " forced " wave, generated, by the- direct
action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area itself.
Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two
waves. (H.N.D.)
See also Ocean and Oceanography.
ATLANTIS, Atalamtxs, or Atlantic*, a legendary island
in the Atlantic Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the Timaeus.
Plato describes how certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation
with Solon, represented the island as a country larger than
Asia Minor and Libya united, and situated just beyond the
Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). Beyond it lay an
archipelago of lesser islands. According to the priests, Atlantis
had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before the
birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lar
858
ATLAS— ATLAS MOUNTAINS
bordered the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood
them with success. Finally the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis,
and had thenceforward become unnavigable owing to the
shoals which marked the spot. In the Critics Plato adds a
history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is impossible
to decide how far this legend is due to Plato's invention, and
how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval
writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geo-
graphers, believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by
numerous traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered
various points of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular
were the Greek Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the
Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities,
and St Brendan's island, the subject of many sagas in many
languages. These, which are described in separate articles,
helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which
had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all
except Avalon were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th
centuries, and formed the object of voyages of discovery, in one
case (St Brendan's island) until the 18th century. In early
legends, of whatever nationality, Ihey are almost invariably
described in terms which closely resemble Homer's account of
the island of the Phaeacians (Od. viii.) — a fact which may be
an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current
among several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of
the island of Brazil (?.*.), of Lyonnesse (?.*.), the sunken land
off the Cornish coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda
or Asmaide— the French Isle Verte and Portuguese Ilka Verde
or "Green Island "—-which appears in many folk-tales from
Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until 1853 was marked on English
charts as a rock in 44° 4&" N. and 26* to* W. After the Renais-
sance, with its renewal of interest in Platonic studies, numerous
attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. The
island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia, the
Canaries and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants
the ancestors of the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient
Italians; and even in the 17th and 18th centuries the credibility
of the whole legend was seriously debated, and sometimes
admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire.
For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the
Minoan period, see " The Lost Continent " in The Times (London)
for the 19th of February 1900. See also " Dissertation sur l'AUan-
tide " in T. H. Martin's Etudes m U Timie (1841).
ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the "endurer," a son of the
Titan Iapetus and Clymenc (or Asia), brother of Prometheus.
Homer, in the Odyssey (i. 53) speaks of him as " one who knows
the depths of the whole sea, and keeps the tall pilUrs which
hold heaven and earth asunder." In the first instance he seems
to have been a marine creation. The pillars which he supported
were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond the most
western horizon. But as the Greeks' knowledge of the west
increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the
north-west of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that
district, rich in flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the
Hesperides, who was turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus,
to punish him for his inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon's
head (Ovid, Metam. iv. 627). Finally, Atlas was explained as
the name of a primitive astronomer, who was said to have made
the first celestial globe (Diodorus itt. 60). He was the father of
the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of Calypso. In
works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or the
terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples
museum is well known.
The plural form Atlantis is the classical term in architecture
for the male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as
in the baths at Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in
Sicily. In 18th-century architecture half-figures of men with
strong muscular development were used to support balconies
(see Caryatides and Teiamones).
A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a
frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been
*hus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a
volume of maps (see Map), and similarly to a volume which
contains a tabular conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas U
ethnographical subjects or anatomical plates. It is also u*-i
of a large size of drawing paper.
The name " atlas," an Arabic word meaning " smooth,"
applied to a smooth cloth, is sometimes found in English, aa«J
is the usual German word, for " satin."
ATLAS MOUNTAINS, the general name for the roounuiz
chains running more or less parallel to the coast of NorLh-we&t
Africa. They extend from Cape Nun on the west to the G Ji
of Gabes on the east, a distance of some 1500 m., traverse
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south lies the Sahara
desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, bat they ca&
be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Marian*
Atlas, ix. the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from CeuU
to Cape Bon; (a) the inner and more elevated ranees, whici,
starting from the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sus, run south of the
coast ranges and are separated from them by high plateau*
This general disposition is seen most distinctly in eastern Moroti j
and Algeria. The western inner ranges are the most imporu&:
of the whole system, and in the present article are describeU
first as the Moroccan Ranges. The maritime Atlas and the inner
ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the headiaf
Eastern Ranges.
The Moroccan Ranges, — This section of the Atlas, known to
the inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idriren Dri"a
•or the " Mountains of Mountains," consists of five distia.c
ranges, varying in length and height, but disposed more or k*
parallel to one another in a general direction from south-wot
to north-east, with a slight curvature towards the Sahara.
1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies
a central position in the system, and is by far the longest aod
loftiest chain. It has an average height of over z 1,000 it,
whereas the loftiest peaks in Algeria do not exceed 8000 it ,
and the highest in Tunisia are under 6000 ft Towards the Dihn
district at the north-east end the fall is gradual and continoo .a,
but at the opposite extremity facing the Atlantic between Agadir
and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one or two peats
reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest summits
are snowdad during the greater part of the year. The northern
sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense
forests of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnut*
up to the limit of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-waierrd
valleys of great fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate
tiny irrigated fields, their houses clinging to the hill-sides. Toe
southern flanks, being exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara,
are generally destitute of vegetation.
At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded
by old glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed
a number of devious passes. The central section, culminating is
Tizi n Tagharat or Tinsar, a peak estimated at 1&000 ft. high,
maintains a mean altitude of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass
of schists and sandstones a number of secondary ridges radiate
in all directions, forming divides between the rivers Dta'a, Sus,
Um-er-RaWa, Sebu, Mulwfya and Ghir, which flow respectively
to the south-west, the west, north-west, north, north-east and
south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps for a
few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra'a,
the streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do
not reach the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season.
and at another are lost in the dry soil of the desert.
For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents
any passes accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gar*
in the range afford communication between the Taasfft and
Sus basins, those respectively of Gindifi and Bfbawan. A few
summits in the extreme south-west in the neighbourhood of Cape
Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the steadily rising
ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer summits
detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater
than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is
to be obtained from the plain of Marrakesh, only some 1000 ft.
above sea-level, immediately north of the highest peaks.
ATLAS MOUNTAINS
859
huge masses of old schists and sandstones, the range contains
extensive limestone, marble, diorite, basalt and porphyry forma-
tions, while granite prevails on its southern slopes. The presence
of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is attested by the moraines
at the Atlantic end, and by other indications farther east. The
best-known passes are: (1) The Bfbawan in the upper Wad Sus
basin (4150 ft.); (a) the Gindafi, giving access from Marrakesh
to Tarudaut, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat,
difficult and little used, leading to the Dra'a valley (11,484 ft);
(4) the Glawi (7600 ft); (5) Tixi n Tilghemt (7350 ft), leading
.to Tafilet (Tafflalt) and the Wad Gbir.
a. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called
the Middle Atlas), extending north-east and east from an
undefined point to the north of the Great Atlas to near the
frontier of Algeria, is crossed by the pass from Fes to Tafflalt.
Both slopes are wooded, and its forests are the only parte of
Morocco where the lion still survives. From the north this
range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat
regular series of snowy crests.
3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser
Atlas, running parallel to and south of the central range, is one
of the least elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude
of not more than 5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes
exceed 6000 ft. At one point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five
paces wide with walls of variegated marbles polished by the
transport of goods. As to the relation of the Anti-Atlas to the
Atlas proper at its western end nothing certain is known.
The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the
western system are less important:— -(4) the Jebel Baai, south of
the Anti-Atlas, a low, narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft.
in its central parte; and (5) the Mountains of Ghaiata, north of
the Middle Atlas, not a continuous range, but a series of broken
mountain masses from 3000 to 3$oo ft. high, to the south of Fes,
Taza and Tkmcen.
The Eastern /&w/«.— The eastern division of the Atlas, which
forms the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known
with the exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the
province of Er-Rif. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to
the French as the Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice.
From Ceuta, above which towers Jebel Musa— about sftoo f L—
to Melilla, a distance of .some 150 m., the Rff Mountains face
the Mediterranean, and here, as along the whole coast eastward
to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above the general
level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges,
several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range,
extending through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the
peaks of Lalla Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the
maritime chains, and Babor (6447 ft.). (See further Alguia.)
The Mejerda range, which extends into Tunisia, has no heights
exceeding 3700 ft. It wss in these coast mountains of Algeria
that the Romans quarried the celebrated Numidian marbles.
The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known
by the French as the Sahara* Atlas. On its western extremity
it is linked by secondary ranges to the mountain system of
Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is essentially one chain, though
known under different names: Jebel K'sur and Jebel Amur on
the west, and Jebel Aures in the east The central part, the
Zab Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas reaching
its culminating point, Jebel SheUia (76x1 ft above the sea), in
the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the
Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs
south by Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Alibu
Musio reaches a height of 5700 ft, the highest point in Tunisia.
In the Saharan Atlas the passes leading to or from the desert
are numerous, and in most instances easy. Both in the east (at
Batna) and the west (at Ain Sef ra) the mountains are traversed
by railways, which, starting from Mediterranean seaports, take
the traveller into the Sahara.
History and Exploration.— The name Atlas given to these
mountains by Europeans— but never used by the native races-
Is derived from that of the mythical Greek god represented as
carrying the globe on his shoulders, and applied to the high and
distent mountains of the west, where Atlas was supposed to
dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have been the home
of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible regions
have retained a measure of independence throughout their
recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of
Kabylia had never been visited by Europeans until the French
military expedition of 1857. But in general the Maritime range
was well known to the Romans. The Jebel Amur was traversed
by the column which seised El Aghuat in 185a, and from that
time dates the survey of the mountains.
The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western
Sudan crossed the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of .Tilghemt
and passed through the oasis of Tafflalt, formerly known as
Sajilmasa I" SigOmassn "], on the east side of the Anti-Atlas.
The Moroccan system was visited, and in some instances crossed,
by various European travellers carried into slavery by the
Salli rovers, and was traversed by Rene Caille in 1818 on his
journey home from Timbuktu, but the ant detaikdexploration
was made by Gerhard Rohlfs in- 1861-1862. Previous to that
almost the only special report was the misleading one of Lieut
Washington, attached to the British embassy of 1837, who from
insufficient date estimated the height of Mount Tagharat, to
which he gave the indefinite name of Miltsin (i.e. Mul et-Tisin,
" Lord of the Peaks "), as 11,400 ft instead of about 15,000 ft
In 187 1 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (after-
wards Sir) J. D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored
the central part of the Great Atlas with the special object of
investigating its flora and determining its relation to that of the
mountains of Europe. They ascended by the Ait Mfaan valley
to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft), and by the Amsmis valley to
the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,072 ft). In the Tagharat pass
Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the water-
shed; but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained south-
ward across the great valley of the Sus to the Anti-Atlas, which
appeared to be from 0000 to 10,000 ft high. Dr Oskar Lens
in 1870-1880 surveyed a part of the Great Atlas north of Taru-
dant, determined a pass south of High in the Anti-Atlas, and
penetrated thence across the Sahara to Timbuktu. He was
followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose ex-
tensive itineraries include many districts that bad never before
been visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and
middle ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas,
which was, moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its
whole length; and six journeys across the -Anti-Atlas, with
a general survey of the foot of this range and several passages
over the Jebel Bam. Then came Joseph Thomson, who explored
some of the central parts, and made the highest ascent yet
achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft, but broke little new
ground, and failed to cross the main range (x888); and Walter
B. Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed
the Atlas at two points during his expedition to Tafflalt in 1804.
In 1901 and again in 1005 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman,
made extensive journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed
the Great Atlas in its central section, explored its southern
border, and, in part, the Middle and Anti-Atlas ranges. A
member of his expeditions, de Flotte Rocquevaire, made a
triangulation of part of the western portion of the main Atlas,
his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the work
of previous explorers. (See also Momocco, Alcebia, Tunisia
and Sahara.)
Authorities.— Vicomte Ch.de Foucauld, /too* *au*x*<* au Moras
1883-1884 (Paris, 1 888. almost the sole authority for the geography
of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is
illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker,
Ball and Maw, Morocco and the Great Atlas (London. 1879. a most
valuable contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially
as to botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, Travels in the Alias
and Southern Morocco ^London, 1889, — l ""- L ' VJ "* — '
valuable geographical and
.entii. m isston at Setoni -■-'--
s geologist ..-„ — .- ,
Adventures in Morocco (London, 1874); Walter. B. Harris, TofiUt,
_raphic
geological data) ; Louis Gentil. Mission de Seeontoc7&c. (Paris. 1906;
* 'rt to the 1905 expedition
the author was 1
iition); Gerhard Rohlfs,
a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &c. (London. 1895),
full of valuable information; Budgctt Meakin, The Land of the
Moon (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lanx.
Timbuktu: Reise dmrck Marokko, vol. L (Leipzig, 1684)
86o
ATMOLYSIS— ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
ATMOLTSIS (Gr. arnfe, vapour: Xtaj», to loosen), a Una
invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a
mixture of gases by taking advantage of their different rates of
diffusion through a porous septum or diaphragm (see Diffusion) .
ATMOSPHERE (Gr. dr/ife, vapour; rekupa, a sphere), the
aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a
particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological
phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained
early recognition; thus Hesiod, in his Works and Days, speculated
on the origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of
the sun on the air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others,
founded the science of pneumatics on observations on the
physical properties of air. Anaximenes made air the primordial
substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian elements. A direct
proof of its material nature was given by Galileo, who weighed
a copper ball containing compressed air.
Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was
regarded as a distinct chemical unit or element. The study of
calcination and combustion during the 17th and z8th centuries
culminated in the discovery that air consists chiefly of a mix-
ture of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley,
Lavoisier and others contributed to this result. Cavendish
made many analyses: from more than 500 determinations of
air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather, and in town
and country, he discerned the mean composition of the atmo-
sphere to be, oxygen 90*833 % md nitrogen 79-167 % The
same experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very
minute amount ; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayldgh
and Ramsay, is now named argon (•.».).
The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of
atmospheric air led to the view that it was a chemical compound
of nitrogen and oxygen; but there was no experimental con-
firmation of this idea, and all observations tended to the view
that it is simply a mechanical mixture. Thus, the gases are not
present in simple multiples of their combining weights; atmo-
spheric air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in the
prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifests- '
tion of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical
action; the gases may be mechanically separated by atmotysis,
i.e. by taking advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the
two gases; the solubility of air in water corresponds with the
" law of partial pressures," each gas being absorbed in amount
proportional to its pressure and -coefficient of absorption, and
oxygen being much more soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of
•04114 to -0*035 *t °°); sir expelled from water by boiling is
always richer in oxygen.
Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition
of the atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave
it practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur.
Bunsen analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same
place at different times, and found the extreme range in the
percentage of oxygen to be from 20*97 to so* 84. Regnault,
from analyses of the air of Paris, obtained ft variation of 20-909
to 20-913; country air varied from so 903 to 21-000; while air
taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation of 20-940
to 20-850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in
oxygen content from 20-857 to 20*95, the air in parks and open
spaces showing the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed
similar results, varying from 20*887 in the streets to 20*929 in
open spaces.
In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of
other gases and vapours generally present in the atmosphere.
Of these, argon and its allies were the last to be definitely isolated.
Carbon dioxide is invariably present, as was inferred by Dr
David Macbride (1726-1778) of Dublin in 1764, but in a pro-
portion which is not absolutely constant; it tends to increase
at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is greater in
towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water
vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instru-
ments termed hygrometers (q.v.). Ozone (q.v.) occurs, in an
amount supposed to be associated with the development of
atmospheric electricity (lightning, &c.); this amount varies
with the seasons, being a maximum in spring, and de crea sing
through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter. Hydrogen
dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric
acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by
electrical discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric
ammonia by ozone. The amount of nitric acid varies from
place to place; rain- water, collected in the country, has been
found to contain an average of 0*5 parts in a million, but town
rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being present
in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also
present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 13$ to 0-1
parte (calculated as carbonate) in a million partsof air. Ammonia
is carried back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an
important part in providing nitrogenous matter which is after-
wards assimilated by vegetable life.
The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere
may be represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows: —
Oxygen .... 2065-94 Ozone . . . 0-015
Nitrogen . . .7711-60 Aqueous vapour 140-00
Argon (about) . . 79:<* Nitric acid . . o-©8
Carbon dioxide 3*36 Ammonia . . 0-005
In addition to these gases, there are always present in the
atmosphere many micro-organisms or bacteria (see Bacteri-
ology); another invariable constituent is dust (?.*.), which
plays an important part in meteorological phenomena.
Reference should be made to the articles Bakokctek, Cumatc
and Mbteosology for the measurement and variation of the
pressure of the atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties.
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 1. It was not until the
middle of the 18th century that experiments due to Benjamin
Franklin showed that the electric phenomena of the atmosphere
are not fundamentally different from those produced in the
laboratory. For the next century the rate of progress was slow,
though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the instrumental devices of
Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit recognition. The inven-
tion of the portable electrometer and the water-dropping electro-
graph by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th century, and the
greater definiteness thus introduced into observational results,
were notable events. Towards the end of the 1 oth century came
the discovery made by W. Linss (6) 1 and by J. Elster and H.
Geitel (7) that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose
their charge, and that this loss depends on atmospheric condi-
tions. Hard on this came the recognition of the fact that freely
charged positive and negative ions are always present in the
atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation can be collected.
Whilst no small amount of observational work has been done in
these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has
still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary
stages. Observations have usually been limited to a portion of
the year, or to a few hours of the day, whilst the results from
different stations differ much in details. It is thus difficult to
form a judgment as to what has most claim to acceptance as the
general law, and what may be regarded as local or exceptional.
a. Potential Gradi*tU.~-ln dry weather the electric potential in
the atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and
increases with the height. The existence of earth currents iq. » )
shows that the earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential,
but the natural differences of potential between points on the
earth's surface a mile apart are insignificant compared to the
normal potential difference between the earth and a point one
foot above it. What is aimed at in ordinary observations of
atmospheric potential is the measurement of the difference of
potential between the earth and a point a given distance above it,
or of the difference of potential betweeen two points in the same
vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a
metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible
electric capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole
conductor must be at zero (i.e. the earth's) potential, there must
be an induced charge on the sphere, producing at its centre a
potential equal but of opposite sign to what would exist at the
same spot in free air. This neglects any charge in the air
' Sea AntkoruSes below.
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
86l
displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state of condi-
tions and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing influence.
Suppose now that the sphere's earth connexion is broken and
that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero
potential. If its potential as observed there is-V (volts), then
the potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was
+V. This method in one shape or another has been often
employed. Suppose next that a fixed insulated conductor is
somehow kept at the potential of the air at a given point, then the
measurement of its potential is equivalent to a measurement of
that of the air. This is the basis of a variety of methods. In the
earliest the conductor was represented by long metal wires,
supported by silk or other insulating material, and left to pick
up the air's potential. The addition of sharp points was a step in
advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one
until the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp),
or by a liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the
conductor, whether the products of combustion or the drops of
a liquid, supplies the means of securing equality of potential
between the conductor and the air at the spot where the matter
quits electrical connexion with the conductor. Of late years
the function of the collector is discharged in some forms of
apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two best
known are Lord Kelvin's portable electrometer with a fuse, or
F. Exaer's gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp
or gas flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord
Kelvin's water-dropping electrograph; while Bcnndorf's is the
form of radium collector that has been most used. It cannot be
said that any one form of collector is superior all round. Flame
collectors blow out in high winds, whilst water-droppers are apt
to get frozen in winter. At first sight the balance of advantages
seems to lie with radium. But while gaseous products and even
falling water are capable of modifying electrical conditions in
their immediate neighbourhood, the " infection " produced by
radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present them-
selves in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity
to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper.
Experiments by F. Linke (8) indicated that a water-dropper
there are external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence
the potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages
met with at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the
influence of the environment. With a view to this, it has become
increasingly common of late years to publish not the voltages
actually observed, but values deduced from them for the
potential gradient in the open in volts per metre. Observa-
tions are made at a given height over level open ground near the
observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results
from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the
latter to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the
case, however, of many observatories, especially as regards the
older records, no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction
to the open is at best only an approximation, the success attend-
ing which probably varies considerably at different stations.
This is one of the reasons why in the figures for the annual and
diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and III., the potential has been
expressed as percentages of its mean value for the year or the day.
In most cases the environment of a collector is sot absolutely
invariable. If the shape of the cquipotcntial surfaces near it is
influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will vary
throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may
exert an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty
in the instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the
potential recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium
is placed or the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is
opposed by the leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural
dissipation, and this may introduce a fictitious element into the
apparent annual or diurnal variation. The potentials that have
to be dealt with are often hundreds and sometimes thousands of
volts, and insulation troubles are more serious than is generally
appreciated. When a water jet serves as collector, the pressure
under which it issues should be practically constant. If the
pressure alters as the water tank empties, a discontinuity occurs
in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a fictitious element may
be introduced into the diurnal variation. When rain or snow is
falling, the potential f rcquen tly changes rapidly. These changes
are often too rapid to. be satisfactorily dealt with by an ordinary
Table I.-
—Annua
I Variation Potential Gradient.
Place and Period.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Karasic
Sodanic
>43
150
■32
94
,8
65
70
67
67
«7
12a
126
94
133
14*
l U
93
53
77
47
72
71
71
Potsdai
167
95
nS
93
72
73
65
97
101
108
123
Kew(l
127
141
113
87
§
70
61
5
6
96
126
»53
Green*
1896
no
112
127
107
l\
76
104
104
139
Florcnc
132
no
9f
84
77
fa
«9
99
129
125
Perpigr
121
112
108
«9
91
9*
89
74
99
122
121
Lisbon
104
105
104
n
91
S
87
92
100
99
"5
"7
Tokyo
-1901
165
M5
"7
62
4*
59
n
97
134
1/6
Batavu
»*>.
97
l l s
«55
127
129
105
79
62
79
90
93
»
>5 •
100
89
103
120
98
103
85
99
73
101
"7
112
having a number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a con-
siderable pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the
time required by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a
glass tube. These fine jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and
water have proved very effective for balloon observations.
3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to
mention various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of
absolutely smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the
equipotential surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly
horizontal, and if we could determine the potential at one metre
above the ground we should have a definite measure of the
potential gradient at the earth's surface. The presence, how-
ever, of apparatus or observers upsets the conditions, while above
uneven ground or near a tree or a building the equipotential
surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a building
seems to be practically at the earth's potential; near its walls the
equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the ridges
they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the
various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the
distance they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes
electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the
photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts
of the apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus
customary in calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no
account of days on which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else
to form separate tables for " dry "or " fine " days and for " all "
days. Speaking generally, the exclusion of days of rain and of
negative potential comes pretty much to the same thing, and the
presence or absence of negative potential is not infrequently
the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or are
accepted as normal.*
4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season
of the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the
weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate
of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extend-
ing over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even some-
what precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single
year is fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam,
G. LOde ling (9) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre
242. At Karasjolc in the extreme north of Norway G. C. Simpson (10)
in 1903-1904 obtained 139. At Kremsmttnstcr for 1902 P. B. Zoks(ll)
gives 98. At Kcw (12) the mean for individual years from J898 to
862
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
1904 varied from 14? in 1900 to 179 in >*99» the mean from the
seven yeais combined being 159. The Urge difference between
the means obtained at Potsdam and KremsmQnster, as compared
to the comparative similarity between the results for Kew and
Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the potential gradient
may be much more dependent on local conditions than on difference
of latitude.
At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of
values. The largest positive and negative values recorded are met
with during disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record
from an electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually
going off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder
is near. Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such
circumstances it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends
largely on the type 01 electrometer. Large rapid changes are also
met with in the absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall.
In England the largest value* of a sufficiently
be shown correctly by an ordinary electrograph
steady character to
occur during winter
Its per metre are
or 800 are onca-
variation of the
ed according to
ken in each case
xtreme north of
1 static* of the
rhich is near the
ewhat irregular.
r at two heights
e other starjoes
conclude that
Table U.—Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient.
Station.
Karasjok.
Sodankyla.
Kcw (19, 12).
Greenwich.
Florence.
Perpignan.
Lisbon.
Tokyo.
Batavia.
Cape
Horn (20).
Period.
i9°3-4.
1882-83.
1862-
1864.
1898-
1904.
1893-96.
1883-85.
1886-68.
1884-86.
1897-98.
1900-1.
1887-
1890.
iW
lM»-*j.
Days.
All.
All.
Quiet.
All.
All.
Fine.
All.
All.
Dry.
Dry.
Pos.
H
I
55
30
25
35
10
335
1-3
30
1-8
8-4
1-5
3-«
1-7
20
2
7-8
5-3
a-o
Hour.
1
2
3
4
•I
7
8
9
10
11
Noon.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
83
a
63
60
68
81
«7
94
101
99
\°d
108
108
109
no
119
129
136
139
133
121
102
82
&
9?
97
too
98
102
98
102
105
\U
108
108
110
102
in
in
S3
93
87
79
74
72
71
77
?J
10$
107
100
90
92
90
91
92
98
108
121
134
«39
»38
128
113
99
8
!♦
85
93
103
ita
»5
112
101
¥
u
93
99
108
:;?
119
99
?
87
86
86
92
too
102
100
101
96
21
96
94
95
97
102
108
III
"5
"7
117
III
104
77
75
74
82
100
112
"3
107
100
95
92
90
89
94
"3
121
129
132
127
114
100
78
7a
71
72
77
92
107
"4
in
100
96
99
99
97
99
105
IIJ
126
131
129
120
109
97
86
h
80
78
81
83
92
101
105
104
104
102
108
lit
"4
!S
10a
in
116
114
109
102
85
101
98
97
99
121
&
149
"7
87
70
61
54
49
76
95
07
114
119
lao
119
112
'47
MI
3
127
42
35
30
30
30
33
V,
91
120
146
148
151
H7
i»5
»4
109
102
101
"7
147
119
8a
$
43
*42
8
53
,U
US
155
155
>47
•43
130
8*
I 3
! 5
85
5£
106
119
119
123
123
"5
11*
s
N
110
107
123
112
!
Table III.— Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient.
Station.
Karasjok
SodankyUi,
Kew.
Greenwich.
Bureau
Central (21).
Eiffel
Tower (21)
Perpignan (21).
BaUvLa.
(2 m.)
Period.
1903-4.
1882-83.
1 898- 1 904.
1894 and '96.
1894-99.
1896-98.
» 885-95-
1887-90.
Winter.
Summer.
Winter.
Summer.
Winter.
Equinox.
Summer.
Winter.
Summer.
Winter.
Summer.
Summer.
Wlatcr.
Summer.
Winter.
Sn-mmrr
Hour.
1
£
•
90
2*
U
82
s
¥>
87
1 10
79
102
79
72
88
»45
»49
2
3
66
57
89
3
84
90
P
s
IOI
<
7i
s
©7
66
5*
81
139
137
142
135
4
55
83
74
99
81
S 4
84
I
96
69
84
76
67
83
131
127
I
3?
n
£
III
114
82
86
87
97
90
IOI
94
IOI
75
U
.a
5
£
92
107
132
X
123
136
7
L 8
89
86
"7
95
109
"3
94
107
118
97
104
!3
>53
8
93
95
122
104
118
120
97
HI
HI
120
103
122
118
92
9
90
93
9i
109
lit
119
119
98
102
113
106
no
126
100
74
64
10
104
93
106
101
114
1 10
1 10
102
&
HI
8
109
"4
93
43
40
11
102
92
98
97
107
U
%
103
IO8
107
90
35
3«
Noon.
119
90
98
100
102
107
9
I06
77
104
99
95
3«
30
1
116
94
116
97
99
81
80
107
112
I?
107
96
93
29
33
2
118
97
"3
97
97
80
76
109
82
112
HO
94
6
28
J2
3
119
100
121
U
99
82
76
in
i!
III
So
107
95
24
41
4
"5
99
HI
!3
88
80
116
"3
I05
102
92
30
49
5
120
106
105
106
96
87
112
9
I20
85
I06
H5
98
60
74
6
,3 I
104
us
92
III
109
98
114
124
97
IO9
128
HO
88
94
I
136
no
102
U4
120
hi
M7
.3
12A
116
123
H3
133
122
!.3
122
134
113
117
106
112
124
123
113
134
HO
131
127
«35
9
137
125
115
90
III
!S
129
ill
118
104
»30
I09
124
125
M5
t47
10
125
»35
126
112
90
I08
!3
110
124
97
122
105
in
I'd
148
148
II
114
1*3
103
'8
109
102
120
90
115
IOI
t
14?
:s
12
96
ill
95
8*
99
105
93
116
83
108
94
95
148
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
863
and " cummer " mpcctively.
the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches the
equator. It is decidedly less at Pcrpignan and Lisbon than at
Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference
more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon.
At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near mid-winter;
in the Arctic it seems deferred towards spring.
6: Diurnal Variation. — Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation
for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of
latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100.
The data are some from " all days, some from " quiet," " fine "
or "dry" days. The height, k, and the distance from the wall, /,
where the potential is measured arc given in metres when known.
In most cases two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24
bows. The principal maximum is usually found in the evening
between 8 and 10 p.m., the principal minimum in the morning from
3 to 5 a.m. At some stations the minimum in the afternoon is in-
distinctly shown, but at Tokyo and Batavia it is much more con-
spicuous than the morning minimum.
7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for "winter'*
In all cases the mean value for the
24 hours is taken as
100. By " summer "
is meant April to Sep-
too tember at Sodankyla,
Greenwich and Bata-
via ; May to August at
Kew, Bureau Central
(Paris), Eiffel Tower
and Pcrpignan; and
May to July at Karas-
jok. "Winter" in-
cludes October to
March at Sodankyla.
Greenwich and Bata-
via; November to
February at Kew and
Bureau Central ;
November to January
at Karasjok, and
December and Janu-
ary at Perpignan.
Mean results from
March, April, Septem-
ber and October at
Kew are assigned to
" Equinox.-"
At Batavia the
difference between
winter and summer is
comparatively small.
Elsewhere there is a
tendencyforthcdouble
period, usually so pro-
minent in summer, to
become less pro-
nounced in winter, the
migkt «m p.m. mffMt afternoon minimum
tending to disappear.
Even in summer the double period is not prominent in the arctic
climate of Karasjok or on the top of the Eiffel Tower. The diurnal
variation in summer at the latter station is shown graphically in the
top curve of fig. 1. It presents a remarkable resemblance to the
adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal variation at mid-winter at the
Bureau Central. The resemblance between these curves is much
closer than that between the Bureau Central's own winter and
summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the first
and third representing the onlinary forenoon and afternoon maxima.
In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly dis-
appears in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still recogniz-
able. This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris, being
seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. ■ The December and June
ctotssistrioo
fitt—timl*
~ -Sv
f^
carves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the differ-
ence between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at
Kew gradually deepensas midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the
forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later
in the day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal
variation at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure
for the year as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance
between the diurnal variation for the two elements, first remarked on
by J. D. Everett (19), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical
conclusions by J. P. Elster and H. F. K. Geitel and by H. Ebert.
In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the
hourly values expressed — as in Tables IL and III.— as percentages
of the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong im-
pression may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes.
The Kew curves, for instance, mightsuggestthattherange (maximum
less minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December.
In reality the December range was 8a, the June only 57 volts; but
the mean value of the potential was 243 in December as against 1 x I
in June. So again, in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value
of the diurnal range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel
Tower than for the Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150
at the former station and only 134 at the latter.
8. Fourier Coefficients. — Diurnal inequalities such as those of
Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but
they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of
maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter
throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular
diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it
into a Fourier series of the type
ft sin (/4-«i)+fc tin (al+s,) +c$ sin (3I +ai) +c« sin (4^+04) + . . .
where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, t\, c», e», <«,. . .
are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods
24, 12, 8 and 6 hours; at, a*, a,, a«, are the corresponding phase
angles. One hour of time / is counted as 1 $*, and a delay of one hour
in the time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15 in a it of 30*
in a t , and so on. If a u say, varies much throughout the year, or
If the ratios of c%, c it d, . . : to c{, vary much, then a diurnal inequality
derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of several
months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition of
a number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of
their maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, in-
evitably leads to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the
regular diurnal variation.
It is also desirable to have an idea of the sise of the irregular
changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as
already mentioned, the irregular changes hardfy admit of satis-
factory treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular* changes
arc always numerous and often large.
Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena
for a single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line
gives the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean
excess of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual
days. The hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the
object being to get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If
the actual crests of the excursions had been measured the figures
in the second line would have been even larger. The third line gives
the range of the regular diurnal inequality, the next four lines the
amplitudes of the first four Fourier waves into which the regular
diurnal inequality has been analysed. These mean values, ranges
and amplitudes are all measured in volts per metre (in the open).
The last four lines of Table IV. give the phase angles of the first
four Fourier waves.
It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and
least hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually
larger than the mean value of the potential gradient for the day;
it bears to the range of the regular diurnal Inequality a ratio vary-
ing from 2*0 in May to 36 in November.
At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer
it is small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very
variable both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so
Table IV.— Absolute Potential Data at Kew (12;.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec
Mean Potential Gradient
201
22a
218
180
138
"3
in
98
"4
121
'IS
200
243
Mean of individual daily ranges
203
210
164
■43
132
117
120
141
186
* l J
Range in Diurnal inequality
73
94
«3
74
71
57
H
60
54
63
52
82
r<«
22
22
17
13
x8
9
6
9
7
14
30
J*
21
33
34
31
22
*3
*4
26
»3
30
17
21
Amplitudes of Fourier waves U>
7
to
5
!
3
3
2
3
6
5
7
2
3
5
4
1
4
3
4
3
2
3
206
204
a
72
86
79
k
■f*
154
192
202
»o8
\*
170
171
"3
188
183
182
199
206
213
175
Phase angles of Fourier waves f «>
n
9
36
too
125
124
107
16
18
*2
36
l«4
235
225
307
3U
3M
277
»93
3>3
330
288
238
249
(
86 4
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
its hour of maximum). The 13-hour term b much less variable,
especially as regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct
maxima near the equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves,
though small near- midsummer, represent more than mere accidental
irregularities, seems a safe -inference from the regularity apparent
in the annual variation of their phase angles.
9. Table V. gives some data lor the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier
coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between
different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are
all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient
for the corresponding season. " Winter " means generally the four
midwinter, and " summer " the four midsummer, months; but at
Karasjok three, and at Kremsmiinster six, months are included in
each season. The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a
comparatively small number of days in August and September.
At Potsdam the data represent the arithmetic means derived
from the Fourier analysis for the individual months comprising
the season. The 1862-1864 data from Kew— due to J. D.
Everett (10) — are based on "all" days; the others, except Karas-
jok to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The cause
of the large difference between the two sets of data for c 4 at
Table V.— Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles.
nearly uniform for heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the t
At great heights free balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries
two collectors a given vertical distance apart. The potential differ-
ence between the two is recorded, and the potential gradient is t^ -*
found. Some of the earliest balloon observations made the grad* r.t
increase with the height, but such a result is now regarded as
abnormal. A balloon may leave the earth with a charge, or becrre
charged through discharge of ballast. These possibilities may c <
have been sufficiently realised at first. Among the most import a r.t
balloon observations are those by le Cadet (I) F. Linkc (245) awl
H. Gerdien (29). The following are samples from a number 0/ <'* . *'
results, given in le Cadet's book. A is the height in metres, P the
gradient in volts per metre.
Place.
Period.
Winter.
Summer.
ft.
ft.
a ( .
ai.
ft.
ft.
S|.
at.
Kew
Bureau Central
Eiffel Tower .
Soonblick (22)
Karasjok .
Kremsmiinster (23) .
Potsdam .
1862-64
1 898- 1 904
1894-98
1896-98
1902-3
«903-4
1902
1904
0283
-102
•220
35
269
0160
•103
.104
•1*44
•117
•101
•
184
206
223
IS?
224
194
•
193
180
206
155
194
185
0127
079
■130
:!S
096
0229
•213
•200
085
•120
093
»53
152
•
III
*1
95
216
178
M»
241
343
•
179
186
197
171
145
144
209
185
Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in
summer than winter, and thus the reduction in a in summer would
appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in
absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmunster the seasonal
variation in a t seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the
Bureau Central it is a* large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter
values of a, are fairly similar at the several stations the summer
values are widely different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal
changes seem somewhat irregular, the relative amplitude of the
1 2-hour term is considerably greater in summer than in winter. The
values of o« at the various stations differ comparatively little, and
show but little seasonal change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much
greater uniformity than the 24-hour term. This possesses signifi-
cance in connexion with the view, supported by A. B. Chauveau (21),
F. Exner (24) and others, that the 1 2-hour term is largely if not
entirely a local phenomenon, due to the action of the lower atmo-
spheric strata, and tending to disappear even in summer at high
altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily maximum, which is
largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin layer near the
ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar radiation of
shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially characteristic
of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent in moist
climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his theory
Exner states that he hasfound but little trace of the double maximum
and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. # C. Nordmann (25) describes
some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during August and
September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the shores
of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day.
The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum ana minimum,
between 5 and 6 r. m. and 4 and 5 a. m. respectively. So again, a few
days' observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by
k Cadet (26) in August and September 1903, showed only a single
period, with maximum between 3 and 4 r. u., and minimum about
3 a.m. Chauveau points to the reduction in the 12-hour term as
compared to the 24-hour term on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the
practical disappearance of the former at no great height. The dose
approach in the values for ft in Table V. from the Bureau Central
and the Eiffel Tower, and the reduction of ft at the latter station, are
unquestionably significant facts; but the summer value for ft at
Karasjok — a low level station — is nearly as small as that at the
Eiffel Tower, and notably smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100
metres). Again, Kew is surrounded by a large park, not devoid of
trees, and hardly the place where Exner's theory would suggest a
large value for ft. ana yet the summer value of ft at Kew is the
largest in Table V.
10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials
near the ground. This only means that the equipotcntial surfaces
arc crowded together, just as they arc near the ridge of a house.
To ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height
in the free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites
or balloons. At small heights Exner (27) has employed captive
balloons, provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire con-
nected with an electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient
The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observatl -as
during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the
1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the
gradient at any given height varying much
from day to day and hour to hour; but at
greater heights there is much more uni-
formity. At heights from 1500 to too
metres his observations agreed well with
the formula
dVfdh -34-0006 ft.
V denoting the potential. A the height is
met res. The form ula makes t he gradie at
diminish from 25 volts per metre at tjno
metres height to 10 volts per sneer* at
4000 metres. Linkc's mean value f<x
d\'idh at the ground was 123. Accepting
Linkc's formula, the potential at 4010
metres is 43.750 volts higher than at 1 *•©
metres. If the mean of the gradirr.'s
observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as aa approxi-
mation to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest lyo
metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500 metres
level 1 12,300 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seem* 1 J
the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can read.'*
imagine how close together the equipotcntial surfaces must 1*
near the summit of a high sharp mountain peak.
1 1. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional,
unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential b usually
but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are mt
uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient
b by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, ra the absrrce
of rain. At Madras. Mkhic Smith (30) often observed negative
potential during bright August and September days. The pheno-
menon was quite common between 9*30 A.M. and noon dunag
westerly winds, which at Madras arc usually very dry and dust v.
At Sodankyla, in 1882-1883, K. S. Lemstrom and F. C. Biesc (31)
found that out of 255 observed occurrences of negative potential.
106 took place in the absence of rain or snow. The proportion of
occurrences of negative potential under a clear sky was much above
its average in autumn. At Sodankyla rain or snowfall was often
unaccompanied by change of sign in the potential. At the polar
station Godthaab (32) in 1882-1883, negative potential seemed some-
times associated with aurora (see Aurora Polaris).
Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential
gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending
to a considerable distance. Lenard (33} found that when pure water
falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge.
Kelvin, Maclean and Gait (34) found the effect greatest in the air
near the level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after
the influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and C It
regard this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a
water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it
is used out of doors.
12. Elster and Geitel (35) have measured the charge carried bv
raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational
difficulties, the exact measure of success attained b a little difficult
to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually can-) a
charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often fluctuate
repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it secmearoorc often thaa
not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential gradient. Gcrd* o
has more recently repeated the experiments, employing an apparat us
devised by him for the purpose. It has been found by C. T. R.
Wilson (36) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain or snow has brea
evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties lasting far a
few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of rain and snow
seem of the same order.
13. W. Linss (6) found that an insulated conductor charted either
positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the
potential V after time I being connected with its initial value V.
by a formula of the type V - W- ai where a b constant. This was
confirmed by Elster and Geitel (7), whose form of dissipation apru-
ratus has been employed in most jwseat work. The psrnantsge oi taw
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
865
duu^e which n dissipated per minute is musDy denoted by <l> or
o_ according to its sign. The mean of a+ and «_ is usually de-
noted by «f or simply oy a, while q is employed lor the ratio oWo*.
Some observers when giving mean values take Z(a /a+) as the
mean value of 9, while others take Z(*_)/Z(a+). The Elster and
Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect the
dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is
usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, e.g.
A. Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The
loss of charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to
attribute an absolutely definite meaning even to
results obtained with the cover on. Gockel (37) says
That the results he obtained without the cover when
divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained
under the usual conditions; but the appropriate
divisor must vary to some extent with the climatic
conditions. Thus results obtained for a*, or a_ with*
out the cover are of doubtful value for purposes
of comparison with those found elsewhere with it on.
In the case of q the uncertainty is much less.
Table VI. gives the mean values of a± and q
found at various places. The observations were
usually confined to a few hours of the day, very
commonly between zz a.m. and X r.»., and in absence of in-
formation as to the diurnal variation it is impossible to say how
much this influences the results. The first eight stations lie inland ;
that at Scewalehen (38) was, however, adjacent to a large lake. The
next five stations are on the coast or on islands. The final four
are at high levels. In the cases where the observations were con-
fined to a few months the representative nature of the results is
more doubtful.
On mountain summits q tends to be large, i.e. a negative charge is
tost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently q has also a
tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen
at Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked,
is seen near waterfalls, q becoming very small. Only Innsbruck
and Mattsee give a mean value of q less than unity. Also, as later
observations at Innsbruck give more normal values for q, some doubt
Table VI.— Dissipation. Mean Values.
Table VII. gives comparative results for winter (October to March)
and summer at a few stations, the value for the season being the
arithmetic mean from the individual months composing it. At
Karasjok (10), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value
there is nearly double the winter both for «♦ and a_ The Krems-
nulnster (42) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the
summer values. At Trieste (47), Maaelle's data from all days of the
year show no decided seasonal change in a+ or a.; but when
days on which the wind was high are excluded the summer value is
decidedly the higher. At Freiburg (43), q seems decidedly larger in
Table VII
.-—Dissipation
Place.
Winter.
Summer.
«♦
o_
«t
9
«♦
s.
«±
9
Karasjok 1903-1904 .
Kremsmttnstcr 1903 .
Freiburg
Trieste 1902-1903
„ calm days
228
114
0-56
269
130
0*59
249
1-22
O58
0-35
118
114
l'57
1*07
43 S
138
o : 55
13
o-oi
465
1-47
0-58
0-48
1*12
1-26
113
Place.
Period.
Season.
Observer or
Authority.
H
9
Karasjok ....
1903-4
Year
Simpson (10)
Elster and Geitel (J9)
3-57
1-15
WoIfenbOttel . . .
Year
1-33
1-05
Potsdam ....
1904
Year
Ludeling (40)
Zolss (41)
Zalss (42)
113
::s
Kremsmunster
1902
Year
1-3*
„ ....
1903
Year
»-35
1-14
Freiburg ....
Year
Gockel (43)
1 -41
Innsbruck ....
1902
Czermak (44)
1-95
©•94
Mattsee (Salzburg)
1905
1905
Tail, to Tune
July to Sept.
Defant (45)
von Schweidler (40)
1-47
117
o-99
Scewalehen ....
1904
July to Sept.
von Schweidler (38)
118
Trieste
1902-3
Year
Maxclle (47)
0-58
1*09
Mtsdroy
1902
LQdeling (40)
1*09
1-58
SwincmQnde
1904
Aug. and Sept.
Summer
LOdeling (40)
1-23
1*37
Heligoland (sands)
1903
Elster and Geitel (40)
114
171
„ plateau
»i
.. (40)
307
1 50
Juist (Island)
Atlantic and German Ocean
M
.. (48)
I-*
!•*
1904
August
ib. to April
Boltzmann (49)
1*3
2*69
Arosa (1800 m.) .
1903
Saake(SO)
1-79
1-22
Rothhorn (2300 m.) .
Sonnblick (3100 m.)
1003
September
Gockel (43)
531
1903
September
Conrad (22)
i*75
Mont Blanc (4810 m.)
190a
September
ie Cadet (43)
10-3
may be felt as to the earlier observations there. The result for
Mattsee seems less open to doubt, for the observer von Schweidler,
bad obtained a normal value for a during the previous year at
Scewalehen. Whilst the average q in at least the great majority of
stations exceeds unity, individual observations making q less than
unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (51) the percentage of cases m which
q fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste, 33 at Vienna, and 35 at Krems-
mOnster: at Innsbruck q was less than 1 on 58 days out of 98.
In a. long series of observations, individual values of q show
usually a wide range. Thus during observations extending over
more than a year, q varied from 0-18 to 8*25 at KremsmQnster and
from o*!t to 300 at Trieste. The values of a*., o_ and a ± also
show large variations. Thus at Trieste a+ varied from o* 12 to 4*07,
and «.. from 0*11 to 3*87; at Vienna a + varied from 0*32 to 7-10,
and a_ from 0*78 to 5*42; at Kremsmfinster a+ varied from 0-14
to 5-83.
14. Annual Variation.— -When observations are made at irregular
hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how repre-
sentative they are. Results obtained at noon, for example, probably
differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one sctson than
at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to considerable
uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long series of
years to give thoroughly representative results for any element,
and few stations possess more than a year or two's dissipation data.
wintet than in summer; at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect
in q seems small and uncertain;
15. Diurnal Variation.— P. B. Zolss (41. 42) has published dirunal
variation data for Kremsmiinster for more than one year, and
independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter
(December to February). His figures show a double daily period in
both o+ and c_, the principal maximum occurring about 1 or
2 p.m. The two minima occur, the one from 5 to 7 A.M.,the other
from 7 to 8 p.m. ; they are nearly equal. Taking the figures answer-
ing to the whole year, May 1903 to 1904, a+ varied throughout the
day from 0-82 to 1*35, and o_ from 0*85 to 1*47. At midsummer
the extreme hourly values were 0-91 and 1*45 for a + , 0*94 and 100
for o_ The corresponding figures at midwinter were 0*65 and
1-19 for <*+, 0*61 and 1*43 for «_. Zolss' data for q show also a
double daily period, but the apparent range is small, and the hourly
variation is somewhat irregular. At Karas-
jok, Simpson found o+ and o_ both larger
between noon and 1 p,m. than between
either 8 and 9 a.m. or 6 and 7 p.m. The 6
to 7 p.m. values were in general the smallest,
especially in the case of o+; the evening
value for q on the average exceeded the
values from the two earlier hours by
some 7 %.
Summer observations on mountains have
shown diurnal variations very large and
fairly regular, but widely different from
those observed at lower levels. On the
Rothhorn, Gockel (43) found a+ particu-
larly variable, the mean 7 a.m. value being
4i times that at 1 p.m. q (taken as
2(a-/a+) varied from 2*25 at 5 a.m. and
2-52 at 9 p.m. to 7>82 at 3 p.m. and 8*35 at
Lp.m. On the Sonnblick, in early Septem-
r, V. Conrad (22) found somewhat similar
results for 9, the principal maximum occur-
ring at 1 p.m., with minima at 9 p.m. and
6 a.m.; the largest hourly value was,
however, scarcely double the least. Conrad
found o_ largest at A a.m. and least at 6
p.m., the largest value being double the
least; a t was largest at 5 a.m. and least at
2 p.m., the largest value being fully 2} times
the least. On Mont Blanc. Ie Cadet (43) found q largest from 1 to 3
p.m., the value at either of these hours being more than double that
at 11 A.M. On the Patscherkofel, H. von Ftcker and A. Defant (52),
observing in December, found q largest from 1 to 2 p.m. and least
between 1 1 a.m. and noon, but the largest value was only 1 \ times
the least. On mountains much seems to depend on whether there
are rising or falling air currents, and results from a single season
may not De fairly representative.
16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological con-
ditions, but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to
suggest that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations e+
and a. both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the
observations at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (47) deduced an
Increase of about 3% in a+ for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind
velocity. The following are some of his figures, the velocity v being
in kilometres per hour: —
9
Ot0 4.
20 to 24
40 to 49-
60 to 69.
a
9
©•33
1-iJ
0-64
119
1*03
I -00
"J!
0-96
For velocities from o to 24 km. per hour q exceeded unity in 74 cases
out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour q exceeded unity
866
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
In only 40 cam out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok :
the rise in a+ and a_ with increased wind velocity seemed, however,
larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in a tor
wind velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort's scale. On the top of the
Sonnblick, Conrad observed a slight increase of a* as the wind
velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities
up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.
At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently,
Simpson {10) found c + and a_ both increase in a nearly lii
relation with temperature, from below -ao* to + 15° C. For
ample, when the temperature was below -ao* mean values were
0-76 for «♦ and 0-91 for «_; for temperatures between -io d
and -5* the corresponding means were 2*45 and 2*82; while for
temperatures between +io* and +15* they were 4*68 and 523.
Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the value of q. At
Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not exceed 20 km.
per hour, Mazelle (47) found somewhat analogous results for tem-
peratures from o° to 30° C; o_, however, increased faster than
a + , i.e. q increased with temperature. When he considered all
days irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of
temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22) found
a± increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4* or 5* C; but
at higher temperatures a decrease set in.
Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level
stations in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of
relative humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation
approaches. At Trieste, for example, for relative humidities be-
tween 90 and 100 the mean a± was less than half that for relative
humidities under 4a With certain dry winds, notably Fohn winds
in Austria and Switzerland, dissipation becomes very high. Thus at
Innsbruck Defant (45) found the mean dissipation on days of Fohn
fully thrice that on days without Fohn. The increase was largest
for a* there being a fall of about 15% in q. In general, a^ and
o_ both tend to be less on cloudy than on bright days. At Kiel (53)
and Trieste the average value of q is considerably less for wholly
overcast days than for bright days. At several stations enjoying
a wide prospect the dissipation has been observed to be specially
high on days of great visibility when distant mountains can be
recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on days of fog or
rain.
The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and
barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmunster, Zolss (42)
found dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer,
a± having a mean value of 1 -36 when pressure was below the normal,
as against l*ao on days when pressure was above the normal. He
also found a± on the average about 10% larger when pressure was
falling than when it was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (22)
found dissipation increase decidedly as the absolute barometric
pressure was larger, and he found no difference between days of
rising and falling barometer. At Trieste^ Maselle (47) found no
certain connexion with absolute barometric pressure. Dissipation
was above the average when cyclonic conditions prevailed, but this
seemed simply a consequence of the increased wind velocity. At
Mattsce, E. R. von Schweidler (46) found no connexion between
absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also days of rising
and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K. Kaehler (53)
found «+ and a. ooth greater with rising than with falling
barometer.
V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (54) have found a marked connexion
at Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations
were made of both elements. Days were grouped according to the
intensity of colouring of ozone papers, o representing no visible
effect, and 14 the darkest colour reached. The mean values of o+
and *_ answering to la and 13 on the ozone scale were both about
double the corresponding values answering to o and 1 on that scale.
17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way.
The air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying
a positive and others a negative charge, and those having the
opposite sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to dis-
charge it. The rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the
extent to which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends,
however, in addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on
the opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations
have been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known appa-
ratus for the purpose is that devised by Ebert- A cylinder condenser
has its inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or
negative potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator b e twee n the sur-
faces, and the ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder
are deposited on it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is
known from its loss of potential. The volume of air from which the
ions have been extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the
total charge on the ions, whether positive or negative. The con-
ditions must, of course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape,
otherwise there is an underestimate. I + is used to denote the charge
on positive ions, I_ that on negative ions. The unit to which they
are ordinarily referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic
metre of air. For the ratio of the mean value of 1+ to the mean
value of I., the letter Q is employed by Gockel (55), who has made
an unusually complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous
o b s er vations were also made by Simpson (10)— thrice a day— at
Karasjok, and von Schweidler has made a good maoy ntmi >■!
about 3 p.m. at Mattsce (46) in 1905, and Seewalchen (M) in 1004.
These will suffice to give a general idea of the mean values met witk
Station.
Authority.
K
L
Q '
Freiburg .
Karasjok . . .
Mattsee
Seewalchen
Gockel
Simpson
von Schweidler
o-3S
0-45
141
1 17
119
1-17 1
Gockel's mean values of 1+ and Q would be reduced to 0-31 ard
1*38 respectively if his values for July— which appear 1
were omitted. 1+ and I_ both show a consioerabk range of value*.
even at the same place during the same season of the year. That
at Seewalchen in the course of a month's observations at 3 r m^ L,
varied from 0*31 to 0*67, and I. from 0*17 Co 0-67.
There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents,
as the following figures will show. Summer and winter repre** at
each six months and the results are arithmetic means of the tmootht}
values
Freiburg.
Karasjok. |
h
u
Q
U
L
Q
Winter . .
Summer . .
0*39
0-39
o-ai
0*28
149
«34
0-33
o-44
©*7
0-39
1-23 j
■•■3 |
If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the
summer values of Lj. and Q would become 0*33 and 1*25 r esp ec t ively
18. Diurnal Variation. — At Karasjok- Simpson found the meJa
values of 1+ and I. throughout the whole year much the vur*
between noon and 1 p.m. as between U and 9 a.m. Observatk>ci
between 6 and J r.M. gave means slightly lower than those fr-r.
the earlier hours, but the difference was only about 5 % in !♦ *r j
10 % in I_ The evening values of Q were on the whole the largr^'
At Freiburg, Gockel found 1+ and I. decidedly larger in the car<>
afternoon than in either the morning or the late evening hour*.
His greatest and least mean hourly values and the hours of their
occurrence are as follows:—
Winter.
Summer.
!♦
I.
U
I-
Max.
0-333
a p.m.
Min.
0-I93
7 P.M.
Max.
o-24a
2 P.M.
Min.
0-130
8 P.M.
Max.
0430
4 P.M.
Min.
0244
9 to
10 P.M.
Max.
o-333
4 PM.
Min.
019a
9 to 1
10P.M]
Gockel did not observe between 10 p.m. and 7 a.m.
19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises.
Thus at Karasjok Simpson found for mean values : —
Temp, less than - ao* - io* to -5*. to* to is -
I + -oi8, l_-oi6 I+-0-36, 1.-0-30 U-o-45, L— 0-43
Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Cockrl
observed similar effects at Freiburg— though he seems doubt; jJ
whether the relationship is direct — but the influence of teatperatu<r
on 1+ seemed reduced when the ground was covered with snow.
Gockel found a diminution of ionization with rise of relative
humidity. Thus for relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean
values were 0*306 for 1+ and 0*219 for I_; whilst for relative
humidities between 90 and 1 00 the corresponding means were re-
st a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (29) obtained 0-86 for U and
1*09 for L.
ao. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation
is present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the radio-
activity is as follows (48) : A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter,
charged to a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported
betwe en insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres.
After two hours' exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported
in a given position relative to Elster and Geitel's dissipation appa-
ratus, and the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to
the length of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and
A- 1 signifies that the potential of the dissipation apparatus fcE
t volt in an hour per metre of wire introduced. The loss of the
dissipation body due to the natural ionization of the air is first
allowed for. Suppose, for instance, that in the absence of the wire
the potential falls from 364 to 25s volts in 15 minutes, whilst when
the wire (10 metres long) is introduced it fails from 264 to 201 volt*
in 10 minutes, then
10A- (264-201) x6- (264 -a53)X4 -34a; or A -34*2.
The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station.
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
867
At WUfaibattel. a year's observation* by Elster and Geitel (56) made
A vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 30. In the island of Juist, off
the Friesland coast, from three weeks' observations they obtained
only 5*2 as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine
station, from nine days' observations in July 1903 they obtained a
mean of 137, the maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At
Freiburg, from 150 days' observations near noon in 1903-1904,
Gockel (57) obtained a mean of 84, his extreme values being 10 and
420. At Karasjok, observing several times throughout the day for
a good many months, Simpson (10) obtained a mean of 93 and a
maximum of 432. The same observer from four weeks' observations
at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean value 58, with a
maximum of 20. At this station much lower values were found
for A with sea oreexes than with land breezes. Observing on the
pier at Swinemunde in August and September 1904, Ludeiing (40)
obtained a mean value of 34.
Elster and Geitcl (58), having found air drawn from the soil highly
radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the
atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained
for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter
Gockel (55) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground,
1+ being also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow
the mean value of A was only 42, as compared with 81 when there
was no snow.
I. C. McLennan (59) observing near the foot of Niagara found A
only about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch,
Elster and Geitel (56) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about
one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall.
21. Annual and Diurnal Variations.— At Wolfenbuttel, Elster
and Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok,
on the contrary, Simpson found A much larger at midwinter —
notwithstanding the presence of snow— than at midsummer. His
mean value for November and December was 129, while his mean
for May and Tune was only 47. He also found a marked diurnal
variation, A being considerably greater between 3 and 5 km. or
8*30 to 10-30 p.m. than between 10 a.m. and noon, or between 3 and
5 r.M.
At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with
increase of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute
height of the barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he
obtained larger values of A with a falling than with a rising
barometer. This last result of course is favourable to Elster and
Geitel's views as to the source of the emanation.
22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster
and Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from
radium. Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium,
and H. A. Bumstead (60) finds that with longer exposure of the wire
the relative importance of the thorium emanation increases. With
three hours' exposure he found the thorium emanation only from
3 to 5% of the whole, but with 12 hours' exposure the percentage
of thorium emanation rose to about 15. These figures refer to the
state of the wire immediately after the exposure: the rate of decay
is much more rapid for the radium than for the thorium emanation.
23. The different elements— potential gradient, dissipation,
ionization and radioactivity — are clearly not independent of one
another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the
richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the
following results obtained t>y Simpson (10) at Karasjok for the mean
values of a* corresponding to certain groups of values of I*. To
eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths
are treated separately.
Table VI II.— Mean Values of *#
Wind
Strength.
IjOtOOI.
O-I tOO-2.
oj to 0*3
0*3 to 0*4.
0-4 to 0-5.
oto 1
1 ,,3
*.,3
0-65
O-60
1-08
1-26
1-85
270
2*04
3-88
303
3«3
533
Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is
practically a linear function of ionization.
24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential
gradient to dissipation and ionization.
Table IX. — Potential, Dissipation, Ionization.
If we regard
ing a negative
that charge is u
the operations 1
A diminution i
be accompaiiiec
with rise in pc
and negative i
a negative or a
the diminished
and that negat
AtKremsmu
the diurnal vari
the forenoon a
twoc
No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential
gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (10) found fairly
similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined
to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other
confined to cases of negative gradient.
At Freiburg Gockel (55, 57) found that when observations were
grouped according to the value of A there appeared a distinct .rise
in both a. and C with increasing A. For instance, when A lay
between 100 and 150 the mean value of o_ was 1*27 times greater
than when A lay between o and 50 ; while when A lay between 120
and 150 the mean value of I + was 1*53. times larger than when A
lay between o and 30. These apparent relationships refer to mean
values. In individual cases widely different values of a- or 1+ are
associated with the same value of A.
25. If V be the potential, p the density of free electricity at a point
in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth's centre, then
assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation orV in horizon-
tal directions, we have
r-*(aV<fr)(rW/«V)+4.-p-0.
For practical purposes we may treat r* as constant, and replace
djdr by dfdht where n is height in centimetres above the ground.
We thus find p - - (i/4ir)<PV7<f A».
If we take a tube of force 1 so. cm. in section, and suppose it cut
by equipotential surfaces at heights Ai and At above the ground, we
have for the total charge M included in the-specified portion of the
tube
4»M - (<*V/<*A)Ai - {d\ldh)hx.
Taking Linke's (28) figures as given in I 10, and supposing
A-*-o, At»i5Xio 4 , we find for the charge in the unit tube between
the ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre
is now the unit of length, M - (1/41*) (125-25)7100. Taking I volt
equal 1/300 of an electrostatic unit, we find M -o- 000265. Between
1500 and 4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube » much less,
only 0-000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density
given by #- — (1/4*) X 125 volts per metre, -0-000331 in electro-
static units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the circum-
stances answering to Linke's experiemnts we have on the ground a
charge of —331 X 10-* C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding
positive charge, 265 X 10-* lies below the 1500 metres level, 40X »o-*
between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26X10-* above
4000 metres.
There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization
with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of
the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (61), near the
ground a mean value for dW/dh* is — (1/10) volt/(metre)*. From
this we deduce for the charge p per cubic centimetre fi/4ir)Xio~«
(volt/cm 1 ), or 27 X 10-* electrostatic units. But taking, for example,
Simpson's mean values at Karasjok, we have observed
pss L,- h *«oo5 X (cm./metre)» -5 X i<r*,
and thus (calculated p)/(observed/>) -0-05 approximately. Gerdien
- vedp]
himself makes L>— 1_ considerably largi
eludes thaLthe observed value of p is from 30 to 50 times that cal-
an Simpson, and con-
Potential
gradients.
volts per
metre.
9
Karasjok (Simpson (10)).
Kremsmflnster (41).
Freiburg (43).
Roth horn (43).
«♦
0.
u
I-
Q
oto 50
50,, 100
100 ,, 150
150 „ 200
200 „ 300
300,, 400
400,, 500
500 „ 700
1-14
1-12
184
J-2I
P
8-75
4-29
3-38
1-85
*'£
0-60
467
393
258
*'?
0-85
0-43
037
0-36
0-26
0.39
O-M
0*28
0-19
in
1*28
1.42
culated. The presumption is either that iPv/dh* near the ground is
much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that the.
ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some
species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative.
26. Gerdien (61) has made some calculations as to the probable
average value of the vertical elec-
tric current in the atmosphere in
fine weather. This will be com-
posed oi a conduction and a con-
vection current, the latter due to
rising or falling air currents carry-
ing ions. He supposes the field
near the earth to be 100 volts per
metre, or 1/300 electrostatic units.
For simplicity, he assumes 1+ and
L_ each equal 0-25X10-* electro-
static units. The specific velocities
of the ions— i.e. the velocities in
unit field— he takes to be 1*3X300
for the positive, and 1-6X300 for
the negative. The positive and
868
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is
<i/3oo)(o-25 X icr«) ( i -3 X300+ 1 -6 X300), or 73 X lor* in electrostatic
measure, otherwise 2-4 Xio*" 1 * amperes per sq. cm. As to the con-
vection current, Gerdien supposes—as in ( 25 — p«-2-7Xio-* electro-
static units, and on fine days puts the average velocity of rising
air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a convection current
of 2*7Xior* electrostatic units, or about 1/27 of the conduction
current. For the total current we have approximately 2-5X1 or 1 *
amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to the sue of
the currents which several authorities have calculated from con-
siderations as to terrestrial magnetism (?.».). Gerdien's estimate
of the convection current is for fine weather conditions. During
rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this current
might well be enormously increased; its direction would naturally
vary with climatic conditions.
27. H. Mache (62) thinks that the ionization observed in the atmo-
sphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation.
IF this is true we should have g- cut', where g is the number of ions
of one sign made in t cc of air per second by the emanation, a the
constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found simul-
taneously by, say, Ebert's apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann,
from observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce
0—4 as a mean value. Taking for a Townsend's value I-2+IO"*,
Mache finds n — 1 800. The charge on an ion being 3*4 X io~ w Mache
deduces for the ionic charge, 1+ or I_, per cubic metre 1800X3-4
Xior»Xio\ or o-6. This is at least of the order observed, which
is all that can be expected from a calculation which assumes 1+ and
I- equal. If, however, Mache's views were correct, we should expect
a much closer connexion between I and A than has actually been
observed.
28. C. T. R. Wilson (63) seems disposed to regard the action of
rainfall as the most probable source of the negative charge on the
earth's surface. That great separation of positive and negative
electricity sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and
the charge brought to the ground seems prepondcratingly negative.
The difficulty is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine
weather districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face
of the processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson
considers that convection currents in the upper atmosphere would
be quite inadequate, but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient
alone. At barometric pressures such as exist between 18 and
36 kilometres above the ground the mobility of the ions varies In-
versely as the pressure, whilst the coefficient of recombination «
varies approximately as the pressure. If the atmosphere at different
heights ts exposed to ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate
of production of ions per cc., {, will vary as the pressure. In the
steady state the number, n, of ions of eitner sign per cc is given by
«i - V57"y and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The
conductivity, which varies as the product of n into the mobility,
will thus vary inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be
one hundred times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles
interfere with conduction near the ground, so the relative conduc-
tivity in the upper layers may be much greater than that calculated.
Wilson supposes that by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of
negatively charged rain the air above the shower has a higher positive
potential than elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large
conduction currents laterally in the highly conducting upper layers.
29. Thunder. — Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual
station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while
if means are taken from a large area places may be included which
differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication,
that in some •countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In
temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the
fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (64) (1 771 to
1900) and London (65). (1763 to 1896) R. C. Mossman found the
appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (&)-
the statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, tbe average
number of days of thunder throughout six subdivision* of the
country, some wholly plain, others mainly moantainosjsv varied
only from 2i«l to 26-5, the mean for the whole of H unary being
235. The antithesis of this exists in the United States of America.
According to A. J. Henry (68) there are three regfons of maximum
frequency: one in the south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an
average of 45 days of thunder in the year; a second including the
middle Mississippi valley has an average of 33 days; and a third
in the middle M issouri valley has 3a With tbe exception of a narrow
strip along the Canadian frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairfv
high over the whole of the United States to the east of the lorefi
meridian. But to the west of this, except in the Rocky Mounr > 3
region where storms are numerous, the frequency steadily diminish*-*.
and along the Pacific coast there are large areas where thunder occur*
only once or twice a year.
30. The number 01 thunderstorm days is probably a lens exact
measure of the relative intensity of thunderstorms than statist x*
as to the number nf persons killed annually by lightning per rml:> a
of the population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kiuti
The letter M stands for " Midland."
Table X. — Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per milium
Inhabit
Hungary 7*7
Netherlands . ... 28
England, N.M. . . .1-8
„ E 1-3
„ S.M. . . . 1*
„ York and W.M. x-i
„ N i-o
Wales c-9
England, &E 08
M N.W. ... 07
., S.W.. . . . 0-6
London o-i
The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897- ion;:
that for the Netherlands, from data by A. J. Monne (69) on the rint
years 1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (70), are froa
twenty-four years, 1837-1880; those for the United States, due to
Henry (68), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data
allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning *
much greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 a-*l
1903, out of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of dorrv
Of the 229 only 67 were women, the only assignable exptaruti-n
being their rarer employment in the 'fields. Thus, ceteris *ar**%s,
deaths from lightning are much more numerous in a country th*n
in an industrial population. This is well brought out by the lev
figure for London. It is also shown conspicuously in figures gfvt a
by Henry. In New York State, where the population is largi-rv
industrial, the annual deaths per million are only three, but of the
agricultural population eleven. In states such as Wyoming and
the Dakotas the population is largely rural, and the deaths by light-
ning rise in consequence. The frequency and intensity of thunder-
storms are unquestionably greater in the Rocky Mountain than in
the New England states, but the difference is not so great as the
statistics at first sight suggest.
■" ** * lacetli
Upper Missouri and Plains . is
Rocky Mountains and Flatrac 1 o
South Atlantic .... 8
Central Mississippi ... 7
Upper „ ... 7
Oho Valley 7
Middle Atlantic .... 4
Gulf States $
New England * . . 4
Pacific Coast < i*
North and South Dakota . 20
California o
31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in tntenatY
and duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult
to define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist i*t
data as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data is
Table XI. are percentages of the total for the year. In most ca.«
the figures are based on the number of days of thunder at a partku! ar
station, or at the average station of a country; but the 1
Table XT.— Annual Variation of Thunderstorms.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec
Edinburgh ....
1-8
1-4
a
3-6
123
20-8
262
191
70
2-3
!■!•
o-«
London .."...
o-6
o-5
127
183
21-6
255
19*2
9*3
31
1-7
0-9
Paris
0-2
o-4
2'3
75
14-9
220
17-0
9*9
35
vS
0-4
Netherlands ....
2*2
18
37
65
140
147
156
147
103
101
*-5
France .....
2*2
2-8
41
*-4
138
I8 7
146
18-0
too
6-3
31
3-4
Switzerland ....
0-2
0-3
n
49
1 19
229
299
98
11
c~3
0-2
Hungary (a)
0*0
o-i
57
200
M-8
250
232
15-9
57
1-3
0-4
0-2
..'(«.
o-o
o-o
1-0
3-2
20-6
30-7
253
u
05
o-o
O-O
United States ....
0-1
01
1-2
«
14-3
12-8
250
27*2
204
i*4
0-3
O-I
Hong-Kong ....
O-O
2-1
4-3
234
14-9
»I-3
10*6
2 : I
o-o
00
Trevandrura ....
3*
3*
131
20<9
186
49
■ •2
n
25
'»
12-0
3*3
Batavia
104
92
ill
io-5
79
55
43
54
12-2
109
average annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively
6-4 and 10-7; while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Kenou (66) found 27-3
such days. In some tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year,
thunder is almost a daily occurrence. At Batavia (18) during the
epoch 1867-1895, there were on the average 120 days of thunder in
the year.
As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency
for Hungary relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire.
and the figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightntn;.
The data for Edinburgh, due to R. C. Mossman (64), refer to 130 yean*
1771 to 1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to
1 Note in case of Pacific Coast. Table X., '
ban 1."
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
Mossntan (68); for Pari* (1873-1803) to Renou (66) ; for the Nether-
lands (1882-1900) to A. J. Monne (69); for France(71) (1886-1899)
to Frou and Hann ; for Switzerland to K. Hess (72) ; for Hungary (67)
(1 896-1903) to L. von Ssalay and others; for the United States
(1 890-1900) to A. J. Henry (68); for Hong-Kong (73) (1894-1903)
to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum (74) data (1853-1864) were due
originally to A. Broun; the Batavia data (1867-1895) are from the
Batavia Observations, vol. xviii.
Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous
maximum at midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevan-
drum (8*31' N.) and Batavia (6° 11' S.), especially the former, show
a double maximum and minimum.
3a. Doily Variation,— The figures in Table XII. are again per-
869
number
for Germany, due to O. Steffens (80), rtpiessut the average numl
of houses struck by lightning in a year per million houses:
the first decade only seven years (1 854-1860) are really included.
Mossman thinks that the apparent increase at Edinburgh and
London in the later decades is to some extent at least real. The
two sets of figures show some corroborative features, notably the
low frequency from i860 to 187a The figures for Germany — repre-
senting four out of six divisions of that country — are remarkable.
In Germany as a whole, out of a million houses the number struck
per annum was three and a half times as great in the decade 1890
to 1900 as between 1854 and i860. Von Bezotd (81) in an earlier
memoir presented data analogous to Steffens', seemingly accepting
them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm destructiveness.
Table XII.— Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms.
Hour.
2-4.
4-6.
6-8.
8-10. 10-12.
o'-a'
*'-4'-
4'-6'. 6'-8'. 8'-io'. itf-ia'
Finland (76)
Edinburgh (64) .
Belgium (77)
Bracken (78) .
Switzerland (72)
Italy (77) . .
Hungary (L) (67)
„ (U.) (67)
(m.\ (75)
.. (iv.) (75)
Trevandrum (74)
Agustia (74)
2-3
»-7
3 "2
1*6
3'l
1-3
2*1
6-9
a
5-6
29
2-0
a-o
29
2-5
n
19
42
19
2-2
49
29
2-2
I'4
1-7
i-3
2*1
1-4
1-9
3-3
20
19
43
0-3
30
1-7
1-8
::i
2«o
2*1
2K>
24
1-9
1*3
00
4-6
47
20
42
2-0
3-o
3-9
2-0
XI
i-4
t-7
31
Z' 3
8.5
u-5
50
7-9
13-3
2-0
29
18.9
224
12*9
12-1
138
10-5
i8-i
99
l6«i
19*9
13-3
»5»
19a
23-7
21-6
28*6
20*9
26*5
22-0
16-9
22*1
ao-7
245
161
11-9
194
20*8
166
17-9
l8-2
191
152
15-9
22-2
IO-I
9.2
158
IO-I
146
98
107
ic-7
12-7
92
13-3
93
6-1
n
72
80
8-3
6-2
117
7-6
6*2
4-6
3-4
20
4-1
5*
3*5
ft
100
3-a
33
59
2-0
centages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of com-
mencement of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are
most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is
illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (67). The first
set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to the
hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other sets
of figures for Hungary (75), (iiiT) relates to the central plain, (iv.) to
the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour of
maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent
there than in the plains between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m., but less frequent
■ - - - - Trevandrum (8° 31' N. f j6 d 59' E», 195 ft.
Table XIII.
between 2 and xo p.m.
Doubts have, however, been expressed by others— e.g. A. Gockel,
Das Gewitter, p. 106— as to the real significance of the figures.
Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a greater
readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be contributory
Year.
Nether-
lands.
France.
Hungary.
U.S.A.
Year.
Nether-
lands.
France.
Hungary.
U.S.A.
1882
9*
..
141
»«93
102
288
333
209
1883
117
195
1894
111
300
333
33f
1884
95
229
..
!$
119
309
280
426
1885
1886
93
19a
..
109
266
399
34i
102
351
3»9
..
J &1
119
397
$
362
1887
7«
&
>36
1898
95
299
367
1888
.2
* 3 *
1899
112
399
368
563
1889
394
358
..
1900
108
401
713
1890
93
399
365
1 901
. .
502
1891
98
317
302
204
1902
..
33a
1892
86
324
35o
251
i9<>3
256
35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering
under trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a con-
vincing proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding, when there it
an option between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubt-
less the safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering
under a tree and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In
Hungary (67), during
the three years 1901
to 1903, 15 % of the
total deaths by light-
ning occurred under
trees, as against 57 %
wholly in the open.
In the United States
(68) in 1900, only 10%
of the deaths where the
precise conditions were
ascertained occurred
under trees, as against
52 % in the open. If
then the risk under
trees exceeds that in
the open in Hungary
and the United States,
above sea-level) and Agustia (8* 37' N., 77* 20' E., 6200 ft. above at least five or six times as many people must remain in the open as seek
sea-level) afford a contrast between low' ground-and high ground in shelter under trees. An isolated tree occupying an exposed position
India. In this instance there seems little difference in the hour of is, it should be remembered, much more likely to be struck than the
maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great concentration average tree in the midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on
of thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6 p.m. the species of tree. A good many years' data for Lippe (82) in Ger-
33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder many make the liability to lightniog stroke as follows— the number
from year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (69) and France (71) ' ' ~.~
arc the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere
in the country. Its larger area and more varied climate give a
much larger number of days of thunder to France. Notwith-
standing the proximity of the two countries, there is not much
parallelism between the data. The figures
lor Hungary (67) give the number of light-
ning strokes causing fire; those for the
United States <68) give the number of per-
sons killed by lightning. The conspicuous
maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1903
in Hungary are also shown by the statistics
as to the number of days of thunder.
This number at the average station of the
country fell from 38*4 in 1901 to 23*1 in
1902. On the whole, however, the
number of destructive lightning strokes
and of days of thunder do not show a
close parallelism.
34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer I a question of height, exposure or proximity to water. A good deal
-. , r . pearl .
again are exceptionally safe. It should, however, be borne in mind
that the apparent differences be tw een different species may be partly
Table XIV.
Decade ending
1810.
1820.
1830.
I84O.
I85O.
I860.
187a
1880.
1890.
1900.
Edinburgh . .
49
n
7-7
6-7
5-7
6-5
n
io-6
94
92
London
95
«l'5
n-8
105
11-9
»5-7
13*0
Tilsit ....
12-1
12* I
161
15-3
U-9
17-6
21-8
Germany, South .
1 ..
49
66
X
143
175
West .
..
' ..
93
106
• 288
331
, t . North
124
' 135
•«
353
Jt East .
...
102
143
210
373
Whole
90
116
189
354
318
periods. The data for Edinburgh (64) and London (65) due to
Mossman, and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (79), represent
the average number of days of thunder per annum. The data
may also depend on the soil. According to Hcllmann, as quoted by
Henry (82), the liability to lightning stroke |n Germany may- be put
at chalk i* clay 7, sand 9, loam 22.
870
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY— ATOM
>«v Nmw^Mi attowipra hav* bee* made to find periodic vana-
tbMt* \\s itutmUMMNum li\\|uriK\ . Among the period* MiegcMcd are
th* \\ \ + w Mm*|*«t »*«\xs< »x tall »h« wl. > MaUv (67U. kkholm
*t,.l \\\Iw\sh\* v*V tbim i\» hav* eM*N>vrn>d the existence of a
|ix<i'" »l !»«»*• ivm,s1. and a *\*.»«l.t\ pr«Kxt. **»>*■ P. Foil* (85)
«vhmA^ a mhssU \\ »m« r*«*v< |Hx>KtV4e A. B- MacDo*ail v«6)
,v,^t «>iiuu K.»\* ad* tiw^l rxusnor in favour ol the x-iew that
lh.t««tH«Mo*s»t« mv w*sv»« i w»\vAt ihsm no* hkxxi and fewest near
l».t ,»» ss4« M.xS «*«*x v\«x\ xv %v> Ui N- rx^uued to produce a
s\ ■
» w
,vU
x». .. * (V '
1:; ;;.
Xv»
«\> »-» A x« •
»» v »»»
\> X
sv^,» I
W .1
.» K.. *.,
1 ,' ■.,. »,x>(
I,
IV
lA,.
» * •, • *• vVnvv> Irom masts, lightning
«.,>.( «<*snu «»«* not very infrequent,
W4»»« 0»» the Soonblick. where the
.,« os» v.x «ul v*7* have found St Elmo's
^c »x> »x ,u«*c» of positive sometimes of
^.«i jmkI AiH^vMrancc differ in the two
» x . i a |x>.inw\ Mue in a negative discharge.
x»».ux ,4 ihv t*\» forms of discharge are de-
X *u v.^UU />uj Gewitter. Gockel states
.* .itxtwUll ihv »t*n i» positive or negative accord-
l ,»vx< v^ A»f »m.«U And powdery. The discharge
4. .« .» ,m..„ .K ttxxM'tivuucd by a sii/hng sound.
v« \v« \s'w hoi «»»h\\ experiments have been made on the
t.i)«..« » ^ *.t%«»»t» lu-UU or currents on plant growth. S. Lcm-
„ as •» «»,.« * v. a pioneer in this department, found an electric
Kin,. m x u u, u, \.\\ in mmuo but not in all cases. Attempts have
I 1, i,< % vv \\ vKxriiity to agriculture on a commercial scale,
\>\U *\\>k Muxi*i«i« of success attained remains somewhat doubt*
|„l i«M«^i>m WhcveU atmospheric electricity to play an im-
t . ^ 11. \ |m«i 111 tho lutural growth of vegetation, and he assigned
\ -. ,nl i.Mv ti» the needles of fir and pine trees.
tVwi » »««.w\rnv, -The following abbreviations are here used: —
M ' \,..*.'»a.',.|iw»« Ztitsckrift; P.Z., Pkysikalisch* Zeitschrijf,
II \. .u»t^tu\h k. Akad. Wiss. Wten, Math. Naiurw. Klasse,
hull 11 j. IVT.j "Philosophical Transactions Royal Society
t .i \uiuluu' i T.M., Terrettrtal Magnetism, edited by Dr L. A.
\" V a UK>k»:— (1) G. 1e Cadet, tiuie du chomp tiectriqu* dt Vat-
itt^bo (Paris, 1898); (2) Svante A. Arrhemus. Lehrbuck der
k ,,,,^ Pkvsik (Leipzig, 1903); (3) A. Gockel, Das GewitUr
U wh^iic, 1905)'
1 1.1 • of original authorities:— (4) F. Exner, J/-?., vol. 17, 1900,
u sw le»pecially pp. 54-»-3): (*) G. C. Simpson, Q.J.R. Met. Soc,
\<.l \l. 1005. p. »95 (especially pp. 305-6). References in the text : —
It) M.Z., vol. 4, 1887, p. 352; W T.M., vol. 4, 1899, p. 213; (8) P.Z.,
vol 4, p, 661 ; (9) M.Z., vol. 23, 1906, p. 114; (10) P.T., vol. 205 A,
lyoo, P- 61 ; (11) P.Z., vol. 5. p. 260; (12) C. Chree, P.T., vol. 206 A,
}> 299; (13) Annual volumes, Greenwich Magnetical and MeUoro-
u*ua/ Observations-, (14) M.Z., vol. 8, 1891, p. $57: (IS) M.Z.,
viil. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 189L, p. 113; (16) Annual volumes.
Antuies do Obs. do Infante D. Luis; (17) Annual Reports, Central
Meteorological Observatory of Japan; (18) Observations made at
iht Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia, vol. 18, 1895; (19) J. D. Everett,
P.l\, vol. 158, 1868, p. 347; (20) M.Z., vol. 6, 1889, p. 95; (21)
A. B. Chauvcau, Ann. bureau central mltiorologique, Paris, annet
I poo, " Memoires," p. G; (22) V. Conrad. S., 113, p. 1143; (23)
P. B. Zolss, P.Z., vol. 5, p. 260; (24) T.M.. vol. 7, 1902, p. 89;
(35) Revue tinbraledes sciences, 1906, p. 442; (26) T.U-. vol. 8. 1003,
p. 86, and vol. 9. 1904. P- -47 ; (27) S., 93, p. 222 ; (28) 12,
l«>»5. p. 237; (2°) P-Z, vol. 4. p. 632; (30) Phil. to,
18H5. p. 456; (3D Expidition polatre finlandaiu, vol. ; rs,
1808); (32) A. Paulsen, Bull, de I' Acad. . . . de Dai >4.
p. 148 ; (33) Wied. Ann., vol. 46, 1892. p. 584 : (34) P. A,
p. 187; (35) M.Z.. vol. 5. 1888, p. 95; 5., 99, p. 421; 4,
1899. P 15; (36) Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 11, p. 42 12,
Ep. 17 and 85; (37) P.Z., vol. 4, pp. 267 and 873; v.
rhweidler, S., 113. p. 1433; (39) S., in, July 1902; (
dti Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst., 1904 ; (41) P.Z., vol. 5. P- IO
p. 198; (43) P.Z., vol. 4. P- 871 ; (44) P.Z., vol: 4. P- <
. . _ ,„v ^ ""S.,\\
P.Z.. vol. 4. p. 522; (49) S., 113, p. 1455; (50) P.Z.,
(51) P£., vof 4. P- 90; (52) S., 114, p. 151 ; (53) MJZ.
p. 253: (5*) PZ>* vol. 5, P- 749! (55) M.Z., vol. 23
and 339: (56) PZ., vol. 5. p. ": (57) P.Z., vol. 5
T.M., vol. 9, 1904, p. 49; (59)J\Z., "
vol. o, 1904, p. 49; (59) P.Z., vol. 4, p. 295: (« 5.
p. 504: (61) T.M., vol. 10, 1905, p. 65; (62) S., 1 14. p. 1377: (*3)
Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 13, p. 363 ; (64) Trans. R.S. Ed in., vol. 39i
p. 63, and vol. 40, p. 484; (65) Q.J.R. Met. Soc.. vol. 24. 1898. p. 31 ;
I-... w„ t 277; (67) JahrbOcher der Kdnigl. Ung.
(66) M.Z., vol. If
Rfichsanstalt fUr Met.
let. und Erdmag., vol. 33, 190;,
appendix by L. von Szalay; (68) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Weather
f Erdmag., vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil wit
X
# , r „ culture, Weath
Bureau Bulletin, No. 30, 1901; (69) M.Z., vol. 19, 1902, p. 297;
(70) Q.J.R. Met. Soc., vol. 15, 1889. p. 140: (71) M.Z., vol. 20, loot,
p. 227; (72) M.Z., vol. 20, 1903, p. 522; (73) M.Z., vol. 23,
p 367: (74) M.Z., vol. 22. 1 — '"' '
vol. 20, 1 "
Arrhenius, M.Z., vol. 5. 1888. p. 34< . .- -.
vol. 22, 1005, p. 223: (79) M.Z., vol. II, 1894, p. 239; (80) M.Z.
vol. 23, 1906, p. 468; (81) Berlin S±t*. t 1889, No. 16;
Henry. I
; (74) M.Z., vol. 22. 1905. p. 175 V (75) J. Hegyfoky, M.Z.,
'. 1903. P- 218: (76) M.Z., vol. 22. 1905, p. 575; (77) S.
ius, M.Z., vol. 5. 1888. p. 348; (78) G. Hellmann. M.Z.,
W, u. 4VO, V«»*/ wrriin ^11*,. lOOXji r*v. iUj (82) A.J.
5. Dept. of Agriculture Bull., No. 36, 1899; (83) M.Z.,
vol. 16. 1899. p . 128; (84) J?. Stem. Vet. Akad. Hand., Bd. I* No, 8,
Bd. 20. No. 6, Bd. 31. Nos. 2 and 3; (85) M.Z., voL 11. 1894. p. 250:
(86) Nature, vol. 65, 1902, p. 367; (87) M.Z., voL 8, 189 1, p. 321:
(88) Brit. Assoc. Report for 1898, p. 808, also Electricity in Agri-
culture and Horticulture (London. 1904). (C Ch )
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. About X840-1845 great intemt
was excited by a method of propelling railway trains through
the agency of atmospheric pressure. Various inventors worked
at the realization of this idea. On the system worked out is
England by Jacob Samuda and S, Gegg, a continuous pipe or
main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial vacuum was
maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in
it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron
plate which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture
running the whole length of the pipe. This aperture was co v ered
by a valve consisting of a continuous strip of leather, strengthened
on each side with iron plates; one edge was fastened, while the
other was free to rise, and was closed against a composition of
beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the surface of which
was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train, in order
to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was
a frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the
continuous valve for a distance of about 1 5 f t Thus the piston
having atmospheric pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal
to z 5 or 16 in. of mercury on the other, was forced along the tube,
taking the train with it Various advantages were daimed by
the advocates of the system, including cheapness of operation
as compared with steam locomotives, and safety from oouisicr.,
because the main was divided into sections by separating valves
and only one train could be in each section at a given time. It
was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and
Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried
on the London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, bit
was soon abandoned. The same principle is applied in the
system of pneumatic despatch (?.?.) to the transmission of small
parcels in connexion with postal and telegraph work.
For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda. P. W.
Barlow and G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them,
in Proc. Inst. C.E., 1844 and 1845.
ATOLL (native name olollon in the Maldive Islands), a horse-
shoe or ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual
shape is that of a partly submerged dish with a broken edrc,
forming the ring of islands, standing upon a conical pedestal.
The dish is formed of coral rock and the shells of various reef-
dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the seaward edges, with
a film of living coral polyps that continually extend the fringe,
and enlarge the diameter o{ the atolL The lagoon tends to deepen
when the land is stationary by the death of the coral animals ia
the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the " hard **
coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile
them up at the margin, increasing the height of the islands,
which become covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in
the open part of the horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevaiLng
winds, since the coral growth is there slower than where the w&\ t?
constantly renew the polyps' food supply. The conical pedestal
rising from the depths is frequently a submarine volcanic cent
or island, though any submerged peak may be crowned by an
atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see CoRAL-XEtrs,
ATOM (Gr. &ro/ior , indivisible, from a- privative, and re/x^av,
to cut), the term given in physical science to the ultimate
indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something
minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sue^r
we find that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again
into finer, the finest particles still appearing to be of the same
nature as sugar. The same is true in the case of a liquid such as
water; it can be divided into drops and these again into smaller
drops, or into the finest spray the particles of which are too small
to be detected by our unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct
evidence of our senses tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely
divisible. Moreover, small particles do not seem to exist in the
water until it is broken up; so far as we can see, the material
of the water is continuous not granular. This conception of
matter, as infinitely divisible and continuous, Taj taught by
ATOM
871
Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era,
and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found.
But some phenomena are difficult to reconcile with
■ r ^imumImi tn * 9 v > ew J * or example, a cubic foot of air can be com-
pressed into less than one five-hundredth of a cubic
root, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying
the cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space
of a million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for
expansion and contraction is astonishing if we believe matter
to be continuous, but if we imagine air to be made up of little
particles separated by relatively large empty spaces the changes
in volume are more easily conceivable. Moreover, if we attribute
such a structure to gases, we are led to attribute it to liquids
and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied without any abrupt
change, and many substances usually solid can be converted
into gases by heating them. This conception of the grained
Structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found
in Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the
Christian era, and the Greek philosophers Democritus and
Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C., taught it very
definitely. Their view was that " matter is not indefinitely
divisible, but that all substances are formed of indivisible particles
or atoms which arc eternal and unchangeable, that the atoms
are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms,
by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of."
The Roman poet Lucretius {Dt Rerum Natura) was an eloquent
exponent of this theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed
until the 1 7th century, it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle.
In the time, however, of Boyle * and Newton, we again find an
atomic theory of matter; Newton* regarded a gas as consisting
Of small separate particles which repelled one another, the
tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the supposed
repulsion between the particles.
Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these
rival theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of
sugar are added to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon
disappears and we are left with a uniform liquid resembling
water, except that it is sweet. What has become of the sugar?
Does it still exist? The atomist would say, " Yes, it is broken
up into its atoms, and these arc distributed throughout the spaces
between the particles of water." The rival philosopher, who
believes water to be continuous and without spaces between its
particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the dis-
appearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar,
and the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new con-
tinuous substance had been formed from them, but he could
offer no picture of how this change had taken place. Or consider
a well-marked case of what we arc in the habit of calling chemical
combination. If 127 pans of iodine, which is an almost black
solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a white liquid metal,
be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a mortar, the
two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a
brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury;
almost the only property that is unchanged is the weight. The
question again arises, what has become of the original sub-
stances? The atomist has an easy answer; he says that the
new body is made up by the juxtaposition of the atoms of
iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder. His
opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the
mercury ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that
they were components but not constituents of it. The fact that
the two components can be recovered from the compound by
destroying it does not decide the question. It is remarkable
that pure chemistry, even to-day, has no very conclusive
arguments for the settlement of this controversy; but the sister
science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in favour of
the atomic conception.
Until the time of John Dal ton, the atomic conception remained
purely qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have
1 Robert Boyle, The Sceptical Chymist (1661); The Usefulness of
Natural Philosophy (1663).
1 Sir Isaac Newton, Prineipia, bk. H. prop. 23.
advanced chemistry or to have found further confirmation in
thefects of chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a
quantitative form, and showed that, by means of it, dmMom.
a vast number of the facts of chemistry could be
predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the
atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded
as its originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great ad- 1
vances in experimental chemistry. Rather before the commence-
ment of the 19th century the work of Lavoisier had rendered
it very probable that chemical changes are not accompanied
by any change in weight, and this principle of the conservation of
matter was becoming universally accepted; chemists were also
acquiring considerable skill in chemical analysis, that is, in the
determination of the nature and relative amounts of the elements
contained in compounds. But Sir H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden,
New View of the Atomic Theory (1896), have shown, from a study
of Dalton's manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic
theory to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory
appears to be a remarkable example of deductive reasoning.
Dalton, who was a mathematical physicist even more than a
chemist, had given much thought to the study of gases. Follow-
ing Newton, he believed a gas to be made up of particles or atoms,
From Dalloa's Nrw Sytltm •/ Cktmual PhUo&pMy
Hydrogen Gas. Nitrom Gas. Carbonic Acid Gas.
separated from one another by considerable spaces. Certain
difficulties that he met with in his speculations led him to the
conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though all
of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in size
and weight. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite
atomic weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he
thought that he could determine these atomic weights, in terms
of one of them, by means of the quantitative analysis of com-
pounds. The conclusion that each element had a definite atomic
weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea that made his specula-
tions fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative deduction and
verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which, taken
from Dalton's Nov System of Chemical Philosophy, part ii.
(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as
composed of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called
" nitrous gas " was composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believ-
ing it to be the simplest compound of these two elements, he
naturally represented its atom as formed of an atom of oxygen
and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition. When two elements
form more than one compound, as is the case with oxygen and
carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more
complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and
one atom of the other; the diagram _ hydrogen,
for carbonic acid illustrates this, and q oxygen,
an extension of the same plan enabled q nitrogen,
him to represent any compound, how- • carbon.
ever complex its structure. The table ©£ ?!*!?' - m
, . ' , nil , 0(D ammonia,
here given contains some of Dalton s q^ ethylene,
diagrams of atoms. They are not all #0 carbon monoxide,
considered to be correct at the present 0*0 carbon dioxide,
time; for example, we now think that ®° "V^Is* )
the ultimate particle of water is made qqq n i trous oxSe.
up of two atoms of hydrogen and one OCDO nitrogen peroxide,
of oxygen, and that that of ammonia
contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. Bat
these differences between Dalton's views and our present ones
do not impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow.
8 7 2
ATOM
The diagrams show that Dal ton formed a very definite conception
of the nature of chemical combination; it was the union of a
small number of atoms of one kind with a small number of
another kind to form a compound atom, or as we now say a
" molecule," this identical process being repeated millions of
times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The con-
ceptions of " clement/' " compound " and " mixture " became
more precise than they had been hitherto; in an element all the
atoms are alike, in a compound all the molecules are alike, in a
mixture there are different kinds of molecules. If we accept the
hypothesis that each kind of atom has a specific and invariable
weight, we can, with the aid of the above theory, make most
important inferences concerning the proportions by weight in
which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences
are often summarized as the laws of constant, multiple and
reciprocal proportions.
The law of constant proportions asserts that when' two dements
unite to form a compound the weights that combine are in an
Lmwot invariable ratio, a ratio that is characteristic of thai
compound. Thus if Dalton's diagram for the molecule,
or compound atom, of water be correct, it follows that
in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen
atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the
ratio of the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the
same as the ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen
atom, and this is invariable. Different samples of water cannot
therefore differ ever so little in percentage composition, and the
same must be true for every compound as distinguished from a
mixture. Apart from the atomic theory there is no obvious
reason why this should be so. We give the name bread to a
substance containing variable proportions of flour and water.
Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in
composition. Why should not the substance we call water also
vary more or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty
in such a variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom
it seems impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a
definite prediction that can be tested by experiment.
The law of multiple proportions asserts that if two elements
form more than one compound, then the weights of the one element
Lmwmi which are found combined with unit weight of the other
in the different compounds, must be in the ratio of two
or more whole numbers. If we compare Dalton's
"""""" diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three
oxides of nitrogen that are given in the preceding tabic, we at
once see the necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule
has to be formed from the simpler one by the addition of one or
more whole atoms. In the oxides of carbon the same weight
of carbon must be combined with weights of oxygen that are as
I : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed weight of nitrogen
must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as i : 2 : |,
which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : z. This law has been abun-
dantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of
nitrogen are known, and independent analyses show that, if we
consider the same weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights
of oxygen combined with it arc to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5.
The discovery of this law is due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction
from his atomic theory. Here again, apart from this theory,
there is no obvious reason why the composition of different
substances should be related in so simple a way. As Dalton
said, " The doctrine of definite proportions appears mysterious
unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis." " It appears like the
mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated."
The chemists of Dalton's time were not unanimous in accepting
these laws; indeed C. L. Berthollet (Essai de statique chimique,
1803) expressly controverted them. He maintained that,
under varying conditions, two substances could combine in an
indefinitely large number of different ratios, that there could in
fact be a continuous variation in the combining ratio. This
view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic theory, which requires
that when the combining ratio of two substances changes it
should do so, per solium, to quite another value.
The law of reciprocal proportions, or, as it might well be named,
the law of equivalence, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few
words. The following gives a partial statement of it. Lmnvmr
If we know the weights a and b of two elements that art w»wa t
found in union with unit weight of a third dement, them JJJJ' 1
we can predict the composition of the compounds which
the first two elements can form with each other; either the weights
a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be wu^Jz-
plied by integers to obtain the composition of a co mp o un d. To vt
how this law follows from Dalton's theory let us consider his
diagrams for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides J
carbon. In water and in ethylene experiment shows that 5
parts by weight of oxygen and 6 parts of carbon, respectrre'y.
are in union with one part of hydrogen; also, if the diagraxes
are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of the atotT-c
weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict tiut
all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the
ratio of 8m parts of oxygen to 6* parts of carbon, where m and m
are whole numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of
analysis. Similarly, if we know by experiment the compos t>? 3
of water and of ammonia, we can predict the probable composi-
tion of the oxides of nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water
and ammonia, we have, respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4 4;
parts of nitrogen in union with one part of hydrogen; we caa
therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen will all have the
composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4-67* parts of m'trogea.
Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that
the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In th»
particular case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in swrnwi the
values x, 2, 3, 4, 5.
It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a
compound molecule can only alter through the addition or
subtraction of one or more complete atoms, together with the
idea that all the molecules in a pure substance are alike. For-
tunately, the compounds at first examined by the chemists
engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively simple, »
that the whole numbers referred to above were smalL The
astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hy dn j flea
combine was not at first realised. Otherwise Bcrthoikts
position would have been a much stronger one, and the atom*
theory might have had to wait a long while for acceptance.
Even at the present time, it would be too much to say that all
the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis
to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composiuoa
and properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumpdoa
that they do so.
The above statement does not by any means exhaust the
possible predictions that can be made from the atomic theory,
but it shows how to test the theory. If chemical compounds
can be proved by experiment to obey these laws, then the
atomic theory acquires a high degree of probability; if they are
contradicted by experiment then the atomic theory must be
abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made many
analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but ha
skill as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the
great Swedish chemist J. J. Berzclius, and somewhat later, in
the experiments of the Belgian chemist J. S. Stas, that we find
the most brilliant and vigorous verificatipn of these laws, and
therefore of the atomic theory.
We shall now give an outline of the experimental c
the truth of these laws.
The law of the conservation of matter, an important 1
in the atomic theory, has been roughly verified by in
analyses, in which, a given weight of a substance
having been taken, each ingredient in it is isolated
and its weight separately determined; the total weight
of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly
equal to the weight of the original substance. But on account
of experimental errors in weighing and measuring, and through
loss of material in the transfer of substances from one vessel to
another, such analyses are rarely trustworthy to more than one
part in about 500; so that small changes in weight consequent
on the chemical change could not with certainty be proved or
ATOM
«73
disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification
much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed
the silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them
into the compound he weighed this also. In each of a number
of experiments he found that the weight of the silver iodide
did not differ by one twenty-thousandth of the whole from the
sum of the weights of the silver and the iodine used. His analyses
of another compound, silver iodate, confirm the law to one part
in 78,000. In E. W. Morley's experiments on the synthesis of
water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had been
formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his
results, the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to
differ from the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It
is evident that if our experiments are solely directed to the
verification of this law, they should, if possible, be carried out
in a hermetically closed vessel, the vessel and its contents being
weighed before and after the chemical change. The extremely
careful experiments of this kind, by H. Landolt and others,
made it at first appear that the change in weight, if there is any,
consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed one-millionth
of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must often
be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily
accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that,
until recently, every chemist would have regarded the law
as sufficiently verified. Landolt's subsequent experiments
showed, what was already noticed in the earlier ones, that these
minute changes in weight are nearly always losses, the products
weigh less than the components, while if they had been purely
experimental errors, due to weighing, they might have been ex-
pected to be as frequently gams as losses* Landolt was dis-
posed to attribute these losses in weight to the containing
vessel, which was of glass or quarts, not being absolutely im-
pervious, but in 1908 he showed that, by making allowance for
the moisture adsorbed on the vessel, the errors were both positive
and negative, and were less than one in ten million. He concluded
that no change of weight can be detected. Modem researches (see
Radioactivity) on the complex nature of the atom have a
little shaken the belief in- the absolute permanence of matter.
But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in weight
consequent on chemical change, it is too minmte to be of im-
portance to the chemist, though the methods of modem physics
may settle the question. (See Element.)
The law of constant proportions is easily verified*) a moderate
degree of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We
can prepare, in the laboratory, a white powder that proves to be
calcium carbonate, that is, it appears to be wholly composed of
carbon dioxide and lime. We find in nature two other unlike
substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of which is wholly
composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three sub-
stances, unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the
same ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of
the components were possible, we might expect to find- them
in such a case as this. But analysis has failed to find such
differences; the ratio of the weights of lime and carbon
dioxide is found to be the same in all three substances.
Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy,
nave been confirmed by a few carefully planned experi-
ments in which two components were brought together under
very varied conditions, and the resulting compound analysed.
Stas carried out such experiments on the composition of
stiver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never found a
variation of one part- in 10,000 in the-composition of the
substances.
The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before
the promulgation of the atomic theory, "but the law of multiple
proportions is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berseuus
saw at once that it afforded an admirable test for the concctn es s
of Dalton's views, and he made numerous experiments expressly
designed to test the law. One of these experiments may be
described. Two chlorides of copper are known, one a highly
coloured substance, the other quite white. "Berzelius took 8
grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and
sealed up the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed
strip of copper. After some time the colour entirely dis-
appeared; the strip of copper was then taken out and reweighed,
and it was found to have lost 803 grams. Thus the chlorine,
which in the coloured compound was in union with 8 grams of
copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined with
1603 grams, or almost exactly double the amount It is easy,
to verify this result* In a series of repetitions of the experiment,
by different observers, the following numbers were obtained for
the ratio of the copper in the two chlorides: x*o8, 1*97, 2-03,
2*003, the mean value being 1-006. It will be noticed that the
ratio found is sometimes above and sometimes below the number
a, which is required by the atomic theory, and therefore the
deviations may not unreasonably be attributed to experimental
errors. Such experiments— -and numerous ones of about this
degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances —
give a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open
question whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conserva-
tion of matter, or whether it is only approximately true. The
question is, however, vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore,
worth while to quote a verification of great exactitude from the
work of Stas and J. B. A. Dumas 1 on the composition of the
two oxides of carbon. From their work it follows that the ratio
of the weights of oxygen combined with unit weight of carbon
in the two oxides is 1-00005, or with somewhat different bats,
1*0006.
The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have
been already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that
underlies most of our chemical methods and calculations. One
section of the law expresses the fact that the weights of two
substances, not necessarily elements, that are equivalent in one
reaction, are often found to be equivalent in a number of other
reactions. The neutralization of adds by bases affords many
illustrations, known even before the atomic theory, of the truth
of the statement It is universally found that the weights of two
bases which neutralize the same weight of one add are equivalent
in their power of neutralizing other adds. Thus 5 parts by
weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3*5 of quicklime will each
neutralize 4-50 parts of hydrochloric add or 7-875 of nitric or
6*x 25 parts of sulphuric add; these weights, in fact, are mutually
equivalent to one another. The Dahonian would say that each
of these weights represents a certain group of atoms, and that
these groups can replace, or combine with, each other, to form
new molecules. The change from a binary compound, that is,
one containing two dements, to a ternary compound in which
these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords
a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture
the change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as
the addition of one or more atoms of the third element to the
previously existing molecule; in such a case the combining
ratio of the first two elements should be absolutely the same in
both compounds. Berselhxs tested this prediction. He showed
that lead sulphide, a black substance containing only lead and
sulphur, could be contorted by oxidation into lead sulphate, a
white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and sulphur.
The whole of the lead and sulphur of the, sulphide was found to
be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio
of the lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the
oxygen. This is found to be a general rule. It was verified very
exactly by Stas's experiments, in which he removed the oxygen
from the ternary compound silver iodate and found that the
whole of the silver and the iodine remained in combination with
each other as silver iodide; his results prove, to one part in ten
millions, that the combining ratio of the silver and the iodine
is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen.
The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been
accumulated in favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws
which can be deduced from the atomic theory. Whenever any
of these laws, or indeed any prediction from the theory, can be
tested it has so far proved to be in harmony with experiment
The existence of the periodic law (aee Element), and the
1 Freund, The Study of Chemical C
8 7 4
ATONEMENT
researches of physicists on the constitution of matter (*>».), also
furnish very strong support to the theory.
Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine
the weights of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the
analysis of compounds. It is evident that this is
practicable if the number and kind of atoms contained
in the molecule of a compound can be determined.
To take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct
in assuming that the molecule of water was made up of one atom
of oxygen and one of hydrogen, then the experimental fact that
water contains eight parts by weight of oxygen to one part of
hydrogen, would at once show that the atom of oxygen is eight
times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that, taking the
atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of
oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton's diagram for ammonia, together
with the fact that ammonia contains 4*67 parts of nitrogen to
one of hydrogen, at once leads to the conclusion that the atomic
weight of nitrogen is 4*67. But, unfortunately, the assumption
as to the number of atoms in the molecules of these two com-
pounds was an arbitrary one, based on no valid evidence. It is
now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms of
hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen
becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains
three atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that conse-
quently the atomic weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of
this difficulty, the atomic weights published by Dalton, and the
more accurate ones of Berzelius, were not always identical with
the values now accepted, but were often simple multiples or
submultiples of these.
The " symbols " for the elements used by Dalton, apparently
suggested by those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour
.- . of those which were introduced by Berzelius. The
*~ latter employe*} the first letter, or the first two letters,
of the name of an element as its symbol. The symbol, like that
of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the element,
that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen,
O stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols
of compounds become very concise, as the number of atoms
of one kind in a molecule can be expressed by a sub-index.
Thus the symbol or formula HiO for water expresses the view
that the molecule of water consists of one atom of oxygen
and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights
of oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of
water by weight Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia
is NH>.
The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so
obvious when we consider such simple cases as the above, but
chemists are now acquainted with very complex molecules
containing numerous atoms; cane sugar, for example, has the
formula CtsHnOu. It would be a serious business to draw
a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule.
Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases
consisted each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes
the point clear. We now believe that the molecule of an element
Is frequently made up of two or more atoms; thus the formulae
for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are H s , Ot, N», while
gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are probably P4 and St, find
gaseous mercury is Hgi,— that is, the molecule of this element
is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex nature
of the elementary molecule, is logicallyand historically connected
with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A. M.
Ampere. These natural philosophers suggested that equal
volumes of all gaseous substances must contain, at the same
temperature and pressure, the same number of molecules. Their
hypothesis explains so many facts that it is now considera} to be
as well established as the parts of the theory due to Dalton. 1
This principle at once enables the weights of molecules to be
compared even when their composition is unknown; it is only
1 It will be teen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are
reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in
2[ual volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly
tenrards abandoned it.
necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases
referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so
obtained giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of
the hydrogen molecule.
The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but
it has more than once happened in the history of science that a
hypothesis, after having been useful in the discovery ni|JJJt
and the co-ordination of knowledge, has been aban- jnatfci
doned and replaced by one more in harmony with later was*
discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought Jjjj?
that this fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and '
that in future chemists may be able to obtain all the guidance
they need from the science of the transformations of energy.
But modern discoveries in radioactivity * are in favour of the
existence of the atom, although they lead to the belief that the
atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as Dalton and
his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself may
be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of whkfc
Lucretius speaks. (F. H. Nb.)
ATONEMENT and DAT OF ATONEMENT. " Atone **
(originally— see below— "at one") and "atoneme
terms ordinarily used as practically synonymous with
satisfaction, reparation, compensation, with a view
to reconciliation. As the English technical terms
representing a theological doctrine which plays an
important part not only in Christianity but in most religions,
the underlying ideas require more detailed analysis. A doctrine
of atonement makes the following presuppositions, («) There
is a natural relation between God and man in which God looks
favourably upon man. (b) This relation has been disturbed so
that God regards man's character and conduct with disapproval,
and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In the
higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to
unsatisfactory conduct on man's part, i*. sin. (c) The normal
relation may be restored, i.e. sin may be forgiven; and this
restoration is the atonement
The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of
the restoration of man to God's favour; this has been variously
found (a) in the endurance of punishment; (6) in the payment
of compensation for the wrong done, the compensation consist-
ing of sacrifices and other offerings; (c) in the performance of
magical or other ritual, the efficacy of the ritual consisting in its
being pleasing to or appointed by Goo, or even in its having a
coercive power over the deity; (d) in repentance and amendment
of life. Most theories of atonement would combine two or mure
of these, and would include repentance and amendment. Some
or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled, according
to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on hjs behalf
by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by
some one else.
In the Old Testament, " atonement," " make an atonement '
represent the Hebrew kippur and its derivatives. It is doubtful
whether this root meant originally to "cover" or __
" wipe out "; but probably it is used as a technical ~"
term without any consciousness of its etymology. _
The Old Testament presents very varied teaching on
this subject without attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in
a harmonious system. In some cases there is no suggestion of
any forgiveness; sinners are " cut off " from the chosen people;
individuals and nations perish in their iniquity. 1 Some passages
refer exclusively to the endurance of punishment as a condition
of pardon; 4 others to the penitence and amendment of the
sinner. 1 In Esekiel xxxvi 35-31, repentance is called forth by
the divine forgiveness.
Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the
restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly
Code (Leviticus and allied passages) stems to confine the efficacy
* Rutherford, Radioactivity.
a Cf. Exodus xii. 1$, Ac; Josh. viL 24 (Achan); Jer. 1L 6*
(Babylon).
4 2 Sam. xii. it, T4 (Davfd)t Isaiah xl. 1 (Jerusalem): In each
cues, however, the context implies
♦ Estk. ayiiU Micah vi.
ATONEMENT
«7*
of sacrifice to ritual, vernal and involuntary sins, 1 and requires
that the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic
priests; but these limitations did not belong to the older religion;
and even in later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to
sacrifice. On the other hand, other passages protest against the
ascription of great importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite
as a consequence rather than a cause of forgiveness.* The Old
Testament has no theory of sacrifice; in connexion with sin the
sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of penalty or com-
pensation. Lev. xvii. xz suggests a mystic or symbolic explana-
tion by its statement " the life of the flesh is in the blood; and
I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for
your lives: 9 for it is the blood that mafceth atonement by reason
of the life," The Old Testament nowhere explains why this
impoitaiux is stUched to the blood, but the passage a c^ten held
to mean that the life of the victim represented the forfeited life
of the offerer.
The atoning ritual reached its dimax on the Bay of Atone-
ment otsjo of, ijitpa tgtWpoO, in the Mishna simply " the
jbvUi D*y " Ytmd), observed annually on the 10th day of
Mr •# the 7th month (Tisri), in the autumn, about October,
jgy shortly before the Feast of Tabernacles Or vintage
festival. At one time the year began in Hsri. The
laws of the- Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code. 4
There is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest
reference to any such special time of atonement being the
proposal of Esek. xlv. 18-20 to establish two days of atonement, •
in the first and seventh months.* No doubt, however, both the
principles and ritual are partly derived from earlier times. The
object of the observances was to cleanse the sanctuary, the
priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to renew
and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel.
The ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices,
abstinence from work, &c; and also certain unique acts. The
Day of Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is
only on this occasion that (a) the Jews are required to " afflict
their souls/' (b) the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (c) the
High Priest offers incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles
it with blood, and (d) the scapegoat or Asasel is sent away into
the wilderness, bearing upon him all the iniquities of the people.
In later Judaism, especially from about 100 B.C., great stress
was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is now the most
important religious function of the Jews. On that day many .
attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them
at other times.
The idea of vicarious atonement appears In the Old Testament
in different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the indivi-
dual;* and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk 7 or of
the nation. 1 Above all the Servant of Yahweh* appears as
atoning for sinners by his sufferings and death. Again, the
Old Testament speaks of the restoration of heathen nations,
and of the salvation of the heathen; 1 * but does not formulate
any theory of atonement in this connexion. The Old Testament,
however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine of the
atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely
concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future
life. Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the
atonement. Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious
atonement for Israel through the sufferings of the righteous,
especially the martyrs; but it is very doubtful whether the
idea of the atonement through the death of the Messiah is a
pre-Christian Jewish doctrine. 11
In the New Testament, the English version uses " atonement "
1 Lev. iv. 2, " sin unwittingly " biskegagS, c 450 »-c, &c
* Psalm 1. 10, U. 16-19; Isaiah t n ; Micah vi. 6-8.
* Heb. ntphesh, also translated "soul."
* Lev. xvx.. xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-1 1.
* So Davidfon, Ace. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has
" seventh day of the month."
* e.f. Achan, Josh. viL 10-15.
* 2 Sam. xxi. X-Q; Dent. v. 9, 10.
* Ezek. xxi. 3, 4. • Isaiah liii. *> Isaiah xix. 25, xtix. 6.
owe, Rom. v. n, for jntraXXvy^ (R.V. here and elsewhere*
" reconciliation "). This Greek word corresponds to
the idea suggested by the etymology of at-one-ment, tSm
the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense Ma
which the word had in the 17th century but has since
lost But the idea which is now usually expressed by " atone*
ment " is rather represented in the New Testament by iXaffjios
and its cognates, e.g. 1 John ii. 2 R.V., " He (Jesus) is the
propitiation (tWjist) for our sins.'' But these words are rare,
and we read more often of " salvation " (cunrjpta) and " being
saved," which includes or involves that restoration to divine
favour which is called atonement. The leading varieties of
teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine writings,
the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ
especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and
with repentance and amendment of life. 1 *
These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally.
The New Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers
were agreed as to any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards
the relation of the death of Christ to the sinner's restoration to
God's favour; but various suggestions are made as to die
solution of the problem. St Paul's teaching connects with the
Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering, represented in the Old
Testament by Is. liiL, and probably, though not expressly, with
the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of sinners satisfies
the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their sin.**
His work is an ex pr essi on of God's love to man; 14 the redeeming
power of Christ's death is also explained by Jus solidarity with
humanity as the second Adam, 1 *— the redeemed sinner has
" died with Christ." M Some atoning virtue seems also attributed
to the Resurrection; Christ's sayings connect admission to the
kingdom of God with susceptibility to the influence of His
personality, faith in Himself and His mission, and the loyalty
that springs from faith. 1 * In John, Christ is a " propitiation "
(iWjiftr) provided by thelove of God that man mays be cleansed
from sin; He Is abo their advocate (JlapiK\ffns) with God that
they may be forgiven, for His name's sake.** Hebrew* speaks of
Christ as transcending the rites and officials of the law; He
accomplishes the -realities which they could only foreshadow;
in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which atones for sin/
He is both priest and victim.**
The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has
chiefly shaped itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious
atonement; the sufferings of Christ were accepted as a
.substitute for the punishment which men deserved, jJJJJ
and so the divine righteousness was satisfied— a jmr«ff>i
formula, however, which left much room for contro-
versy. The creeds and confessions are usually vague. Thus the
Apostles' Creed, " I believe in the forgiveness of sins "; the
Nicene Creed, " I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ . . . who for*
us men and for our salvation came down from heaven ... I
acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins"; the
Athanasian Creed, " Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation.".
In the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England we have
(11.) " Christ suffered ... to reconcile his Father to us, and to
be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual
alms of men " ; and (xxxL) " The offering of Christ once made
is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for
all the sins of the whole world." The council of Trent declared
that " CkrisUu . . . nobis sua sanjiissima passions Hgno cruris
justification** meruit et pro nobis den pairi satisfecU," "Christ
earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied
God the Father for us." The Confessionof Augsburg uses words
equivalent to the Articles quoted above which were based upon
it The Westminster Confession declares: *" The Lord Jesus
Christ, by His perfect obedience and sacrifice of Himself, which
He through the Eternal Spirit once offered up to God, hath
19 Mark x. 45; Matt, xxvC 28 j 1 Cor. *v. 3; John at 48-^3 J
Heb. ii. 9.
*• Rom. Hi. 25. " Rom. v. 8. u Rom. v. X5.19.
» Rom. vi. 8. » Rom. iv. 25.
» Matt. xxv. 34 f. ; Mark viii. 34 ff* ls> 36 f., x. 21.
■ I John ii. i, 2, J2» ill 5, 8, iv. lot » Heb. 0. 17.** " -
876
ATRATO— ATREUS
fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and purchased not only
reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the kingdom
of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him."
Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly
the points on which the standards are vague. For instance,
how was justice satisfied by Christ? The early Fathers, from
Irenaeus (d. c, aoo) to Anselm (d. xioo), 1 held, inter alia, that
Christ paid a ransom to Satan to induce him to release men from
his power. Aaselm and the scholastics regarded the atonement
as an offering to God of such infinite value as to outweigh men's
sins, a view sometimes styled the " Commerical Theory." * The
leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore the punish-
ment of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved
by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards
junior. But the intellectual activity of the Reformation also
developed other views; the Socinians, with their humanitarian
theory of the Person of Christ, taught that He died only to
assure men of God's forgiving love and to afford them an example
of obedience---'' Forgiveness ia granted upon the ground of
repentance and obedience."* Grotius put forward what has been
called the Governmental Theory, viz. that the atonement took
place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical
interests of the divine government of the world, " The sufferings
and death of the Son of God are an exemplary exhibition of
God's hatred of moral evil, in connexion with which it is safe and
prudent to remit that penalty, which so far as God and the divine
attributes are concerned, might have been remitted without it" 4
The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though
it was modified in many ways by various theologians. For
instance, it has been held that Christ atoned for man-
kind not by enduring the penalty of sin, but by identify-
ing Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and
feeling for him an " equivalent repentance " for his sin. Thus
McLeod Campbell (q.v.) held that Christ atoned by offering up
to God a perfect confession of the sins of mankind and an
adequate repentance for them, with which divine justice is
satisfied, and a full expiation is made for human guilt. A similar
view was held by F. D. Maurice. 1 Others hold that the effect of
the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God, but to
reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus
reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God,
and conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive
the sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and
effects their salvation; so substantially Ritachl.* In England
much influence has been exerted by Dr R. W. Dale's Atonement
(1S75), the special point of which is that the death of Christ is
not required by the personal demand of God to be propitiated,
but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law of righteousness;
thus, " the death of Christ is the objective ground on which the
sins of men arc remitted, because it was an act of submission to
the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was
condemned . . . and because in consequence of the relation
between Him and us— His life being our own— His submission
is the expression of ours, and carries ours with it , . . (and)
because in His submission to the awful penalty of sin . . . there
was a revelation of the righteousness of God, which must other-
wise have been revealed in the infliction of the penalties of sin
on the human race." 7 This view, however, leads to a dilemma;
if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the divine
will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered to
God; if the law has an independent position, the view is incon-
sistent with pure monotheism.
The present position may be illustrated from a work repre-
senting the more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton
in Lux Mundi' stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory
1 Stevens. Christian Doctrine of Sahation, p. 138.
' Ibid. p. 1 51.
• Shedd, HuL of Christ. Doetr. H. 385 ff. : cf. van Oosteraee, Christ.
Dogmatics, 61 1. « Shedd ii. 358 f.
■Crawford, Scripture Deetrine of the Atonement, pp. 3*7 ff.
• Orr, RUsehlian Theology t pp. 149 ff.
' Dale, Atonement, pp. 430 n.
• Pp. 209, si 3, a 14, si6, 219, sai, 235.
towards God because H ex pr essed His perfect obedience, k
manifested God's righteous wrath against sin, and in virtue
of Christ's human nature involved man's recognition of the
righteousness of God's condemnation of sin; also became ia
some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; aac
finally because Christ is the representative of the human net.
Towards man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy becatu*
it delivers from sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys
the assurance of pardon. The benefits of the atonement axe
appropriated by " the acceptance of God's forgiveness in Christ.
our self-identification with Christ's atoning attitude, and then
working out, by the power of the Ufe bestowed upon us, all the
(moral and spiritual) consequence of forgiveness."
At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely
held; whether in the form of penal theories— the old farenae
view that the death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of
man's sin — or in the form of governmental theories; that the
Passion fulfilled a necessity of divine government by expressuxg
and vindicating God's righteousness. But there is atmo a wide-
spread inclination to minimise, ignore or deny the objective
aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on
God's attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories
in emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the
influence of the Passion on man. There is a ten d ency to eclectic
views embracing the more attractive features of the various
theories; and attempts are made to adapt, interpret and
qualify the imagery and language of older formulae, in order
so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible
with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism.
Such attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they
involve a measure of obscurity and ambiguity.
Bibliography.— Atonement: H. Bushndl, Vicarious Snerifue
(1871); J. McLeod Campbell, Nature of the Atonement (1***.';
T. J. Crawford, Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Attmem'*t
(1871); R. W. Dale, Atonement (1875): J. Dcnney, Deal* of Christ.
Atonement and the Modem Mind (1903) ; A Lyttelton, Lux Muue'u
pp. 301 ff. (Atonement). (1889); R. Moberiy, Atonement and Per.
sonality; A. Ritachl, Die chrtstlicke Lehre oon der Recksfertigi^t
und Versdhnung (1 870-1 874); G. B. Stevens, Christian Doctrine
of Sanation (1905).
Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings' Bible Dic t ion ary . *wd
in the Encyclopaedia Biblica. (W. tt. Bx )
ATRATO, a river of western Colombia, South America, rising
on the slopes of the Western Cordilleras, ia s° 36' N. lat-, and
flowing almost due north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where
it forms a large delta. Its length is about 400 m., but owing to
the heavy rainfall of this region it discharges no less than 1 75,000
cub. ft of water per second, together with a very large quantity
of sediment, which is rapidly filling the gulf. The river is navi-
gable* to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the greater part of its coarse
for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth prevent the entrance
of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow valley
between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short tribu-
taries, the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Muni.
The gold and platinum mines of Choco wem on some of its
affluents, and the river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one
time attracted considerable attention as a feasible route for a
trans-isthmian canal, which, it was estimated, could be excavated
at a cost of £11,000,000.
ATREK, a river which rises in 37° 10' N'lat. and 59° £., ia the
mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan,
and flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian
Transcaspian province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m.,
into the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance
north-north-west of Astarabad.
• ATRKUS, in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodamcia,
and elder brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his step-
brother Chrysippus, Atreus fled with Thyestes to Mycenae,
where he succeeded Eurystheus in the sovereignty. His »ife
Aerope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven from Mycenae.
To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthettes (Atreus' son whom
Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Net-
sthenes was himself slain by his own father. After this Aliens,
apparently reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae
ATRI-— ATTA
877
and invited him to a banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had
■lain. Thyestes fled in honor. Subsequently Atreus married
the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia, who had by her own father
a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus. Thyestes was
found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and
imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder
Thyestes, mutual recognition took place, and Atreus was slain
by the father and son, who seized the throne, and drove Aga-
memnon and Menelaus out of the country (Thucydides i. 9;
Hyginus, Fabulae; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak of the
horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians;
he merely states (Iliad, H. 105) that Atreus at his death left the
kingdom to Thyestes.
See T. Voigt in Dissert. pkOot. Halenses. vi. (1886).
ATM, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo,
6 m. W. of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona
to Foggia, and 18 m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the
andent Hadria (q.v.). Pop. (1001) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral
(1285-1305) is remarkably fine; and the interior, though spoilt
by restoration in 1657, contains some important frescoes of the
end of the 1 5th century by Andrea di Lecce and his pupils. The
crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period, lite palace
of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1308 to
1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.
ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening
of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek
cMpuM, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria,
where the style of building is supposed to have originated), the
principal entrance hall or court of a Roman dwelling, giving
access and light to the rooms round it. The centre of the roof
over the atrium was open to the sky and called the cotnpluvium;
the rain-water from the roof collected in the gutters was dis-
charged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as
the impluvium. In the early periods of Roman civilization the
atrium was the common public apartment, and was used for
the reception of visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic
purposes, as cooking and dining. In it were placed the ancestral
pictures, the marriage-couch, the hearth and generally a small
altar. At a somewhat later period, and among the wealthy,
separate apartments were built for kitchens and dining-rooms,
and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for clients
and visi tors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending
on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described
by Yltruvius under the title of cavaedium.
Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were
called by the term (corresponding to the English " hall "), such
as the Atrium Vestae, where the vestal virgins lived, and the
Atrium Libertatis, the residence of the censor, where Asinius
Pollio established the first public library at Rome.
Hie word atrium in Rome had a second signification, being
given to an open court with porticos round, sometimes placed
in front of a temple. A similar arrangement was adopted by
the early Christians with relation to the Basilica, in front of
which there was an open court surrounded by colonnades or
arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sent*
Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still
retain their atria.
ATROPHY (Gr. &- priv., rptxf^, nourishment), a term in
medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some inter-
ference with the function of healthy nutrition (see Pathology).
In the living organism there are always at work changes involving
the waste of its component tissues, which render necessary, in
order to maintain and preserve life, the supply and proper assimi-
lation of nutritive material. It Is also essential for the mainten-
ance of health that a due relation exist between these processes
of waste and repair, so that the one may not be in excess of the
other. When the appropriation of nutriment exceeds the waste,
hypertrophy (q.v.) or increase in bulk of the tissues takes place.
When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is
suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is
impaired, atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole
body becomes atrophied in many diseases; and in old age every
part of the frame, with the single exception of the heart, under-
goes atrophic change. Atrophy may, however, affect single
organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the general state of
nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety of ways.
One of the most frequently observed of such instances is atrophy
from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is
deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis
or by painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential
to its nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures
sooner or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently
observed to be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there
is atrophy of the optic nerve and optic tract. This form of
atrophy is likewise well exemplified in the case of those organs
and structures of the body which subserve important ends
during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be necessary after birth,
undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the thymus gland,
and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal circulation.
The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of
atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become
shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interrup-
tion to its normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature
or obstruction of an artery. Again, long-standing disease, by
affecting the nutrition of an organ and by inducing the deposit
of morbid products, may result in atrophy, as frequently happens
in affections of the liver and kidneys. Parts that are subjected
to continuous pressure are liable to become atrophied, as is
sometimes seen in internal organs which have been pressed upon
by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated in
the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest
itself simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is
often found to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures
affected and the formation of adventitious growth, so that the
part may not be reduced in bulk although atrophied as regards
its proper structure. Thus, in the case of the heart, when
affected with fatty degeneration, there is atrophy of the proper
muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced by fatty matter,
the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may, on
the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual
and slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the
disease known by the name of acute yellow atrophy of the liver,
that organ undergoes such rapidly destructive change as results
in its shrinking to half, or one-third, of its normal size in the
course of a few days. The term progressive muscular atrophy
(synonyms, toasting or creeping palsy) is applied to an affection .
of the muscular system, which is characterized by the atrophy
and subsequent paralysis of certain muscles, or groups of muscles,
and is associated with morbid changes in the anterior roots of
the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins insidiously,
and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one hand,
generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first attracted
by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is
found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those
of the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms
and legs become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy
being attended with a corresponding diminution in power.
Although sometimes arrested, this disease tends to progress,
until in course of time the greater part of the muscular system
is implicated and a fatal result ensues.
ATROPOS, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates
(see Fate). Her name, the " Unalterable " (A- privative, and
Tpbrur, to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the
decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is
most frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting
instrument, the " abhorred shears," with which she slits the
thin-spun thread of life that has been placed on the spindle by
Gotho a nd dra wn off by Lachesis.
ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS, or Qvnmeros (d. 77 B.C.), Roman
comedy writer,, was, like Titimus and Afranius, distinguished
as a writer of fabulae togaiae, national comedies. He had the
reputation of being a vivid delineator of character, espedaBv
female. He also seems to have published a collection of ~
The scanty fragments contain many archaisms, but t
878
ATTACAPA— ATTAINDER
style. According to Horace (Epistles, ii 1. 70) the plays of
Atta were still put on the stage in his time.
Aulus Gcllius vii. o; fragments in Neukirch, De fabula logata
Romanorum (1833); Ribbeck,ComicorumLatinorumrdtquiae(iS$$).
ATTACAPA (Choctaw for "cannibal"), a tribe of North-
American Indians, whose home was in south-west Louisiana;
they are now practically extinct.
ATTACHMENT, 1 in law, a process from a court of record,
awarded by the justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion,
or on their own knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of
contempt. It differs from arrest (q.v.), in that he who arrests
a man carries him to a person of higher power to be forthwith
disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the party attached,
and presents him in court at the day assigned, as appears by the
words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is only upon
the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his
goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to
lands, as the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body,
as an attachment does. Every court of record has power to fine
and imprison for contempt of its authority. Attachment being
merely a process to bring the defendant before the court, is not
necessary in cases of contempt in the presence of the court itself.
Attachment will be granted in England against peers and
members of parliament only for such gross contempts as rescues,
disobedience to the sovereign's writs and the like. Attachment
will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this
respect are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only
punish for contempts committed in presence of the court (see
Contempt of Court). Attachments are granted on a rule in
the first instance to show cause, which must be personally served
before it can be made absolute, except for non-payment of costs
on a master's allocatur, and against a sheriff for not obeying a
rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The offender is
then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to answer
interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose
instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination
when taken is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and
on the contempt being reported, the court gives judgment accord-
ing to its discretion, in the same manner as upon a conviction
for a misdemeanour at common law. Sir W. Blackstone observes
that " this method of making the defendant answer upon oath
to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of the common
law in any other instance " ; and the elasticity of the legal defini-
. tions of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments
on judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint
Attachment of Debts.— It was suggested by the common law
commissioners in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of
Foreign Attachment (see below) might be made available to
creditors, after judgment, against debts due to their debtors.
Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 enacted
that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior
courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might
be examined as to any debts due and owing to him before a master
of the court. The rules and regulations under the Judicature
Act 1873 retained the process for attachment of debts as estab-
lished by the Procedure Act of 185-4. On affidavit that the judg-
ment was still unsatisfied, and that any other person within the
jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the judge
was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person
(called the garnishee) to the judgment debtor, to answer the
judgment debt This order binds the debts in the hands of the
garnishee, and if he does not dispute his liability execution
issues against him at once. If he disputes his liability the ques-
tion must be tried. Payment by the garnishee or execution
1 " To attach " is first uted in English in the legal sense of arrest
or seizure, and the sense of " fasten to " b comparatively late. The
Old French atachier, modern attacker, from which the English
" attach " is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English
" tack," which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic
languages, and b ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin
langere t to touch. The Italian attacare, especially in the phrase
attacar* baUaglia, to join battle, gave the French attaquer, whence
the English " attack," which b therefore by origin a doublet of
against him is a complete discharge as against the ,
debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of the
18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By
the Wages Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that
no order for the attachment of the wages of any servant. Labourer
or workman shall be made by the judge of any court of record or
inferior court, and by the Merchant Shipping Act 1804 it is
enacted that the wages of a seaman or apprentice are not subject
to attachment.
In the United States attachment of debts b a statutory remedy
accorded in most of the states in certain circumstances for the
security of creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor's
goods or the imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment,
4nd sometimes at the very commencement of the action. In
some states it b only allowed in special cases, as when the
debtor has absconded, or b a non-resident or guilty of fraud;
in a few it may be had, as of right, at the commencement of
ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United States
(by act of Congress) follow the practice in thb regard of the stale
in which they sit Such attachments (on mesne process) can
generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety.
The body can also be attached in most states on civil actions
of tort (for a wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another),
but not in actions on contract
Foreign Attachment b an important custom prevailing in the
city of London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to
bis debtor, or property belonging to him in the possession of third
parties. The person holding the property or owing the money
must be within the city at the time of being served with the
process, but all persons are entitled to the benefit of the custom.
The plaintiff having commenced his action, and made n satis-
factory affidavit of his debt is entitled to issue attachment
which thereupon affects all the money or property of the de-
fendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The
garnishee, of course, has as against the attachment nil the
defences which would be available to him against the defendant
bis alleged creditor. The garnishee may plead payment under
the attachment, if there has been no fraud or collusion, in bar
to an action by the defendant for hb debt or property. The
court to which thb process belongs b the mayor's court **
London, the procedure in which b regulated by the Mayor's
Court of London Procedure Act 1857* Thb custom, and all
proceedings relating thereto, are expressly exempted from the
operation of the Debtor's Act i860. Similar customs exist m
Bristol and a few other towns in England and also in Scotland.
A Writ of A Uachment enforces answers and obedience to decrees
and orders of the High Court of Justice, and b made out without
order upon an affidavit of the due service of the process, *x,
with whose requirements compliance is sought A corporation,
however, b proceeded against by distringas and not by attach-
ment It was formerly competent to the plaintiff to compel
the appearance of a defendant in chancery by attachment bat
the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case of
default It b one of the modes of execution allowed for the
recovery of property other than land or money.
Attachment of the Forest was the proceeding in the courts of
attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days' courts. These courts
have fallen into desuetude. They were held before the verdexm
of the royal forests in different parts of the kingdom once is
every forty days, for the purpose of inquiring into all offences
against " vert (greensward) and venison." The at t ac hmen t was
by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in the very act of killing
venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to do, or by fresh
and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they most
be attached by their goods. These attachments were received
by the verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to
the Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior
of the forest courts.
ATTAINDER (from the O. Fr. ataindre, atemdrt, to attain,
i.e. to strike, accuse, condemn; Lat attingere, tangere, to touch,
the meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with
Fr. taindre, teittdre, to taint, stain, Lat tingere, to dye), in English
ATTAINT—ATTEMPT
879
law, wa* the immediate and inseparable consequence from the
common law upon the sentence of death. When it was clear
beyond all dispute that the criminal was no longer fit to live
he was called attaint, and could not, before the Evidence Act
1843, be a witness in any court. This attainder took place after
judgment of death, or upon such circumstances as were equivalent
to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on a capital
crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction
without judgment was not followed by attainder. The con-
sequences of attainder were (1) forfeiture, (a) corruption of blood.
On attainder for treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown
bis lands, rights of entry on lands, and any interest he might
have in lands for his own life or a term of years. For murder,
the offender forfeited to the crown the profit of his freeholds
during life, and in the case of lands held in fee-simple, the lands
themselves for a year and a day; subject to this, the lands
caches ted to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related back
to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods
and chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction
for a felony of any kind, or on flight from justice, and had
no relation backwards to the time of the offence committed.
By corruption of blood, " both upwards and downwards," the
attainted person could neither inherit nor transmit lands. The
lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to the crown's
right of forfeiture. The doctrine of 'attainder has, however,
ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870
enacted that henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, con-
viction or judgment of or for any treason or felony, otfelo de se,
should cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any
forfeiture or escheat- Sentence of death, penal servitude or
imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve months,
after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from holding
or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the crown
or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c, and such disability
is to remain until the punishment has been Buffered or a pardon
obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of
convicts' estates, in the interests of themselves and their families.
Forfeiture consequent on outlawry was exempted from the pro-
visions of the act. The United States constitution (Art. HI.
a. 3) says: "The Congress shall have power to declare the
punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work
corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the
person attainted."
Bills of Attainder, in English legal procedure, were formerly
a parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They
were ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the pro-
ceedings were the same as on other bills, but the parties against
whom they were brought might appear by counsel and produce
witnesses in both Houses. In the case of an impeachment (q.v. ) ,
the House of Commons was prosecutor and the House of Lords
judge; but such bills being legislative in form, the consent of
crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them. Bishops,
who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of
impeachment^. v.), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder,
but their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon
the accused. First passed in 1459, such bills were employed,
more particularly during the reigns of the Tudor kings, as a
species of extrajudicial procedure, for the direct punishment of
political offences. Dispensing with the ordinary judicial forms
and precedents, they took away from the accused whatever
advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such
evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure
conviction; indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed
without any evidence being produced at all. In the reign of
Henry VIII. they were much used, through a subservient
parliament, to punish those who had incurred the king's dis-
pleasure; many distinguished victims who could not have been
charged with any offence under the existing laws being by this
means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes
with Charles I., tne Long Parliament made effective use of the
same procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent.
After tne Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite
movement in Scotland produced several instance* of attainder,
without, however, the infliction of the extreme penalty of death.
The last bill of attainder passed in England was in the case of
Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders of 1708.
A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the
usual rule. It was first signed by the sovereign and presented
by a peer to the House of Lords by command of the crown, then
passed through the ordinary stages and on to the commons, to
whom the sovereign's assent was communicated before the first
reading was taken, otherwise the whole proceedings were null
and void.
A Bill of Pains and Penalties resembles a bill of attainder
in object and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than
death. The most notable instances of the passing of a bill of
pains and penalties are those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and
of Queen Caroline, wife of George IV., in 1820.
The constitution of the United States declares that " no bill
of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed."
ATTAINT, WRIT OF, an obsolete method of procedure in
English law, for inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether
a false verdict had been given in a trial before an ordinary jury
of twelve. If it were found that an erroneous judgment had been
given, the wrong was redressed and the original jury incurred
infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of their goods,
which punishments were, however, commuted later for a
pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was
issued at suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either
party. In criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete
by the end of the 15th century. Procedure by attaint in civil
cases had also been gradually giving place to the practice of
granting new trials, and after the decision in BushelTs case in
1670 (see Jury) it became obsolete, and was finally abolished
by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors guilty of
embracery (q.v.).
ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its
name from At talus IL, king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia
(q.v.). It was important as the nearest seaport to the rich
districts of south-west Phrygia. A much-frequented " half-
sea " route led through it to the Lycus.and Maeander valleys,
and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural way
from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and
accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia
for Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the
old Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became
the metropolis. There are extensive remains of the ancient
walls, including some portions which go back to the foundation
of the Pergamenian city. The most conspicuous monument
is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a tower built by the
empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the enceinte
and formerly admitted the road from Perga.
ATTAR (or Otto] OF R06B8 (Pen. 'alar, essence), a perfume
consisting of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or,
in some districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture
is chiefly carried out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last
named supplying the bulk of the European demand. It is used
by perfumery manufacturers as an ingredient The genuine
att ar of ro ses is costly and it is frequently adulterated.
ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentate, to try), in law, an act
done witbintent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series
of acts which would constitute its actual commission if it were
not interrupted. An attempt must proceed beyond mere pre-
paration, but at the same time it must fall short of the ultimate
purpose in any part of it. The actual point, however, at which
an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes criminal, depends
upon the circumstances of each particular case. A person may
be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its commis-
sion in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to
commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself
an indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment,
unless the attempt to commit is specifically punishable by s»
as a felony, or in a defined manner as a misdemeanoui
person who has been indicted for a felony or misdemean
88o
ATTENTION— ATTERBURY
If the evidence so warrant*, be found guilty only of the attempt,
pro vided that it too is a misdemeanour.
ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-Undo, await, expect; the condi-
tion of being " stretched " or " tense "), in psychology, the con-
centration of consciousness upon a definite object or objects.
The result is brought about, not by effecting any change in the
perceptions themselves, but simply by isolating them from other
objects. Since all consciousness involves this isolation, attention
may be denned generally as the necessary condition of conscious-
ness. Such a definition, however, throws no light upon the nature
of the psychological process, which is partly explained by the
general law that the greater the number of objects on which
attention is concentrated the less will each receive (" pluribus
intentus, minor est ad singula sensus "), and conversely. There
are also special circumstances which determine the amount of
attention, e.g. influences not subject to the will, such as the
vividness of the impression (e.g. in the case of a shock), strong
change in pleasurable or painful sensations. Secondly, an exer-
cise of volition is employed in fixing the mind upon a definite
object. This is a purely voluntary act, which can be strengthened
by habit and is variable in different individuals; to it the name
"attention" is sometimes restricted. The distinction is ex-
pressed by the words " reflex " or " passive," and " volitional "
or " active." It is important to notice that in every case of
attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit
apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular
object is isolated. These objects are known as the " psychic
fringe," and are essential to the systematic unity of the attention-
process. Attempts have been made to examine the attention-
process from the physiological standpoint by investigating the
muscular and neural changes which accompany it, and even to
assign to it a specific local centre. It has, for example, been
remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in practi-
cally automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the
comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the
necessity of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces
a comparatively high degree of attention. In other words,
attention is absent where there is uniformity of activity in
accordance with uniform, or uniformly changing, environment.
In spite of the progress made in this branch of study, it has to
be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are to some
extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely
remain normal under inspection.
See G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology (London, 1 806), especially
part iL chap, a; also Psychology, Brain, Ac
ATTERBOM. PER DANIEL AMADEUS (1700-1855), Swedish
poet, son of a country parson, was born in the province of
ustergdtland on the 19th of January 1700. He studied in the
University of Upsala from 1805 to 181 5, and became professor
of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great poet of the
romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of
Lorenzo Hammerskold, was to revolutionize Swedish literature.
In 1807, when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala
an artistic society, called the Aurora League, the members of
which included V. F. Palmblad, A. A. Grafstrom (d. 1870), Samuel
Hedborn (d. 1849), an( * other youths whose names were destined
to take a foremost rank in the literature of their generation.
Their first newspaper, Polyfem, was a crude effort, soon aban-
doned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, Fosforos,
edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a
place in classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of
poetry and aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study
of the newly arisen Romantic school of Germany, and formed
a vehicle for the early works, not of Atterbom only, but of
Hammerskold, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others. Later, the
members of the Aurora League established the Poctisk Kalender
(1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical
organ, Stensk LiUeroiurHdning (1813-1824). Among Atterbom's
independent works the most celebrated is LycksoJigketcns
(The Fortunate Island), a romantic drama of extraordinary
beauty, published in 1823. Before this he had published a
cycle of lyrics, Blommoma ( The Flowers), of a mystical character,
somewhat in the manner of NovaEs. Of a dramatized fairytale,
Fdgcl blA {The Blue Bird), only a fragment, whkh is among Lhe
most exquisite of his writings, is preserved. As a purely lyrical
poet he has not been excelled in Sweden, bat his more ambiu-us
works are injured by his weakness for allegory and symboJUjn.
and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck and
Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary
controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and
literature at Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the
Swedish Academy. He died on the 21st of July 18s s- 11a
Svensha Stare och Skalder (6 vols., 1841*1855, supplement,
1864) consists of a series of biographies of Swedish poets and roea
of letters, which forms a valuable history of Swedish letters down
to the end of the " classical " period. Atterbom's works were
collected (13 vols., Orcbro) in 1854- 1870.
ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662*1732), English man of letters.
politician and bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or
Middleton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, a parish of which h»
father was rector. He was educated at Westminster school ard
at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became a tutor. In 16*2
he published a translation of Absalom and Ahiihophd into Latin
verse; but neither the style nor the versification was that of the
Augustan age. In English composition he succeeded much
better. In 1687 he published An Answer to some Considerattcm
on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the Reformatu n
a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of University
College in 1676, bad printed in a press set up by him there aa
stuck on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodheod
Atterbury's treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet,
is perhaps more distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric thaa
for the soundness of his arguments, and the Papists were so much
galled by his sarcasms and invectives that they accused him of
treason, and of having, by Implication, called King James
a Judas.
After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrine*
of non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty
to the new government. He had taken holy orders in if.*;.
preached occasionally in London with an eloquence which raivni
his reputation, and was soon appointed one of the royal chaplain
But he ordinarily resided at Oxford, where he was the eKef
adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich, under whom Christ Church
was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the inspirer t-f
his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1608) on the Whig scholv.
Richard Bentley (?.*.), arising out of Bcntley*s impugnmc-t
of the genuineness of the Epistles of Phataris. He was figirri
by Swift in the Battle of the Boohs as the Apollo who dirruH
the fight, and was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle's csvir
Bentley spent two years in preparing his famous reply, whirh
proved not only that the letters ascribed to Phalaris were
spurious, but that all Atterbury's wit, eloquence and skill in
controversial fence was only a cloak for an audacious pretence
of scholarship.
Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about
matters still more important and exciting. The rage of rdipo-os
factions was extreme. High Church and Low Church di\i<W
the nation. The great majority of the clergy were on the Hijcrh
Church side; the majority of King William's bishops wctv
inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of wbuh
the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffer ed
to meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into
which Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy,
publishing a series of treatises written with much wit, audacity
and acrimony. By the mass of the clergy he was regarded as
the most intrepid champion that had ever defended their richu
against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates. In 1701 he wis
rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prrbcr.d b
Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted hn
thanks for his services; the university of Oxford created hun %
doctor of divinity; and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne,
while the Tories still had the chief weight in the government,
he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle.
Soon after he had obtained thb preferment the Whig party
ATTERBURY
881
came into power. From that party he could expect no favour.
Six years elapsed before a change of fortune took place. At
length, in the year 1710, the prosecution of Sacheverell produced
a formidable explosion of High Church fanaticism. At such a
moment Atterbury could not fail to be conspicuous. His in-
ordinate zeal for the body to which he belonged, his turbulent
and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for con-
troversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part
in framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused
divine pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents
a singular contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which
had very unwisely been honoured with impeachment. During
the troubled and anxious months which followed the trial,
Atterbury was among the most active of those pamphleteers
who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the Whig
parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the
parliament dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The
lower house of Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which
capacity he drew up, in 1711, the often-cited Representation of
the Slate of Religion; and, in August 1711, the queen, who bad
selected him as her chief adviser in ecclesiastical matters,
appointed him dean' of Christ Church on the death of his old
friend and patron Aldrich.
At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at
Carlisle, and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop
because he was so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ
Church was in confusion, scandalous altercations took place,
and there was reason to fear that the great Tory college would
be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory doctor. In 17 13 he
was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was then
always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher
dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many
able men on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled
or approached him in parliamentary talents. Had his party
continued in power it is not improbable that he would have been
raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The more splendid
his prospects the more reason he had to dread the accession
of a family which was well known to be partial to the Whigs,
and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those
politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life
of Anne, to prepare matters Sn such a way that at her decease
there might be little difficulty in setting aside the Act of Settle-
ment and placing the Pretender on the throne. Her sudden
death confounded the projects of these conspirators, and, what-
ever Atterbury's previous views may have been, he acquiesced
in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the house of
Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal
family. But bis servility was requited with cold contempt;
and he became the most factious and pertinacious of all the
opponents of the government. In the House of Lords his oratory,
lucid, pointed, lively and set off with every grace of pronunciation
and of gesture, extorted the attention and admiration even of
a hostile majority. Some of the most remarkable protests which
appear in the journals of the peers were drawn up by him; and,
in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which called on the
English to stand up for their country against the aliens who had
come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics
easily detected his style. When the rebellion of x 71 5 broke out,
he refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province
of Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant
succession, and in 1717, after having been long in indirect
communication with the exiled family, he began to correspond
directly with the Pretender.
In x 721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the
royal family and' the proclamation of King James, Atterbury
was arrested with the other chief malcontents, and in 1722
committed to the Tower, where he remained in close confinement
during some months. He had carried on his correspondence
with the exiled family so cautiously that the circumstantial
proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire moral
conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He
Could be reached only by a biU of pains and penalties. Such a bill
n 15*
the Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses,
was quite prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed
the Commons depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing
him for life, and forbidding any British subject to hold inter-
course with him except by the royal permission. In the Lords
the contest was sharp, but the bill finally passed by eighty-three
votes to forty-three.
Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity
and tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting
his innocence with a singular disingenuousness. After a short
stay at Brussels he went to Paris, and became the leading man
among the Jacobite refugees there. He was invited to Rome
by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a bishop of the Church
of England would be out of place at the Vatican, and declined
the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to
stand high in the good gracci of James. The correspondence
between the master and the servant was constant. Atterbury's
merits were warmly acknowledged, his advice was respectfully
received, and he was, as Bolingbroke had been before him, the
prime minister of a king without a kingdom. He soon, however,
perceived that his counsels were disregarded, if not distrusted.
His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1 7 28 he quitted Paris,
fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and devoted
himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he had
so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very ill,
determined to run all risks that she might see him once more.
She met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his
hand, and died that night
Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter's death
two years. He even returned to Paris and to the service of the
Pretender, who had found out that he had not acted wisely in
parting with one who, though a heretic, was the most able man
of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year of his banishment he
published a luminous, temperate and dignified vindication of
himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of having,
in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition
of Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. The charge, as respected
Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one
of the editors of the History, and never saw it till it was printed.
A copy of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter
singularly eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old
man said, that he should write anything on such a subject without
being reminded of the resemblance between his own fate and
that of Clarendon. They were the only two English subjects
who had ever been banished from their country and debarred
from all communication with their friends by act of parliament.
But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been so
happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house.
All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights
of that house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was
written Atterbury died, on the 22nd of February 1 732. His body
was brought to England, and laid, with great privacy, under the
nave of Westminster Abbey. No inscription marks his grave
It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury's public to his private
life, His turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now
and then required repose, and found it in domestic endearments,
and in the society of the mo6t illustrious literary men of bis
time* Of his wife, {Catherine Osborn, whom he married while at
Oxford, little is known; but between him and his daughter
there was an affection singularly close and tender. The gentle-
ness of his manners when he was in the company of a few friends
was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him only
by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury's classical
attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was
excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it
overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His
fondness for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the
Church, was such as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he
was the close friend of Addison. His favourite companions,
however, were, as might have been expected, men who*'
had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived on friendly f
Swift, Arbuthnot and Cay. With J'riorJie.bad * dor
882
ATTESTATION— ATTICA
which some misunderstanding about public affairs at last dis-
solved. Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but
a most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.
See F. William*. Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with
Notes, Ac. (1869); Stuart Papers, vol. i.: Letters of Atterbury to the
Chevalier St George, Ac. (1847); J. Nichols, Epistolary Correspond-
ence, &c (1783-1796); and H. C. Becching, Francis Atterbury, (1909}.
ATTESTATION (Lat. adlestare, aUestare, to bear witness, testis,
a witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument
by the signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or
subscribe their names under a memorandum,, to the effect that
it was signed or executed in their presence. The essence of
attestation is to show that at the execution of the document
there was present some disinterested person capable of giving
evidence as to what took place. The clause at the end of the
instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the wit-
nesses to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed
it, is known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corre-
sponding clause is called the testing-clause (see Deed; Will
or Testament; Witness).
ATTHIS (an adjective meaning " Attic "), the name given to
a monograph or special treatise on the religious and political
history, antiquities and topography of Attica and Athens.
During the 4U1 and 3rd centuries b.c, a class of writers arose,
who, making these subjects their particular study, were called
atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of these
was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 B.C.); the last, Ister
of Cyrene (died 212 B.C.) ; the most important was Philochorus
(first half of the 3rd century B.C.), of whose work considerable
fragments have been preserved. The names of the other atthido-
graphi known to us are Phanodcmus, Demon, Androtion,
Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to literary skill; their
style was monotonous and soon became wearisome. They were in
fact chroniclers or annalists — not historians. Their only object
was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed
worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution,
religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order
of the olympiads and archons, and their work was supported
by the authority of original documents, monuments and in-
scriptions. Their writings were much used by historians, as well
as by the scholiasts and grammarians.
Fragments in Mailer, Fragmenia Historicorum Graecorum, L
ATTIC (*\*. "in the Attic style"), an architectural term given
to the masonry rising above the main cornice of a building,
the earliest example known being that of the monument of Thra-
syllus at Athens. It was largely employed by the Romans, who
in their arches of triumph utilized it for inscriptions or for bas-
relief sculpture. It was used also to increase the height of
enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of Nerva. By the
Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey, pierced
with windows, as found in Palladio's work at Vicenza and in
Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that
which surmounts the entablature of St Peter's at Rome,
which measures 39 ft. in height. The term is also employed
in modern terminology to designate an upper storey in a
roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to hide a roof
behind.
ATTICA, a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape,
projecting in a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea,
the base line being formed by the continuous chain of Mounts
Cithaeron and Parses, the apex by the promontory of Sunium.
It was washed on two sides by the sea, and the coast is broken
up into numerous small bays and harbours, which, however,
arc with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface
of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and
between the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size,
open on one side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary
is the Corinthian Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed,
before the Dorian invasion, which resulted in the foundation of
Megara, the whole country was politically one, in the hands of
the Ionian race. This is proved by the column which, as we
team from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of Corinth, bearing
on one side in Greek the inscription, " TWs land » 1
not Ionia," and on the other, " This land it not PeJopotmesxu,
but Ionia."
The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical
importance. Hence in part arose the maritime character of
its inhabitants; and when they had once taken to the sea,
the string of neighbouring islands, Ceos, Cythnos and others,
some of which lay within sight of their coasts, and from one to
another of which it was possible to sail without losing sight ot
land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises. Stroiiariy
on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the
Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other stales,
both in respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards
which it was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay
between them; and also in respect of offensive combinations
of other powers, as that between Thebes and Sparta, which
throughout an important part of Greek history were closely
associated in their politics, through mutual dread of their
powerful neighbour.
The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic
feature, axe a continuation of that chain which* starting from
Tymphrestus at the southern extremity of Pindus, m Mtm _
passes through Phocis and Boeotia under the names ssZT"
of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range
which, as Cithaeron in its western and Panics in its eastern
portion, separates Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs
southward towards the Saronk Gulf in. Aegaleos and Hymettus.
which bound the plain of Athens. Again, the eastern extremity
of Parnes is joined by another line of hills, which, separating
from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after entering
Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking
the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Suruua
to rise once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the ex-
treme west of the whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right
angles in the direction of the isthmus, at the northern approach
to which it abuts against the mighty mass of Mount Gerancu,
which is interposed between the Corinthian and the Saronk
Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about 4600 ft high,
Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does not
rise higher than 1 534 ft. At the present day they are extremely
bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour
is compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute
articulation of the minor ridges and vaUeys, and the symmetrical
grouping of the several mountains.
The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agricul-
ture not only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent
also in the maritime plains. This fact had consider- j^
able influence on the inhabitants, both by enforcing
industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to
take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to
form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides
attributes to the nature of the soil (i. a to Xis-royc**), whkh
presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same
inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim toindigenout-
nesson whkh the Athenians so greatly prided themselves;
while at the same time the richer ground fostered that fondness
for country life, which is proved by the enthusiastk terms in
which it is always spoken of by Aristophanes. That we are not
justified in judging of the ancient condition of the soil by
the aridity which prevails at the present day, is shown by
the fact that out of the x8s denies (see Cleisthents) into
which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or
plants.
The climate of Attica hat always been cekbrated. In ap-
proaching Attica from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt
as soon as a person descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, "r^itw
and the sea breeze, which in modern times is called
itfanp, or that whkh sets towards shore, moderates the
heat in summer. The Attk comedians and Plato speak with
enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the
Athenian intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attk
It was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that
ATTICA
88*
the air was thought to be purest So Euripides describes the
inhabitants as "ever walking gracefully through the most
luminous ether" {Med. 820); and Milton—
" Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands.
Built nobly, pure the air, and Ught the soft—
Athens, the eye of Greece."
Or again Xenophon says " one would not err in thinking that
this city is placed near the centre of Greece— nay, of the civilized
world— because, the farther removed persons are from it, the
severer is the cold or heat they meet with" {Vectigal. x. 6).
The air is so clear that one can see from the Acropolis the lines
of white marble that streak the sides of Pentdicus. The brilliant
colouring which is so conspicuous in an Athenian sunset is
due to the same cause. The epithet " violet-crowned," used
of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the
surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal
wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by
the prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the
Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or
Tower of the Winds, at Athens, where Boreas is represented
as a bearded man of stern aspect, thickly dad, and wearing
strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, which he holds
in bis hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.
Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important This
tree, we learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one
time to have been found in that country only; and
IZr tta enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (Oed. Col. 700)
teach us that it was the land in which it flourished
best. So great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the
early legend of the struggle between the gods of sea and land,
Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the
sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the
giver of the olive; and at- a later period the evidences of this
contention were found in an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis,
together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by
the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well
hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country,
for Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleu-
sinian Phytalus, U. "the gardener." Both Cithaeron and
Panes must have been wooded in former times; for on the
former are laid the picturesque silvan scenes in the Bacchoe of
Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which
caused the neighbouring deme of Achamae to be famous for
its charcoal— the JWpeinr Ilctprfrnoi of the Ackanridtu of
Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus
firatnr**. came tnc famoas Hymettian honey. Among the
other products we must notice the marble— both that
of Pentdicus, which afforded a material of unrivalled purity and
whiteness for building the Athenian templet, and the blue
marble of Hymettus— the trabes HymeUiae of Horace— which
used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces.
But the richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the
silver mines of Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable
as to render silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece,
so that " a silver piece " {epybpav) was the Greek equivalent
term for money. Hence Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as
possessing a " fountain of silver " {Pen. 335), and Aristophanes
makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they
show him favour, owls from Laurium (».*. silver pieces with the
emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (Birds, 1106). The
reputation of these coins for. purity of metal and accuracy of
weight was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and
in consequence it was thought undesirable to make any alteration
in the types lest their genuineness should be doubted. This
accounts for the somewhat inartistic character which the
Athenian coins maintained to the last (see further Numismatics:
Greek, I Athens). In Strabo's time, though the mines had
almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in considerable
quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large
amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly
carried on by two companies, one of which is French and the
other Greek. In the ancient workings, many of which are in the
same condition at they were left 1800 years ago, there are m att
2000 shafts and galleries.
It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica
is formed by the chain of Cithaeron and Fames, running from
west to east; and that from this transverse chains run pu/ _
southward, dividing Attica into a succession of plains. M tuZ
The westernmost of these, which is separated from the
innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Akyonium,
by an offshoot of Cithaeron. and is bounded on the east by a
ridge which ends towards the Saronk Gulf in a striking two-
horned peak called Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for
geographical purposes that we include this district under Attka,
for both the Dorian race of the inhabitants, and its dangerous
proximity to Athens, caused it to be at perpetual feud with
that city; but its position as an outpost for the Pewponnesians,
together with the fact of its having once been Ionian soil, suffi-
ciently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians towards
the Megarians. The great importance of Megan arose from its
commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were
three in number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf r
which, owing to the nature of the ground, makes a long detour;
the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one by a
lofty though gradual route over the ridge of Geraneia, the other
along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the
Stiroman rocks.
To the east of the plain of Megara Ues that of Eleusis, bounded
on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that
of Aegaleos, through a depression in which was the _, .
line of the sacred way, where the torchlight processions ^,,1,
from Athens used to descend to the coast, the " brightly
gleaming shores" (Xajarato aicraO of Sophocles {Oed. Col.
1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded
on its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at
all times an important possession to the Athenians on account
of its proximity to their city; and the winding channel which
separates that island from the mainland in the direction of the
Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of Salamis, while on the last
declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here descends to the tea, was
the spot where, at Byron wrote—
" A king sste'on the rocky brow
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis.'*
The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriesian
plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay
just mentioned.
Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens,
which is the most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of
Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west by
Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most
conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green
along its western side, formed by the olive-groves of Cotonus
and the gardens of the Academy, which owe their fertility
to the waters of the Cephisus. This river is fed by copious
sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus, unlike the
other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water,
which was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the
neighbouring plantations (cf. Sophocles, Oed. Col. 685). The
position of Cotonus itself is marked by two bare knolls of fight-
coloured earth, which caused the poet in the same chorus to
apply the epithet "white" (e>HJhra) to that place. On. the
opposite side of the plain runs the other river, the Ilissus, which
rises from two sources on the side of Mt Hymettus, and skirts
the eastern extremity of the dty of Athens; but this, notwith-
standing its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in pools a
great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry The
situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is
singularly harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so
as to be the eye of the plain, and while the altar-rock of the
Acropolis and the hills by which it is surrounded are conspicuous
from every point of view, there is no such exactness in its position
as to give formality, since H is nearer to the sea than to Parnes,
and nearer to Hymettus than to Aegaleos. The most strik*
summit in the neighbourhood of the city is that of Lycabr
88 4
ATTIC BASE— ATTICUS
on the north-eastern tide; and the variety is still further in-
creased by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for some
distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to
Athens from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain
barrier— the easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus
by Decelea, which was the usual route of the invading Lacedae-
monians during the Peloponneaian War; the westernmost over
Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or the " Oakheads,"
leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to Athens,
which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and
with the escape of the Plataea ns at the time of the siege of that
city in the Peloponneaian War; the third, midway between the
two, by the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged
height overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by
Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-
coast to the south-west of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a
mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the town of
Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was
Strabo's opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins
it to the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been
formed by alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one
side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of
Phalerura, on the other the harbour of Peiraeus, a completely
land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious, the approach to which
was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern side of the
hill was further indented by two small but commodious havens,
which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.
The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athena is formed
by the graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name
from the deme of Pentele at its foot, but was far more
Atom. commonly known as Brilessus in ancient times. This
mountain did not form a continous chain with Hy-
mettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground
a m. in width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an
elevated undulating plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching
nearly to Sunium. At the extremity of Hymettus, where it
projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the promontory of Zoster
(" the Girdle "), which was so called because it girdles and
protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the
name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had
loosed her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there
runs a lower line of mountains, and between these and the sea
a fertile strip of land intervenes, which was called the Paralia.
Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two safe ports,
that of Thoricus, which is defended by the island of Helene,
forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that of Prasiae,
now called Porto Raphti (" the Tailor "), from a statue at the
entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the
north-east corner is the little plain of Marathon {q.v.) t the scene
of the battle against the Persians (490 B.C.). It lies between
Parnes, Pentelicus and the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by
Euboea, and on the north by a projecting tongue of land, called
Cynosura. The mountains in the neighbourhood were the home
of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being poor mountaineers,
and having nothing to lose, were the principal advocates of
political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedicis, or in-
habitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the
strong conservative clement, and the Parali, or occupants of the
sea-coast, representing the mercantile interest, held an inter-
mediate position between the two (see Cleisthenes). Finally,
there was one district of Attica, the territory of Oropus, which
properly belonged to Boeotia, as it was situated to the north of
Parnes; but on this the Athenians always endeavoured to retain
a firm hold, because it facilitated their communications with
Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost im-
portance to tbem; for, if Aegina could rightly be called " the
eyesore of the Peiraeus," Euboea was quite as truly a thorn
in the side of Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (De Cor.
p. 307) that at one period the pirates that made it their
headquarters so infested the neighbouring sea as to prevent all
navigation.
The place in Attica, which has been the chief scene of excava-
tions (independently of Athens and its vicinty) is Ekosis (f .».).
where the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the &(>ftp
home of the Eleusinian Mysteries, together with other -j--
buildings in its neighbourhood, were cleared by the
Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896. Of
the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple
of Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the
headland, to which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used
by the peasants. It is in the Doric style, of white marble, and
eleven columns of the peristyle and one of the pronaos are now
standing. At Thoricus there is a theatre, which was cleared
of earth by the archaeologists of the American School in jSSo.
In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains of two temples
that stood side by side, the larger of which was dedicated to
Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a fine
statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations
of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1800. The same Societ y,
in 1884, 1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaxaus,
4 m. from Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of
numerous invalids, who came thither to consult the healing
divinity. Within it were found a temple of Amphiaraus, a Urge
altar, and a long colonnade, which may have been the dormitory
where the patients slept in hope of obtaining counsel in dreams.
There were also baths and a small theatre, and numerous in-
scriptions relating to the arrangement and observances of the
sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city
of Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of
Hellenic fortifications.
Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern tiroes
little need be said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes
of Athens. The population, however, has undergone a great
change, independently of the large admixture of Slavonic blood
that has affected the Greeks of the mainland generally, by the
immigration of Albanian colonists, who now occupy a great
part of the country. The district formed part of the nome
(administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1890,
when it became a separate nome.
Bibliography.— J. G. Frarcr, Pausanios's Description of Greece.
vols. ii. and v. (London, 1898); W. M. Leake, The Demi of Aa»a
(and ed M London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, Athens and Atmz
(4th ed., London, 1869) ; C. Bursian. GeofraphU von Grietkenlomd.
vol. i. (Leipzig, 1862); Baedeker's Greece (4th Eng. ed., Lcipz.f.
1908); Karien von Attica, published by the German Archacol. .*i- m!
Institute of Athens, with explanatory text, chiefly by Profrw*
Milchhofer (1875-1903); see also Athens, Eleusis and Gkeecl:
Topography. (H. F. T.)
ATTIC BASE, the term given in architecture to the base of
the Roman Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus,
separated by a scoria (?.*.) and fillets. It was the favourite
base of the Romans, and was employed by them for columns
of the Corinthian and Composite orders, and in Byzantine and
Romanesque work would seem to have been generally adopted
as a model.
ATTICUS, TITUS POMPOMTUS (100-32 B.C.), Roman patron
of letters, was born at Rome three years before Cicero, with
whom he and the younger Marius were educated. His name was
Titus Pomponius, that of Attic us, by which he is known, being
given him afterwards from his long residence in Athens (86-65)
and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature and
language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient
descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and uas
very wealthy. When Pomponins was still a young man his
father died, and he at once took the prudent resolution of
transferring himself and his fortune to Athens, in order to
escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he might have been
involved through his connexion with the murdered tribune.
Sulpidus Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting him* It
entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possesion
of an inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name
of Quint us Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof
from political strife, attaching himself to no particular party,
and continuing on. intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar
and Pompey, Antony and Octavian. His most intimate friend.
ATTICUS HERODE8— ATTILA
88 5
however, was Cicero, whose correspondence with him extended
» over many years, and who seems to have found his prudent
» counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many troubles.
His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry
till he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became
the wife of Marcus Yipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister
of Augustus. In 3a, being seized with an illness believed to be
incurable, he starved himself to death. Of his writings none
is extant, but mention is made of two: a Greek history of
Cicero's consulship, and some annals, in Latin, an epitome of
the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most
important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him
by Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and
engaged a staff of slaves to make copies of valuable works.
See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, Lives of Messalla Corvinu*
and T.P.A. (181 3); Fialon, Thesis in T.P.A. (1861); Boissier,
Cichon el ses amis (1888: Eng. trans. A. D. Jones, 1897); Peter,
Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta.
ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS {e. AJ>. iot-177),
Greek rhetorician , was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged
to a wealthy and distinguished family, and received a careful
education wider the most distinguished masters of the time,
especially in rhetoric and philosophy. His talents gained him
the favourable notice of Hadrian, who appointed him praefect
of the free towns in the province of Asia (125). On his return
to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an' orator and teacher
of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he
was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education
of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks
of favour, amongst them the consulship ( 143). He is principally
celebrated, however, for the vast sums he expended on public
purposes. He built at Athens a great race-course of Pentelic
marble, and a splendid musics! theatre, called the Odeum in
memory of his wife RegiUa,. which still exists. At Corinth he
built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths,
at Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated
cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid
to carry out his plan because the same thing had been unsuccess-
fully attempted before by the emperor Nero. Many of the
partially ruined cities of Greece were restored by Atticus, and
numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude to their benefactor.
His latter years were embittered by family misfortune, and
having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew from
Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed
a very high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote
numerous works, of which the only one to come down to us is
a rhetorical exercise On the Constitution (ed. Hass, 1880), advo-
cating an alliance of the Thebans and Peloponnesians against
Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness of this speech,
which is of little merit, has been disputed.
Phtfostratus.Jftf. Soph, ji.^t ; Fiori\\o^Herodis Attici avae super-
«rim
Bcrode Atticur (1871).
ATTILA (d. 453). king of the Huns, became king in 433, along
with his brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear
but little as to Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his
brother's orders. In the first eight years of his reign Attila was
chiefly occupied in the wars with other barbarian tribes, by which
he made himself virtually supreme in central Europe. His own
special kingdom comprised the countries which are now called
Hungary and Transylvania, his capital being possibly not far from
the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having made the Ostro-
goths, the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his subject-
allies, and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he
seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without
a rival from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign,
Honoria, grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being
subjected to severe restraint on account of an amorous intrigue
with one of the chamberlains of the palace, sent her ring to the
king of the Huns and called on him to be her husband and her
deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed engagement, but the
wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a convenient
(1801) ; A Biographical Notice of A. H. (London, 1832), privately
.rinted; Fuelles, De Htrodis Attki Vita (1804); Vidal-Lablache.
pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with which
Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried
and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna.
Another frequent subject of complaint was found in certain
sacred vessels which the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe
to the secretary of Attila, and which had been by him, fraudu-
lently, as his master contended, pawned to a silversmith at Rome.
There were also frequent and imperious demands for the surrender
of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of Attila
within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies
from Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage
of being accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose
minute journalistic account of the negotiations, including as it
does a vivid picture of the great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by
far the most valuable source of information as to the court And
camp of Attila. What lends additional interest to the story is
the fact that in the ambassador's suite there was an interpreter
named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had promised to
assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the
Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the
embassy or to his secretary. The situations created by this
strange combination of honest diplomacy and secret villainy are
described by Priscus with real dramatic power.
In 450 Theodosius II., the iacapable emperor of the East,
died, and his throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named
Marcian, who answered the insulting message of Attila in a
manlier tone than his predecessor. Accordingly the Hun, who
had something of the bully in his nature, now turned upon
Valcntinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and
demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of
Valcntinian's dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with
the Franks and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army
to the Rhine in the spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked,
apparently, most of the cities in Bclgic Gaul. Most fortunately
for Europe, the Teutonic races already settled in Gaul rallied
to the defence of the empire against invaders infinitely more
barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this new coalition
was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city was
Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general
Aetius, with whom he had had many a conflict in previous, years,
was one of the best auguries for the new Europe that was to
arise out of the ruins of the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila
had reached the Loire and was besieging the strong city of
Orleans. The citizens, under the leadership of their bishop
Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the point
of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano*
Gothic army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the
difficulty that he should have in feeding his immense army if
his march was further delayed, turned again to the north-east,
was persuaded by the venerable bishop Lupus to spare the city
of Troyes, but halted near that place in the Catalaunian plains
and offered battle to his pursuers Aetius and Theodoric. The
battle which followed — certainly one of the decisive battles of
the world — has been well described by the Gothic historian
Jordanes as "ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate." It
lasted for the whole day, and the number of the slain is variously
stated at x 7 5,000 and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course,
untrustworthy, but there is no doubt that the carnage was
terrible. The Visigothic king was slain, but the victory, though
hardly earned, remained with his people and his allies. Attila
did not venture to renew the engagement on the morrow, hut
retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed
that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence
in the spring of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer
Italy. Her great champion Aetius showed less energy in her
cause than he had shown in his defence of Gaul. After a
stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly destroyed Aquileia,
the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his destructive
course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the
Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The
fugitives from these cities, but especially from the last, seeking
shelter in the lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of
886
ATTIS— ATTORNEY
that which was one day to become the glorious city of Venice.
Upon Milan and the cities of western Lombacdy the hand of
Attila seems to have weighed more lightly, plundering rather
than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I., at the
head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp
on the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his
victorious career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their
entreaties and consented to cross the Alps, with a menace,
however, of future return, should the wrongs of Honoris remain
unredressed. As he himself jokingly said: he knew how to
conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and Lupus) were
too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were
undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night
following a great banquet which celebrated his marriage with
a damsel named Ildico. Notwithstanding some rumours of
violence it is probable that his death was natural and due to
his own intemperate habits.
Under his name of Euel, Attila plays a great part in Teu-
tonic legend (see Nibelunoenlxed) and under that of Atli in
Scandinavian Saga, but his historic lineaments are greatly
obscured in both. He was short of suture, swarthy and broad-
chested, with a large head which early turned grey, snub nose
and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a
haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord
of all.
The 'chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jor-
danes, the Historia Misulia, Apollonuu Sidonius and Gregory of
Tours. (T. H.)
ATTI8, or Atys, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later
throughout the Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great
Mother of the Gods. Like Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria,
Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Iais and Osiris in Egypt, the
Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which symbolized the
relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their worship
included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of
the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the
Bithynians and Phrygians, according to evidence of the time
of the late Empire, called him Zeus. He was never worshipped
independently, however, though the worship of the Great
Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was confused
with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resem-
blances between the orgiastic features of his worship and that
of Dionysus. His resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory
that the names of the two are identical, and that Attis b only
the Semitic companion of Syrian Aphrodite grafted on to the
Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh, Stitttgorter-Pkilohg.-
Vers., 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however, that Attis, like the
Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted by the
invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their
own.
Legends.— According to Pausantas (vii. 17), Attis was a
beautiful youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius,
who was descended from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster
sprung from the earth by the seed of Zeus. Having become
enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with frenzy as he was
about to wed the king's daughter, with the result that he deprived
himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance prevailed
upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never
decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself
under a pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave
as she and Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth.
Zeus grants the petition as in the version of Pausanias, but
permits the hair of Attis to -grow, and his little finger to move.
The little finger, digitus, ddxrvXar, is interpreted as the phallus
by Georg Kaibel (Gdltinger Nackrichttn, xoox, p. 5x3). In
Diodorus (Hi. 58, 59) the Mother is the carnal lover of Attis,
and, when her father the king discovers her fault and kills her
lover, roams the earth in wild grief. In Ovid {Pasli, W. 223 ff.)
she is inspired with chaste love for him, which he pledges himself
to reciprocate. On bis proving unfaithful, the Great Mother
slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in madness
be mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend
(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite- Adoots
myth, relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian
Callus, went into Lydia to institute the worship of the Great
Mother, and was there slain by a boar sent by Zeus.
See Great Mother op the Gods; J. G. Fraxer, Adonis, Attis.
Osiris (1006). (G. Sv.J
ATTLEBOROUGH, a township of Bristol county, in south-east
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1800) 7577; (1000) 11,335, of
whom 3237 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,215 II a
traversed by the New York, New Haven ft Hartford railway, and
by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of 28 sq. m. The
population is largely concentrated in and about the village
which bears the name of the township. In Attleboroagh are
the Attlcborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885 4 .
The principal manufactures of the township are jewelry, silver-
ware, cotton goods, cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and
leather. In 1905 the total value of the township's factory
products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544, 285 was the valve of
jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities of the
country in this industry, and producing 10-4% of the total
jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was in-
corporated in 1604, though settled soon after 1661 (records sauce
167 2) as part of Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided a
population, wealth and area by the creation of the township
of North Attlebokouch— pop. (x8oo) 67*7; (xooo) 7153. of
whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1005, state census) 7878. This
township produced manufactured goods in 1000 to the vali*
of $3.ooo»73i» jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains tat
Richards memorial library.
See J. Daggett, A Sketch of the History of Attteoormigk Is iSSj
(Boston, 1894).
ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Kmwalpxndi
district of the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated
on the eastern bank of the Indus. Pop. (xooi) 2822. The place
is of both political and commercial importance, as the Indus is
here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khyber
Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane and
Nadir Shah are believed to have successively crossed the Ind-is
at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The
river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about too yds.
broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen
The rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of
the Hindu Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the worfd
In 1883 an iron girder bridge of five spans was opened, which
carries the North-Westcrn railway to Peshawar, and has also a
subway for wheeled traffic and foot passengers. The fort of
Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock
beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and the whole
structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is of
little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is
divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is
the village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar
according to some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The
military importance of Attock has diminished, but it still has a
small detachment of British troops.
ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. atorni, a person appointed to act
for another, from otourner, legal Lat. cUcrnare, attorn, literally
to turn over to another or commit business to another), in l?njti«J»
law, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to
art in " the turn, stead or place of another." Attorneys are of
two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and attorneys-at-law. An attorney-
in-fact is simply an agent, the extent of whose capacity to act
is bounded only by the powers embodied in his authority, his
Power of attorney. An attorney-at-law was a public officer,
conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his
clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law st
Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors
of the courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty,
ecclesiastical, probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of
the Judicature Act of 1873, however, the designation " attorney**
has become obsolete in England, all persons admitted MsoUcrtors,
ATTORNEY-GENERAL— ATTWOOD
887
attorney* or proctors of an English court being henceforth called
" solicitors of the supreme court " (see Solicitor).
In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the
functions distributed in England between barristers, attorneys
and solicitors, and his full title is " attorney and counseUor-at-
law." When acting in a court of admiralty he is styled " proctor "
or "advocate." Formerly, in some states, there existed a
grade among lawyers of attorneya-at-law, which was inferior
to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times New Jersey
established a higher rank still — that of serjeant-at-law. Now
the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer.
Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature
confides the power, and on examination prescribed by the court,
or by a board of state examiners, as the case may be. The term
of study required is generally two or three years, but in some
states less. In one no examination is required. College graduates
are often admitted to examination after a shorter term of study
than that required from those not so educated. In the courts
of the United States, admission is regulated by rules of court
and based upon a previous admission to the state bar. In
almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys, and in
anany states women are ineligible, but during recent years several
states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since
1879 women have been eligible to practise before the U. S.
Supreme Court, if already admitted to practise in some state
court, under the same conditions as men. A state attorney or
district attorney is the local public prosecutor. He is either
elected by popular vote at the state elections for the district in
-which he resides and goes out of office with the political party
for which he was elected, or he is appointed by the governor of
the state for that district and for the same term. He represents
the state in criminal prosecutions and also in civil actions within
his district There is a United States district attorney in each
federal district, similarly representing the federal government
before the courts*
An attorney is an officer of the court* which admits him to
practise, and he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his
client in damages for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill,
and he can bring action for the value of his services. He has a
lien on his client's papers, and usually on any judgment in favour
of his client to secure the payment of his fees. (See also under
Bar, The.)
ATTORNEY-GENERAL in England, the chief law -officer
appointed to manage all the legal affairs and suits in which the
crown is interested. He is appointed by letters-patent authoris-
ing him to hold office during the sovereign's pleasure. He is
ex officio the leader of the bar, and only counsel of the highest
eminence are appointed to the office. The origin of the office
is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an aitornotns regis
appointed to look after the interests of the crown, in proceedings
affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all. the
courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord
advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate
and the Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy
councillor. He is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting
the crown, and has extensive powers of control in matters relating
to charities, lunatics' estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The
attorney-general and the solicitor-general are always members
of the House of Commons (except for temporary difficulties in
obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being selected from the
party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of the govern-
ment and of each department of the government, while in the
House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action
if called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restric-
tion placed on the law officers as to their acceptance of private
practice, but since that date this privilege has been withdrawn,
and the salary of the attorney-general is fixed at £7000 a year and
in addition such fees according to the ordinary professional
scales as he may receive for any litigious business he may conduct
on behalf of the crown. The crown has also as a legal adviser
an attorney-general in Ireland, In Scotland he is called lord
advocate (q.v.). There is also an attorney-general in almost all
the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to those of
the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he
is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the
crown colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-
manual. There is an attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall
and also one for the duchy of Lancaster, each of whom sues in
matters relating to that duchy.
The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat
in the cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal
government before the United States Supreme Court, to advise
the president on questions of law, and to advise similarly the
heads of the state departments with reference to matters affecting
their department. His opinions are published by the government
periodically for the use of its officials and they are frequently
cited by the courts. Every state but one or two has a similar
officer. He represents the state in important legal matters, and
is often required to assist the local prosecutor in trials for capital
offences. He appears for the public interest in suits affecting
public charities. He is generally elected by the people for the
same term as the governor and on the same ticket.
ATTORNMENT (from Fr. burner, to turn), in English real
property law, the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant
on the alienation of land. Under the feudal system, the relations
of landlord and tenant were to a certain extent reciprocal.
So it was considered unreasonable to the tenant to subject him
to a new lord without his own approval, and it thus came about
that alienation could not take place without the consent of the
tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees
for life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished
by an act of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an ac-
knowledgment of the existence of the relationship of landlord
and tenant. An attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause
whereby the mortgagor attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus
giving the mortgagee the right to distrain, as an additional
security.
ATTRITION (Lat oMritio, formed from atterere, to rub away),
a rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theo-
logians have also distinguished " attrition " from " contrition "
in the matter of sin, as an imperfect stage in the process of re-
pentance; attrition.being due to servile fear of the consequences
of sin, contrition to filial fear of God and hatred of sin for His
sake. It has been held among the Roman Catholics that in the
sac ramen t of penance attrition becomes contrition.
ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1765-1838), English composer, the
son of a coal merchant who had musical tastes, was born in
London on the 23rd of November 1765. At the age of nine he
became a chorister in the Chapel Royal, where he remained for
five years. In 1783 he was sent to study abroad at the expense
of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), who had been
favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After
spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna,
where he became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return
to London in 1787 he held for a short time an appointment
as one of the chamber musicians to the prince of Wales. In x 706
he was chosen organist of St Paul's, and in the same year he was
made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court connexion
was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor
to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales.
For the coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem*
" The King shall rejoice," a work of high merit. The king,
who had neglected him for some years on account of his con-
nexion with the princess of Wales, now restored him to favour,
and in 1821 appointed him organist to his private chapel at
Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal Academy
of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors.
He was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic
Society, founded in 18x3. He wrote the anthem, " O Lord,
grant the King a Long Life," which was performed at the corona-
tion of William IV., and he was composing a similar work for
the coronation of Queen Victoria when he died at his house in
Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He was buried
under the organ* in St Paul's cathedral. His services and anthems
888
ATTWOOD— AUBE
were published in a collected form alter his death by his pupil
Walrnisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees
are well known and popular. The numerous operas which he
composed in early life are now practically forgotten. Of his
songs the most popular was " The Soldier's Dream/' and the best
of his glees were " In peace Love tunes the shepherd's reed,"
and " To all that breathe the air of Heaven." Attwood was a
friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration
at a time when the young German's talent was little appreciated
by the majority of English musicians.
ATTWOOD, THOMAS (1783-1856), English political re-
former, was born at Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of
October 1783. In 1800 he entered his father's banking business
in Birmingham, where he was elected high bailiff in 181 1. He
took a leading part in the public life of the city, and became very
popular with the artisan class. He is now remembered for his
share in the movement which led to the carrying of the Reform
Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of
the Political Union, branches of which Were soon formed through-
out England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-
men met periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to
demonstrate in favour of reform of the franchise, and Attwood
used his power over the multitude to repress any action on their
part which might savour of illegality. His successful exertions
in favour of reform made him a popular hero all over the country,
and he was presented with the freedom of the city of London.
After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he was elected one
of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for which
he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain
the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition
to an eager partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic
movement, he was wearisomely persistent in advocating his
peculiar monetary theory. This theory, which became with
him a monomania, was that the existing currency should be
rectified in favour of state-regulated and inconvertible paper-
money, and the adoption of a system for altering the standard
of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence. with his
constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and,
though invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that
time become a thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern
on the 6th of March 2856.
His grandson, C M. Wakefield, wrote his life " for private cir-
culation " (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his economic
theories are set forth in a little book, Gemini, by T. B. Wright and
J. Harlow, published in 1844.
ATWOOD, GEORGE (1746-2807), English mathematician,
was born in the early part of the year 2746. He entered West-
minster school, and in 1759 was elected to a scholarship at
Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 2769, with the
rank of third wrangler and first Smith's prizeman. Subsequently
he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 2776 was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year
2784 he left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from
William Pitt the office of a patent searcher of the customs,
which required but little attendance, and enabled him to de-
vote a considerable portion of his time to his special studies.
He died in July 2807. Atwood's published works, exclusive of
papers contributed to the Philosophical Transections, for one of
which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows: — Analysis
of a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy
(Cambridge, 2784); Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and
Rotation of Bodies (Cambridge, 2784), which gives some interest-
ing experiments, by means of which mechanical truths can be
ocularly exhibited and demonstrated, and describes the machine,
since called by Atwood's name, for verifying experimentally the
laws of simple acceleration of motion; Review of the Statutes and
Ordinances of Assize which have been established in England from
the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th of his present Majesty
(London, 1802), a work of some historical research; Dissertation
on the Construction and Properties of Arches (London, 2802),
with supplement, pt. i., 1802, pt. ii., 2804, an elaborate work,
sow. completely superseded.
AUBADB (a French word from aube, the dawn), the da*
of the troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers
(q.v.) of Germany into the Tagelied, the song of the parting -t
dawn of lovers at the warning of the watchman. In France es
modern times the term is applied to the performance of a military
band in the early morning in honour of some distinguished
person.
AUBAGNB, a town of south-eastern France, in the departmeci
of Bouches-du-Rh6ne on the Hnveaune, xr m. E. of MarsctUc*
by rail. Pop. (2006) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture
of earthenware and pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivatioa of
fruit and wine. There is a fountain to the memory of the
statesman, F. Bartheiemy (d. 2830), born at Aubagne.
AUBE, a department of north-eastern Fiance, bounded N. by
the department of Marne, N.W. by Sdne-et-Marne, W. by
Yonne, S. by Yonne and Cote-d'Or, and E. by Haate-Marae:
it was formed in 2700 from Basse Champagne, and a sma3
portion of Burgundy. Area, 9326 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 243,67a
The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is watered
chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the
general slope of the department, which is from south rail,
where the Bois du Mont (iaoo ft.), the highest point, is situated,
to north-west. The southern and eastern districts are fertile
and well wooded. The remainder of the department, with the
exception of a more broken and picturesque district in the
extreme north-west, forms part of the sterile and monotonous
plain known as Champagne PouiUeuse. The climate is miJd
but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies
from 24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times
reaches a height of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department;
more than one- third of its surface consists of arable land of mhich
the chief products are wheat and oats, and next to them rye,
barley and potatoes; vegetables are extensively cultivated ta
the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The vine flourishei
chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les Rieeys.
Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed
The river valleys abound in natural pasture, and Sainton,
lucerne and other forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raiiiar.
is an important source of wealth, and the cheeses of Troves »r»
well known. TheTe are excellent nurseries and orchards in iht
neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine, Mery-sur-Seine ard
Brienne. Chalk, from which blanc de Troyes is manufactured,
and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings a.rd
quarries of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and
weaving of cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of
which Troyes is the centre, are the main industries of the depart-
ment; there are also a large number of distilleries, tanneries,
oil works, tile and brick works, flour-mills, saw-milts and dye-
works. The Eastern railway has works at Romflly, and there
are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing works at Plaines;
but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal working
is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber.
cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, kc ;
its imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery.
especially looms. The department is served by the Eastern
railway, of which the main line to Belfort crosses it. The rivrr
Aube is navigable for 28 m. (from Ards-sur-Aube to its confluence
with the Seine); the Canal de la Haute-Scine extends beside the
Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly (just outside the depart-
ment) a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the Seine is canalized
Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and
446 communes. It falls within the educational circumscription
(academic) of Dijon and the military circumscription of the XX
army corps; its court of appeal is in Paris. It constitutes ihe
diocese of Troyes and part of the archiepiscopal province of Sea*.
The capita] of the department is Troyes; of the arrondissemenis
the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Ards-sur-Aube, Bar-svr-
SeineandNogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of the de pa rt m ent
is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which possess stained
glass of the 26th century. Besides the cathedral and other
churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Sdne (23th century).
Chaource (26th century) and Nogenf-sur-Sdne (25th and ]6th
AUBENAS— AUBIGNAC
889
centuries), are of note The abbey buildings of Oairvaux are
the type of the Cistercian abbey.
AUBENAS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department
of Ardeche, 19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976
(town), 7064 (commune). Aubenas is beautifully situated on the
slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Ardeche, but its streets
generally are crooked and narrow. It has a castle of the 13th
and 16th centuries, now occupied by several of the public institu-
tions of the town. These include a tribunal and chamber of
commerce, and a conditioning- house for silk. Iron and coal
mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade
of southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic.
It has also a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and
carries on tanning and various minor industries together with
trade in silk. The district is rich in plantations of mulberries
I and olives.
AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT (1783-1871), French
musical composer, the son of a Paris printsellcr, was born at
Caen in Normandy on the 29th of January 1782. Destined by
his father to the pursuits of trade, he was allowed, nevertheless,
to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to play at an early
age on several instruments, his first teacher being the Tixolcan
composer, I. A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London
to complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England
an consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804).
He had already attempted musical composition, and at this
period produced several concertos pour basse, in the manner of
the violoncellist, Lamarre, in whose name they were published.
The praise given to his concerto for the violin, which was played
at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him to undertake
the resetting of the old comic opera, Julie ( 1 8 1 1 ) . Conscious by
this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art, he placed
himself under the severe training of Chcrubini, by which the
special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed.
In 18 13 he made his dibut in an opera in one act, the Sijour
militate, the unfavourable reception of which put an end for
some years to his attempts as composer. But the failure in
business and death of his father, in 1819, compelled him once
more to turn to music, and to make that which had been his
pastime the serious employment of his life. He produced another
opera, the Testament tt les billets-doux (1819), which was no
better received than the former. But he persevered, and the
next year was rewarded by the complete success of his Bergere
cMlelainc, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long
series of brilliant successes. In 182a began his long association
with A. £. Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success
and growing popularity of his compositions. The opera of
Leicester, in which they first worked together (1823), is remark-
able also as showing evidences of the influence of Rossini But
his own style was an individual one> marked by lightness and
facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and elegance, clear and piquant
melody— ^characteristically French. In La Muette de Portki,
familiarly known as Mosonicllo, Auber achieved his greatest
musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a
European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were
everywhere heard. The duet, " Amour sacrt de la patrie," was
welcomed like a new Marseillaise] sung by Nourrit at Brussels
in 1830, it became the signal for the revolution which broke
out there. Of Auber's remaining operas (about 50 in all) the
more important are: Le Macon (1825), La Fiancee (1829), Fra
Dtatoto (1830), Lestocq (1834), Le Cheval de bronze (1835),
V Ambassadrice (1836), Le Domino noir (1837), Le Lac desjies
(1839), Les Diamonts de la couronne (1841), Haydie (1847),
Marco Spada (1853), Motion Lescaul (1856), and La Fioncie du
roi des Garbes (1864). Official and other dignities testified the
public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected
member of the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the
court concerts, and in. 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he
succeeded Cherubinl as director of the Conservatoire. He was
also a member of the Legion of Honour from 1825, and attained
the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon III. made Auber his
Imperial Maltre de Chapelle in 1857.
One of Aubet's latest compositions was a march, written for
the opening of the International Exhibition in London in 1862.
His fascinating manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready
kindness and beneficence won for him a secure place in the respect
and love of his fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home
during the German siege of Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries
of the Communist war which followed sickened his heart, and
he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.
Sec Adolph Kohut, " Auber," vol. xvii. of Musiher Biographien
(Leipzig, 1895).
AUBERGINE (diminutive of Fr. auber ge, a variant of albcrge,
a kind of peach), or Egg Plant (Solanum mohngena, var.
ovigerum), a tender annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts
of the earth, and in France and Italy, for the sake of its fruits,
which are eaten as a vegetable. The seed should be sown early
in February in a warm pit, where the plants are grown till shifted
into 8-in. or 10- in. pots, in well-manured soil. Liquid manure
should be given occasionally while the fruit is swelling; about
four fruits are sufficient for -one plant The French growers
sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January,
and in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a
bottom heat of from 60* to 68*, the sashes being gradually more
widely opened as the season advances, until at about the end of
May they may be taken off. The two main branches which are
allowed are pinched to induce laterals, but when the fruits are
set all young shoots are taken off in order to increase their size.
The best variety is the large purple, which produces oblong
fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and 10 or 12 in. in
circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly
resembles the egg of the domestic fowL It is also grown as
an ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially
the black-fruited kind.
AUBERVILUER8, or Auberyillieks-les-Vertus, a town
of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the canal
St Denis, 2 m. from the right bank of the Seine and x m. N. of
the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 33,358. Its manufac-
tures include cardboard, glue, oils, colours, fertilizers, chemical
products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages and till
modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims,
who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 18 14
the locality was the scene of a stubborn combat between the
French and the Allies.
AUBIGNAC, FRANCOIS HRDEUN. Abbe d' (1604-1676),
French author, was bom at Paris on the 4th of August 1604.
His father practised at the Paris bar, and his mother was a
daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Pare. Francois Heaelin
was educated for his father's profession, but, after practising
for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders,
and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu's nephews, the
due de Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey
of Aubignac and of Mainac The death of the due de Fonsac
in 1646 put an end to hopes of further preferment, and the
Abbe d'Aubignac retired to Nemours, occupying himself with
literature till his death on the 25th of July 1676. He took an
energetic share in the literary controversies of bis time. Against
Gilles Menage he wrote a Terence justijU (1656); he laid claim
to having originated the idea of the " Carte de tendre " of Mile de
Scudery's CUlic; and after being a professed admirer of Corneille
he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the
abbe in his Discours sur le pohne dramalique. He was the author
of four tragedies: La Cyminde (1642), La Pucelle d'Orleans (1642),
Zenobie ( 1 647) and Le Martyr c de Sainte Catherine ( 1 650) . Zenobie
was written with the intention of affording a model in which
the strict rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were
observed. In the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to
have been guided by a desire to illustrate the various kinds of
tragedy— patriotic, antique and religious. The dramatic authors
whom he was in the habit of criticizing were not slow to take
advantage of the opportunity for retaliation offered by the
production of these mediocre plays. It is as a theorist that
D'Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved that to
Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having beet toe first to
890
AUBIGNE
establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that
plays so large a part in the history of the French stage; but
the laws of dramatic method and construction generally were
codified by d'Aubignac in his Pratique du tktdtre. The book
was only published in 1657, but had been begun at the desire
of Richelieu as early as 1640. His Conjectures acadimiquts sur
Flliade d'Homirc, which was not published until nearly forty
years after his death, threw doubts on the existence of Homer,
and antidpa ted in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich August
Wolf in his Prolegomena ad Homerum (1795).
The contents of the Pratique du tkidtre are summarised by F.
Brunetiere in his notice of Aubignac in the Grande Eneydopidie.
See also G. Sainttbury. Hist, of Criticism, bk. v., and H. Rigault,
Hist, de la querelle des ancient et modernes. (1859).
AUB1GNB, CONSTANT D* (Bakon de Surineau] (c. 1584-
1647), French adventurer, was the son of Theodore Agrippa
d'Aubigne, and the father of Madame de Maintenon. Born
a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or Protestant as it
suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in 1626,
revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects
of the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by bis
father; then imprisoned by Richelieu's orders at Niort, where
he was detained ten years. After having tried his fortunes in
the Antilles, he died in Provence, leaving in destitution his wife,
Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he had married in 1627. He had two
children, Charles, father of the duchess of Noailles, and Francoise,
known in history as Madame de Maintenon.
Sec T. Lavallee, La Famille (TAubigni et Venfanre de Madame de
Maintenon (Paris, 1863).
AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE D* (1794-1872), Swiss
Protestant divine and historian, was born on the 16th of August
1794, at Eaux Vives, near Geneva. The ancestors of his father,
Aime Robert Merle d'Aubigne (1755-1709), were French Pro-
testant refugees. Jean Henri was destined by his parents to a
commercial life; but at college he decided to be ordained. He
was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish
missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he
went abroad to further his education, Germany was about to
celebrate the tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early
he conceived the ambition to write the history of that great
epoch. At Berlin he received stimulus from teachers so unlike
as J. A. W. Neander and W. M . L. de Wette. After presiding for
five years over the French Protestant church at Hamburg, he
was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in
Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of
the consistory of the French and German Protestant churches.
At the Belgian revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to
undertake pastoral work at home rather than to accept an
educational post in the family of the Dutch king. The Evan-
gelical Society had been founded with the idea of promoting
evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was found
that there was also needed a theological school for the training
of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d'Aubigne was invited
to become professor of church history in an institution of the
kind, and continued to labour in the cause of evangelical Pro-
testantism. In him the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty
promoter. He frequently visited England, was made a D.C.L.
by Oxford University, and received civic honours from the city
of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.
His principal works are — Disc ours sur Vtiude de rhistoire de
Christianisme (Geneva, 1832); Lt Lutkiranisme et la Rt/orme
(Paris, 1844); Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections
of a Swiss Pastor (London, 1848); Trois siecles de lutte en £cosse>
on deux rois el deux royaumes; he Protecteur on la rtpubliquc
</' Anglcterre aux jours de Cromwell (Paris, 1848); Le Concilc et
l'infaillibilili(i&io) ; Histoire de la Reformation au XK/'«« siicle
(Paris, 1835-1853 ; new ed., 1861-1862, in 5 vols.) ; and Histoire de
la Reformation en Europe au temps de Calvin (8 vols., 1862-1877).
The first portion of his Histoire de la Reformation, which was
devoted to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, gave
him at once a foremost place amongst modern French ecclesi-
astical historians, and was translated into most European
tongues. The second portion, dealing with reform in the time
of Calvin, was not leas thorough, and had a subject fcatherio less
exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with tie sane sneress
This part of the subject, with which he was moat uiay.'. cr. is
deal, was all but completed at the time of his deads. Ac/i
his minor treatises, the most important are the viis dj catir - J
the character and aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch o* j*
contendinga of the Church of Scotland.
Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Asabigne fc.d
amassed a wealth of authentic information; hot has desire to
give in all cases a full and graphic picture, assisted by a vmd
imagination, betrayed him into excess of detail concerning miner
events, and in a few cases into filling up a narrative by raferrrvct
from later conditions. Moreover, in his profound sympathy
with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes their apotejrst-
But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity, and bnuo
us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.
AUB1GHB, THftODORB AGRIPPA D' (1 551-1630), Free:*
poet and historian, was born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintore*.
on the 8th of February 155s. His name Agrippa (argre part**\
was given him through his mother dying in childbirth. In *«,
childhood he showed a great aptitude for languages; acrorr! ~e
to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew at six yean
of age; and he had translated the Crito of Plato before he ««s
eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the con-
spirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathss
by showing him, while they were passing through that town ca
their way to Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed opoa
the scaffold, and adjuring him not to spare his own head in ordrr
to avenge their death. After a brief residence he was obliged
to flee from Paris to avoid persecution, but was captured t.r,i
threatened with death. Escaping through the intervention of
a friend, he went to Montargis. In his fourteenth year he was
present at the siege of Orleans, at whtcn his father was killed.
His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for a con-
siderable time under the direction of Beza. In 1 567 be mz6e
his escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Hurmrot
army tinder the prince of Conde. Subsequently he joined Henry
of Navarre, whom he succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupt-
ing influence of the house of Valois (1576), and to whom he
rendered valuable service, both as a soldier and as a counsellor,
in the wars that issued in his elevation to the throne as Henry IV.
After a furious battle at CasteTJaloux, and suffering from fort
from his wounds, he wrote his Tragiques (1571). He was in the
battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris (1590). Ha
career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered
one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of
his criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tned
the king's patience. In his tragidie-baUet Circe (1 576) he did not
hesitate to indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the
king and other members of the royal family. Though he more
than once found it expedient to retire into private life he never
entirely lost the favour of Henry, who made him governor of
Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to Roman Catho-
licism, d'Aubigne remained true to the Huguenot cause, and
a fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first t*o
volumes of the work by which he is best known, his Histcirc
universale depuis itfojusqu'd Pan i6ot, appeared in 1616 and
1618 respectively. The third volume was published in 1619. but,
being still more free and personal in its satire than those which
had preceded it, it was immediately ordered to be burned by the
common hangman. The work is a lively chronicle of the incidents
of camp and court life, and forms a very valuable source for the
history of France during the period it embraces. In September
1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in Geneva, vb.re
he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his life, though
the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a
sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once.
He devoted the period of his exile to study, and the superintend-
ence of works for the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were
designed as a material defence of the cause of Protestantism.
He died at Geneva on the 29th of April 1630.
A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS.
AUBIN— -AUBURN
891
It contains
was begun by E. Resume and F. de Cau— ade (1
all the literary works, the Atentures du baron t
and the Mimoires (6 vols* 1 873-1 892;. The best edition of the
Bistoire unioerseUe is by A. de Ruble. The Mimoires were edited
by L. LaJanne (1854).
AUBIN, .a town of southern France, in the department of
Aveyron on the Ennc, 30 m. N.W. of Rode*. In 1006 the urban
population was 2229, the communal population 9986. Aubin is
the centre of important coal-mines worked in the middle ages,
and also has iron-mines, the product of which supplies iron works
close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in the vicinity.
The church dates from the 12th century.
AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at
Easton Pierse or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the xath
of March 1626, his father being a country gentleman of consider-
able fortune. He was educated at the Malmesbury grammar
school under Robert Latimer, who had numbered Thomas
Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his schoolmaster's house
Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was to leave
so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity
College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the
Civil War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple,
but was never called to the bar. He spent much of his time in
the country, and in 1649 he brought into notice the megalithic
remains at Avcbury. His father died in 1 65 2, leaving to Aubrey
large estates, and with them, unfortunately, complicated law-
suits. Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and used his means to
gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and for every
.sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony a Wood
prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running
downstairs after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a
story from him. He took no active share in the political troubles
of the time, but from bis description of a meeting of the Rota
Club, founded by James Harrington, the author of Oceana, he
appears to have been a theorizing republican. His reminiscences
on this subject date from the Restoration, and are probably
softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became
a member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met
Joan Somner, " in an HI hour/' he tells us. This connexion did
not end in marriage, and a lawsuit with the lady complicated
bis already embarrassed affairs. He lost estate after estate,
until in 1670 he parted with his last piece of property, Easton
Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the hospitality of
his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the acquaintance of
Anthony a Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather
materials for his invaluable Athenae Oxonienses, Aubrey offered
to collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded
memoranda to him, and in 1680 he began to promise the
" Minutes for Lives," which Wood was to use at his discretion.
He left the task of verification largely to Wood. As a hanger-on
in great houses he had little time for systematic work, and he
wrote the " Lives " in the early morning while his hosts were
sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night before.
He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many
queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh in-
formation occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some
distinction between hearsay and authentic information, but had
no pretence to accuracy, his retentive memory being the chief
authority. The principal charm of his " Minutes " lies in the
amusing details he has to recount about his personages, and in
the plainness and truthfulness that he permits himself in face of
established reputations. In 1.502 he complained bitterly that
Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably because of
the dangerous freedom of Aubrey's pen. Wood was prosecuted
eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the
earl of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question
was certainly founded on information provided by Aubrey.
This perhaps explains the estrangement between the two anti-
quaries and the ungrateful account that Wood gives of the elder
man's character. " He was s shiftless person, roving and
magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than erased. And
being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent
to A W. with follies and misinformations, which sometimes
would guide him into the paths of ernrar." 1 In 1673 Aubrey
began his " Perambulation " or " Survey " of the county of
Surrey, which was the result of many years' labour in collecting
inscriptions and traditions in the country. He began a " History
of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire," but, feeling that
he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over his
material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of
St Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed,
though certainly not his most valuable work, the Miscellanies, a
collection of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford
in June 1697, and was buried in the church of St Mary
Magdalene.
Beside the works already mentioned, hit papers included:
" Architectonics Sacra," notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and
" Life of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury," which served as the basis
of Dr Blackburn's Latin life, and also of Wood's account. His
survey of Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson's Natural
History and Antiquities of Surrey (1719); his antiquarian notes on
Wiltshire were printed in Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections
of John Aubrey, corrected and enlarged by J. E. Jackson (Devizes.
1862) ; part of another MS. on " The Natural History of Wiltshire* 1
was printed byjohn Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical
Society; the Miscellanies were edited in 1890 for the Library of Old
Authors; the " Minutes for Lives " were partially edited in 1813.
A complete transcript, Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down
by John Aubrey between the Years 1660 ana 1696, was edited for the
Clarendon Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS.
in the Bodleian, Oxford.
See also John Britton, Memoir of John Aubrey (184$); David
Masson, in the British Quarterly Review, July 1856; Eroile Montegut,
Heures de lecture d'un critique (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey's
collections in The Life and Times of Anthony Wood .... by Andrew
Clark (Oxford. 1801-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains
many other references to Aubrey.
AUBURN, a city- and the county-seat of Androscoggin county,
Maine, U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston
(with which it practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W.
part of the state. Pop. (1800) 11,150, (1000) 12,051, of whom
2076 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 15,064. It is served
by the Grand Trunk and the Maine Central railways. The river
furnishes abundant water-power, and the dty ranked fourth in
the state as a manufacturing centre in 1005. Boots and shoes
are the principal products; in 1005 seven-tenths of the city's
wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn's
output ($4,263,162-66-5 % of the total factory product of the
city) was one-third of that of the whole state. Other manu-
factures are butter, bread and other bakery products, cotton
goods, furniture and leather. The municipality owns and
operates its waterworks. Auburn was first settled in 1786,
and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter dates
only from 1869.
AUBURN, a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county,
New York, U.S.A., 25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of
Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858; (1900) 30,345, of whom
5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland and 1023 from
England; (1910) 34,66s. It is served by the Lehigh Valley
and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by
inter-urban electric lines. The city is attractively situated
amidst a group of low lulls in the heart of the lake country of
western New York; the streets are wide, with a profusion of
shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the large Burtis Audi-
torium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and the
Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a
fine bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home
here after 1823, and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In
Auburn are the Auburn (State) prison (18x6), in connexion
with which there is a women's prison; the Auburn Theological
Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered in 1820,
and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls,
and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, for the
education of working girls, with a building erected in 1007.
The city owns its water-supply system, the water being pumped
from Owasco Lake, about 2} m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a
good water-power, and the city has important manufacturing
1 "Life of Anthony a Wood written by Himself "(A then. Oxon.,
ed. Buss)*
892
AUBURN— AUCH
Interests. The principal manufactures are cordage and twine,
agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and shoes,
cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods,
flour and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was
valued at $13420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of
agricultural implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn
ranked fifth among the cities of the United States. There are
a number of grey and blue limestone quarries, one of which is
owned and operated by the municipality.
Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence,
Auburn was laid out in 1793 by Captain John L. Harden burgh,
a veteran of the war, and for some years was known as Harden-
burgh's Corners. In 1805, when it was made the county-seat,
it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in 1814, and was
chartered as a city in 1848.
See C. Hawley, Early Chapters of Cayuga History (Auburn, 1879).
AUBURN (from the Low Lat. alburnus, whitish, light-coloured),
ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one
of brownish-white or light yellow (citrmus, in Prompiorium
Parntlorun), probably through the intensification of the idea
of brown caused by the early spelling " abron " or " abrown."
AUBUSSON, PIERRE D* (1423-1503), grand-master of the
order of St John of Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the
Turks, was born in 1423. He belonged to a noble French family,
and early devoted himself to the career of a soldier in the service
of the emperor Sigismund. Under the archduke Albert of
Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks, and on his
return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss,
greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444.
He then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and success-
fully conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant
and an embassy to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most
important offices in the order, and in 1476 was elected grand-
master. It was the period of the conquests of Mahommed II.,
who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe. In
December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes;
a landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city.
But in July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the
knights forced the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them
9000 dead. The siege, in which d'Aubusson was seriously
wounded, enhanced his renown throughou t Europe. Mahommed
was furious, and would have attacked the bland again but for
his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his
sons Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid,
sought refuge at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-
master and the council of the knights. What followed remains
a stain on d'Aubusson *s memory. Rhodes not being considered
secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to France. Mean-
while, in spite of the safe-conduct, d'Aubusson accepted an
annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan, in return for which he
undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design
of appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his
brother. For six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to
escape, was kept a close prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian
order in France, until in 1489 he was handed over to Pope
Innocent VIII., who had been vying with the kings of Hungary
and Naples for the possession of so valuable a politicaL weapon.
D'Aubusson 's reward was a cardinal's hat (1489), and the
power to confer all benefices connected with the order without
the sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the
wealth of the suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St
Lazarus. The remaining years of his life d'Aubusson spent in
the attempt to restore discipline and zeal in his order, and to
organize a grand international crusade against the Turks The
age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on the throne of
St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an enterprise;
the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable
weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d'Aubus-
son led an expedition against Mytilcne, dissensions among his
motley host rendered it wholly abortive. The old man's last
years were embittered by chagrin at his failure, which was
hardly compensated by his success in extirpating Judaism in
Rhodes, by expeDmg all adult Jews and forcibly hap tiring their
children. In the summer of 1503 he died.
See P. Bouhoura, Hist, de Pierre d'Aubusson (Paris, 1676; Haeue,
1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G. E. Strcck, Pierre d'Anbui:c* %
Crossmeister, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J. B. Bury in Cambridge MjL
Hist. vol. i. p. 65, &c. (for relations with Jem).
AUBUSSON, a town of France, capital of an arrondisscrnent
in the department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the rh er
Creuse 24 m. S.E. of Guerct by rail. Pop. (1006) 6475. Il ki*
celebrated manufactories of carpets, &c, employing about 3000
workmen, the artistic standard of which is maintained b> a
national school of decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing
certain is known as to the foundation of this industry, but :t
was in full activity at least as far back as 1531. From the icih
to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre of a viscounty,
and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was su^z
by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy IL
(a little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the
count ship of La Marchc by Hugh XII. of Lu sign an, and share- i
in its fortunes. Louis XIV. revived the title of viscount oi
Aubusson in favour of Francois, first marshall de la FcuilLzk
(1686). From the family of the old viscounts was descended
Pierre d'Aubusson {q.v.) Admiral Sallandrouzc de Lamornn
(1840-1002) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers
established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th centur.
Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Le\5n^i
Sylvain, Julicn Sandeau and Alfred Assouan t (1827-18S6).
See Le Pere Anselmc, Hist. genealof>igue de la maison it
France, vol. v. pp. 318 et acq.; P. Mignaton, Hut. de la met *•»
d'Aubusson (Paris, 1886); Cyprica Perathon, Hut. d'Anb+t.e*
(Limoges, 1886). (A. T ,
AUCH, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Gers, 55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway.
Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is built on the summit and sides of
a hill at the foot of which flow the yellow waters of the Gers.
It consists -of a lower and upper quarter united in several plarcs
by flights of steps. The streets are in general steep and narrow,
but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town, laid out
in the 18th century by the iniendant Antoinc Megrct d'Eucny.
Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gtrs,
on which the suburb of Patte d'Oie is situated. The most in-
teresting part of the town lies in the old quarter around the
Place Salmis, a spacious terrace which commands an exteo&ne
view over the surrounding country. On its eastern side it
communicates with the left bank of the river by a handsome
series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of Sainte-
Marie. This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to
the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in
southern France. The facade, however, with its two square and
somewhat heavy flanking towers dates from the 17th centur?.
and is Greco-Roman in architecture. Sain te -Marie oonutcs
many artistic treasures, the chief of which are the magnificent
stained-glass windows of the Renaissance which light the apodal
chapels, and the 1 13 choir-stalls of carved oak, also oi Renaissance
workmanship. The archbishop's palace adjoins the cathedral;
it is a building of the 16th century with a Romanesque hall ard
a tower of the 14th century Opposite the south side of (he
cathedral stands the lycee on the site of a former Jesuit college.
Only scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of
St Orens. The ecclesiastical seminary contains an important
library with a collection of manuscripts, and there is a public
library in the Carmelite chapel, a building of the 17th cemurv
The former palace of the intetidants of Gascony is now used t«
the prefecture. Auch is the seat of an archbishopric, a prefect
and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance ar.j
of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycee, training-coUeyc*.
a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France and an im-
portant lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural
implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is
a trade in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are
quarries of building-stone in the neighbourhood.
Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Ccltiberian tribe, the
Ausci, and under the Roman domination was one of the most
AUCHMUTY— AUCKLAND
893
important cities in GauL In the 4th century this importance
was increased by the foundation of its bishopric, and after the
destruction of Eause in the 9th century it became the metropolis
of Novempopulana. Till 733, Auch stood on the right bank of the
Cera, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens drove the
inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river, where
a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of
Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks
of which, till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the
archbishops—an arrangement which gave rise to constant strife.
The counts of Armagnac possessed a castle in the dty, which was
the capital of Armagnac in the middle ages. During the Religious
Wars of the 16th century Auch remained Catholic, except for a
short occupation in 1509 by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count
of Montgomery. In the x8th century it was capital of Gascony,
and seat of a generality. Antoine Megret d'Etigny, intendant
from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its
commerce.
AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL (1756-1822), British general,
was born at New York in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the
American War of Independence, being given an ensigncy in the
royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a lieutenancy in the 45th Foot,
without purchase. When his regiment returned to England
after the war, having neither private means nor influence, he
exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He took
part in the last war against Hyder Ali ; he was given a staff
appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations
against Tippoo Sahib,and continued in various staff appointments
up to 1797, when he returned to England a brevet lieut-
coloneL In 1800 he was made lieut. -colonel and brevet colonel;
and in the following year, as adjutant-general to Sir David
Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share in the march across
the desert and the capture of Alexandria* On his return to
England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went
out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was
one of the few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos
Aires expedition of 1806*7 with enhanced reputation. While
General Whitelocke, the commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty
was at once re-employed and promoted major-general, and was
sent out in 18x0 to command at Madras. In the following year
he commanded the expedition organised for the conquest of
Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accom-
panied. The -storming of the strongly fortified position of
Meester Cornells (28th August 1811), stubbornly defended by
the Dutch garrison under General Janssens, practically achieved
the conquest of the island, and after the action of Samarang
(September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty received the
thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C3. in 1815),
and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of
lieut-general. In i8ax he became commander-in-chief in Ireland,
and a membe* of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on
the nth of August 1822.
AUGHTBRARDER (Gaelic, " upper high land "), a police
burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, X3i m. S.W. of Perth by the
Caledonian railway. Pop. (1001) 2376. It is situated on
Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the Earn. The chief
manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens, and of
agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century
Jt obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards
became a royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the
Scottish parliament. Its castle, now ruinous* was built as .a
hunting-lodge for Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it
possessed as early as the reign of Alexander II, (1198-1249) no
remains exist. The ancient church of St Mungo, now in ruins,
was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed style. The town
was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in 17 16
during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with
this parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the
disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of
Kincardine, x m. south, gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the
duke of Montrose. The old castle, now in ruins, was dismantled
in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in retaliation for the destruction
of Castle Campbell is Dollar Glen on the south side of the Ochils.
The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m. west of the burgh, once
belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine, ancestors of the duke
of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of Tullibardine from
the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also ruinous, was a
burial-place of the Murrays.
AUCHTERMUCHTY (Gaelic, " the high ground of the wild
sow "), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built
on an elevation about 9 m. W. by S. of Cupar, with a station on a
branch of the North British railway from Ladybank to Mawcarse
Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn divides
the town. The principal industries include the weaving of
linen and da m asks , bleaching, distilling and malting. John
Glas, founder of the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians,
was a native of the town. A mile and a half to the south-west
is the village of Strathmiglo (pop. 966), on the river Eden, with
a linen factory and bleaching works.
AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, Easi. of (1784-1849), English
statesman, was the second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He
completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar
in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the
following year ; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took
his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported
the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made
president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In
1834 he held office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty,
and in 1835 he was appointed governor-general of India. He
proved himself to be a painstaking and laborious legislator,, and
devoted himself specially to the improvement of native schools,
and the expansion of the commercial industry of the nation
committed to his care. These useful labours were interrupted
in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the fears
not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home
authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and
on the xst of October 1838 published at Simla his famous
manifesto dethroning Dost Mahommed. The early operations
were crowned with success, and the governor-general received
the title of earl of Auckland But reverses followed quickly,
and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops suffered the
most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double mortifica-
tion of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being super-
seded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of
1841 he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and
returned to England in the following year. In 1846 he was made
first lord of the admiralty, which office he held until his death,
on the xst of January 1849. He died unmarried, and the earldom
became extinct, the barony (see below) passing to his brother
Robert*
S»S.J.Trotba t TkeEadofAuddoMi(' t ¥bj^n<Altidh"Btnah
i«93-
AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 18T Bakon (1745-1814),
English statesman, son of Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Wlndle-
stone Hall, Durham, and of Mary, daughter of William Davison,
was born in 1745, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1768. In 1771
he published Principles of Penal Law, and was early recognised
as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and
in 177a he was appointed an under secretary of state. He repre-
sented New Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780,
and Heytesbury in those of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was
appointed a commissioner on the board of trade and plantations.
In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement of the •treatment
of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a com-
missioner to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle
the disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he
published his widely read Four Letters to Ike Earl of Carlisle,
and in x 780 became chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected
to the Irish House of Commons as member for Dungannon in
1781 and sworn of the Irish privy council, and while in Ireland
established the National Bank. He advised the increase of the
secret service fund, and was reputed, according to Lord Charle-
mont (a political opponent), as especially skilful in the arts of
«94
AUCKLAND—AUCTION PITCH
corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned
in 1783, but in the following year -he took office again as vice-
treasurer of Ireland under, the coalition ministry, which he had
been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy
council, resigning with the government in December. He
opposed strongly Pitt's propositions for free trade between Eng-
land and Ireland in 1785, but took office with Pitt as a member
of the committee on trade and plantations, and negotiated in
1786 and 1787 Pitt's important commercial treaty with France,
and agreements concerning the East India Companies and
Holland. In 1787 he published his History of New Holland.
Next year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his
return was created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the
Irish peerage. The same year he was sent on a mission to
Holland, and represented English interests there with great
seal and prudence during the critical years of 1790 to 1793,
obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on the menace
of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the
Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress
at Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter
year, received a pension of £2300, and was created Baron Auck-
hind of West Auckland, Durham , in the English peerage. During
his retirement in the country at Beckenham, he continued his
intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at Holwood, who at
one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and- with Pitt's
sanction he published his Remarks on the Apparent Cicunstances
of the War in z 795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1 798
he was included in Pitt's government as joint postmaster-general,
and supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union,
assisting in drawing up the act embodying the latter. In x 709 he
brought in a bill to check adultery by preventing the marriage
of the guilty parties, and the same year took a mischievous
part in the cabal against Sir Ralph Abercromby. He severely
criticised Pitt's resignation in 1801, from which he had en-
deavoured to dissuade him, and retained office tinder Addington.
This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him
from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension.
Auckland was included in Granville's ministry of "All the
Talents " as president of the board of trade in 1806. He held
the appointments of auditor and director of Greenwich hospital,
recorder of Grantham, and chancellor of the Marischal College
in Aberdeen. He-died on the 28th of May 1814.
He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto,
and had a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist,
was one of his daughters. On the death of his son George,
2nd baron and earl of Auckland (q*.), the barony passed to the
xst baron's younger son Robert John (1709-1870), bishop of
Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons were descended,
and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden (1831-1887),
lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The xst baron had two dis-
tinguished brothers— Morton Eden (X752-1830), a diplomatist,
who married Lady Elisabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created
xst Baron Henley (his family, from 1831, taking the name of
Henley instead of Eden); and Sir Robert Eden, governor of
Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton Eden (1766-1809),
was a well-known economist.
Lord Auckland's Journal and Correspondence, published in 1861-
1862, throws much light on the political history of the time.
AUCKLAND, a city and seaport on the east coast of North
Island, New Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province
of its name, and the seat of a bishop. Pop. (xoo6) 37,736;
including suburbs, 82,101. It is situated at'the month of an arm
of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m. distant from the bead of
Manukau harbour on the western coast The situation is ex-
tremely beautifuL The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet
opening northward, is studded. with islands of considerable
elevation; Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic
cone reaching nearly 1000 ft Hie isthmus on which the town
Stands (which position has caused it to be likened to Corinth)
can be crossed without surmounting any great elevation, and
offers a feasible canal route, A number of small extinct volcanoes,
however, appear in all directions. To the west the Titirangi hills
exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren, bat 1
of the district is clothed in b»v *riant vegetation.
Auckland harbour, one ok tne best in New Zealand, is approach-
able by the largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are t»o
graving docks. Queen Street, the principal thoroughfare,
leads inland from the main dock, and contains the majority
of the public buildings. There is a small government hotuc,
standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park, with plan-
tations of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery
and exchange, with St Mary's cathedral (Anglican), a building
in a combination of native timbers, St Paul's and St Patrick*
cathedral (Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The
art' gallery and free Library contain excellent pictures, and
valuable books and MSS. presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum
contains one of the best existing collections of Maori art. There
are an opera-house and an academy of music. The Auckland
University College and the grammar school are the principa;
educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with
a botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a
bronze statue of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One
Tree Hill on the outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman's
Bay. The principal thoroughfares are served by electric tramway.
Of the suburbs, Newton, Parnell and Newmarket are in reality
outlying parts of the town itself. Devonport, Birkenhead and
Northcote are beautifully situated on the north shore of the
inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other residential
suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount
Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port oa
Manukau harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former
residence of Bishop Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842.
assisted to draw up the constitution of the Anglican church.
There are many associations with his name in the neighbour-
hood. The prospect over the town and its environs from
Mount Eden is justly famous. The hfll is terraced with former
native fortifications.
Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and
paper-, rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The
town was founded as capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor
Hobson. There is communication both south and north by
rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of the colony, the
principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c From 1853 to 1876
Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until
1865 that of the central government, which was then transferred
to Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took
place here in 1854. Auckland is under municipal government
AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, dis-
covered in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler
" Ocean," in so" 24' S. t 166 7' E. The islands, of volcanic origin,
are very fertile, and are covered with forest. They were granted
to the Messrs Enderby by the British government as a whaling
station, hut the establishment was abandoned in 1859. The
islands belong politically to New Zealand.
AUCTION PITCH, s card game which is a popular variation
of All Fours (?.».). The name is derived from the rule that
the first card played, or pitched, Is the trump suit, and that the
eldest hand has the privilege of pitching it or of selling oat
to the highest bidder. A full pack is used, and the cards rank
as in All Fours, namely from ace down to », ace being highest
in cutting also. . From four to seven may play, each player being
provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters
in case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards
in every deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object
is to get rid of the white counters, one of which may be put into
the pool either (r) for holding the highest trump played; (2)
for having the lowest trump dealt to one; (3) for taking the
Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for winning the game, namely
the greatest number of pips that count. In case of a tie of pips
no game is scored. If the eldest hand deddes to pitch and not to
sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four points or be
set back that number. If be decides to sell, he says " I pass. 1 *
and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the
trump or passes, fte. When a bid has been made the rest mint
AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS— AUCUBA
»95
past or bid higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid
or undertake to make as many points as the bidder. If no bid
is made he pitches the trump himself, without the obligation
of making anything. The first card played is the trump suit,
the winner of the trick leading again. In trumps a player must
follow suit if be can, and the same rule applies in plain suits,
excepting that a trump may be played at any time (" follow
suit or trump ")• In play the highest card wins the trick unless
trumped. When the hand is played out each player puts a white
counter into the pool for every point won, and the first player
to get rid of all his seven white counters wins the pool and takes
from it all the red counters, which represent cash. This ends the
game. In case two players count out during the same deal, the
bidder has the first right to the pool, the rule being " bidder
counts out first" If the two players who count out are neither
of them bidder, then they go out in regular order, i.e. high first,
then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his points
he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender
being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red
counter to the pool.
AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS. An auction (Lat audio,
increase) is a proceeding at which people are invited to compete
for the purchase of property by successive offers of advancing
sums. The advantages of conducting a sale in this way are ob-
vious, and we naturally find that auctions are of great antiquity.
Herodotus describes a custom which prevailed in Babylonian
villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage by delivering
them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held for
the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the
quaestor sold military booty and captives in war by auction—
sub hasta — the spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership.
The familiarity of such proceedings is forcibly suggested by the
conduct of the Praetorian Guard when Sulpicianus was treating
for the imperial dignity after the murder of Pertinax. Appre-
hending that they would not obtain a sufficient price by private
contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that
the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the
best bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the
ramparts and outbid his competitor (Gibbon, voL L ch. v.).
Though, however, auctions were undoubtedly common among*
the Romans both in public and private transactions, the rules
whereby they were governed are by no means dearly enunciated
in the Corpus Juris Civilis.
In England the method of conducting auctions has varied.
In some places it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted
candle, the person making the last bid before the fall of the wick
becoming the purchaser. By an act of William 11L (1608),
this method of sale was prescribed for goods and merchandise
imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of "candle-
stick biddings," where the several bidders did not know what
the others had offered. A "dumb bidding" was the name
given to a proceeding at which a price was put by the owner
under a candlestick with a stipulation that no bidding should
avail if not equal to it. In a " Dutch auction " property is
offered at a certain price and then successively at lower prices
until one is accepted.
According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed
auction is duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case
of chattels, or particulars of sale in the case of land, together
with conditions of sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of
goods, the conditions are merely suspended in the auction room.
At the appointed time and place, the auctioneer, standing in a
desk or rostrum, " puts up " the several lots in turn by inviting
biddings from the company present. He announces the accept-
ance of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so "knocks
down " the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes
property is offered on lease to the highest bidder. " Roup " is
the Scottish term for an auction. A bid in itself is only an
offer, and may accordingly be retracted at any time before its
acceptance by the fall of the hammer or otherwise. Puffing is
unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly reserved on behalf
of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ any one
else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved,
the seller of any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid
at the auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be
subject to a reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf
of the seller is permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some
appropriate terms that the property is withdrawn. Where a
sale is expressed to be without reserve, or where an upset price
has been leached, the auctioneer must, after the lapse of a
reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest bona fide
bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor habie in
damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving
bids which are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to
run up the price by such an artifice. A "knock-out" is a
combination of persons to prevent competition between them-
selves at an auction by an. arrangement that only one of their
number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall be
afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a
combination is not illegal A " mock auction " is a proceeding
at which persons conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary
to the fact, that a bona fcdt sale is* being conducted, and so
attempt to induce the public to purchase articles at prices far
above their value. Those who invite the public to enter the
room where the supposed auction is proceeding, or otherwise
endeavour to attract bidders, are called " barkers." A conspiracy
to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.
American law is in general the same as the English law with
regard to auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however,
it is less stringent. For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is
often called, will, under both systems alike, render an auction
sale voidable at the option of a purchaser when it amounts to
fraud, the weight of authority in the United States is in favour'
of the view that an owner may, without notice, employ a person,
to bad for him, if he does so with no other purpose than to!
prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.
By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the
business of selling by auction was confined to an officer called
an oulroper, and all other persons were prohibited from selling
goods or merchandise by public claim or outcry (see Henry
Blackstone's Reports, vol. ii. p. 557). The only qualification
now required by an auctioneer is a licence on which a duty of
£10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before the 5th
of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is incurred
by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The.
duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by
virtue of a sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845.
An auctioneer is bound under a penalty of £20 to see that his
full name and address are displayed before the commencement
of an auction and during its continuance in the place where he
conducts it. He is the agent of the vendor only, except in so
far that, after he has knocked down a lot to the highest bidder,
he has authority to affix .the name of the latter to a memorandum
of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale enforceable
where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not,
by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take
place, render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend
at the time and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact pro-
ceeded with, provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief
risks run by an auctioneer is that of being held liable for the
conversion of goods which he has sold upon the instructions of a
person whom he believed to be the owner, but who in fact had
no right to dispose of them.
The number of auctioneers' licences issued during the year
ended the 31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland
760, and in Ireland 839. A central organization having its
headquarters in London, the Auctioneers* Institute of the
United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in order to elevate the
status and further the interests of auctioneers, estate agents
and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members. (H. H a.)
AUCUBA, the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood
order (Comaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and
shrubberies is Aucuba japonka. It bears male and female
flowers on distinct plants; the red berries often last till the
896
AUDAEUS— AUDffiNCE
next season's flowers appear. There are numerous varieties
in cultivation, differing in the variegation of their leaves.
AUDAEUS, or Aumus, a church reformer of the 4th century,
by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from
the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irregular lives,
and was expelled from the church, thereupon establishing an
episcopal monastic community. He was afterwards banished
into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the Goths,
not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric.
The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as
the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing
to the Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to
have founded on Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses
them of Manichean tendencies.
The main source of information is Epiphantus (Haer. 70).
AUDE, a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern
Pyrenees and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small
lake a short distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes
a northerly direction and flows for many miles through deep
gorges of great beauty as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat
its course again lies through denies which become less profound
as the river nears Carcassonne. Below that town it receives the
waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly east. From this
point to its junction with the Cesse its course is parallel with
that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern spurs
of the Corbieres, some distance below which it is joined by the
Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the
northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties
into the Mediterranean some 12 m. cast-aorth-east of Narbonne,
while the other branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south,
traverses that town, below which its course to the sea lies between
two extensive lagoons, the £tang de Bages et de Sigean and the
£tang de Gruissan. The Aude has a length of 140 m. and a
basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is practically no traffic
upon it.
AUDE, a maritime department of southern France, formed
in 1700 from part of the old province of Languedoe. Area,
2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327. It is bounded E. by the
Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Herault and Tarn,
N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Arifge, and S. by Pyrenees-
Orien tales. The department is traversed on its western boundary
from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which
unites the Pyrenees with the southern Cevennes; and its
northern frontier is occupied by the Montague Noire, the most
westerly portion of the Cevennes. The Corbieres, a branch
of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west and north-east direction
along the southern district. The Aude (?.*.), its principal river,
has almost its entire length in the department, and its lower
course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the
dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean
system.
The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the
chief of which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapolme
and Leucate. The climate is warm and dry, but often sudden
in its alterations. The wind from the north-west, known as the
cers, blows with great violence, and the sea-breeze is often laden
with pestilential effluvia from the lagoons. The agriculture of
the department is in a flourishing condition. The meadows are
extensive and well watered, and are pastured by numerous
flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of wheat,
oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the
vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines,
those of JUmoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed.
Truffles are abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief
fruits. Mines of iron, manganese, and especially of mispickel,
are worked, and there are stone-quarries and productive salt-
marshes. Brewing, distilling, cooperage, iron-founding, hat-
making and machine construction are carried on, and there
are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur refineries and
leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile
industries are now of small importance. The department
imports coal, lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber
and exports agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles,
and other manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern
railway. The Canal du Midi, following the courses of tie
Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it for 76 m.; and a branch,
the Canal de la Robine, which passes through Narbonne to the
sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne, and the
department is divided into the four arrondissements of Carcas-
sonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantocs
and 439 communes. It belongs to the 16th military regks
and to the academic (educational division) of MontpcUkr
where also is its court of appeal It forms the diocese of Carcas-
sonne, and part of the province of the archbishop of Toulouse.
Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are. the prindpiJ
towns. At Akt, which has hot springs of some note, there
are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the
religious wars of the 16th century. The extensive bnfldinjp
of the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, near Bisanet, include a
Romanesque church, a cloister, dormitories and a refectory
of the 1 ath century. A curious polygonal church of the ixth
century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St Papcra!,
with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains
of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th
century and rebuilt from the 1 7th to the 15th century, are also
of antiquarian interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs
of repute.
AUDEBERT, JEAlf BAPTISTB (1750-1800), French artist
and naturalist, was bom at Rochefort in 1759. He studied
painting and drawing at Paris, and gained considerable reputa-
tion as a miniature-painter. Employed m preparing plates for the
Histoire da coUopteres of G. A. Olivier (1756-1814), he acquired
a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared his -first original
vroT^L'Histoire natnrelle da singes, da makis el des gtHHpitktqwt,
illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and engraved by
himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually beautiful,
and was applied by a method devised by himself. Andebert
died in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another
great work, Histoire des colibris, des oiseanx-memcka, desjacamcrs
et des promirops, which was published in 1802. Two hundred
copies were printed in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and
fifteen were printed with the whole text in letters of goM.
Another work, left unfinished, was also published after the
author's death, L' Histoire da grimpereaux a des eisennx de
paradis. The last two works also appeared together in two
volumes, Oiseaux doris oud reflets mttaUUjna (180s).
ADDEFROI LE BATARD, French tronvere, nourished at the
end of the 1 sth century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing
is known. The seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs
are addressed, is probably the chatelain of Bruges who joined
the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the author of at least five
lyric romances: Argentine, Belle ldcine, Belle /ssJeost, Belie
Emmefos and Biatrix. These romances follow older cknnstns
in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of detail
hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.
See A. Jeanmy, Les Origines de la pohie lyrique en France an meycm
Age (Paris, 1889).
AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear), the act or state of
hearing, the term being therefore transferred to those who htar
or listen, as in a theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more
technical sense, the term is applied to the right of access to the
sovereign enjoyed by the peers of the realm individually and by
the House of Commons collectively. More particularly it means
the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors, envoys or others
to an interview with a sovereign or an important official for the
purpose of presenting their credentials. In France, enditme
is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing
actions. In Spain, andieneia is the name given to certain
tribunals which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish
judges were originally known as oidores, bearers, from the
Spanish oir, to hear; but they are now called msmisfrm, or magis-
trados togados, robed judges, as the gown of the Spanish judrt
is called a toga. The audiencia preterial, i. a of the praetor.
was a court in Spanish America from which there was no appeal
AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER— AUDIT
897
to the viceroy, bat only to the council of the Indies in Spain.
It is not the custom in Spain to speak of audiemias r coles t royal
courts, but of the audiendas del Ret no, courts of the kingdom.
In England the Audience-court was an ecclesiastical court,
held by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they
once exercised a considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing
with such matters as they thought fit to reserve for their own
hearing. It has been long disused and is now merged in the
court of arches.
AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDHB ARMAND GASTON, Due d'
(1825-1905), French statesman, was the grand-nephew and
adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis Pasquier. He was created
duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of state in 1846.
After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private life. Under the
empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the legislature,
but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly,
and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the
fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different
royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused
to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old regime, the project
failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, and was
its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were being
drawn up. Nominated senator under the new constitution, he
likewise was president of the senate from March 1876 to 2879
when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was less
prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation
and uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon
from taking violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the
French Academy, but never published anything.
AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the
accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corpora-
tions and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their
accuracy. In the United Kingdom the public accounts were
audited from very early times, though, until the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty
was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed,
at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the
auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314.
But in zs 59 an endeavour was made to systematise the auditing
of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the
imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work
by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory
the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting
of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order
to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts
of the various departments, some of which had been audited
separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit
Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length
the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint
a "comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to
examine and verify 'the accounts prepared by the different
departments of the public service. In examining accounts of
the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller
and auditor-general "ascertains first whether the payments
which the account department has charged to the grant are
supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second,
whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose
or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide."
The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the
audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable
to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the " account of His Majesty's
exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such
payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts
of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared
and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the
consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.
In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is
in the charge of the treasury department, under the supervision
of the comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors,
(1) for the treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the
interior, (4) for the navy, (5) for the state, &c, (6) for the post
office, as well as a register and assistant register, who keep all
general receipt and expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors
in most of the states and in many cities. In practically all
European countries there is a department of the administration,
charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the tour
<Us c<mptes in France, the Recknungskof des deutschen Retches
in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities, corporations,
and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examin-
ing and checking their accounts and looking after their expendi-
ture. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in
connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building
societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies,
savings banks, &c, the word auditor is now almost synonymous
with " skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the
article Accountants.
In Scotland there is an " auditor " who is an official of the
court of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who
corresponds to the English taxing-master. In France there
are legal officers, called auditors, attached to the Conseil d'£tat t
whose duties consist in drawing up briefs and preparing docu-
ments. On the continent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military
law are called " auditors" (see Military Law).
Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman
curia. The auditores Rotae are the judges of the court of the
Rota (so called, according to Hinscbius, probably from the form
of vhe panelling in the room where they originally met). These
were originally ecclesiastics appointed to hear particular questions
in dispute and report to the pope, who retained the decision
in his own hands. In the Speculum juris of Durandus (published
in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the auditores palatii
domini papae are cited as permanent officials appointed to
instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the
Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull
Romani PorUificis of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by
this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which
the definitive decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated
to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned.
From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the
reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the
congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually
to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It
still, however, ranks as the supreme court. of justice in the papal
curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges.
They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have
others conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices
in plurality, of non-residence, &c When the pope says mass
pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores
must be in priest's or deacon's orders, and have always been
selected — nominally at least— after severe tests as to their moral
and intellectual qualifications. They are twelve in number, and,
by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners:
one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while
the nomination of others was the privilege of certain cities.
No bishop, unless in partibus (see Bishop), may be an auditor.
On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual title
of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate
are largely recruited. The auditor camera* (uditore generate
delta referenda camera apostolus) is an official formerly charged
with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of
Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all
civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it
from the papal territories. In addition he received the function
of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the
curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar execu-
tive function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever
no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by
Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle
issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was
at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to
a prelate locum tenens, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction
in the papal states (Hinschius, Kalhol. Kirckenreckt, i. 409, &c).
Auditores (listeners), in the early Church, was another name
for catechumens (g.vj.
898
AUDLEY— AUDRAN
AUDLEY, or Audeley, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the
original knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the
eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxford-
shire. When the order of the Garter was founded, he was
instituted as one of the first founders, and his stall in St George's
chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the side of Edward, the
Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in 1346,
and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When
hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354
Sir James was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince,
and earned a great reputation for valour. At the battle of
Poitiers on the xoth of September 1356 he took his stand in
front of the English army, and after fighting for a long time was
severely wounded and carried from the fight. After the victory,
the prince inquired for Sir James, who was brought to the royal
tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest knight
on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks.
Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had
attended him during the battle, and received from the prince
a further pension of six hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of
the leaders of an expedition into France, in 1360 he took the
fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was present at Calais when
peace was made between England and France in October 1360.
He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal
of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La Roche-
sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at
Fon tens y-le- Com te, where he had gone to reside, and was buried
at Poitiers.
See Jean Fxoissart, Chroniques, translated by T. Johnet (Hafod,
1810) ; G. F. Beltt, Memorials of the Most NoUe Order of the Carter
(London, 1841).
AUDLEY. THOMAS AUDLEY, Baron (c. 1 488-1 544), lord
chancellor of England, whose parentage is unknown, is believed
to have studied at Buckingham College, Cambridge. He was
educated for the law, entered the Middle Temple (becoming
autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, and was
on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he
was returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this con-
stituency in subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom
of the chamber, and became a member of Wolsey's household.
On the fall of the latter in 1520, he was made chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker of the House of
Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the Black
or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the
papal jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of
the Commons to the king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech
against their proceedings. He interpreted the king's " moral "
scruples to parliament concerning his marriage with Catherine,
and made himself the instrument of the king in the attack upon
the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. In
1 53 1 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant;
and on the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded
Sir Thomas More as lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed
lord chancellor on the 26th of January 1533. He supported the
king's divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne
Boleyn, and presided at the trial of Fisher and More in 1535,
at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a conviction
has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn
and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate
queen's execution, and recommended to parliament the new act
of succession. In 1537 he condemned to death as traitors the
Lincolnshire and the Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November
1538 he was created Baron Audley of Walden; and soon after-
wards presided as lord steward at the trials of Henry Pole,
Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of Exeter.
In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made
himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity,
and in the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of
April 1 540 he was made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently
managed the attainder of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and
the dissolution of Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves. In
1 us he warmly supported the privileges of the Commons in the
case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested zsc
imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as us_a.
by subservience to the court, which desired to secure a sub', r.
and his opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has ix»s
questioned by good authority. He resigned the great seal x
the 2ist of April 1544, and died on. the 30th, being* buried :.
Saffron Walden, where he had prepared for himself a spit a* .
tomb. He received several grants of monastic estates, includ 4
the priory of Christ Church in London and the abbey of Wii :
in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of Sufi.
built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 u.
re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambni_"
under the new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in lbs
statutes that his heirs, " the possessors of the late monastery a
Walden," should be visitors of the college in perpetumm. A £-*- *
of Orders for the Wane both by Sea and Land (Harlcian MS. :,-,
f. 144) is attributed to his authorship. He married (1) Chris ina
daughter of Sir Thomas Barnardiston, and (2) Eiizabeii
daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, by whom fct
had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his death.
AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841)* French natural*-,
was born at Paris on the 27th of April 1 707. He began the stu.:v
of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection *w>?
natural history, and entered the medical profession. la 1*24
he was appointed assistant to P. A. Latreille (1762-1833) a
the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural histcrr.
and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of lie
Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November
1841. His principal work, Histaire dts insectes nuisibUs i i*
tigne (1842), was completed after his death by Henry MiIm-
Edwards and £mile Blanchard. His papers mostly appeared .1
the Annates dts sciences naturdles, which, with A. T. Brongntart
and J. B. A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in the proceedingi
of the Sodete* Entomologique de France, of which he was one oi
the founders in 1832.
AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and ea*
gravers. The first who devoted himself to the art of engravis;
was Claude Audran, born 1 597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's
great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most rii«tii^p««i—i
members of the family are Gerard and Jean.
G£rard, or GrJtAKD, Audran, the most celebrated French
engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at
Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of desa
and engraving by his father; and, following the »«— pi#. of h_»
brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there,
in 1666, engraved for Le Brun " Constantinc's Battle v.ib
Maxentius," his " Triumph," and the " Stoning of Stephen,
which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Aodraa
in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he act
out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved
several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, J. B. Colbert,
was so struck with the beauty of Audran's works, that he per-
suaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return kc
applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed
engraver to the king, from whom he received great encourage-
ment. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of tne
Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings
of Le Brim's " Battles of Alexander " are regarded as the best
of his numerous works. " He was," says the Abbe" Fontetur.
" the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical
line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his
own designs, that manifested as much taste as character ana
facility. TBut in the ' Battles of Alexander ' he surpassed eves
the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gerard published ia
1683 a work entitled Les Proportions du corps kumain mesuria
sur les plus belles figures de VantlquiU.
Jean Audran, nephew of Gerard, was born at Lyons in 166;.
After having received instructions from his father, he went to
Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his undr,
next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family.
At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a
surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, last
AUDRAN— AUERBACH
899
la 1 707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV.,
who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins;
svnd the following year he was made a member of the Royal
Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the
graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of
this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at
first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and
he has finished them in a bold, rough style. The " Rape of the
Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his masterpiece.
AUDRAN* EDHOND (1842-1001), French musical composer,
was horn at Lyons on the 1 1 th of April 1842. He studied music
at the £cole Niedermeyer, where he won the prize for composition
in 1859 Two years later he accepted the post of organist of
the church of St Joseph at Marseilles. He made his first appear-
ance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with L'Ours ct le Pacha
(1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's vaudevilles. This
was followed by La Chercheuse d' Esprit <i864), a comic opera,
also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march
on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some
success, and made various attempts to win fame as a writer of
sacred music. He produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an
oratorio, La SulamUe (Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor
works, but he is known almost entirely as a composer of the
lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian success was made
with Let Noces d'Oiivctte (1879), a work which speedily found
its way to London and (as Olivette) ran for more than a year at
the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact,
met with as much favour in England as in France, and all save
a few of his works have been given in a more or less adapted
form in London theatres. Besides those already mentioned,
the following have been the most undeniably successful of
Audran's many comic operas: Le Grand Mo got (Marseilles,
1876; Paris, 1884; London, as The Grand Mogul, 1884), La
Mascotte (Paris, x88o; London, as The Mascotte, 1881), Gillette
de Nar bonne (Paris, 1882; London, as Gillette, 1883), £« Cigale
tt la Pourmi (Paris, 2886; London, as La Cigale, x8oo), Miss
HtlyeU (Paris, 1890; London, as Miss Decima 1891), La Poupte
(Paris, 1896; London, 1897). Audran was one of the best
of the successors of Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's
humour, but his music is distinguished by an elegance and a
refinement of manner which lift it above the level of opera bouffe
to the confines of genuine opera comique. He was a fertile if not
a very original melodist, and his orchestration is full of variety,
without being obtrusive or vulgar. Many of his operas, La
Mascotte in particular, reveal a degree of musicianship which
is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions of the lighter
stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August xooz.
AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D* (c 1305-13 70), French soldier, was
born at Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais,
near St Omer. Nothing is known of his career before 133 2, when
he is heard of at the court of the king of France. Between
1335 and 1342 he went three times to Scotland to aid King
David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became captain for the
king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served in the
household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the
main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England
by Edward III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the
military history of France, first as captain in Angoulemc, and
from June 1351, in succession to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal
of France. In March 1352 he was appointed lieutenant for the
king in the territory between the Loire and the Dordogne, in
June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy and the
Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad,
king of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the
dauphin at Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who
advised King John to attack the English, and, charging in the
front line of the French army, was slightly wounded and taken
prisoner. From England he was several times given safe-conducts
to France, and he took an active part in the negotiations for
the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same time- as
King John, In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he
prevented the free companies from seising the castles, and
negotiated the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed
Henry, count of Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into
Spain. In 1365 he himself joined du Guesdin in the expedition
to Spain, was taken prisoner with him by the Black Prince at
the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable to pay his ransom
until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was relieved of
the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the oriflamme,
with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370 by
Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesdin to return to France,
and in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain
(December 1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur,
in the latter part of December 1370.
See £mOe Molinier, " £tude aur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem,
macechal de France," in Mimoires prisenUs par divers savants a
Vacadhaie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 2' serie, iv. (1883).
AUDUBOtf, JOHN JAMBS (1780-1851), American naturalist,
is said to have been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana,
his father being a French naval officer and his mother a Spanish
Creole. He was educated in Paris, where he had lessons from
the painter, J. L. David. Returning to America in 1798 he
settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to the
study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In
1826 he went to England in the hope of getting bis drawings
published, and by the following year he had obtained sufficient
subscribers to enable him to begin the publication of his Birds
of America, which on its completion in 1838 consisted of 435
coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds the size of life.
Cuvier called it " le plus magnifique monument que l'art ait encore
eUev6 a la nature." The descriptive matter to accompany the
plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols, from 1831 to 1839 under
the title of American Ornithological Biography. During the
publication of these works Audubon divided his time between
Great Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions
to various parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose
of collecting new material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the
Hudson, now Audubon Park in New York City. In 1844 he pub-
lished in America a popular octavo edition of his Birds of America.
He also took up the preparation of a new work, The Quadrupeds
of America, with the collaboration of John Bachman, the publica-
tion of which was begun in New York in 1846 and finished in
1853*1854. He died at New York on the 2 7 th of January 1851.
See Orkitholooy; also Audubon and his Journals (1807), by his
grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon* with notes by Elliot Coues.
AUB» a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the
confluence of the Mulde and Schwaizwasser, 21 m. S.W. from
Chemnitz on the railway to Adorf. It has a school of lace-
making, foundries, and manufactures of machinery, tin-plate
and cott on goods. Pop. (1005) 17,102.
AUERBACH. BBRTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was
born on the 28th of February 1812 at Nordstetten in the
Wurttemberg Black Forest. His parents were Jews, and he
was intended for the ministry; but after studying philosophy
at Tubingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming estranged
from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted
himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a
romance on the life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself,
and so close in its adherence to fact, that it may be read with
equal advantage as a novel or as a biography. Didder und
Kaufmann followed in 1839, and a translation of Spinoza's
works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the class of fiction
which has made him famous, the Schwarzwdlder Dorfgeschichten
(1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In these,
as well as in Barfitssele (1856), Edelweiss (1861), and other
novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German
peasant as " Jeremias Gotthelf " (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted
the peasantry of Switzerland, bu t in a less realistic spirit. When
this vein was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase
as a philosophical novelist, producing Auf der Hdhe (1865),
Das Landhaus am Rhein (1869), and other romances of profound
speculative tendencies, turning on plots invented by himself.
With the exception of Auf der Hdhe, these works did not enjoy
much popularity, and suffer from lack of form and conce^
900
AUERSPERG— AUGEREAU
Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his Dorfgesehickten,
although the celebrity of even these has been impaired by the
growing demand for a more uncompromising realism. Auerbach
died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.
The first collected edition of Auerbach's SchrifUn appeared in
22 vols, in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
Auerbach's Brief e an seinen Freund J. Auerbach (with a preface by
F. Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel,
B. Auerbach (1882); and E. Lasker, B. Auerbach, tin GedenkblaU
(1882).
AUERSPERG. ANTOH ALEXANDER, Gka* von (1806-1876),
Austrian poet, who wrote under the pseudonym of Anastasius
GrOn, was born on the 1 ithof April 1806, at Laibach, the capital
of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, and was head of the Thurn-am-
Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the house of Auersperg.
He received his university education first at Graz and then at
Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he succeeded
to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member
of the estates of Carniola on the H err at bank of the diet at
Laibach. Here he distinguished himself by his outspoken
criticism of the Austrian government, leading the opposition
of the duchy to the exactions of the central power. In 1832
the title of " imperial chamberlain " was conferred upon him,
and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After
the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of
Laibach at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, to which he tried in vain to persuade his Slovene com-
patriots to send representatives. After a few months, however,
disgusted with the violent development of the revolution, he
resigned his seat, and again retired into private life. In i860
he was summoned to the remodelled Reichsrat by the emperor,
who next year nominated him a life member of the Austrian
upper house (Herrenhaus), where, while remaining a keen up-
holder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism
of Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one
of the most intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of
liberalism, in both political and religious matters, until his death
at Graz on the 12th of September 1876.
Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics,
Blatter der Lithe (1830), showed little originality; but his second
production, Der letste Ritter (1830), brought his genius to light.
It celebrates the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maxi-
milian I. (1403-15 10) in a cycle of poems written in the strophic
form of the Nibelungenlied. But Auersperg's fame rests almost
exclusively on his political poetry; two collections entitled
SpazicrgUnge eines Wiener Poeten (1831) and Schutt (1S35)
created a sensation in Germany by their originality and bold
liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely
for their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification
and powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German
political poetry of 1840-1848. His Gtrfic Alt (1837), if anything,
increased his reputation; his epics, Die Nibeiungen im Frock
(1843) and Der PJajf vom Kohlenberg (1850), are characterized
by a fine ironic humour. He also produced masterly translations
of the popular Slovenic songs current in Carniola ( Volkslieder
aus Krain, 1850), and of the English poems relating to " Robin
Hood " (1864).
Anastasius GrOn's Gesammelte Werke were published by L. A.
Frankl in 5 vols. (Berlin. 1877); his Briefwechsei mit L. A. Frankl
(Berlin, 1897)- A selection of his Politische Reden und Schriflen
has been published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics,
Anastasius Grun (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).
AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site
of which is just north of the modern Alfedena, 1 Italy, a station
on the railway between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the
latter. Its remains arc fully and accurately described by
L. Mariani in Monumenti dei Lifted (1901), 225 seq.: cf. Notiiie
dcgli scavi, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 seq. The ancient city
occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above sea-level (in the valley
between were found the supposed remains of the later forum),
and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile in
1 Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of
Abruzzcsc art. and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained
fragments of a temple of considerable sue.
length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north.
Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one
public building of the 5th century b.c was excavated in 1001.
and a small sanctuary in 1002), attention having been chief y
devoted to the necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs hid
already been examined in 1008, though this number is con-
jectured to be only a sixteenth of the whole. They are xC
inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and date from The
7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three classes — those
without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone slabs, a-t?
those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered arc
preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we
find Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road bc t mt t a
Sulmo and Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangrcs,
crossing the river by an andent bridge some 5 m. to the north-
east. Castel di Sangro has remains of ancient wails, bat these
are attributed to a road by Mariani, and in any case the fortified
area there was quite small, only one-sixteenth the sixe of Aufidena.
The attempted identification of Castel di Sangro with Aundess
must therefore be rejected, though we must allow that it was
probably the Roman post station*, the ancient city, since its
capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having lost
something of its importance. (T. As.)
AUGEAS, or Augeias, in Greek legend, a son of Hcfioa, the
sun-god, and king of the Epdans in Elis. He possessed an im-
mense wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Hefcos.
and white as swans. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the
task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in one day. This he
did by turning the rivers Aipheus and Peneus through them.
Augeas bad promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this,
alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurys-
theus. Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and,
though at first defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.
Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, (Hympia, xi, 34; Diodonis br. 13;
Theocritus, Idyll 25.
AUGER (from the O. Eng. nafu-gdr, nave-borer; the original
initial n having been lost, as in " adder/ 1 through a confusoo
in the case of a preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring
(q.v.) or drilling.
AUGEREAU. PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES, duke of
Castiglione (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in Paris
in a humble station of life. At the age of seventeen he enlisted ia
the carabineers and thereafter came into note as a d adits l
Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted him, he fled
from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in the
Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards fsraped into
Prussia and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted
with several others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in
the Neapolitan army and a sojourn in Portugal filled op the years
1 788-1 791; but the events of the French Revolution broujrht
him back to his native land. He served with credit against the
Vcndeans and then joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in
the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of division
on the 33rd of December 1703. His division distinguished itscd
even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under
Bonaparte he was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of
Millesimo and in taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of
Ceva. At the battle of Lodi (May xo, r 796), the turning move-
ment of Augereau and his division helped to decide the day.
But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the most signal
services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte
himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle,
and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau
largely decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte
thus summed up his military qualities: " Has plenty of char-
acter, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well hked
by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations." In 1797 Bona-
parte sent him to Paris to encourage the Jacobinical Directors,
and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced
the " moderates " in the councils and carried through the r.**»
d'Stat of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then
sent to lead the united French forces in Germany; bat peace
AUGHRIM— AUGITE
90 x
speedily ensued; and he bore a grudge against the Director* and
Bonaparte lor their treatment of him at that tame. He took
no part in the coup d'ttat of Brumaire 1709, and did not dis-
tinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued. Never-
theless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's fortunes, he
received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire
(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service
around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806)
his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever,
and at the battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse,
but directed the movements of his corps with his wonted bravery.
His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself
received a wound from which he never quite recovered. When
transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but tarnished
his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 181 2 in Russia and in
the Saxon campaign of 18 13 his conduct was little more than
mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 18x3),
Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of
Castiglione; to which he replied, " Give me back the old soldiers
of Italy, and I will show you that I am." In 18 14 he had com-
mand of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to
the charge of having come to an understanding with the Austrian
invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, after reviling
Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The
emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to
France in 18 14. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne,
deprived him of his military title and pension. He died at his
estate of La Houssaye on the 12th of June 1816. In person he
was tall and commanding, but his loud and vulgar behaviour
frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.
As authorities consult: Kock's MSmoiresde Mosseno; Bouvier,
Bonaparte en Italic: Count A. F. Andreosst, La Campagne sur U
Mein, 1800-1801; Baron A. Ducasse, Precis de la campagne de
Forme* de Lyon en 1814; and the Memoirs of Marbot. (J* Hi~ R-)
AUGHRIM, or Achrim, a small village In Co. Galway,
Ireland, 4 m. W. by S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable
by the decisive victory gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by
the forces of William III. under General Ginkel, over those of
James II. under the French general St Ruth, who fell in the fight.
The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy
ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel
having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being
struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at
length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of
the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while
the Irish, in their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides
the whole material of the army. This defeat rendered the ad-
herents of James in Ireland incapable of further efforts, and was
speedily followed by the complete submission of the country.
AUOIER, QUriAAUMB VICTOR SMILB (1820-1889), French
dramatist, was born at Valence, DrAme, on the 17th of September'
1820. He was the grandson of Pigault Lebrun, and belonged
to the well-to-do bourgeoisie in principles and in thought as well
as by actual birth. He received a good education and studied
for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse,
La Cigut, refused at the Theatre Francais, but produced with
considerable success at the Odeon. This settled his career.
Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in
collaboration with other writers— Jules Sandeau, Eugene-
Marie Labiche, £d. Foussier — he produced plays which were
in their way eventful. Le FUs de Ciboyer (1862) — which was
regarded as an attack on the clerical party in France, and was
only brought out by the direct intervention of the emperor —
caused some political excitement. His last comedy, Les Four'
chambauti, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote
no more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior
work. The Academy had long before, on the 31st of March
1857, elected him to be one of its members. He died in his
house at Croissy on the 25th of October 1889. Such, in briefest
outline, is the story of a life which Augier himself describes as
** without incident "—a life in all senses honourable. Augier,
with Dumas fils and Sardou, ttay be said to have held the
French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected
himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side — for he did not
disdain to be a teacher— has high qualities of rectitude and self-
restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty,
as Jules Lemaltre well said, constituted the very soul of all
bis dramatic work. L'Aunturiere (1848), the first of Augier's
important works, already shows a deviation from romantic
models; and in the Mortage d'Olympc (1855) the courtesan is
shown as she is, not glorified as in Dumas's Dame aux Camillas.
In GabrieUe (1849) the husband, not the lover, is the sympathetic,
poetic character. In the Liontus pauvres (1858) the wife who
sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of gold, social
demoralisation, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are satirized
in Les Ef routes (1861), Le FUs de Giboyer (1862), Contagion,
first announced under the title of Le Baron d'Esirigaud (1866),
Lions et renards (1869)— which, with Le Gendre de M. Poirier
(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the
high-water mark of Augier's art; in Philiberk (x8&) he pro-
duced a graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in
Jean de Tkommeroy, acted in 1873 after the great reverses of
1870, the regenerating note of patriotism rings high and clear.
His last twojdramas, Madame Coverlet (1876) and Les Fourcham-
bault (1879). are problem plays. But it would be unfair to
suggest that £miie Augier was a preacher only. He was a
moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be
applied to Mohere and the great dramatists— a moralist because
of his large and sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of
his dramas depend on elaborate plot. It springs from character
and its evolution. His men and women move as personality,
that mysterious factor, dictates. They are real, several of them
typical Augier's first drama, La Cigul, belongs to a time (1844)
when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost
exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric
outbursts of pare poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great
poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose
dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large
and effective wit Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist
laughter on his side in such a war as he waged against false
passion and false sentiment. (F. T. M.)
ATJGIT8, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group
of rock-forming minerals. The name (from aOylj, lustre) has
at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied
to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are dark-
greenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes
it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages
parallel to the prism-faces (M) t the angle between which is 87°.
A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a
crystal twinned on
theorthopinacoid (r').
Such crystals, of short
prismatic habit and
black in colour, are
common as pheno-
crysts in many basalts,
and are hence known
as " basaltic augitc ":
when the containing
rock weathers to a
clayey material the
augite is left as black
isolated crystals, and
such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all
mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also
an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and
a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite.
It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the
crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the
variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals
resembling epidote in appearance.
Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly
of CaMgSiiOi, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric
iron as (Mg, FeT (Al, Fe"), SiO»; the acmite (NaF-
Fie. 1.
Fie. a.
902
AUGMENT— AUGSBURG
Varat*>o* m the aawvwac of mm m eKxtsresof these jsooarphous
w*Jkrrvkc% are *ccc*Bpaa*ed ty vana*joas io the optical characters
oftheaar>*« fL.J.S.)
AUGMEVT 'Lat- aeacrr. to evereaae). at Sanskrit and Greek
grafunar the vowef pre£xed to w.sate ue past teues of a verb;
in Greek t7ao.1r.ar it a ca**d tjUaknt when only the c is pre-
fa&sd, Umporzl. »s*a it causes an mral vowel m the verb lo
become a *J.?>» *r./>r.g or Ion; voweL
AQvaUVTATlOBv or erlarsrnjent. a term m heraldry lor
an addition to a coat of irm<; k ur~ue, for the imitation is
krjrrr soots of an ©T4r>.-.al 6ne; in \m.*jtj. an add;t«n to the
a^mal AimSer of par* , in Scott b«, as jicreaae of a minister's
stipend by an **Ufjn calkd " Process </ Aofmentation." The
** Court of A ..rmenution " in Henry Vlfl. s time was established
to try 'ate* afVJmg the wppKssiun of monasteries, and was
dissolved in Mary's reign.
AUGSBURG, a rity and episcopal wt of Germany, ai the
kinfdf/m of Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop.
fiftftcj 6(405; Ooooj So too', ****>%) oj -Ma. It lies on a high
pbteao, 1 500 ft. above the sea, between the riven Wertach and
Led), wh;/ h unite below the rity, 30 m. W.N.W. from Munich,
with wWh, at with Refer. ttarg, Ingolstadt and Lira, it is
connected by mam tines of railway. It consists of an opper and a
lower town, the oM Jakob suburb and various modern suburbs.
Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have- since been
converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is re-
marfcable for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its
most interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire
front is painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augs-
burg most worthy of notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style,
one of the finest in Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-16*0.
One of it* rooms, called the " Golden Hall/' from the profusion
of its gilding, is 11 3 ft. long, 59 broad and 53 high. The palace
Of the bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith was
presented to Charles V., is now used for government offices.
Among the seventeen Roman Catholic churches and chapels, the
cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in its
oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich
and St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a
nave of magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft high. The
church stands on the spot where the first Christians of the district
suffered martyrdom, and where a chapel was erected in the 6th
century over the grave of St Afra. There are also a Protestant
church, St Anne's, a school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a
picture gallery in the former monastery of St Catherine, a museum,
observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, gymnasium, deaf-
mute institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable fountains
dating from the 16th century, 4c. Augsburg is particularly well
provided wi th special and technical schools. The newer buildings,
all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a
theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The
11 Fuggcrei," built in 15 10 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature
town, with six streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and
con lists of a hundred and »U small houses let to indigent Roman
Catholic citizens at a nominal rent The manufactures of Augs-
burg are of great importance. It is the chief scat of the textile
industry in south Germany, and its doth, cotton goods and linen
manufactories employ about 10,000 hands. It is also noted for
its bleach and dye works, its engine works, foundries, paper
factories, and production of silk goods, watches, jewelry, mathe-
matical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. 'Augsburg is also
the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany. Copper-
engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried
on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a
considerable development, one of the best-known Continental
newspapers being the All genuine Ztilung or Augsburg GaxetU.
On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a
bridge, lies the township of Lcchhausen.
Augsburg (the Augusta Vindtlkorum of the Romans) derives
Its name from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the
conquest of Rhaetla by Drusus, established here a Roman colony"
about 14 *-£- in the 5**
aJsBost estirehr destroyed an the wax of <
Taw* UL, date at Bavaria; assi after the dacc'.x m
drvuaoa of that eeawjc, it fcfl sata the head* of tSae c*« 1
Swabia. After this it rose eapadiy into izportaoce as a =-- - -r
factarmg and 11— niil town, secasssug. after N-rrr- ue%
the centre of the trade between Italy and the north of Eirtr
its sserchaat princes, the Fssjbjexs aad Wcsneaw irra_l« _*
Me&d of Florence; but the ahrratiran u e uauaj ed as the c-_tttvi
of trade by the discoveries of the 15th aad roth aatxr» . 1-
sioned a great decLne. In i*7*i* vasxazsedtotheaack £x * r~r
imperial city , whach it retained, with assay chasms hsitsav:-.
constitution, tiB 1S06, when it was asmewed to the kxsa^-= a*
Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of awaaezows errjzz* i
historical itnrtorfaarr It was besieged and taken by Gmszz .- j
Adotphos in 1632, and in 1635 at s um ai hud ts> the tsrpr-i.
forces; in 1703 it was hfunhantrd by the ewyforat prxcz d
Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 ckj-s:
and in Ike war of 1S03 it swJered avnjUj. Of its coarser'. :»
the most memorable are those which gave birth to the Aug^-i
confession (1530) and to the Augsburg affiance (i«86>.
See WagensriL CeschukU dtr Sudi jfagsfrw/f lAae*^ iftao-t to .
Werner, Grukuktt der Suxdt itegsfrarg (l«99ii Koch* ArngK+rgt
Jteforwi cliaiut euiitM u (1902 ).
AUGSBURG. COtfFESSIOsT OF, the most hnportaat Protest-:
statement of belief drawn up at the Reformation. In wamnrx. : g
a diet for April 1530, Charles V. ooered a fair ^**>*"g. t. i_
religious parties in the Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Saclaz --
thon and Johann Bugenhagen were appointed to draw t? a
statement of the Saxon position. These "Tocgav. Ar6da"
(March isjo) tell merely why Saxony had aboli sh ed oerta^
cfflnfoffiral abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that,
owing to attacks by Johann Eck of Ingobudt (" 404 Artkies '
Saxony must state its position in doctrinal matters as wed
Taking the Articles of Marburg (see Mauuxc, Coxxck??? ii
and of Schwabach as the point of departure, he repudiated H
connexion with heretics condemned by the ancient chu^i.
On the nth of May he sent the draft to Luther, who appro r: .^
adding that he himself " could not tread so softly and gesto "
On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as :he
statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and sigr : i
by a number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read
before the diet on the 25th of June. Articles x-ai attexr;:
to show that the Evangelicals had deviated from current dectr.-*
only in order to restore the pure and original trarhmg of the
church. In spite of significant omiiWMn (the sole antbonrr
of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the Confcs&ca
contains nothing contradictory to Luther's position, and in ;ts
fmpbyfMi on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardirai
concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 descr.be
and defend the reformation of various "abuses." On the 3rd
of August, shorn of much of its original bitterness, the so-caLed
Confulaiio potUiJUia was read; it well expresses the vir»s
approved in substance by the emperor and aD the Cathcic
party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to prepare aa
Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to receive;
so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the editio priautfs
of both Confession and Apology in 1531*
As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does tv*
represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 *as further
improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is
known as the Variola, Dogmatic changes in this seem to have dra» o
forth no protest from Luther or Brenx, so Melanchthon made fr**h
alterations in 154a. Later, the Variola of 1540 became the crerd
of the Mclanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvuucts: so the
framcrs of the Formula of Concord,_promulgated in 15*0, returrtd
to the text handed in at the Diet. By mistake they .printed from a
poor copy and not from the original, from which their German teat
varies at over 450 places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchr h- > >
edilio prinups. is more nearly accurate. The Uttusrteeptms is ihit
of the Formula of Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms
being equally binding.
Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a
condition of membership in the Schrn a Ik s ki rn League. Tat
AUGSBURG— AUGURS
903
Wittenberg Concord (1536) and the Articles of Schmalkalden
(1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession was the ultimate
source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The Religious
Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognised no Protestants save ad*
herents of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day
the Imariata is of symbolical authority among Lutherans
generally, while the Variola is accepted by the Reformed
churches of certain parts of Germany (see Lober, pp. 79-83.)
Editions of the received text: J. T. Mfiller, Die symbaliscken
Buxker der eeangelisck-lulherischen Kirch* (xoth ed., Gutersloh,
1907). with a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde;
Thcodor Kolde, Die Augsburgiscke Konfession (Gotha, 1896), (con-
tains also the Marburg. Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the Confu-
tatie and the Variola of 1540). For translations of these, as well as
of Zwingli's Reckoning of his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan
Confession, see H. E. Jacobs, The Book of Concord (Philadelphia,
1882-83). The texts submitted to the emperor, lost before 1570,
are reconstructed and compared with the teste* rtceptus by P.
Tschackert, Die ume r& nd e rle Augsburgiscke Konfession (Leipsig,
190 1 ). For the genesis of the Confession, see Th. Kolde. Die dlteste
JUdaktieu der A ugsburger Konfession (GiitenAolu 1906), also Kolde's
article, " Augsburger Bekenntnis," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie (3rd ed., vol. u\, Leipsig, 1607). The standard commentary b
still G. L. Plitt, EinUUungln Axe Augustana (Erlaagen, 1867 ft.);
compare also J. Fkker, Die KonfuUUion des Augsburgtschen BekennU
ttisses in ihrer ersten Cestall (Leipzig, 1 89 1); also A. Petzold,
Die Konfutation des Vierstddtebekenntnisses (Leipzig, 1900). On
its present use see G. Lober, Die im evangelisehen- DeutscUand
getSeuden OrdinoOonsverpfiickiungen gesckickUick geordnet (Leipsig,
1905). 79ff. (W. W. R.*)
AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF, the name applied
to the European war of 1688-1697. The league of Augsburg
was concluded on the 9th of July 1686 by the emperor, the
elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against the French.
Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined
the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of
Vienna (July 12, 1689). (See Grand Alliance, War or the.)
AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college
whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices)
of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to
any proposed undertaking. The augures were originally called
auspices, but, while auspcx 1 fell into disuse and was replaced
by augur, ous pic turn was retained as the scientific term for the
observation of signs.
The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution
has been attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted
originally of three members, of whom the king himself was one.
This number was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 B.C.
it was only four, two places, according to Livy (x. 6), being
vacant, The Ogulnian law in the same year increased the
number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four patrician
members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which
was increased to* sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number con-
tinued in imperial times; the college itself was certainly in
existence as late as the 4th century. The office of augur, which
was bestowed only upon persons of distinguished merit and was
much sought after by reason of its political importance, was
held for life. Vacancies were originally filled by co-optation,
but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was made, by
seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from
candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia
of office were the liiuus, a staff free from knots and bent at the
top, and the trabea, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes
and a purple border. The science of augury was contained in
various written works, which were consulted as occasion arose:
such were the libri augurum, a manual of augural ritual, and
the commeuiarii augurum, a collection of decrees or answers
given by the college to the senate in certain definite cases.
1 There is no doubt that autpex—ovi'Spcx (" observer of birds ").
but the derivation of augur is still unsettled. The following have
been suggested: (l) augur (or augus) is a substantive originally
meaning " increase " (related to augustus as tobur to robust us),
then transferred to the priest as the giver of increase or blessing;
(2)-ow-f*r, the second part of the word pointing; to (a) garrire,
" chatter," or (b) gerere, the augur being conceived as " carrying "
or guiding the flight of the birds; (3) from a lost verb OKf©- ,r tefl/'
" declare? ' It is now generally agreed that the science of augury is
of Italian, not Etruscan, origin.
Toe natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was
the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed
by him as counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more
difficult of interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged
the system of divination with which the augurs were occupied.
It was the duty of the augur, before the auspices properly so
called (those from the sky and from birds) were taken, to mark
out with bis staff the templum or consecrated space within
which his observations were intended to be made. The method
of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky was
dear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence
of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded
a wide view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the
templum both in the sky and on the ground and dedicated it.
Within its limits he then pitched a tent, in which he sat down
with covered head, asked the gods for a sign, and waited for an
answer. As the augur looked south he had the east, the lucky
quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the left side were
considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable. The
practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked
towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as
the favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman
poets. The augur afterwards announced the result of his observa-
tions in a set form of words, by which the magistrate was bound.
Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to
a request (auspicia impdroliio), or incidental (auspicia obiativa).
Of such signs there were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky
(caelestia auspicia), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning,
but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning
from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable;
but on its mere appearance, in either direction, all business in the
public assemblies was suspended for the day. Since the person
charged to take the auspices for a certain day was constitutionally
subject to no other authority who could test the truth or false-
hood of his statement that he had observed lightning, this became
a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public assembly.
Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times.
When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of
office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of
custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been
seen, (a) Signs from birds (signo ex avibus), with reference to the
direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other
sounds. To the first class, called cities, belonged the eagle and
the vulture; to the second, called oscines, the owl, the crow and
the raven. The mere appearance of certain birds indicated good
or ill luck, while others had a reference only to definite persons or
events. In matters of ordinary life on which divine counsel was
prayed for, it was usual to have recourse to this form of divination.
For public affairs it was, by the time of Cicero, superseded by the
fictitious- observation of lightning. (3) Feeding of birds (ous-
picia ex tripudiis), which consisted in observing whether a bird—
usually a fowl— on grain being thrown before it, let fall a particle
from its mouth (iripudium soUistimum). If it did so, the will of
the gods was in favour of the enterprise in question. The
simplicity of this ceremony recommended H for very general use,
particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were kept in
cages by a servant, styled puUarius. In imperial times decuriales
puliarU are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (pedestrio
auspicia, or ex ouadrupedibus), ix. observation of the course of,
or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed
space, corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds,
but much less frequently employed. It had gone out of use by
the time of Cicero. (5) Warnings (signo ex diris), consisting of
all unusual phenomena, but chiefly such as boded ill. Being
accidental in their occurrence, they belonged to the auguria
obiativa, and their interpretation was not a matter for the augurs,
unless occurring in the course of some public transaction, in
which case they formed a divine veto against it. Otherwise,
reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in olden
times,afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books.or the Etruscan
haruspiccs, when the incident was not already provided for by a
rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leavr
(
9°4
AUGUST— AUGUSTA
house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from
epilepsy at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly.
Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were
the casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college
tacris fadundis), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of
animals slain for sacrifice (see Omen). Anything abnormal
found there was brought under the notice of the augurs, but
usually the Etruscan haruspices were employed for this. The
persons entitled to ask for an expression of the divine will on
a public affair were the magistrates. To the highest offices,
including all persons of consular and praetorian rank, belonged
the right of taking auspicia maxima; to the inferior offices of
aedile and quaestor, the auspicia minora; the differences between
these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which
auspicia publico were always taken were the election of magis-
trates, their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly
to pass decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could
only be taken in Rome itself; and in case of a commander
having to renew his auspicia, he must either return to Rome or
■elect a spot in the foreign country to represent the hearth of that
dty. The time for observing auspices was, as a rule, between
midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed undertaking.
In military affairs this course was not always possible, as in the
case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of
colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army,
the sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions,
not always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where
the ceremony was performed was not fixed, but selected with a
view to the matter in hand. A spot being selected; the official
charged to make the observation pitched his tent there some
days before. A matter postponed through adverse signs from
the gods could on the following or some future day be again
brought forward for the auspices. If an error (vilium) occurred
in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own accord or at the
request of the senate, inform themselves of the circumstances,
and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their decree
while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be prosecuted.
Auspicia oblaliva referred mostly to the comitia. A magistrate
was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a
private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a
brother magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to
office observed lightning and announced it to the consul, the
latter must delay the public assembly for the day.
On the •abject generally, aee A. Bouchc'-Leclercq. Histoir* de la
divination dans I'antiquiii (1879), and h " articles, with bibliography,
in Darembeng and Saglio's Dutionnaire des antiquiUs; also articles
"Augurcs," "Auspicium," by Wissowa in Pauly's ReaUncychpddie
(II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L. C. Purser (and others) in Smith's Diction-
ary of Creek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890). (See also
Divination, Omen, Astbology, &c)
AUGUST (originally Scxtilis), the sixth month in the pre-
Julian Roman year, which received its present name from the
emperor Augustus. The preceding month, Quint His t had been
called " July " after Julius Caesar, and the emperor chose August
to be rechristened in his own honour because his greatest good
fortune had then happened. In that month he had been admitted
to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a triumph, had received the
allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the Janiculum, had con-
cluded the dvil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July contained
thirty-one days, and Augustonly thirty, it was thought necessary to
add another day to the latter month, in order that the month of
Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of Julius.
AUGUSTA, a dty and the county-seat of Richmond county,
Georgia, U.S.A., at the head of steamboat navigation on the
Savannah river, 132 m. N.W. of Savannah by rail and 240 m.
by river course. Pop. (1800) 33,300; (1000) 39,441, of whom
18,487 were negroes and only 095 were foreign-born; (19 10
census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern, the
Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic
Coast Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by
the Atlantic Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia
railways, by an electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a
line of steamers to Savannah. The city extends along the river
bank f or a distance of more than 3 m., and is connected by a bridf*
with Hamburg, and with North Augusta, South Carotin*, n
residential suburbs. Augusta is weD known aa a winter rev.*:
(mean winter temperature, 47° F.), and there are many fine wrr .■ -
homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good rcc- -
stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direct:^
In North Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is anorr--
in Summerville (pop. in 29x0, 4361), 2$ m. N.W., aa attract: .
residential suburb and winter resort, in which these are a comr-
club and a large United States arsenal, established in 1^
Broad Street is the principal thoroughfare of Augusta, and Grrr^
Street, with a park in the centre and flanking rows of oak. 1;
elms, is the finest residential street. Of historical intercsi u
St Paul's church (Protestant Episcopal); the present boili-.
was erected in 1819 and is the third St Paul's church on 1 -
same site. The first church was " built by the gentlemen <.
Augusta " in 1 7 50. In the crypt of the church General Leo&ri.
Polk is buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of Gcc .
Steptoe Washington, a nephew of George Washington, ar -i
William Longstreet, the inventor. Among the city's prin. :_
buildings are the Federal building, the Richmond county rc^r.
house, the Augusta orphan asylum, the dty hospitsl. t>-
Lamar* hospital for negroes, and the buildings of RJehr: -
Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of the S^crr.
Heart (for girls), of Paine 's Institute (for negroes), of Houghu*
Institute, endowed in 1852 to be " free to all the crriltirc- <k
Augusta," and of the medical school of the university of Gcorru
founded in 1829, and a part of the university since 1873. A
granite obelisk 50 ft. high was erected in 1861 as a meccrll
to the signers for Georgia of the Declaration of Independent,
beneath it are buried Lyman Hall (17 26-1 790) and George Walu-:
(1740-1804). There are two Italian marble monuments in her.- _r
of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the Southern pc*'<*>
Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1 789-1 &*:'•
In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks sea: -4
among the dties of Georgia. As a centre of trade for the *' Cot t «
Bdt," it has a large wholesale and retail business; and it i< :a
important cotton market. The principal manufacture is cr t : «
goods; among the other products arc lumber, flour, co\ *
waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk, boilers and enpc?,
and general merchandise staples. Water-power for factors 3
secured by a system of " water-power canals " from a large ds-s
across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 187 1; :Ss
principal canal, owned by the dty, is so valuable as near!}- 1*
pay the interest on the municipal debt In 1905 the v*!-e
of the city's total factory product was $8,829,305, of "»rs h.
$3,832,009, or 43*4 %, was the value of the cotton goods. Tzt
principal newspaper is the Augusta Chronkle, founded in 17$:.
Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edvori
Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, and was named in her jr
of the princess of Wales. The Carolina colonists had a tm ! :
post in its vicinity before the settlement by Oglethorpe. TK-
fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort Augusta, and in irvr.
at the time of the British occupation, was enlarged and rrn.^.r a
Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a Memorial Cr-
erected by. the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the churdn-ri
of St Paul's. Tobacco was the prindpal agricultural proL.t
during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves vcrr
introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Gtor.-L
Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial pen >j
several treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the m^t
important, that of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasa^v
Chcrokees and Catawbas agreed (in a meeting with the govern* r»
of North and South Carolina, Virginia and Georgia) to the (cms
of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the American War . f
Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta u«.it
Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut-Col
Archibald Campbell (1739*1791) in January 1779, but was evacu-
ated a month later; it was the seat of government of Gmv s
for almost the entire period from the capture of Savannah 1 1
December 1778 until May 1780, and was then abandoned l»> ir<c
Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists under Licuu Coi
AUGUSTA— AUGUSTAN HISTORY
9°S
Thomas 'Brown. In September 2760 a force of less than 500
patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town
in three divisions,' and while one division, attacking a neigh-
bouring Indian camp, drew off most of the garrison, the other two
divisions entered the town; but British reinforcements arrived
before Brown could be dislodged from a building in which he had
taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to withdraw. A stronger
American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee, renewed the siege
in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June. From
x 7 S3 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state govern-
ment. It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which con-
fiscated the property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the
convention which ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the
United States. In 1798 it was incorporated as a town, and in
18x7 it was chartered as a city. Augusta was the home of the
inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814), who as early as 1788
received, a patent from the state of Georgia for a steamboat,
but met with no practical success until x8o8; as early as 1801
he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton
gins and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now
occupied by the Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said
to have first set up and operated his cotton gin; he is com-
memorated by a mural tablet in the court house. The establish-
ment of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817 aided Augusta's
rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous fire
in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840,
but the growth of the city was not seriously checked ; the
cotton receipts of 1846 were 2x2,019 bales, and in 1847 * cotton
factory was built. During the Civil War Augusta was the scat
of extensive military factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate
powder millsstill standing as a memorial. The economic develop-
ment has, since the Civil War, been steady and continuous. An
exposition was held in Augusta in 1888, and another in 1893.
AUGUSTA, the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat
of Kennebec county, on the Kennebec river ' (at the head of navi-
gation), 44 m. from its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland,
and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor. Pop. (1890) 10,527; (xooo)
11,683, of whom 2 13 1 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
13,21 x. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by several
electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and
several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on
die west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge
1100 ft. long. The state house, built of granite quarried in the
vicinity, occupies a commanding site along the south border of
the city, and in it is the state library. The Lithgow library
is a city public library. Near the state house is the former
residence of James G. Blaine. On the other side of the river,
nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among other
prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and
the city halL In one of the parks is a soldiers' and sailors'
.monument By means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high
and nearly 600 ft. long, good water-power is provided, and the
city manufactures cotton goods, boots and shoes, paper, pulp
and lumber. A leading industry is the printing and publishing
of newspapers and periodicals, several of the periodicals published
here having an enormous circulation. The total value of the
factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies
the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth
Colony established a trading post about 1628. In 166 i Plymouth
sold its interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers aban-
doned the post. In X754, however their heirs brought about
the erection here of Fort Western, the main building of which
is still standing at the east end of the bridge, opposite the city
hall Augusta was originally a part of the township of Hallowell
(incorporated in 177 1) ; in 1797 the north part of Hallowell was
incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington ; and
later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It
became the county-scat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine
legislature as the capital of the state in X827, but was not occupied
as such until the completion of the state house in 183* ; and
was chartered as a city in 1849.
1 The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607.
AUGUSTA, a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily,
19 m. N. of it by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part
of the former peninsula of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected
with the mainland by a bridge. It was founded by the emperor
Frederick II. in 1232, and almost entirely destroyed by an
earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt. The castle is
now a large prison. The fortified port, though unfrequented
except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one. There
are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the
left bank of the Molineilo, x } ra. from its mouth, Sicel tombs
and Christian catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village
of the early middle ages, have been explored (Notizie degli Scoot,
1902, 41 x, 63 x ; Rdmiscke Quartalschrift, 1902, 205). Whether
there was ever a town bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted
by E. A. Freeman (Hist, of Sic. i. 583); cf., however, £. Pais,
Atokta (Pisa, 1891), 55, who attributes its foundation, under the
name of Tauromenion (which it soon lost), to the Zanclcans
of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea). (T. As.)
AUGUSTA BAGIENHORUM. the chief town of the Ligurian
tribe of the Bagienni, probably identical with the modem Bene
Vagienna, on the upper course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due
south of Turin. The town retained its position as a tribal centre
in the reorganization of Augustus, whose name it bears, and was
erected on a systematic plan. Considerable remains of public
buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small stones with
bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major axis
of 390 ft and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage
1 33 ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably
a basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct,
baths, &c, have been discovered by recent excavations, and
also one of the city gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq.
Sec G. Assandria and G. Vacchctta in Nclitie dtgli Scavi (1 894) , 1 55 ;
(1896). 215; (1897), 441 ; (1808), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413. <T. As.)
AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the name given to a collection of the
biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus
(a.d. 117-284). The work professes to have been written during
the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, and is to be regarded
as the composition of six authors, — Aelius Spartianus, Julius
Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius
Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus— known as Scriptores Historiae
Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is generally agreed,
however, that fherc is a large number of interpolations in the work,
which are referred to the reign of Theodosius ; and that the
documents inserted in the lives are almost all forgeries. The more
advanced school of critics holds that the names of the supposed
authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the authorities
which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which
(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are
distributed as follows:— To Spartianus: the biographies of
Hadrian, Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Sevens,
Pescennius Niger, Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus :
Avidius Cassius ; to Capitolinus : Antoninus Pius, Marcus
Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax, Clodius Albinus, the two
Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and Balbinus, Opilius
Macrinus (?) ; to Lampridius : Commodus, Diadumenus, Elagn-
balus, Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the
Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his
lives of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus:
Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus,
Saturninus, Proculus, Bonosus), Cants, Numerian, Carinus.
The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of
information is very considerable, but its literary pretensions
are of the humblest order. The writers' standard was con-
fessedly low. "My purpose," says Vopiscus, "has been to
provide materials for persons more eloquent than I." Consider-
ing the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate that the
task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured
his success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance,
but of homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to
record what they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and
inartificial ; their style is tame and plebeian ; their conception
of biography is that of a collection of anecdotes ; they have
go6
AUGUSTA PRAETORIA— -AUGUST!
no notion of arrangement, no measure of proportion, and no
criterion of discrimination between the important and the trivial;
tbcy are equally destitute of critical and of historical insight,
unable to sift the authorities on which they rely, and unsuspicious
of the stupendous social revolution comprised within the period
which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently,
depends very much on that of the sources to .which they happen to
have recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity
of their adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and
Aelius Junius Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves
bear no favourable testimony, were their chief authorities for
the earlier lives of the series. Marius Maximus, who lived about
165-430, wrote biographies of the emperors, in continuation of
those of Suetonius, from Nerva to Elagabalus; Junius Cordus
dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps down, to Maximus
and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a substratum
of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have supposed to
be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer, described
by one of these scholars as " the last great Roman historian."
For the later lives the Scriptorcs were obliged to resort more
largely to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest
importance, rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and
senatorial decrees, reports of official proceedings and speeches
on public occasions, and a number of interesting and character-
istic letters from various emperors. Their incidental allusions
sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light on the circum-
stances of the age, and they have made large contributions to our
knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their
trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the
personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to
the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not
unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and
deficiencies may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect
of history as a branch of instruction. Education was in the hands
of rhetoricians and grammarians; historians were read for their
style, not for their matter, and since the days of Tacitus, none had
arisen worth a schoolmaster's notice. We thus find Vopiscus
acknowledging that when he began to write the life of AurcJian,
he was entirely misinformed respecting the lattcr's competitor
Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured on
Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the
emperor's own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers' historical
estimates are superficial and conventional, but report the verdict
of public opinion with substantial accuracy. The only imputation
on the integrity of any of them lies against Trcbellius PoJlio, who,
addressing his work to a descendant of Claudius, the successor
and probably the assassin of Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter
versatile sovereign's carelessness and extravagance without ac-
knowledgment of the elastic though fitful energy he so frequently
displayed in defence of the empire. The caution of Vopiscus's
references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him.
No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of
these writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek
literature they must have been men of letters by profession, and
very probably secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction.
There seems no reason to accept Gibbon's contemptuous estimate
of their social position. They appear particularly versed in law.
Spartianus's reference to himself as " Diocletian's own " seems to
indicate that he was a domestic in the imperial household. They
address their patrons with deference, acknowledging their own
deficiencies, and seem painfully conscious of the profession of
literature having fallen upon evil days.
Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great
critical ability in his notes, but lor want of a good MS. left the restora-
tion of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remark-
able monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal
criticism and general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable
attention has been devoted by German scholars to the History,
especially by Peter, whose edition of the text in the Tcubner scries
(2nd ed., 1884) contains (pracf. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of
works on the subject preceding the publication of his .own special
treatise. The edition by Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be
mentioned. Amongst the most recent treatises on the subject arc:
A. Gerooll, Die Scnptores Historia* Augusta*. {iM6); H. Peter, Di* I
Seriptom Historia* Augusta* (180a) : G. Tropes), StamU tm/jti Scri*
torts Historic* Augusta* (1809- 1903); J. M. Heer. Der histeni v
Wert der Vita Commodi in d*r gammlung der Seriptores liiiict u
Augusta* (1901); C. Lecrivain, Etudes sur rhistoire AurusU ( 19^
E. Koraemann, Kaiser Hadrian und der Utst* gross* Historiker t.%
Rom (1905), according to whom " the last great historian of Ron*. '
is LoIIius Urbicus; O. SchuU, Dos Kaiserhaus der Antoniste sum *-*■
Utst* Historiker Roms (1907). On their style, sec C. Fauckcr. *'•*
Latinitate Scriptorum Historic* Augusta* (1870); special lexkan b»
C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in J»*
Lives of the Roman Emperors, by John Bernard (1698). See f un.vr
Rome: History (anc ad Jin.), section "Authorities ': M. ScKuu,
Gesckicht* der rdmiscken Litterotur, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maun-_j
and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; TeufTel-Schwabe. Hist, of £*».«
Literature (Eng. tr.), f 102; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 ta
1905 in Bursian's Jahresbtricht, aotix, (1907).
AUGUSTA PRAETORIA 8ALA8SORUH (mod. Aosta, qs\
an ancient town of Italy in the district of the Salasai» Jounce:
by Augustus about 24 b.c, on the site of the camp of Yarn
Murena, who subdued this tribe in 35 b.c, and settled wi'Ji
3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of Italy on the
north-west, and its position at the confluence of tiro rivers, at
the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it consaderab*
military importance, which ii vouched for by considerabc
remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, ****n*j*u
a rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in tbex
entire extent The walls are 21 ft high. They are built d
concrete faced with small blocks of stone, and at the bottca
are nearly 9 ft thick, and at the top 6 ft There are towers at
the angles of the enceinte, and others at intervals, and two at
each of the four gates, making a total of twenty towers altogetfcrr.
They are roughly 3 a ft square, and project 14 ft from the wall
The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre del Leproso
in the west are especially well preserved. The east and soaih
gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked
by two towers, is the Porta Praetona, and is especially fine),
while the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates
the Roman plan, dividing the town into 16 blocks (msnlu).
The main road, 3 s ft wide, divides the city into two eqcal
halves, running from east to west, an arrangement which makes
it clear that the guarding of the road was the main raisom *Tt*i
of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre (the diameters
of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of the
theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft,
and a market-place some 300 ft square, surrounded by store-
houses on three sides with a temple jn the centre, and two ea
the open (south) side, and the thermae, have been discovered.
Outside- the town is a handsome triumphal arch in honour of
Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is a single-arched Roman
bridge, the Pondcl, which has a closed passage lighted by windows
for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open footpath,
both being about 3! ft in width. There are considersbic
remains of the andent road from Eporedia (mod. Itrte) to
Augusta Praetona, up the Valle d' Aosta, which the modern
railway follows, notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch
with a span of 116 ft and a roadway 15 ft wide, the cutting of
Donnas, and the Roman bridges of ChatUlon (Pont St Vincent)
and Aosta (Pont de Pierre). &c.
See C. Promts, L* onlichiik di Aosta (Turin. 1862); E. Berard in
Atti delta Societa di Arckeologia di Torino, iii. no seq. ; AV.'u»*
degli Seavi, passim: A. d'Andrade, Relation* d*W UjfUio Regton^t
per la conservation* dei Monumenti del Piemonle t delta Ligvrui (Tunn,
1899). 46 «q. (T. As.)
AUGU8TI, JOHAKK CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1 772-1847 \
German theologian, bom at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of
Jewish descent, his grandfather having been a converted rabbi
He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha and the university
of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of which he
became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became
ordinary professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, st
Breslau, In 1819 he was transferred to the university of Boos,
where he was made professor primarius. In 1828 be was ap-
pointed chief member of the consistorial council at Coblenr
Here he was afterwards made director of the consistory. He
died at Coblens in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy with the
modem philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although
AUGUSTINE
907
be took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical
narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on
theology (Dogmengesehichte t 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple
statements of fact; they do not attempt a speculative treatment
of their subjects. In 1800 he published in conjunction with
W. M. L. de Wette a new translation of the Old Testament.
Mention should also be made of his Grundriss einer historiseh-
kritischen Binleitung ins Alte Testament (1806), his Bxegetisches
Handbuch its Alien Testaments (1797-1800), and his edition of
Die Apokryphen des A. T. (1804). In addition to these, his
most important writings are the DenkwVrdigkeiten aus der
Christlichen Arehtotogie, is vols. (18x7-1831), a partially digested
mass of materials, and the Handbuch der Christ. ArchBobgie,
3 vols. (1830-1837), which gives the substance of the larger
work in a more compact and systematic form.
AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430), one of the four great fathers
of the Latin Church. Augustinus— the praemmen Aurelius is
used indeed by his disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found
in the oldest Augustine MSS., but is not used by himself, aor in
the letters addressed to him— was born at Tagaste, a town of
Numidia, now Suk Ahras in Constantine,on the 13th of November
354. His father, Patririus, was a burgess of Tagaste and still a
pagan at the time of his son's birth. His mother, Monica, was
not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender and devoted
piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient prayer for"
both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in both
cases) have made her a type of womanly sain fitness for all ages.
She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ,
and for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching.
Falling ill, he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was
past, the rite was deferred and, in spite of his mother's ad-
monitions and prayers, Augustine grew up without any profession
of Christian piety or any devotion to Christian principles,
Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed
while still a mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom
lie became the father of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he
named Adeodatus (" by God given "), and to whom he was
passionately attached. In his Confessions he afterwards de-
scribed this period of his life in the blackest colours; for in the
light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet,
whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first
an earnest student His father, noticing his early promise,
destined him for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician,
for which he spared no expense in training him. Augustine
studied at his native town and afterwards at Madaura and
Carthage, especially devoting himself to the works of the Latin
poets, many traces of his love for which are to be found in his
-writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was much
more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without
sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in
the original Cicero's Hortensius, which he read in his nineteenth
year, first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the
impulse towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed
from one phase of thought to another, unable to find satisfaction
in any. Manichaeism, that mixed product of Zoroastrian- and
Christian-gnostic elements, first enthralled him. He became
a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted into the class of
auditors of " hearers." Manichaeism seemed to him to solve
the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which
he was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial
food from the fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans,
decked out as this was with the luxuriant wealth of Oriental
myth. His strongly developed sense of a need of salvation
sought satisfaction in the contest of the two principles of Good
and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment, in the
conviction that the portions of light present in him would be
freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The
ideal of chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste
of union with God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters
of sensuality and for ever shaking at these fetters. But while
his moral force was not sufficient for the attainment of this
ideal gradually everything else which Manichaeism seemed to.
offer him dissolved before his criticism. Increasingly occupied
with the exact sciences, he leamt the incompatibility of the
Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and more absorbed
in the problems of psychology, he realized the insufficiency of
dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but merely
set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him
invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had
with Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and contro-
versialist, left him greatly disappointed.
Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing
his studies, had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher
of grammar. He must have been an excellent master, who
knew how to influence the whole personality of his pupils. It
was then that Alypius, who in the later stages of Augustine's life
proved a true friend and companion, attached himself to him*
He remained In his native town little more than a year, during
which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the
bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith
("a son of so many tears cannot be lost": Confess. III. xii.( 21),
comforted also, and above all, by the famous vision, which
Augustine thus describes: "She saw herself standing on a
certain wooden rule, and a shining youth coming towards her,
cheerful and smiling upon her the while she grieved, and was
consumed with grief: and when he had inquired of her the
causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is their wont,
of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that she
was bewailing my perdition, he bade herjbe at ease, and advised
her \A look and observe, ' That where she was, there was I also '
And when she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the
same rule " {Confess, in. xi»). Augustine now returned for a
second time to Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously
to work. Thence, probably in the spring of 383, he migrated
to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged him to take this
step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives of the
students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about
a year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and
friepds belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which
he had in the meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He,
therefore, accepted an invitation from Milan, where the people
were in search of a teacher of rhetoric.
At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still
continued. It- was now that he separated himself openly from
the Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the
influence of the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic philo-
sophy, without being able to find in it the final conclusion
of wisdom. He was, however, not far from the decision. Two
things determined bis further development. He became ac-
quainted with the Neo-Pla tonic philosophy; its monism replaced
the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism
of Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for
truth outside the material world, and from created things he
learnt to recognize the invisible God; he attained the certainty
that this God is, and- is eternal, always the same, subject to
change neither in his parts nor in his motions. And while
thus Augustine's metaphysical convictions were being slowly re-
modelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in whom
complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian
personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach;
but at first it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons
that enchained him. He sought an opportunity of conversation
with him, but this was not easily found. Ambrose had no leisure
for philosophic discussion. He was accessible to all who sought
him, but never for a moment free from study or the cares of
duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter without
being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for
a while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again.
He continued, however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually
the gospel of divine truth and grace was received into his heart.
He was busy with his friend Alypius in studying the Pauline
epistles; certain words were driven home with irresistible force
to his conscience. His struggle of mind became more and more
intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his heart
908
AUGUSTINE
with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was
his worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child
had accompanied him to Milan. When he became betrothed
he dismissed her; but neither the pain of this parting nor
consideration for his not yet marriageable bride prevented him
from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind. Meanwhile,
the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures
of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more
distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian com-
patriot named Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and
the monachism in Egypt, and also of a monastery near Milan.
He was shaken to the depths when he learnt from Pontitian
that two young officials, like himself betrothed, had suddenly
formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of the
world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in
terrible excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed
that scene which he himself in the Confessions has described
to us with such graphic realism. He flung himself under a fig
tree, burst into a passion of weeping, and poured out his heart
to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a voice bidding him consult
the divine oracle: " Take up and read, take up and read. 1 '
He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius
was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage
from the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): " Not in rioting
and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife
and envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not
provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof." He adds: " I
had neither desire nor need to read further. As I finished the
sentence, as though the light of peace had been poured into the
heart, all the shadows of doubt dispersed. Thus hast Thou con-
verted me to Thee, so as no longer to seek either for wife or other
hope o{ the world, standing fast in that rule of faith in which
Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my mother "
{in qua me ante tot annos ei revelaveras: Confess, VIII. xii. § 30). 1
The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed
to call this event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few
weeks before the beginning of the vacation. The determination
to give up his post was rendered easier by a chest-trouble which
was not without danger, and which for months made him in-
capable of work. He withdrew with several companions to
the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had been
lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as
a candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to
gome extent unfonncd,and even his habits by no means altogether
such as his great change demanded. He mentions, for example,
that during this time he broke himself of a habit of profane
swearing, and in other ways sought to discipline his character
and conduct for the reception of the sacred rite. He received
baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third year, and along
with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were admitted
to the Church Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at
length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia,
just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being
gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the con-
versation which he had with his motbec before her end, in the
narrative of her death and burial (Confess. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28),
Augustine's literary power is displayed at its highest.
The plan of returning home remained for the present un-
accomplished. Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied
in literary work, particularly in controversy with Manichacism.
It was not until the autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagastc,
probably still accompanied by his son, who, however, must have
died shortly afterwards. With some friends, who joined him in
devotion, he formed a small religious community, which looked
to him as its head. Their mode of life was not formally monastic
according to any special rule, but the experience of this time of
seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system which
Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from
him (see Augustixians). As may be imagined, the fame of such
a convert in such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more
active ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He
1 The reference is to the vision described above.
shrank from the responsibiliry, but his destiny was not to be
avoided. After two and a half years spent in retirement he »oi
to Hippo, to see a Christian friend, who desired to converse w.tfc
him as to his design of quitting the world and devoting hinarf
to a religious life. The Christian community there being in * s=t
of a presbyter and Augustine being present at the meeting, 'i*
people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to ilc
presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 305 or 396, he wu rr.; *
coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the <;
Henceforth Augustine's life is filled up with his ecdcsia*i..
labours, and is more marked by the scries of his numer> a
writings and the great controversies in which they engaged hx
than by anything else. His life was spent in a perpetual strie.
During the first half this had been against himself; but c\*z
when others stepped into his place, it always seems as though 1
part of Augustine himself were incarnate in them. Augustine bad
early distinguished himself as an author. He had written seven,
philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, be
had composed a work De pukhro ei apto, which is no longer exuzt
Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the Nc*
Academy {Contra Academkos) t had treated of the " blessed li'e '
(De Vila beata), of the significance of evil in the order of the w. rid
(De or dint), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truth*
(Soliloquia). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occu-
pied with the question of the immortality of the soul (Do imme*-
talitate animae) ,' and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaxec'
with philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings Ik
quanHlate animae and De magistro. In all these treatise* a
apparent the influence of the Neo-Platonic method of tboucK
which for him, as for so many others, had become the bridge to :ic
Christian. While still in Rome, he began to come to a reckon' 34
with the Manichaeans, and wrote two books on the morals of \bi
Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans (De morions ecdcx.t
Catholicae et de ntoribus Manick/uoruM libri duo}. For many yt -r>
he pursued this controversy in a long series of writings, of we -ii
the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his old assotuu
and disputant, Faustus of Milcvc (Contra Faustum J/aw*c A jr»w.
a.d. 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which h^d
so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exer«.i>vd
Augustine's great powers as a theological thinker and contro-
versialist. He was able from his own experience to give force to ts
arguments for the unity of creation and of the spiritual liic, a^d
to strengthen the mind of the Christian Church in its last strug^e
with that dualistic spirit which had animated and moulded .t
succession so many formsof thought at variance with Christian it v.
But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical *~c
intellectual excitement; and so powerful a mental activity *i
his was naturally drawn forth in all directions. FoUowinr h j
writings against the Manichaeans came those against the lx ra-
tists. The controversy was one which strongly interested fc:-=.
involving as it did the whole question of the constitution of 1?*
Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the drcurnstac. «s
of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist controv< - v
sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning 01 ire-
century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with f ahj lc
zeal on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by rcsisutcr
to the imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment oi
S bishop of moderate opinions, whose consecration had 1.-2
performed, they alleged, by a tr edit or, viz. a bishop who izd
" delivered " the holy scriptures to the magistrates. They u. 1 ■».,».
in consequence, a bishop of their own, of the name of Majom •_».
succeeded in 3 1 5 by Donatus. The party made great pre ten*;. -.^
to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular favour, r ■:-
withstanding a decision given against them both by the bi±. v . p
of Rome and by the emperor Constantine. Augustine * ^>
strongly moved by the lawlessness of the party and launch -J
forth a series of writings against them, the most important ©/
which survive. Amongst these are " Seven Books on Bapii^ir. *
(De baptismo contra Donatislas, c. a.d. 400) and a lengt 1 »-
answer, in three books, to Fetilian, bishop of Cirta, who was tt»c
most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a
later period, about 4x7, Augustine wrote a treatise conoerr~rg
AUGUSTINE
909
the correction of the Donatists (De correcHone Donatistarum)
" for the sake of those/' he says in his Retractations," who were not
wilHng that the Donatists should be subjected to the correction
of the imperial laws." In these writings, while vigorously
Maintaining the validity of the Church as it then stood in the
Roman world, and the necessity for moderation in the exercise
of church discipline, Augustine yet gave currency, in his seal
against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the duty of
the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen,
and have been productive of much disaster in the history of
Christianity.
The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the
most Important, and the most intimately associated with. his
distinctive greatness as a theologian. As may be supposed,
owing to the conflicts through which he had passed, the bishop
of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be called the
anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of redemption.
He had himself been brought out of darkness into " marvellous
light," only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and
finding, after many struggles, that there was no power but divine
grace, as revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which
could bring rest to human weariness, or pardon and peace for
human guilt- He had found human nature in his own case too
weak and sinful to find any good for itself. In God alone he
had found good. This deep sense of human sinfulness coloured
all his theology, and gave to it at once its depth— its profound
and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the reality of sin —
and that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as surely
repelled others. When the expression " Augustinism " is used,
it points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which
were evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted
the most mature and powerful period of his life. His opponents
in this controversy were Pclagius, from whom it derives its name,
and Coelestius and Julianus, pupils of the former. Nothing is
certainly known as to the home of Pclagius. Augustine calls
htm Brito, and so do Marias Mercator and Orosius. Jerome
points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however, as to
leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of
Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the
reformation of society, full of that confidence in the natural
impulses of humanity which often accompanies philanthropic
enthusiasm. About the year 400 he came, no longer a young
man, to Rome, where be lived for more than a decade, and soon
made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his opinions.
His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed
the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while
travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length
arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst
other heretical opinions: — (1) that Adam's sin was purely
personal, and affected none but himself; (2) that each man,
consequently, is born with powers as incorrupt as those of Adam,
and only falls into sin under the force of temptation and evil
example; (3) that children who die in infancy, being untainted
by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such as these were
obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine's
experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic
doctrine of the Church. And when his attention was drawn
to them by the trial and excommunication of Coelestius, he
undertook their -refutation, first of all in three books on the
punishment and forgiveness of sins and the baptism of infants
(De peccatorum meritis ct remission* et de baptismo parvulorum),
addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he vindicated the
necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin and the
grace of God by which we are justified (Retract, ii. 23). This
was in 413. In the same year he addressed a further treatise
to the same Marcellinus on The Spirit and the Utter (De spiritu
et litter a). Three years later he composed the trea tises on Nature
and Grace (De natura et gratia) and the relation of the human
to the divine righteousness (De perfection* iustilwc hominis).
The controversy was continued during many years in no fewer
than fifteen treatises. Upon no subject did Augustine bestow
more of hisinteHectual strength, and in relation to no other have
his views, to deeply and permanently affected the course of
Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with
his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did
much in these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound
the true relations of the divine and human, he also, here as else-
where, was hurried into extreme expressions as to the absolute-
ness of divine grace and! the extent of human corruption. Like
has great disciple in a later age— Luther— Augustine was prone
to emphasize the side of truth which he had most realized
in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to the Pelagian
exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities beyond
measure.
In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the
great epochs of Augustine's life and ecclesiastical activity after
his settlement as a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other
works, some of them better known and even more important.
His great work, the most elaborate, and in some respects the
most significant, that came from his pen, is The City of God
(De cintate Dm). It is designed as a great apologetic treatise
in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,— the
latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on
the crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,— but it is also,
perhaps, the earliest contribution to the philosophy of history,
as it is a repertory throughout of his cherished theological
opinions. This work and his Confessions are, probably, those
by which he is best known, the one as the highest expression of
his thought, and the other as the best monument of his living
piety and Christian experience. The City of God was begun in
413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for a
period of thirteen years, or till 426. The Confessions were
written shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give
a vivid sketch of his early career. To the devout utterances
and aspirations of a great soul they add the charm of personal
disclosure, and have never ceased to excite admiration in all
spirits of kindred piety. Something of this charm also belongs
to the Retractations, that remarkable work in which Augustine,
in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review of his
literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and
to make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise
on Tlic Trinity (De Trinitate) which extends to fifteen books
and occupied him for nearly thirty years, oust not be passed
over. This important work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings,
was not provoked by any special controversial emergency, but
grew up silently during this long period in the author's mind.
This has given it something more of completeness and organic
arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it has also led him
into the prolonged discussion of various analogies, more curious
than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he expounds.
Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine
in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request
of a Roman layman named Lauren this (Enchciridion, sine defide
spe et caritaU). In spite of its title, the compendious work on
Christian doctrine (De doctrina Christiana), begun as early as
393* hut only finished in 426, does not belong to the dogmatic
writings. It is a sort of Biblical hermeneutic, in which homiletic
questions are also dealt with. His catechetical principles Augus-
tine developed in the charming writing De catechisandis ntdibus
(c. 400). A large number of tractates are devoted to moral
and theological problems (Contra nundaciutn, c. 420; De bono
conjugaii, 401, &c). A widespread influence was exercised
by the treatise De opere monachorum (c.400), in which, on the
ground of Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks.
Of less importance than the remaining works are the numerous
exegetical writings, among which the commentary on the Gospel
of St John deserves a special mention. These have a value
owing to Augustine's appreciation of the deeper spiritual mean-
ing of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical qualities. His
Letters are full of interest owing to the light they throw on many
questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and owing to
his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome.
They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest
of the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine r
9io
AUGUSTINE— AUGUSTINIAN CANONS
of great importance. We still possess almost four hundred
sermons which may be ascribed to him with certainty. Many
others only pass under his celebrated name.
The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The
Vandals, who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire,
appeared before the gates of Hippo, and bid siege to it. Augus-
tine was ill with his last illness, and could only pray for his
fellow-citizens. He passed away during the siege, on the 28th
of August 430, at the age of seventy-five, and thus was spared
the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the enemy.
The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian,
has been briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can
deny the greatness of Augustine's soul — his enthusiasm, his
unceasing search after truth, his affectionate disposition, his
ardour, his self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the
soundness of his dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge
the depth of his spiritual conviction*, and the logical force and
penetration with which he handled the most difficult questions,
thus weaving all the elements of hisexperience and of his profound
scriptural knowledge into a great system of Christian thought.
Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was admittedly the
greatest — more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more
original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, 'and
intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great,
his pupil on the papal throne. The theological position and
influence of Augustine may be said to be unrivalled. No single
name has ever exercised such power over the Christian Church,
and no one mind ever made so deep an impression upon Christian
thought In him scholastics and mystics, popes and the
opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion.
He was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by
which he sought to lift the past of the Church out of the
" - of
he
re-
cal
ted
la-
*ris,
vimiaiic, lujy-iwow, j iuu.1 auu j. j . m~ . * uujuuidi V/l« W», « UllS,
1886, 2 vols"), ana on the Protestant side byBindemann (Berlin,
Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols). There are interesting
sketches, from quite different points of view, by von Hcrtling,
Augustinus (2nd ed., Maine, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, St Augustine
ana His Age (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, La Philosophic
de St Augustin (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, a vols.); H. A. Naville, St
Augustin. itude sur la deoeloppement d*sa penske jusqu'a I'tpoque
de son ordination (Geneva, 1872) ; Dorner, Augustinus (Berlin, 1873) ;
Reuter, Augustinisck* Studien (Got ha, 1886); F. Schecl. Die
Ansckauung August ins iiber Christi Person und Werk (Tubingen,
1901); A. Hatzfcld, Saint Augustin (6th ed., Paris, 1902); G. von
Hertling, Augustin {Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, Der heilige Augustinus
(Princeton, 1906) ; and the more modern text-books of the history
of dogma, especially Harnack. (G. K.)
AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. t.613), first arohbishop of Canterbury,
occupied a position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew
at Rome, when Gregory L summoned him to lead a mission to
England in a.d. 506. The apprehensions of Augustine's followers
caused him to return to Rome, but the pope furnished him with
letters of commendation and encouraged him to proceed. He
landed in Thanet in a.d. 597, and was favourably received by
jEthelberht, king of Rent, who granted a dwelling-place for
the monks in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach.
Augustine first made use of the ancient church of St Martin at
Canterbury, which before his arrival had been the oratory of the
Queen Berhta and her confessor Liudhard wEthelbcrht upon
his conversion employed all his 'influence in support of the
mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from Gregory
and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, u
well as all future bishops consecrated in English tenitorr.
including York. Authority over the see of York was cot
however, to descend to Augustine's successors. In 603 ae
consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury, and built the monasfrry
of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St Augusiicev
At the conference of Augustine's Oak he endeavoured a
vain to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of ike
Roman Easter. He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus
to the sees of London and Rochester respectively. Ike
date of his death is not recorded by Bede, but MS. Foitk
Saxon Chronicle puts it in 6x4, and the Armales Monaster tenia
in 612.
See Bede, Bed. Hut, (ed. by Hummer), L ayiL 3,
AUGUSTINIAJf CANONS, a religious order in the Romas
Catholic Church, called also Austin Canons, Canons* "Regular
and in England Black Canons, because their cassock and mantk
were black, though they wore a white surplice : ebewhexe the
colour of the habit varied considerably.
The canons regular (sec Canon) grew out of the earner institute
of canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of
the Lateran Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals
(in England, Carlisle), and of a great number of collegia u
churches all over western Europe, responded to the appeal; ac4
the need of a rule of life suited to the new regime produced,
towards the end of the nth century, the so-called Rule of M
Augustine (see Augustdoans). This Rule was widely adopted
by the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by
the vows of poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th
century mis discipline became universal among them; and so
arose the order of Augustinian canons as a religious order in the
strict sense of the word. They resembled the monks in so fax
as they lived in community and took religious vows; bat their
state of life remained essentially clerical, and as derics their
duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve the pans
churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral
celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their
manner of life differed little from that of monks.
Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon
tended to draw together and coalesce into congregations with cor-
porate organization and codes of constitutions supplementary to
the Rule. The popes encouraged these centralizing tendencies,
and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the Augustinian canons ca
the same general lines as those laid down for the Benedictines,
by a system of provincial chapters and visitations.
Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine
are numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateraa
canons, formed soon after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of
the Lateran Basilica; (2) Congregation of St Victor m Pans,
c. 1 100, remarkable for the theological and mystical school oi
Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor; (3) GObertines (see
Gilbert op Sempringham, St); (4) Windesbeim Congregation.
c. 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central Germany
(see Groot, Gerhard), to which belonged Thomas a Kempis,
(5) Congregation of Ste Genevieve in Paris, a reform c 1630.
During the later middle ages the houses of these various con-
gregations of canons regular spread all over Europe and became
extraordinarily numerous. They underwent the natural ard
inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having their periods ci
depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and refore.
The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesbeim. Ve
Reformatione monaster iorum, shows that in the 15th cen tun-
grave relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augostiniaa
canons in north Germany, and the efforts at reform were orlv
partially successful. The Reformation, the religious wars »ad
the Revolution have swept away nearly all the canons regular,
but some of their houses in Austria still exist in their medievz!
splendour. In England there were as many as soo houses of
Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the " greater
monasteries " suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list sea Tattles an
AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS— AUGUSTUS
911
F. A. Gasquet's English Monastic Life). The first foundation
was Holy Trinity, AJdgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle
was an English cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland
the order was even, more numerous, Christ Church, Dublin,
being one of their houses. Three houses of the Lateran canons
were established in England towards the close of the 19th
century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had
convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day.
See the works of Amort and Du MoKnet, mentioned under Canon.
Vol. ii. of Helyot's Hist, des ordrts religieux (1792) is devoted to
canons regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by
Max Heimbucher, Ordtn und Kongregaiionen, t. (1896), %% 54-60,
where copious references to the literature of the subject are sup-
plied. See also Otto Zockler, A shese und Mduchtum, ii. (1897), p. 432 ;
and Wetter und Welte, Kirchenlexiam (2nd ed.), art. " Canonic!
Rcgularcs " and " Canonissae." For England see J. W. Clark,
Observances in use at the Augustinian Prtory at Barnwell (1897);
and an article in Journal of Theological Studies (v.) by Scott
Holmes. (E. C. B.)
AU0U8TINIAN HERMITS, or Friais, a religious order in
the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes called (but improperly)
Black Friars (see Friars). In the first half of the 13th century
there were in central Italy various small congregations of hermits
Hving according to different rules. The need of co-ordinating
and organizing these hermits induced the popes towards 1250
to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so as to
form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St
Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or
simply the Augustinian Order. Special consti tutions were drawn
up for its government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and
other mendicants — a general elected by chapter, provincials to
rule in the different countries, with assistants, definitors and
visitors. For this reason, and because almost from the beginning
the term " hermits " became a misnomer (for they abandoned
the deserts and lived conventually in towns), they ranked
among the friars, and became the fourth of the mendicant orders.
The observance and manner of life was, relatively to those times,
mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit is
black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe,
so that it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000
friaries with some 30,000 members. In England there were
not more than about 30 houses (see Tables in F. A. Gasquet's
Engiisk Monastic Life). The reaction against the inevitabfe
tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a number
of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different congrega-
tions within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who was
subject to the general of the order. Some of these congreg a tions
went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the
institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain,
Italy and France, Dlscalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augus-
tine, who provided in each province one house wherein a strictly
eremitical life might be led by such as desired it.
About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set
on foot among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany,
and they were formed into a separate congregation independent
of the general. It was from this congregation that Luther went
forth, and great numbers of the German Augustinian Hermits,
among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial, followed him
and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was
dissolved in 1526.
The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most
of the bouses of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a
hundred exist in various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland
they are relatively numerous, having survived the penal times.
The Augustinian school of theology (Noris, Berti) was formed
among the Hermits. There have been many convents of Augus-
tinian Hcrmitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted congregations;
such convents exist still in Europe and North America, devoted
to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous
congregations of Augustinian Tertiarics, both men and women,
connected with the order and engaged on charitable works of
every kind (see Tertiames).
See Hclyot. Hist, des ordres religieux (1792), in. ; Max Heimbucher,
Ordtn und Kongregaiionen, i. (1896), f 61-65; Wetxer und Welte,
Kirthenlexicon (and ed.), art " Augustlner "; Hereof, Rutency*
klopadie (3rd ed.), art. " Augustiner." The chief book on the
subject is Th. Kolde, Die aeutschen Augustiner ~ Konrrteationen
(1879). (E. t B.)
AUGUSTINUKS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic
name for religious orders that follow the so-called " Rule of
St Augustine." The chief of these orders are.-— -Augustinian
Canons (q.v.), Augustinian, Hermits (q.v.) or Friars, Premon-
stratensians (q.v.), Trinitarians (q.v.), Gilbertines (see Gilbert
op Semprtkgham, St). The following orders, though not called
Augustinians, also have St Augustine's Rule as the basis of their
life: Dominicans, Servites, Out Lady of Ransom, HJeronymites,
Assumptionists and many others; also orders of women:
Brigittines, Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of
congregations of women, spread over the Old and New Worlds,
devoted to education and charitable works of all kinds.
See Helyot, Ordres religieux (1792). vols, ii., hi., iv.; Max Heim-
bucher, Orden und Kongregaiionen, u (1896), | 66-65; Wetxer und
Welte, Kirchenlexiam, i., 1665-1667.
St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but
Ep. 2X1 (al. 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a com-
munity of nuns, on their daily life; and Sertn. 355, 356 describe
the common life he led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in
the second half of the nth century the clergy of a great number
of collegiate churches were undertaking to live a substantially
monastic form of life (see Canon), it was natural that they
should look back to this classical model for clerics living in
community. And so attention was directed to St Augustine's
writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious
writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of
the nth century three Rules, the "First" and "Second"
being mere fragments, but the " Third " a substantive rule of
life in 45 sections, often grouped in twelve chapters. This Third
Rule is the one known as " the Rule of St Augustine." Being
confined to fundamental principles without entering into details,
it has proved itself admirably suited to form the foundation of
the religious life of the most varied orders and congregations,
and since the 12 th century it has proved more prolific than the
Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St
Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put
forward fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken con-
tinuity, not merely from St Augustine, but from Christ and the
Apostles.
The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, Monasticon (ed. 1846), vi.
42; and in Holsten-Brockie, Codex Regularum, ii. 121. For the
literature see Otto Zockler, Ashese und Mdnchtum (1897), pp. 347,
AUGUSTOWO, a city of Russian Poland, In the government
of Suwalki, 20 m. S. of the town of that name, on a canal
(65 m.) connecting the Vistula with the Niexnen. It was founded
in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and is laid out in a very
regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It carries on a
large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen and
huckaba ck. P op. (1897) 12,746.
AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat augto, increase,
i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. S^ptarfe), the title given by the
Roman senate, on the 17th of January 27 B.C., to Gaius Julius
Caesar Octavianus (63 b.c.-a.d. 14), or as he was originally
designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services
to the state (Man. Anc. 34), and borne by him as the first of the
Roman emperors. The title was adopted by all the succeeding
Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had ceased to be
connected by blood with the first Augustus.
Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September
6$ B.C., the year of Cicero's consulship and of Catiline's conspiracy.
He came of a family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae
(Vclletri), but his father was the first of the family to obtain a
curule magistracy at Rome and senatorial dignity. His mother,
however, was Atia, daughter of Julia, the wife of M. Alius
Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it was this connexion with
the great dictator which determined his career. In his fifth
year (58 B.C.) his father died; about a year later his mother
•On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wtssowa's Realencyclo-
pddief. el. alterih., s.v. 2374.
912
AUGUSTUS
remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that
of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51
B.C.) he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grand-
mother Julia, his first public appearance. On the 1 8th of October
48 (or ? 47) B.C. he assumed the " toga virilis " and was elected
into the pontifical college, an exceptional honour which he no
doubt owed to his. great-uncle, now dictator and master of Rome.
In 46 B.C. he shared in the glory of Caesar's African triumph,
and in 45 he was made a patrician by the senate, and designated
as one of Caesar's " masters of the horse " for the next year.
In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian
campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of
Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar's murder reached
him and he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar
had made him his heir and adopted him into the Julian gens,
whereby he acquired the designation of Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavianus. The inheritance was a perilous one; his mother
and others would have dissuaded him from accepting it, but he,
confident in his abilities, declared at once that he would under-
take its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by the
dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed
himself of Caesar's papers and effects, and made light of his
young nephew's pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little
regard, and dispersed to their respective provinces. Cicero,
much charmed at the attitude of Antonius, hoped to make use of
him, and flattered him to the utmost, with the expectation,
however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had served his purpose.
Octavianus conducted himself with consummate adroitness,
making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none.
Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate,
when it armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for
assistance; and he took part in the campaign in which Antonius
was defeated at Mutina (43 B.C.). The soldiers of Octavianus
demanded the consulship for him, and the senate, though now
much alarmed, could not prevent his election. He now effected
a coalition with Antonius and Lcpidus, and on the 27th of Nov-
ember 43 B.C. the three were formally appointed a triumvirate
for the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years.
They divided the western provinces among them, the east being
held for the republic by Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a
list of proscribed citizens, and caused the assassination of three
hundred senators and two thousand knights. They further
confiscated the territories of many cities throughout Italy, and
divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was murdered at
the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party
took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with
Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas.
Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 B.C. to
reduce the last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius
were defeated, and fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke
out between the victors, the chief incident of which was the
siege and capture by famine of Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice
of three hundred of its defenders by the young Caesar at the
altar of his uncle. But peace was again made between them
(40 B.C.). Antonius married Octavia, his rival's sister, and took
for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to
Caesar. Lcpidus was reduced to the single province of Africa.
Meanwhile Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting
off the supplies of grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged
to concede to him the islands in the western Mediterranean.
But Octavianus could not allow the capital to be kept in alarm
for its daily sustenance. He picked a quarrel with Sextus, and
when his colleagues failed to support him, undertook to attack
him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his aid, in return
for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in the East.
But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet,
M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and
driven into Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 B.C.).
Lcpidus was an object of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus
and Antonius remained to fight for supreme power.
The five years (36-31 B.C.) which preceded the decisive en-
counter between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless
campaigns, and in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked
Roman sentiment. By Octavian they were employed in strength-
ening his hold on the West, and his claim to be regarded as the
one possible saviour of Rome and Roman civilization, Ha
marriage with Livia (38 B.C.) placed by his side a — g»nr>*
counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as
great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. VYui
their help he set himself to win the confidence of a public stu
inclined to distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 e.c
Brigandage was suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the ItaJiis
frontiers secured against the raids of Alpine tribes on the nord*-
west and of Illyrians on the east, while Rome was purified and
beautified, largely with the help of Agrippa (aedile in 33 sx.).
Meanwhile, indignation at Antony's un-Roman excesses, and
alarm at Cleopatra's rumoured schemes of founding a Greco-
Oriental empire, were rapidly increasing. In 3a bx. Antony's
repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the dis-
covery of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra's dangerous
ascendancy, brought matters to a climax, and war was declared,
not indeed against Antony, but against Cleopatra.
The decisive battle was fought on the and of September 31&.C
at Actium on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost toul
destruction of Antony's fleet and the surrender of his land forces.
Not quite a year later (Aug. 1, 30 B.C.) followed the captuie
of Alexandria and the deaths by their own hands of Antony aii:
Cleopatra. On the nth of January 29 B.C. the restoration U
peace was marked by the closing of the temple of Janus for the
first time for 200 years. In the summer Octavian returned va
Italy, and in August celebrated a three days' triumph. He «as
welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war, bat as tSe
man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its
assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of has feUow-riiizcat,
above all as the restorer of peace,
He was now, to quote his own words, " master of all things."
and the Roman world looked to him for some permanent settle-
ment of the distracted empire. His first task was the re-establish-
ment of a regular and constitutional government, such as had
not existed since Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty
years before. To this task he devoted the next eighteen moctas
(Aug. 29-Jan. 27 B.C.). In the article on Rom*; History (q.r. ,
his achievements are described in detail, and only a bna
summary need be given here. The " principate," to give lix
new form of government its most appropriate name, was a
compromise thoroughly characteristic of the combination oi
tenacity of purpose with cautious respect for forms and con\ ra-
tions which distinguished its author. The republic was restored.
senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their ancient tac-
tions; and the public life of Rome began to run once more is
the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with iu irregularities
and excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, wk^i
Octavian himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispenafd
with. But henceforward he was to exercise it under constitu-
tional forms and limitations, and with the express sanction oi
the senate and people. Octavian was legally invested for a
period of ten years with the government of the importirt
frontier provinces, with the sole command of the military ir.d
naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of its foreign
relations. At home it was understood that he would year by
year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence
attached to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thu>
the republic was restored under the presidency and patronage
of its " first citizen " (prince ps civtiatis).
In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his
other services further honours were conferred upon Octavian.
On the 13th of January 27 B.C.,. the birthday of the restore
republic, he was awarded the civic crown to be placed over the
door of his house, in token that he had saved his fellow-citiztts
and restored the Republic Four days later (Jan. 17) the sciutt
conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus.
But it was not only the machinery of government in Rcrac
that needed repair, Twenty years of civil war and confute*
had disorganised the empire, and the strong hand of Augustus
AUGUSTUS
**3
as he must now be called, could alone restore confidence and
order. Towards the end of 27 b.c: he left Rome for Gaul, and
from that date until October 19 b.c. he was mainly occupied
with the reorganization of the provinces and of the provincial
administration, first of all in the West and then in the East
It was during his stay in Asia (20 B.C.) that the Parthian king
Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards
taken at Carrhae (53 B.C.), a welcome tribute to the respect
inspired by Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In
October 19 b.c. he returned to Rome, and the senate ordered
that the day of his return (Oct. it) should thenceforward be
observed as a public holiday. The period of ten years for which
his imperium had been granted him was nearly ended, and
though much remained to be done, very much had been accom-
plished. The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation
of the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories
added to the empire by Julius Caesar in Caul — the " New Gaul,"
or the " long-haired Gaul" (Gallia Comata) as it was called by
way of distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis
(see Gaul) — and the re-establishment of Roman authority-
over the kings and princes of the Near East, were achievements
which fully justified the acclamations of senate and people.
In 18 b.c. Augustus's imperium was renewed for five years,
and his tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was
associated with him as a colleague. From October of 19 B.C.
till the middle of 16 B.C. Augustus's main attention was given
to Rome and to domestic reform, and to this period belong
such measures as the Julian law M as to the marriage of the
orders." In June of 17 b.c. the opening of the new and better
age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the
celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in
the ceremony were Augustus himself arid his colleague Agrippa,
— while, as the extant record tells us, the processional hymn,
chanted by youths and maidens first before the new temple of
Apollo on the Palatine and then before the temple of Jupiter
on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The hymn, the
well-known Carmen Saccular*, gives fervent expression to the
prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude.
In the next year (16 B.C.), however, Augustus was suddenly
called away from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed
much of his attention for the next twenty-five years. The
defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate commanding on the Rhine,
by a horde of German invaders, seems to have determined
Augustus to take in hand the whole- question of the frontiers
of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection
of Gaul and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus's
step-sons Tiberius and Drusus. The first step was the annexation
of Noricum and Raetia (16-15 BC -)» which brought under Roman
control the mountainous district through which the direct
routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters of the Rhine
and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order
lor the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably
established a military post at Camuntum on the Danube. To
Drusus fell the more ambitious task of advancing the Roman
frontier line from the Rhine to the Elbe, a work which occupied
him until bis death in Germany in 9 b.c. In 13 B.C. Augustus
had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion of his
second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of
one of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the
Ara Pads Augustae (see Rohan Art, PL II, III). His imperium
was renewed, again for five years, and in 12 B.C., on the death of
his former fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex
Maximus. But this third period of his imperium brought with it
losses which Augustus must have keenly felt. Only a few months
after his reappointment as Augustus's colleague, Marcus Agrippa,
his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As was fully his due,
his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and he was
buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for
himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son
Drusus died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in
which he had reached the Elbe. Finally in 8 B.C. he lost the
comrade who next to Agrippa had been the most intimate
11 16
friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gafus COnius Mae-
cenas, the patron of Virgil and Horace.
For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his
surviving step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa
had been in the tribunician power, was married against his
will to Julia, and sent to complete his brother Drusus's work in
Germany (7-6 B.C.). But Tiberius was only his step-son, and,
with all his great qualities, was never a very lovable man.
On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia, Gaius
and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to hiss.
Both had been adopted by Augustus ( 1 7 B.C.). In 6 B.C. Tiberius,
who had just received the tribunician power, was transferred
from Germany to the East, where the situation in Armenia
demanded attention. His sudden withdrawal to Rhodes has
been variously explained, but, in part at least, it was probably
dqe to the plain indications which Augustus now gave of his
wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs.
The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 B.C.), was formally
introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus
himself, who for this purpose resumed the consulship (rath)
which he had dropped since 23 B.C., and was authorised to take
part in the deliberations of the senate. Three years later
(2 b.c.) Augustus, now consul for the 13th and last time, paid a
similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius, In 1 b.c
Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish
orocr in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (a.d, 2) Lucius
was sent to Spain, apparently to take command of the legions
there. But the fates were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died
at Marseilles on his way out, and in the next year (a.d. 3) Gaius,
wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia, started reluctantly
for home, only to die in Lyda. Tiberius alone was left, and
Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally declared
him to be his colleague and destined successor (a.d. 4) and
adopted him as his son.
The interest of the last ten years of Augustus's life centres
in the events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult
task of bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the
Elbe under Roman rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 B.C., had
on his death been continued by Tiberius (9-6 b.c). During
Tiberius's retirement in Rhodes no decisive progress was made,
but in a.d. 4 operations on a large scale were resumed. From
Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we learn
that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over
the tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman
forces, instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on
the Rhine, went into winter-quarters near the source of the
Lippe. In the next year (a.d. 5) the Elbe was reached by the
troops, while the fleet, after a hazardous voyage, arrived at
the mouth of the same river and sailed some way up it. Both
feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in the
Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany
and to connect the frontier with the line of the Danube, it
seemed that only one thing remained to be done, to break the
power of the Marcomanni and their king Maroboduus. In the
spring of aj>. 6 preparations were made for this final achieve-
ment; the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was
to be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting
apparently from the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany
at Mainz, was to advance by way of the Black Forest and attack
Maroboduus on the west; the other, led by Tiberius himself,
was to start from the new military base at Carnuntum on the
Danube and operate from the south-east
But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in
the rear of Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst
into a blaze of insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius
to have been more serious than any which had confronted Rome
since the Hannibalic war, for it was not merely the loss of a
province but the invasion of Italy that was threatened, and
Augustus openly declared in the senate that the insurgents
might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to
Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously
carried on is Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from
to
9M-
AUGUSTUS I.
Mocsia ind even Iron Asia. In the end, and not indndiag the
Thracian cavalry of King Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions
with an equal number of auxiliaries was employed. Even so
the task of putting down the insurrection was difficult enough,
and it was not until late in the summer of aj>. 9, after three years
of fighting, that Gennanicus, who had been sent to assist Tiberius,
ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia.
Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus
and his legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new
province of Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was
avowedly due entirely to Varus's incapacity and vanity, and
might no doubt have been repaired by leaders of the calibre of
Tiberius and Gennanicus. Augustus, however, was now seventy-
two, the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his nerve, and
now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to pro-
nounce clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished
scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe.
All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting
was pressed forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then
Gennanicus were despatched to the Rhine. But the German
leaden were too prudent to risk defeat, and the Roman generals
devoted their attention mainly to strengthening the line of the
Rhine.
The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans
of expansion begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last
events of importance in the long principate of Augustus. The
last five years of his life (a.d. 10-14) were untroubled by war
or disaster. Augustus was ageing fast, and was more and more
disinclined to appear personally in the senate or in public Yet
in AJ>. 1 j he consented, reluctantly we are told, to yet one more
renewal of his imptrium for ten years, stipulating, however, that
his step-son Tiberius, himself now over fifty, should be associated
with himself on equal terms in the administration of the empire.
Early in the same year (January x6, a.d. 13) the last triumph
of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now in Rome,
the command on the Rhine having been given to Gennanicus,
who went out to it immediately after his consulship (ajd. 12),
and the time had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannooian
triumph, which the defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus
witnessed the triumphal procession, and Tiberius, as it turned
from the Forum to ascend the Capitol, halted, descended from
his triumphal car, and did reverence to his adopted father.
One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During
a J>. 13 he and Tiberius conducted a census of Roman dtizens,
the third taken by his orders; the first having been in 38 b.c
at the very outset of his rule. The business of the census lasted
over into the next year, but on the nth of May, aj>. 14, before
a great crowd in the Campus Martius, Augustus took part in the
solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out of sight the old
age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been full
of significance in 28 B.C., and now more than forty years later
it was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the
tablets containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the
state during the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the
duty of reciting them to Tiberius, saying that he would not take
vows which he was never destined to perform.
It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that
Augustus left Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road
to Astura (Torre Astura) at the southern point of the little* bay
of Antium, he sailed thence to Capri and to Naples. On his way
at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a ship just come from
Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous homage,
declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life,
safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune.
At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out
a gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied
Tiberius as far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and
IUyricum. On his return he was forced by illness to stop at
Nola, his father's old home. Tiberius was hastily recalled and
had a last confidential talk on affairs of state. Thenceforward,
says Suetonius, he gave no more thought to such great affairs.
Ha bads farewell to his friends, inquired after the health of I
Drusus's daughter who vis 3, and then quetrjr expired in tie
arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been bis e
intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whoc l
last words were an exhortation to " live mindful of our wetii.
life." He died on the 19th of August, A-D. 14, in the same rxs.
in which his father had died before him, and on the axuaivera-t
of his entrance upon his first ransuhhip fifty-seven ycxyrs be jt
(43 B.c). The corpse was carried to Rome in alow process
along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral it was bcrs?
to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and thtn
burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and pla-r.
in the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had bu_:
for himself and his family. The last act was the formal deer-
of the senate by which Augustus, like his father Julius bt.";
him, was added to the number of the gods recognised by :^c
Roman state.
If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Angcscj
only the man who had destroyed the old republic and an-
guished political liberty, the verdict of posterity 00 Augti->
has varied just in proportion as his critics have fixed lK-
attention, mainly, on the means by which he rose to po-ns
or the use which he made of the power when acquired. 7*
lines of argument followed respectively by friendly and bosc_*
contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac Anm. L 0. : =
have been followed by later writers with little changr But <*
late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip aboct
him, and our increased knowledge of the magnitude of whii
he actually accomplished, have conspicuously influenced ibe
judgments passed upon him. We allow the faults and erica
of his early manhood, his cruelties and deceptions, his readies
to sacrifice everything that came between him and the ecd
he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of %a»:
he achieved between the years 38 s.c, when he married Java,
and his death in aj>. 14, is now held to give him a claim to rar.k,
not merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accoav
plished political actor, but as one of the world's great mec 1
statesman who conceived and carried through a scheme of
political reconstruction which kept the empire together, secured
peace and tranquillity, and preserved civilization for more tsaz
two centuries.
Biblioc ra my.— -The most comprehensive work oa Augustus ud
his age is that of V. Gardthausen, Augustus und setae Zeti U vr \,
Leipzig, 1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus's ■-'£-
vol. ii. consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical sura.
See also histories of Rome generally, and among special works —
E. S. Shuckburgh, Augustus (London, 1903; r e vi e w ed by F. T
Richards in Class. Ret. vol. xviii.), containing the test of the JSr*«-
mentum Ancyranum (see also Gardthausen. book xiii.); J. B. Fits
Augustus Caesar (London, 1903), in " Heroes of the NatWs *
series; O. Seeck, "Kaiser Augustus" (Monograpkien zmr J*e±
gtscktckU, xvii.. iooa), nine essays oa special probleoss. ax U*
campaigns of Mutroa, Perusia and against Sextus Ponpetns, " cu
Augustische Zcitalter": A. DumeriC " August* et hi foadauoo if
1'empire remain," in the Annales de h Foe. des lett. de Mmb
(1890); a suggestive monograph on the reforms of Augustus is
relation to the decrease of population is Jules Fertet a L'AHtssemat
de la nauditi d Rome (Paris, 1902). (H. F. P.j
AUGUSTUS I. (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger
son of Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the
Albertine branch of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the
31st of July 1526, and brought up as a Lutheran, he received s
good education and studied at the university of Leipzig. When
Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that his lands should be
divided equally between his two sons, but as his bequest wa»
contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom passes'
almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however
remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further has
policy spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferduuad
I., in Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of h&
brother as administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but
Augustus was very extravagant and was soon compelled to retus
to the Saxon court at Dresden. Augustus supported his brother
during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and in the pono
which culminated in the transfer of the Saxon electorate fress
John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine branch of the Wettia
AUGUSTUS II.
9i5
family, to Maurice. On die 7th of October 1548 Augustus was
married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian IIL, king of
Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfcls. But he
soon desired a more imposing establishment. The result was
that Maurice made more generous provision for his brother,
who acted as regent of Saxony in 1552 during the absence of the
elector. Augustus was on a visit to Denmark when by Maurice's
death in July 1553 he became elector of Saxony.
The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with
John Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral
position. This object was secured by a treaty made at Naum-
burg in February 1 554, when, in return for the grant of Altenburg
and other lands, John Frederick recognized Augustus as elector
of Saxony. The elector, however, was continually haunted by
the fear that the Ernestines would attempt to deprive him of
the coveted dignity, and his policy both in Saxony and in Ger-
many was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics Augustus
acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of
the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending
religious parties. To this policy may be traced his share in
bringing about the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his
tortuous conduct at the diet of Augsburg eleven years later,
and his reluctance to break entirely with the Calvinists. On
one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to the Habsburgs.
In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son of
the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter
of Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon
elector would support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the
revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered
into communication with the Huguenots; but his aversion to
foreign complications prevailed, and the incipient friendship
with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious dislike.
Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to
Unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity
of giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured
the movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg
concerning ecclesiastical reservation, which was .offensive to
many Protestants. His moderation, however, prevented him
from joining those who were prepared to take strong measures
to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize the concessions
•heady won.
The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines
gave serious trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias
Flacius held an influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught
a form of Lutheranism different from that taught in electoral
Saxony. This breach was widened when Flacius began to make
personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his speedy downfall,
and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to recover
his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight,
William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made
inroads into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign
powers in his plan to depose Augustus. After some delay elector of Saxony, was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670,
Grumbach and his protector, John Frederick, were placed under
the imperial ban, and Augustus was entrusted with its execution.
His campaign in 1567 was short and -successful. John Frederick
surrendered, and passed his time in prison until his death in
1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the position of
the elector was made quite secure.
The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was
that of Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents,
who were afterwards called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by
the elector. When Augustus, freed from the fear of an attack
by the Ernestines, became gradually estranged from the elector
palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to have looked with
suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not preach the
pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter
reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which,
while revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism,
cast some aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus
ordered the leaders of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they
were tortured and imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism
was declared binding upon all the inhabitants of Saxony, and
many persona were banished from the country. In 1576 he
made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the Protestants
upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Torgau, which in-
culcated a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony,
however, made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on
imperial questions. In 1576 he opposed the proposal of the
Protestant princes to make a grant for the Turkish War con-
ditional upon the abolition of the clause concerning ecclesiastical
reservation, and he continued to support the Habsburgs.
Much of the elector's time was devoted to extending his
territories. In 1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John
William, duke of Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able
to add part of the county of Henneberg to electoral Saxony.
His command of money enabled him to take advantage of the
poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured Vogtland
and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of
his nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured
the election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and
three years later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince
died in 1565 these bishoprics came under the direct rule of
Augustus.
As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened.
He favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle,
in the country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage
and establishing the first posts. He was specially interested in
benefiting agriculture, and added several fine buildings to the
chy of Dresden. His laws were numerous and comprehensive.
The constitution of 157a was his work, and by these laws the
church, the universities and the police were regulated, the
administration of justice was improved, and the raising of taxes
placed upon a better footing (see Saxony).
In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks
later Augustus married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim
Ernest, prince of AnhalL His own death took place at Dresden
on the axst of January 1586, and he was buried at Freiberg.
By his first wife he had fifteen children, but only four of these
survived him, among whom was his successor, the elector
Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and
superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his
political caution and his wise methods of government. He
wrote a small work on agriculture entitled KUnstlkk Obst*
und GartenbiUhlein.
See C. W. Bdttieer and T. Flathe, Cesehkkte Sackuns, Band ii.
(Got ha. 1870) ; M. Kittcr, Deutsche Gesckickte im Zeitalter <Ur Gegen-
reformation, Band i. (Stuttgart, 1 890); R. Colinich, Kampf und
Unlertang des Melanchthonxsmus in Kursacksen (Leipzig, 1866);
J. FaTke, Geschichte des Kurfirsten August in volksvnrtsckafilicher
Bezitkung (Leipzig. 1868); J. Janssen, Cesehkkte des Deutsche*
Volks sett dent Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1885-1894);
W. Wenck. Kurfurst Merit* und Hertog August (Leipzig, 1874).
AUGUSTUS II„ king of Poland, and, as Fiedsrick Augustus
I., elector of Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III.,
He was well educated, spent some years in travel and in fighting
against France, and on account of his immense strength was
known as " the Strong." On the death of his brother, John
George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in 1695
and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without
very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus
was a candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further
his chances became a Roman Catholk, a step which was strongly
resented in Saxony. By a lavish expenditure of money, and by
his promptness in entering the country, he secured bis election
and coronation in September 1697, and his principal rival F. L.
de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the contest and returned
to France. Augustus continued the war against the Turks for
a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find a
pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an
alliance in 1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII.
of Sweden. The Poles would not assist* and at the head of the
Saxons Augustus invaded Livonia, but for various causes the
campaign was not a success, and in July 170s he was defeated
by Charles at Klistow. Augustus was then deposed in Poland.
gi6
AUGUSTUS III.— AULIC COUNCIL
and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to Saxony.
The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles
invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the
treaty of AltranstMdt in September of that year, to recognize
Stanislaus Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon
the Russian alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession ,
Augustus fought with the imperialists in the Netherlands, but
after the defeat of Charles XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he
turned his attention to the recovery of Poland. Declaring the
treaty of Altranstadt void and renewing his alliance with Russia
and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown. He then
attacked Swedish Pomerania, He was handicapped by the
mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle
broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king pro-
mised to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000
men. Peace was made with Sweden in December 1729 at
Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus was
recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent
in futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to
weaken the power of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory
for his sons in various parts of Europe. He was a man of ex-
travagant and luxurious tastes, and, although he greatly improved
the dty of Dresden, he cannot be called a good ruler. He
sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in spite
of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism
was personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome.
His wife was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohen-
zollern family, who left him when he became a Roman Catholic,
and died in 1727. Augustus died at Warsaw on the 1st of
February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus, who succeeded
him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children,
among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony,
known as Marshal Saxe (q.v.).
See Otwikowski, History of Poland wider Augustus II. (Cracow,
1849) ; F. Fdrster, Die Hofe und Kobinette Euro pas im acktzeknien
Jakrhundert (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, History of Augustus II.
(Posen, 1 856-1874); C. W.Bot tiger ^and T. Flat he. CeschichU des
~~ 'sundKo ' • ' " • "•*
Rurstaates 1
tonigreichs Sacksen (Gotha, 1867-1873).
AUGUSTUS IIU king of Poland, and, as Frederick Augustus
II., elector of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of
Augustus H. (" the Strong "), was born at Dresden on the 17 th
of October 1696. Educated as a Protestant, he followed his
father's example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 171 2,
although his conversion was not made public until 1717. In
August 1 7 19 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor
Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public
affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father's death
in February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish
crown; and having purchased the support of the emperor
Charles VI. by assenting to the Pragmatic Sanction, and that
of the czarina Anne by recognizing the claim of Russia to Cour-
land, he was elected king of Poland in October 1733. Aided
by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski from
Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734,
and was generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736.
On the death of Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was
among the enemies of his daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a
son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., claimed a portion of the
Habsburg territories. In 174a, however, he was induced to
transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took part
in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian
wars, and again when the Seven Years 1 War began in 1756.
Saxony was in that year attacked by the Prussians, and with
so much success that not only was the Saxon army forced to
capitulate at Pima in October, but the elector, who fled to
Wsrsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, which remained
under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of Huberts-
burg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony,
where he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons,
the eldest of whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick
Christian; and five daughters, one of whom- was the wife of
'• the dauphin of France, and mother of LouisXVL Another
daughter was the wife of Charles III., king of Spain, but she
predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither tales:
nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poias-l
under the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of a*
ministers. He took great interest in music and painting, and
added to the collection of art treasures at Dresden.
See C. W. Bottiger and T. Flache, CetckiclUe des KursiaaSes %-d
Konigreichs Sacksen (Gotha. 1867-1873); R. Ropell, PoUn um im
MiUe des 18. Jahrkunderls (Gotha. 1876).
AUGUSTUSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the king-
dom of Saxony, xo m. E. from Dresden, dose to Radcbcrg
in a pleasant valley. Pop. 000. It has five saline chalyt*.-*
springs, used both for drinking and bathing, and specific -
feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and neuralgia. T*t
spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable puU.
rooms and gardens.
AUK* a name commonly given to several species of sea-fo->l
A special interest attaches to the great auk (Alt* impend
owing to its recent extinction and the value of its eggs iw
collectors. (See Garejowl; also Guillemot, Pumx, Rjuce-
BILL.)
AULARD, FRANCOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE (1&40- I.
French historian, was born at Montbron in Charente in 1$*+
Having obtained the degree of doctor of letters in 1877 with a
Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upes
Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated is:j
French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during t±e
French Revolution, and published two volumes upon La
Orateurs de la constituent* (1SS2) and upon Les Qratrurs de u
legislative etdela convention (1885). With these works. whjcfi
were- reprinted in 1005, he entered a fresh field, where he sou=
became an acknowledged master. Applying to the study of t£t
French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which bad
produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval
history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives,
and to the publication of numerous most important coombs-
tions to the political, administrative and moral history of that
marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the
French Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds «i
students who in their turn have done valuable work. To has
we owe the Recutil des actes du cotnill de salul public (vol. i . , 1 i »,
vol. xvi., X904); La SocitU da Jacobins; recueil de dacusmnus
pour I'kistoire du dub des Jacobins de Paris (6 vols., 1 880-1 8^7. ,
and Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne el sous le directevt,
recueil de documents pour I'kistoire de Vesprii public a P&a
(5 vols., 1898-1903), which was followed by an analogous coi-
tion for Paris sous le consulal (2 vols., 1003-1904). For the
Society de l'Histoire de la Revolution Francaise, which brought
out under his supervision an important periodical pubhcat.ca
called La Revolution francaise, he produced the Registrc its
deliberations du consulal provisoire (1894), and L'Etas de U
France en ran VIII el en Van IX, with the reports of the
prefects (1897), besides editing various works or memoirs wrutca
by men of the Revolution, such aa J. C. Bailleul, Chaumc uc.
Fournier (called the American), Htrault de Seychelles, and
Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents
are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upws
Danton, he has written a Histoire politique de la JUvcImiu*
francaise (1901), and a number of articles which have beta
collected in volumes under the tide Eludes el Ufons suw la Resolu-
tion francaise (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled 7~ji«*.
kistorien de la Revolution francaised 908), Aulardhassubmitted the
method of the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps
even unjust, but certainly well-informed. This is, as it weir,
the " manifesto " of the new school of criticism applied to the
political and social history of the Revolution (see les Ann+Itt
Rfvolutionnaires, June 1008).
See A. Mathies, " M. Aulard, kistorien et professtur." in thr
Revue de la Revolution francaise (July 1908). (C. B. *)
AULIC COUNCIL (Reickskofral), an organ of the Holy Romas
Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acong
chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1407 to 1806. In the
AULIE-ATA— AULOS
917
early middle ages the emperor had already his consiHarii\
'■ but his council was a fluctuating body of personal advisers.
In the 14th century there Erst arose an official council, with
* permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists.
- Its business was. largely executive, and it formed something o( a
ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions addressed to the
* king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of judicature.
It was thus parallel to the king's council, or consilium continuum,
of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th century,
stood the Kammergerkki, composed of the legal members of the
council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood
k beside the English council. But the real history of the Aulic
1 Council, as that term was understood in the later days of the
' Empire, begins with Maximilian I. in 149 7- 1498. In these years
Maximilian created three organs (apparently following the
precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the Netherlands)—
a H of rat, a Hojkammer for finance, and a Hojkanzlei. Primarily
intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these
bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and the
Hofrat was to deal with " all and every business which may
flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's
hereditary principalities." It was thus to be the supreme
executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except
that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was
intended to serve Maximilian as a point d'appui for the monarchy
against the system of oligarchical committees, instituted by
Bert hold, archbishop of Mains. But it was difficult to work such
a body both for the Empire and for Ihc hereditary principalities;
and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone
(circ. 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its
cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and
powers were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (t) It
consisted of about 20 members— a president, a vice-president,
the vice-chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members.
These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in
greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor.
There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of
civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council
followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed
at Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its
members, whose office terminated with his life — an arrangement
which made the council more dependent than it should have been
on the emperor's will, (a) Its powers were nominally both
executive and judicial, (a) Its executive powers were small:
it gradually lost everything except the formal business of in-
vestiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of charters,
its other powers being taken over by the Gehcimrate. These
GeheimrbUc, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already
become a determinate concilium by 1527; and though at first
only concerned with foreign affairs, they acquired, from the
middle of the 16th century onwards, the power of dealing with
imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council, (b) In its judicial
aspect, the Aalic Council, exercising the emperor's judicial
powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the old
Kammagericht, had exclusive cognizance of matters relating
to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals
of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases
" reserved " for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic
Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial
Chamber 1 (Reichskammergerichl, a tribunal dating from the
great diet of Worms of 1495: see -under Imperial Chamjir).
It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial
authorities which first dealt with a case should alone have com-
petence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the decision of the
council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given by
those members of the council who had not joined in the original
decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by
members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could
1 The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its
member* nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public
court of the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of
the Empire.
deal with cases of outlawry, .except to prepare such cases for the
decision of the diet. To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are
in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the
German states which they concern.
Authomtifs.— R. Schroder, Lehrbuch der deutuheu Rccklt-
SitkickU (Leipzig. 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adlcr, Die
'gattisalion der Cenlralvcrwaltung unter Maximilian I. (Leiprtg.
1886), deals with Maximilian's reorganisation of the Council; and
J. St. Patter,- Hiitorisckc Entwicketuug dor heuligen Slaoisverfassnng,
du Teutschen Reieks (Gdttingen, 1798*1799), may be consulted for its
development and later form. (E. Ba.)
AUUE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province
of Syr-darya, 15* m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at
the western end of the Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft.
The inhabitants are mostly Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle,
horses and hides. Pop. (1897) x 2,006.
AUU8, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated
on a rocky peninsula between two bays, near the- modern village
of Vathy, about 3 m. S. of Chaleis. Its fame was due to the
tradition that it was the starting-place of the Greek fleet before
the Trojan War, the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The
temple of Artemis was still to be seen in the time of Pausanias.
AULHOY (or Aunoy), MABIB CATHBRWE UL JUMEL DE
BABNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE, Baronne d' (c, 1650- 1705),
French author, was born about 1659 at Barnevule near Bourg-
Achard (Eur*) . She was the niece of Marie Bruneau des Logos,
the friend of Malherbe and of J. G. de Balzac, who was called
the " tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666
Francois de la Motte, a gentleman in the service of Cesar, due de
Vendome, who became Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her
mother, who by a second marriage had become marquise de
Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high treason against
her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two women
saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they
went (February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed
to return to France in reward for secret services rendered to.
the government. Mme. d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of
January 1705. She wrote fairy tales, Conies nouoelie* ou ks
Ftes a la mode (3 vols., 1608), in the manner, of Charles Perrault.
This collection (24 tales) included L'Oiseau bleu, FineUe Cendron,
La C ha lie blanche and others. The originals of most of her
admirable tales are to be found in the Pentamerone (1637) of
Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are : L'Hisloire a" Hippo-
lyUy comic do Dugias (1600), a romance in the style of Madame
de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; Memoir es
de la cour d'Espagna (1670-1681); and a Relation du voyage
d'Espagnt (1690 or 1691) in the form of letters,edited in 1874-1876
as La Cour et la ville de Madrid by Mme. B. Carey; Histoire 4*
Jean de Bourbon (1602); Mimoires sur la cour de France (1692);
Mimoires de la cour d'Angleterre (1695). Her historical writings
are partly borrowed from existing records, to which she adds
much that must be regarded as fiction, and some vivid descriptions
of contemporary manners.
The Diverting Works of the Countess oYAnois, including some
extremely untrustworthy Memoirs of her own life," were printed
in London in 1707. The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy, with an
introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
biographical particulars see M. de Lescure s introduction to the
Conies des Fees (188 il.
AULOS (Gr. avXot; Let. tibia} Egyptian hieroglyphic,
Ma-it; medieval equivalents, shalm, chalumeau, schalmei,
hautbois), in Greek antiquities, a class of wood- wind instruments
with single or with double reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical
or conical bore, thus corresponding to both oboe and clarinet.
In its widest acceptation the aulos was a generic term for in-
struments consisting of a tube in which the air column was set
in vibration either directly by the lips of the performer, or through
the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or a double reed.
Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (syrinx polycalamus, 1 cvptyt
iroXuKeXapos) were sometimes called auloi (abXol). The
aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, by gradual
assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, reached
1 See Pollux, Onom. iv. 69.
9i 8
AUL0S
the stage at which it became known as the Tyrrhenian aulas
(Pollux iv. 70) or the hydrautos, accoiding to the method of
compressing the wind supply (see Organ: Early History ; and
Syrinx). The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during
the best classical period had a cylindrical bore (eoiXta)
like that of the modern clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic
properties of the stopped pipe, whether the air column was set in
vibration by means of a single or of a double reed, for the mouth-
piece does not affect the harmonic series. 1 To the acoustic
properties of open or stopped pipes' are due those essential
differences which underlie the classification of modern wind
instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone
one octave lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding
length, and overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the
third above the second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e.
the odd numbers of the series; whereas the open pipe gives the
whole series of harmonics, the octave, the twelfth, the double
octave, and the third above it, &c.
To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its
compass, the stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the
lide of the pipe, at appropriate distances from each other, and
from the end of the pipe, whereas the open pipe requires but
six. The acoustic properties of the open pipe can only be secured
in combination with a reed mouthpiece by making the bore
conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps
assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their
Indebtedness to the Greeks in matters relating to musical in-
struments, and more especially to the cithara and aulos) under*
Stood the acoustic principle utilised to-day in making wind
instruments, that a hole of small diameter nearer the mouthpiece
may be substituted for one of greater diameter in the theoretically
correct position. This is demonstrated by the 4th- century
grammarian Macrobius, who says (Comm. in Somn. Scip. ii. 4, 5) :
" Nee secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis
inflantis ori Bonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et
termino proxfmis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina,
gravior per angusta " (see Bassoon). Aristotle gives directions
for boring holes in the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe
of cylindrical bore (Probt. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but
three or four holes; to Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of
having increased this number (Pollux iv; 80). Pronomus, the
musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th century B.C.), further
improved the aulos by making it possible to play on one pair of
instruments the three musical scales in use at hb time, the Dorian,
the Phrygian; and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate
pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5;
Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass
of a tenth in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.
There are two ways in which this increased compass might
have been obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes
•nd covering up those not required, (a) by means of contrivances
for lowering the pitch of individual notes as required. We have
evidence that both means were known to the Greeks and Romans.
The simplest device for closing holes not in use was a band of
metal left free to slide round the pipe, and having a hole bored
through it corresponding in diameter with the hole in the pipe.
Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases
prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings
of metal. The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to
have been one of these rings.
Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the
bone, in such a manner that only one could be exposed at a
time. This is ciearly shown in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments
of an aulos from the museum at Candia, for which the writer is
greatly indebted to Professor John L. Myrcs, by whom measured
drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. These
highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5),
seem to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad
pipes in the Castellani collection at 'the British Museum, illus- j
*See Friedrich Zamminer, Die.Musik und die musikaliseken
nmtnu in ikrtr Buiekuni tv den Gtuiten dor Akustik (Giesacn,
?• 305. J
trated below; they are constructed like modern flutes, ha
played by means of a reed inserted into the lateral emboucb-x
In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represerid
the bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 Joining the broken end a
No. a at /; there being a possible fit at the other end at s wit* 1
in No. 4 (the drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed
for parts 3 and 4), and No. 5 Joining on to No. 4 at Jr.
According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a tmlt
of pipes in the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same constn.. • j*
as the one in Candia. In the drawing, the shape and rcj:r*
position of the holes on the circumference b approximate g-h
but their position lengthways b measured.
Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from PoerprJ
(fig. 2), as well as on two pipes belonging to the Caste. ir.
collection (fig. 4) and on one from Halicarnassus, in the B— •"
Museum. In order to enable the performer to use these k:j
«T*
jr^-r\Jn±r\
n.
i n n • p q r s
ZZL
I
JO
U
(Fran a drawing bj Prof. Jobs L. If ym.)
Fig. i.— Diagram of the Fragments of an Aulos (Caadia Mi
a, Triple wrapping of bronze aa p and c. Slides, with t»o V
well as slide.
b, Slide with hole:
c, Slides with two holes not un-
covered together.
d, Slides with two holes not un-
covered together, one hole
at back.
«, Slide.
/, Slide missing. [holes.
t Slide missing, scars of slide
, Slide.
1 and /Slide.
k, Socket.
/, Male half of joint*.
m, n 0, Slides, the top hole being
in the slide only.
the small hole shows iv 1
pipe, there being: a enr-
•ponding hole in the ut( *
the back.
Bronze covering (aad si >'
Male joint.
The wavy line smews t*
extreme length of fraf a-*, si
13 mm. inside diameter, 14
mm. outside diameter.
Engraved lines aad ccs^tl
form of bronae covering
Wavy line shows ejuraae
length of fragment.
Stopped end of pipe in:*
engraved lines.
The line between r and * is either a turned ring or part of
cover. The double lines to the right of/ are engraved Uaea,
conveniently, a contrivance such as a little ring, a horn or 1
hook termed heras (nkpas) was attached to the band.'
Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets
which probably originally contained keraia. Pollux (iv. .V
mentions that Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the
range of the aulos, made lateral channels for the air (vX**y.«
boot). These consisted of tubes inserted into the holes in t*t
bands for the purpose of lengthening the column of air. a-xf
lowering individual notes at will, the sound being then produ.ri
at the extremity of the tube, instead of at the surface of tSr
pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes in the s.'t4t«
of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of the*
tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modcri
crook or piston. 4 The mouthpiece of the aulos was called ar»f* j
•These pipes were discovered during the excavations in iJ*r.
and are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductiow* « mi
descriptions of them are given in " The Aulos or Tibia," by Albm
A. Howard. Harvard Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1*93), P*- »♦ **d
pp. 48-5$.
* For illustrations of auloi provided with these contrivances. «
illustration (fig. a) of an autos from Pompeii; a relief in Vama.
No. 535; Helbig's Wondgemalde, Nos. 56. 60. 7JO. 765. &c
* For illustrations of bkU showing the holes at the ends of the
tubes, see Description des marbrts antiques du Muse* (bmpama. U
H. d'Eccamps, pi. 23; WUhelm Froehner'a Catalogue «/ fa* /
AULOS
9*9
,J
CtcCyot), 1 the reed tongue ghssn* or glolta (yXuov* or yK&rra),
and the socket into which the reed was fixed glottis* (-yXwrrii).
The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest
form of mouthpiece; the word teugos, moreover, signifies a
pair of like things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting
the probability that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece
was used by the Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it
with the as-it or arghoul (q.v.).
The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii
(fig. 3) has all the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having,
on the side not shown, the lay on which to
fix a single or beating reed. 4 It may, how-
ever, have been the cap of a covered reed,
or even a whistle mouthpiece in which the
lip docs not show in the photograph. It is
difficult to form a conclusion without seeing
the real instrument. On a mosaic of Monnus
in Treves * is represented an aulos which also
appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.
The upper part of the aulos, as in the
Pompeian pipes, frequently had the form of
a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped
bulb, respectively identified as the holmos
(Skiux) and the hypholmion, (v+okyuw), the
support of the holmos. An explanation of
the original nature and construction of the
bulb and flaring cup, so familiar in the
various representations of the aulos, and in
the real instruments found in Pompeii, is
provided by an ancient Egyptian flute
belonging to the collection of G. Maspero,
illustrated and described by Victor Loret.*
Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouth-
piece of the instrument, and describes its
construction; it consists of a piece of reed
of larger diameter than that of the flute,
and eight centimetres long; this reed has
been forcibly compressed a little more than
half way down by means of a ligature of
(Dra«a iron a photo by twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6
" " mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe,
covered by rows of waxed thread, fits into
^ - -./mi the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was
Wu^howing3rd« also bound by waxed thread exactly as fn
and rings. the Elgin pipe at the British Museum,
described below. There is no indication of
the manner in which the pipe was sounded, and Loret assumes
that there was once a whistle or flageolet mouthpiece. To the
present writer, however, it seems probable that the constricted
diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which
the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case
at least, the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated
in the upper bulb or air-chamber. This simple contrivance was
probably also employed in the earliest Greek pipes, and was
later copied and elaborated in wood, bone or metal, the upper
bulb being made shorter and developing Into the flaring cup,
in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the mouth.
During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken
directly into the mouth* and not enclosed in an air-chamber.
No. 378: Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188: Albert A.
Howard, M The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893),
pi. 1. No. 1. , . . . . .
1 For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and
mouthpiece were made see Thcophrastus, Hist. Plant, iv. 11.
• Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, H.A. 6, 10, 9, &c.
1 Lucian. Harm. 1.
* Cf. article MouTKMKB. . « .. •
»See An ttke DenknuUtr, Deutsche* archaol. Inst., Berlin. 1691.
vol. i. pi. 49.
•See " Les FlOtcs egyptiennes antiques," Journal asialique,
8th«er.vol. xiv. (Paris. 1880). pp. 212-31$.
'See Aristotle. De Audib. p. 802 b. 18. and p. 804 a; Festus,
ad. Mueller, p. 116.
Fig. 2.— Roman
Ivory Aulos found at
The two pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped
the holes and turned the bands by means of the jopfida (Lai
capistrum), a bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having
holes through which the reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth
of the performer ; the phorbcia also relieved the pressure of the
breath on the cheeks and lips, 1 which is
felt more especially by performers on oboe
and bassoon at the present day.
In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to
the Elgin collection at the British Museum,
one of the bulbs, partly broken, but pre-
served in the same case as the pipes, was
fastened to the pipes by means of waxed
thread, the indented lines being still visible
on the rim of the bulb. The aulos was
kept in a case called sybene* (ovfavrj) or • ,
aulotktke" (avXo^H), and the little bag or \
case in which the delicate reeds were carried
was known by the name of glottokomeion "
(fXwrroKopctoj').' 1 Two Egyptian flute
cases are extant, one in the Louvre, 11 and
the other in the museum at Leiden. The
Utter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical
in shaoe, with a stopper of the same wood ;
there is no legend or design upon it. The (From a pinto by Bragf.)
case contained seven pipes, five pieces of Fro. 3. — Beak
reed without bore or holes, and three pieces mouthpiece. Found'
of straw suitable for making doublc-rced t* Pompeii (Naples
mouthpieces." Mu8> *
Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of
pipes as over three octaves:—" For doubtless we should find an
interval greater than the above mentioned three octaves between
the highest note of the soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest
note of the bass-clarinet (aulos); and again between the highest
note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker open, and
the lowest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker
dosed." M
This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to
the full range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves
fromS^H? to ||^TeZ
It is evident that the ancient
Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of
the harmonics. Proclus (Comm. in Alcibiad. chap. 68) states
that from each hole of the pipe at least three tones could be
produced. Moreover, classic writers maintain that if the per-
former press the uugos or the glottai of the pipes, a sharper
tone is produced." This is exactly how a performer on a
modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher harmonics of the
instrument. 1 * The small bore of the aulos in comparison to its
length facilitated the production of the harmonics (cf. Zamminer
p. 218), as docs also the use of a small hole near the mouthpiece,
called in Greek syrinx (ovpiyQ and in the modern clarinet
the " speaker," which when open enables the performer to over-
blow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental
* See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,
Gesch. d. Atusik, Bd. i. T. 1, p. ill (Leipzig, 1904).
* Pollux. Onomaslkon, vii. 153.
* Hesychius.
11 Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153. x. 153-154: A. A. Howard, ob. tit. pp.
26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in Denkmbler det
Uassiseken Alttrtums, by August Baumeister. vol. L p. 554. fig. 591.
"Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case
ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double
pipe. Sec E. de Rouge, Notice sommaire des monuments igyptiem
exposes dans les galeries du Louvre, p. 87.
" Sec Victor Loret. " Les Flfltes egyptiennes antiques." in Journal
asialique. vol. xiv. (Paris. 1889), pp. 199. 200 and 201 (note), pp. 207-
211 and 217, and Conrad Lecmans, Description raisonnte des monu-
ments igypliens du Musie d'AnliquiUs de Leydt, p. 132, No. 489;
contents of case Nos. 474-488.
M Aristoxenus, Harm. bk. i. 20 and 21, H. S. Macran's edition
with translation (Oxford. 1902), p. 179-
" Aristotle, De audib. p. 804 a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis. p. 249; ibid.
P- *$*•
M Zammmer, op. cit p. 301.
920
AUMALE
tones. To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University rs due
the credit of having identified the syrinx of the aulos with the
speaker of the clarinet. 1 This assumption is doubtless correct,
and is supported by classical grammarians,* who state that the
syrinx was one of the holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear
certain passages in Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a
scholion to Pindar's 12th Pythian, which before were difficult
to understand (see Syrinx).
The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties
enumerated by Pollux (Onomast. iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus
^waw???^?^^^^^^^
Fig. 4.— The Plagiaulos. Castcllani Collectioa (Maenad Pipes).
British Museum.
(iv. 76 et seq.). They fall into two distinct classes, the single and
the double pipes. There were three principal single pipes, the
monaulos, the plagiaulos and the syrinx monocalamos. The
double pipes were used by the great musicians of ancient Greece,
and notably at the musical contests at Delphi, and what has been
said above concerning the construction of the aulos refers
mainly to the double pipes. The monaulos, a single pipe of
Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been
played from the end by means of a reed,
8 may have been the archetype of the oboe
or clarinet. The plagiaulos pkotinx or tibia
m obtiquo, invented by the Libyans (Pollux iv.
/■ 74), or, according to Pliny(vii. 204), by Midas
of Phrygia, was held like the modem flute,
but was played by means of a mouthpiece
containing a reed. Three of the existing
pipes at the British Museum (the two in
the Castellani collection, and the pipe from
Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The
mouthpiece projects from the side of the
pipe and communicates with the main bore
by means of a slanting passage; the end
nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the
modern flute; in the latter, however, the
embouchure is not closed by the lips when
playing, and therefore the flute has the
acoustic properties of the open pipe, whereas
the plagiouloshiving a reed mouthpiece gave
the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double
pipes existed in five sizes according to pilch,
in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a treatise
on the construction of the auloi (flcpi ait\u*
rpfatus), unfortunately not extant,' divides
them thus: —
(1) Parthenioi auloi (rapd* wot a vXoi),
the maiden's auloi, corresponding to the
soprano compass.
(2) Paidikoi auloi (roteW auAot), the
boy's pipes or alto auloi, used to accompany boys' songs and
also in double pairs at feasts.
(3) Kitharisleriai auloi {idaptariipux aftoi). used to accom-
pany the cithara.
(4) Telcioi auloi, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also
known as the PytitU auloi (rv6W ovXot); used for the paeans
and for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the
pytkic auloi and the kitkarisUrioi auloi more especially which were
provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the
harmonic notes (see Syrinx).
Fig. 5.— Ancient
Greek Double Pipes.
Elgin Collection,
British Museum.
1 [Op. tit. p. 32-35.
■ Sec Etymoloiu urn
• See Athenaeus xiv. 6J4, who quotes from bidymus.
•Sec Etymofotit urn magnum (Augsburg. 1 848), s.v. " Syrinx.**
■**•■■ ' - rsiro w *
(5) Hypcrtdchi auloi (6rcprlX(u» aftXof) or andrcioi <:■.«
(eXpctbt atooi) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.
The Phrygian pipes or auloi E/ywo* 4 were made of box-*- -si
and were tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but rft3*-fJ
from all others in that the two pipes were unequal in length : J
in the diameter of their bores' ; sometimes one of the pipes -is
curved upwards and terminated in a horn bell •; they *- 3
to have had a conical bore, if representations on monument* ?
to be trusted. We may conclude that the archetype of the «
with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; it -as
frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appear. -2
many bas-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments- i n
illustrations see Wilhelm Frochner, Les Musics de Franc*, p' i,
" Marsyas playing the double pipes." There the bore is deol< ~*
conical in the ratio of at least 1 : 4 between the mouthpiece iJ
the end of the instrument; the vase is Roman, from the s .1
of France. See also Butldino delta Commission* Arcke* t .1
Comunale di Roma, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd series, pi \_
and p. 1 19 et seq., " Le Notre di Elena e Paride," from a bas-rt 4
in the monastery of S.Antonio on the Esquitine; Wilhelm Z^
Die schdnsten Ornament* und die merkwUrdigslem Gem^ldr „k
Pompeji t Herkulancum und Slabiae (German and French), \w
iii., pi. 43 and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).
For further information on the aulos, consult Albeit A. ffo«?t
"The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv., 1893; Fian^t* K
Gevaert, Histoire de la musique dans fantiquiti, vol. it. p. 773 ct «.
Carl von Jan's article " Flflte " in August Baumcistcr's Dent--**
dts klassiscken Alter turns (Munich. 1884-18&8), vol. L; Dr t . s
Riemann, Handbuck der Musikgescnickte, Bd. I. T. 1. pp. o*
(Leipzig, 1904); Caspar Battholinus, De Tibiis. Veieruam fAi"-- .
dam. 1779). (K ^
AUMALE, HENRI EUGfcfE PHILIPPE LOUIS D*ORLiaXl
Due d' (182 9-1897), French prince and statesman, fifth *:
of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards kins; of the Fren k
and of Marie Amelic, princess of the Two Sicilies, was bora a!
Paris on the 16th of January 1823. While still young he :c-
herited a large fortune from the prince de Conde. Brought u?
by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at ^
college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeea
he entered the army with the rank of a captain of infant^
He distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, a-- 1
was appointed governor of that colony, in which capacity Sr
received the submission of the amir Abd-el-Kader. After i*~
revolution of 1848 he retired to England -and busied himself »-'■
historical and military. studies, replying in 1861 by a LrUrr ■;.«
the History of France to Prince Napoleon's violent attacks ur- t
the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of the Franco- Pru*<- -.
War he volunteered for service in the French army, but his < re:
was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, U
returned to France, and succeeded to ihcfauleuii of the ceo-:?
de Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 18;; S.
resumed his place in the army as general of division; and in 1 • - ,
he presided over the court-martial which condemned Mar> u -u
Bazaine to death. About this period, being appointed cv.-j-
mandant of the VII. army corps at Besancon, he retired fn a
political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of the anr>
By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of f&mu>ri
that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprmii
of their military positions; consequently the due d'Aurr*?
was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list. SuU*
quently, in 1886, another law was promulgated which expr? . 1
from French territory the heads of former reigning fanu:- -
and provided that henceforward all members of those ferni' ->
should be disqualified for any public position or function, jrr 1
for election to any public body. The due d'Aumale nroicv ^
energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the y *
of June 1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute « '
France his Chantiily estate, with all the art-collection he b ? 1
gathered there. This generosity led the government to withfV- #
the decree of exile, and the duke returned to France in in? .
' Pollux iv. 74.
Scrvius ad Aen. ix. 615.
•Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. Aen. xi. 735 J Ovid. Met. iii v*W
Ex Panto i. 1. 39. *^^
AUMALE— AUNGERVYLE
921
He died at Zucco in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897. Of his
marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first cousin, Caroline de
Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were born two sons:
the prince de Condi (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. 1872).
The due d'Aumale's principal literary work was an Hisloire dts
princes dc Condi, which he left unfinished.
See Georges Picot, M. U due d' Aumale (Paris, 1898): Ernest
Daudet, Lc due d'AumaU (Paris, 1898). (M. P.*)
AUMALE, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine -Infeneurc, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E.
of Rouen on the Northern railway. Pop. (1006) 1909. The
church is an interesting building of the 16th and 17th centuries,
and has a portal attributed to Jean Goujon. The town has glass
and steel works.
The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle;
Lat. Alba Maria) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric
of Rouen, was granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law
of William the Conqueror, who founded the first line of counts
of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise or Avoie), countess of
Aumale, after the death of her first husband William de Mande-
ville, earl of Essex (d. 1x89), married William des Forts (de Fore,
or de Fortz; Lat- de Fortibus), a military adventurer who had been
one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during his
first crusade. He died in 1x95, an< ^ *"* widow married Baldwin
dc Bctun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died
in 1 213, * Q d in 12x4 William dc Fortibus, son of Hawise by her
second husband, was confirmed by King John in all his mother's
lands. Meanwhile, however, the territory of Aumale shared
the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was annexed to the French
crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of earl of Albe-
marle, derived from it, continued to be borne in England by
William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see Albe-
marle). Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an
appanage on his son Philip. It was subsequently granted by
Louis VIII. to Simon, count of Dammartin, whose daughter,
Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred it, together with
the countship of Ponthicu, to the house of Castile, by her
marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint
(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her
descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the
house of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with
John, count of Harcourt (1340). Marie d'Harcourt (d. 1476)*
heiress of Aumale, married Anthony of Lorraine, count of
Vaudemont, and Aumale was created a duchy in the peerage
of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By the
marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in
1618 the duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours.
In x686 Marie Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of
Aumale, and wife of Charles Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy,
sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to his natural son, the
duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the dukedom
devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently
passing to the latter's son, the duke of Penthievre, whose daughter
married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe,
king of the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne
by a son of the duke of Orleans.
AUMONT, the name of a family which played an important
part in French history. The origin of the name is uncertain,
but it has usually been derived from Aumont, now a small
commune in the department of the Somme. The family was
of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d'Aumont, having accompanied
"Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th
century, and during the English wars of that period its members
fought in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end
of the century, the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy,
but returned to the side of France on the death of Charles the
Bold. Jean d'Aumont, lieutenant-general to the king of France
in the government of Burgundy, rendered important services
to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean d'Aumont (d. 1 595),
a marshal of France and knight of the order of the Holy Ghost
since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots
under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to
recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne
and of Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His
grandson Antoine (1601-1669) was also a marshal of France
(1651)1 governor of Paris (1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis
Marie Augustin, due d'Aumont (1 700-1 782), was a celebrated
collector of works of art Louis Marie Celeste d'Aumont, due de
Piennes, afterwards due d'Aumont (1762-1831), emigrated
during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists,
as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he
effected a descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest,
and succeeded in capturing Bayeux and Caen.
AUNCRL (from the Anglo-Fr. auncdle, a confused derivation
from V auncdle, Ital. lane til a, a little balance), a balance formerly
used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing
of meat by hand instead of by scales.
AUNDH, a native state of India, in the Dcccan division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447
sq. m.; its population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease
of 2% in the decade. Estimated revenue £9422. The chief,
whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a Brahman by caste. The
state has suffered severely from plague. The town of Aundh
is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500.
AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD (1287-1345), commonly known as
Richard de Bury, English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was
born near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, on the 24th of January
1287. He was the son of Sir Richard Aungervyle, who was
descended from one of William the Conqueror's soldiers, settled
in Leicestershire, where the family came into possession of the
manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by his
uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar
school of his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is
said to have distinguished himself in philosophy and theology.
John Pits 1 says, but apparently without authority, that he
became a Benedictine monk. He was made tutor to Prince
Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and, according
to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books.
He was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded
the deposition of Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and
Mortimer in Paris with money in 13 J 5 from the revenues of
Guienne, of which province he was treasurer. For some time
he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent by Edward II. to
apprehend him. On the accession of Edward HI. his services
were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the
king, treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the
privy seaL The king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him
to the pope, and twice sent him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador
to the papal court, then in exile at Avignon. On the first of
these visits he made the acquaintance of a fellow bibliophile in
Petrarch, who records his impression (EpisL Famil. lib. iii.
Ep. 1) of the Englishman as " not ignorant of literature and . . .
from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden things.'*
He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle,
who promised information when he should once more be at home
among his books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated
enquiries. The pope, John XXII., made him his principal
chaplain, and presented him with a rocbet in earnest of the
first vacant bishopric in England.
During his absence from England he -was made (X333) dean of
Wells. In September of the same year the see of Durham fell
vacant, and the king overruled the choice of the monks, who had
elected and actually installed their sub-prior, Robert de Gray-
stanes, in favour of Aungervyle In February 1334 he was
made lord treasurer, an appointment he exchanged later in
the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge he resigned
in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the protec-
tion of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the
Scots, he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settle-
ment of the claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In
the next year he served on three commissions for the defence
of the northern counties. In June 1338 he was once more sent
abroad to secure peace, but within a month of his appointment
l De III. Angf. Script. (161 9, p- 467).
\)2i
AUNT SALLY— AURANGZEB
Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for his ap-«
preaching campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz
to his meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the
next year was sent to England to raise money. This seems
to have been his last visit to the continent. In 1340 and 134a
he was again engaged in trying to negotiate peace with the
Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed quietly
In the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library.
He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many
treasures from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks.
" No dearness of price," he says, " ought to hinder a man from
the buying of books, if he has the money demanded for them,
unless it be to withstand the malice of the seller or to await a
more favourable opportunity of buying." It is to be supposed
that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to
bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans
bribed him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable
books, and that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges
for the monastery, bought from him thirty-two other books,
for fifty pieces of silver, far less than their normal price. The
record of his passion for books, his Philobiblon, was completed
on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of January 1345, and he
died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam Murimuth)
of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the
unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect
books. In the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of
founding a hall at Oxford, and in connexion with it a library
of which his books were to form the nucleus. He even details the
rules to be observed for the lending and care of the books, and
he had already taken the preliminary steps for the foundation.
The bishop died, however, in great poverty, and it seems likely
that his collection was dispersed immediately after his death.
But the traditional account is that the books were sent to the
Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution
of the foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between
Duke Humphrey of Gloucester's library, Balliol College and
Dr George Owen. Only two of the volumes are known to be
in existence; one is a copy of John of Salisbury's works in the
British Museum, and the other some theological treatises by
Anselm and others in the Bodleian.
The chief authority for the bishop's life is William de Chambre
(printed in Wharton's Anglic Sacra, 1691, and in Historiae
Dunelmensis scriptores ires, Surtces Soc. 1839), who describes
him as an amiable and excellent man, charitable in his diocese,
and the liberal patron of many learned men, among these being
Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury,
Richard FiUralph, afterwards archbishop of Armagh, the
enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated
Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and
Richard dc Kilvington. John Bale * and Pits * mention other
works of his, Epistolae familiar cs and Orationcs ad Principes.
The opening words of the Philobiblon and the Epistolae as given
by Bale represent those of the Philobiblon and its prologue,
So that he apparently made two books out of one treatise It is
possible that the Orationcs may represent a letter book of
Richard de Bury's, entitled Liber Epistolaris quondam domhni
Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis, now in the possession
of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are fully
catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS.
Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters
from various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing
with the affairs of the university of Oxford, another with the
province of Gascony, beside some harangues and letters evidently
kept as models to be used on various occasions.
It has often been asserted that the Philobiblon itself was not
written by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot This
Assertion is supported by the fact that in seven of the extant
MSS. of Philobiblon it is ascribed to Holkot In an introductory
note, in these or slightly varying terms: Incipit prologus in
philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis episcopi qui libra composuil
1 Script. HI. Moj. Brit. cent. v. No. 69.
* De 1U. Angt. Script. (1619, p. 468).
Robertas holcole de ordine prcdicahrum sub nomine dicti e+hcefi.
The Paris MS. has simply Philobiblon okhoti angiici, and doa
not contain the usual concluding note of the date when the boot
was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm «
the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector's c*z
character, the establishment of Holkot's authorship wotfi
materially alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by to
contemporary Adam Murimuth (ContinuoJio Chronic arum, Ro&
Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a less favourable account of him thxs
does William de Chambre, asserting that he was only 1
ately learned, but desired to be regarded as a great scholar.
The original Latin^ text was printed at Cologne (1473). Spba
■""*"* * " " nnt trts>
lyte UxbcriB in IU$6. The'best translation is that by Mr E. C
Thomas, accompanying the Latin text, jurjth full biographical aa4
(1483), Pane (1500), Oxford (1508 and 1599), ftc It was
latca into English by J. B^Ingflsin if • • —
lyte Cochcris in 1856.
bibliographical introductions (r888J. Other editions are in tHe
King's Classics (1903) and for the Grotter Club (New York, its*
ed. k W. West).
AUNT SALLY, the English name for a game popular it
fairs, race-courses and summer resorts. It consists in throwing
hard balls, of wood or leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed
to represent different characters, originally a grotesque femak
figure called " Aunt Sally/' with the object of smashing a ehf
pipe which Is inserted either in the mouth or forehead of the
puppet. In France the game is popular under the same/n de
massacre. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists of t
living person's head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. Is
case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prise is given.
AURA (from the Gr. for " breath " or " breexe "), a term used
in old days to denote a supposed ethereal -emanation from a
volatile substance; applied later to the " electrical aura," cr
air-current caused by electrical discharge; in epilepsy (f?)
to one of its premonitory symptoms; and in spiritualism ts
a mysterious light associated with the presence of spirit-fens.
See also Aureola.
AURANGABAD, or Au*Ungabad, a city of India, in the
dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division,
situated 138 m. from Poona, 207 from Bombay via Pooaa.
and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It gives its nac*
to a district It was founded in 1610, under the name of Faich-
nagar, by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the
condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it becsase
the capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Auraeg-
zeb, who erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has bees
compared to the Taj at Agra, made the dty the seat of fcs
government during his viceroyalty of the Deccan, and gave
it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the principal
city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching
westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of
the territory now comprised within the northern division of the
presidency of Bombay. Aurangabad long continued to be the
capital of the succession of potentates hearing the modem title
of nizam, after those chiefs became independent of Delhi. They
abandoned it subsequently, and transferred their capital to
Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline. Aurangabad
is a railway station on the Hydcrabad-Godavari line, 435 m. froa
Bombay. In xooi the population, with military cantonments,
was 36,837, showing an increase of 8 % in the decade. It has a
cotton mill.
The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6171 so, m. The
population in 1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves
of Ajanta, and also the battlefield of Assaye.
AURANOZBB (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul
emperors of Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Janan, and
was born in November 1618. His original name, Mahommcd,
was changed by his father, with whom he was a favourite, into
Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and at a later
time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver of
religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early
age, and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound
religious feeling, perhaps instilled into him in the course of ha
education under some of the strictest Mahommedan doctors.
. AURAY— AURELIAN
923
JHe was employed, while very young, in some of his lather's
expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave promise
of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the
command of an army directed against the Uzbcgs. In this
campaign he was not completely successful, and soon after was
transferred to the army engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained
several victories, and in conjunction with the famous general,
Mir Jumla, who had deserted from the king of Golconda, he
seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad, which belonged to
that monarch. His father's express orders prevented Aurangzeb
from following up this success, and, not long after, the sudden,
and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in
another direction. Of Shah Jahan's four sons, the eldest, X>ara,
a brave and honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans
on account of his liberality of thought, had a natural right to the
throne. Accordingly, on the illness of his father, he at once
seized the reins of government and established himself at Delhi.
The second son, Shuja, governor of Bengal, a dissolute and
sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an army to dispute
the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in this
conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his
own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate
habits gave him, In popular estimation, a great superiority
over his brothers, but he was too politic to put forward his claims
openly. He made overtures to his younger brother Murad,
governor of Gujarat, representing that neither of their elder
brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he himself had no
temporal arabitior, and desired only to place a fit monarch on
the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises and
make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite
his forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty
in making himself master of the empire while the two elder
bro thers were divided by their own strife. Murad was completely
deceived by these crafty representations, and at once accepted the
offer. Their united armies then moved northward. Meanwhile
Shah Jahan had recovered, and though Dara resigned the crown
he had seized, the other brothers professed not to believe in their'
father's recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was defeated by
Dara's son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were
completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and
Murad. Dara in person took the field against his brothers,
but was defeated and compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a
clever stroke of policy, seized the person of his father, and threw
him into confinement, in which he was kept for the remaining
eight years of his life. Murad was soon removed by assassination,
and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb, with affected reluct-
ance, ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly freed
himself from all other competitors for the imperial power, Dara,
who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued,
and was given up by the native chief with whom he had taken
refuge. He was brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people,
and assassinated. Shuja, who had been a second time defeated
near Allahabad, «vas attacked by the imperial forces under Mir
Jumla and Mabouimcd, Aurangzeb's eldest son, who, however,
deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled to
Arakan, where he perished; Mahommcd was captured, thrown
into the fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years' con-
finement. No similar contest disturbed Aurangzeb's long
reign of forty-six years, which has been celebrated, though with
doubtful justice, as the most brilliant period of the history of
Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and of enormous
extent, for there were successively added to it the rich kingdoms
of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and
ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault, Two
causes principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power.
The one was the intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurang-
zeb, which had alienated the Hindus and roused the fierce ani-
mosity of the haughty Rajputs. The other was the rise and
rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their able leader,
Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every direction,
nor could all Aurangzeb's efforts avail to subdue them. For the
last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wan
in the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the
close of the long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the
Mahratta stronger than at first Still the personal ability and
influence of the emperor were sufficient to keep his realms intact
during his own life. His last years were embittered by remorse,
by gloomy forebodings, and by constant suspicion, for he had
always been in the habit of employing a system of espionage,
and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the 3rd
of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive
but unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas.
See Lane- Poole, Aurangtib, " Rulers of India " series (1893).
AURAY, a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river,
in the department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the
railway between that town and LorienL Pop. (1906) 5241.
Its port, which is formed by the channel of the river and divides
the town into two parts, is frequented by coasting and fishing
vessels. The principal buildings are the church of St Esprit
(13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of
St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century) ; and, al a short distance
from the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb
institute, on the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of
Blois was defeated by John of Montfort (see Brittany: History}.
Adjoining the Chartreuse is a small chapel in which are preserved
the bones of the Royalists captured by the Republicans in a battle
fought near the spot in x 705. In the neighbourhood is the church
of Sainte Anne d' Auray, one of the principal places of pilgrimage
in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief centres in France for
oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and sardine-fishing.
AURELIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of
the construction of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to
Alsiuro, where it reached the sea, and thence along the south-west
coast of Italy, perhaps originally only as far as Cosa, and was
later extended to Vada Yolaterrana, and in 109 B.C. to Genua
and Dcrtona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a coast road
as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The name
is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even
to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely
followed by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the
section between Cosa and Populonia, O. Cuntz in Jahreshefte
des Osterr. arch. InstUuis, vii. (1004), S4« (J- A8-)
AURELIAN [Lucius Domitius AuREUANUs],one of the greatest
of the Roman soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia
between AJ>. 212-214. He was of humble origin, but nothing
definite is known of his family. He had always shown great
enthusiasm for a military career, and so distinguished himself
in the campaigns in which he took part that on one occasion
he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was
proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military
governor of IUyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor
Claudius II. Gothicus<27o), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor
with tho universal approval of the soldiers. His first task was
to continue the war which had been begun by Claudius against
the Goths. He drove them out of Moesia across the Danube,
where he left them in possession of Dada, which he did not think
himself able to retain; the name was transferred to Moesia,
which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology, how-
ever, of AureUan's reign is very confused, and the abandonment
of Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its dose. He
next entered upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamaani,
and other Germanic tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat
which was said to have imperilled the very existence of the empire,
be at length obtained a complete victory. Having thus secured
the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he turned, his energies towards
the east, and in 271 set out on his expedition against Zenobia,
queen of Palmyra (?.«.). At the same time he crushed two
pretenders to the throne— Firmus and, Tetricus. Firaus,
a wealthy merchant of Seleuda, had proclaimed himself emperor
of Egypt. Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia,
hastened thither, and ordered him to be seized and put to death.
Tetricus, who had been prodaimed emperor in the west after
the death of Gallienus, and left undisturbed by Claudius II., still
ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A decisive battle was fought
9 2 +
AURELtANUS— AURICH
near tbe modern Chalons, in which Tetricus was defeated. The
restoration of the unity of the empire was thus complete. In
974 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia and
Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome.
Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of
the empire. He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor
by distributions of bread and meat, proceeded with great severity
against informers and embezzlers; began the construction of
various public works and buildings; and proclaimed a general
amnesty for political crimes. The restoration and enlargement
of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was not completed
till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the standard
of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen
and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down
with the loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this
was really an attempt at revolution incited by the senate and
praetorian guards, the opportunity being found in disturbances
resulting from opposition to the attempted reform, which by
themselves could hardly have assumed such serious proportions.
Aurelian's restless spirit was not long able to endure a life of
inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he started on an
expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the way.
While on the march between Heradeia and Byzantium, at the
beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through
the treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the
discovery of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against
the emperor by showing them a forged list, on which their names
appeared as marked out for death.
Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and
it must be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was
absolutely necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but
just disciplinarian. In more favourable circumstances he would
have been a great administrator. He displayed a fondness
for pomp and show on public occasions; he was the first Roman
emperor to wear the diadem, and assumed the title of Lord and
God on medals.
The chief authority for the events of Aurelian's reign is his life
by Vopixus, one of the writers of the " Augustan History "; it is
founded on Greek memoirs and certain journals depositee) in the
Ulpian library at Rome. See L. Homo, Ik Rigne de I'empereur
AurHien (1904). and Groag's art. in Pauly-WIwowa, Reakntydo-
p&du, v. 1347 foil.
AURBUAXUS, CAELIUS, a physician of Sicca in Nunridia,
who probably flourished in the 5th century a.d., although some
place him two or even three centuries earlier. In favour of the
later date is the nature of his Latin, which shows a strong
tendency to the Romance, and the similarity of his language
to that of Casaius Felix, also an African medical writer, who
about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on Galen. We
possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus
of Ephesus (and century), tbe chief of the " methodist " school
of medicine, on chronic and acute maladies — Tarda or Chronica*
Passiones, in five, and CeUres or Acuta* Pastime* in three books.
The translation, which is especially valuable since the original
has been lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical
skill in the diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases.
It is also important as containing numerous references to the
methods of earlier medical authorities. We also possess con-
siderable fragments of his Medicinal** Responsiones, also adapted
from Soranus, a general treatise on medicine in the form of
question and answer; it deals with rules of health (saiutarie
praecepta) and the pathology of internal diseases (ed. Rose,
Anecdote Graeea et Latino, ii. r 1870). Where it is possible to
compare Aureliacus's translation with the original— as in a
fragment of his Gynaeda with Soranus's Uipl ywauulw
TlaOu*— it is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is
apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence, (Editions:
Amman, 1700; Haller, 1774.)
AURSLLB DE PALADINB8, LOUIS JRAN BAPTISTS' IV
(1*04-1877), French general, was born at Malzieu, Losere, on
the 9th of January 1804. He was educated at St Cyr, and
entered, the army as tub-lieutenant of foot in 1894. He served
with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 18481 becoming
lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; toot par
in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colour'
He served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War c
1854-56, being promoted general of division and commander a
the Legion of Honour. During the campaign in Lombard} c
1 8 59 he commanded at Marseilles, and superintended tbe despa' ±
of men and stores to the seat of war, and for his services beta
made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Placed cm tbe
reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the Marseilles comma- i
on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. After
the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appoint?
by the Government of National Defence, in November iS-d
to the command of the Army of tbe Loire. He was at first vir>
successful against von der Taan-Rathsamhausen, winning the
battle of Coulmiers and compelling the Germans to evacuate
Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free addition!
German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune la
Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Or lea r
resulting in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurc'. '
retreated into the Sologne and was superseded. After tbe armis-
tice he was elected to the National Assembly by the departments
both of Allier and Gironde. He sat for Allier and was one af
the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the peace negotiatices.
He was decorated with the grand cross of tbe Legion of Honeu.
and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in iFrr
Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical
majority of 1876. He died at Versailles on the 1 7th of December
1877. He was the author of La Premiere ArwUe de la Lnrs,
published in 1872.
AUREOLA, Aureole (diminutive of Lat aura, air) , the radiaccs
of luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages. Is
represented as surrounding the whole figure. In tbe earLcst
periods of Christian art this splendour, was confined to the figures
of the persons of the Godhead, but it was afterwards exteedd
to the Virgin Mary and to several of the saints. The aureda.
when enveloping the whole body, is generally oval or cllipti. J
in form, but is occasionally circular or quatrefoil. When it is
merely a luminous disk round the head, it is called specif r:~y
a nimbus, while the combination of nimbus and aureole is cxi. i
a glory. The strict distinction between nimbus and aureole is
not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most f requer. J/
used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angi'i
or persons of the Godhead. The nimbus in Christian art appeared
first in the 5th century, but practically the same device *as
known still earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Chrut-m
art. Thus (though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not sh t
it) it Is found with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian
kings Ka n fohk a , Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 B.C. to ad. 4:
(Gardners Cat. of Coins of Creek and Scythic Kings of BxJrta
and India, Brit. Mus. x886, plates 26-29). And its use has beta
traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks and Ronurj,
representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and Antonirus
Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular
form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the i in
of a crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanaLia
of light from the head of a superior being, or by the meteorolog . al
phenomenon of a halo. The probability is that all later associations
with the symbol refer back to an early astrological origin fcl.
Mithras), the person so glorified being identified with tbe sju
and represented in the sun's image; so the aureole is the Bwcni
of Mazdaism. From this early astrological use the form of
" glory " or M nimbus " has been adapted or inherited under
new beliefs.
AURICH, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of
Hanover, chief town of the district of East Friesland, on tht
Ems-Jade canal, 18 m. N.W. from Emdcn by rail. Pop. (iocc)
6013. It is built in the Dutch style, and lies in a sandy but
fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant promenades which ha.e
taken the place of the old fortifications. It has a palace, fonncri/
the residence of the counts of East Fricsland and now used as
government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protesuat
churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries
AURICLE— AURIFABER
925
and small manufcctories *f paper and tobacco. Close by fa the
UpttaUsbeom, the bill of oath and liberty, where every year at
Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands
assembled to deliberate.
See Wiarda, BruchsiUcke nur Gestkithte der Sladi Aurich (Emdea,
1835).
AURICLB (from Lat. diminutive of our is, ear), the external ear
In animals, or an analogous part in plants, &c. From a supposed
resemblance to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the
upper cavities of the heart. The adjective "auricular" iv
more specially used in the phrase " auricular confession " (see
Confession), i.e. private.
AURICULA {Primula auricula), an Alpine plant, which has
been an inmate of British gardens for about three hundred
years, and is still prized by florists as a favourite spring flower.
It loves a cool soil and shady situation. The florists' varieties
are grown in rich composts, for the preparation of which number-
less receipts have been given; but many of the old nostrums are
now exploded, and a more rational treatment has taken their
place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (Hardy Florists' Flowers) : —
' There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any
... ... . . ^jk •■
ur parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp rive. «,
silver sand one' part, and a tew bits of broken charcoal mixed with it.
more than there is about the potting material. The compostsnould
arts, leaf -mould one part, sharp river or
t of turfy loam four
sand one part, and a
The pots to be used should be from 3 to
Tli* pots to be used should be from 3 to 4) in. in diameter, inside
measure; about I in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom
of each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine
particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken
from the roots of the plants to be potted ; and before potting cut off,
if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soir
rather firmly around the roots."
Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs
about 3 ft. from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes.
A graduated stage formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a
rise of a in., should be fixed so as to take each one row of pots,
with the plants standing at about 15 in. from the glass; the
spaces between the shelves should be closed, while the top board
of the back and the front should be hinged so as to be let down
when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too, being movable for
the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for examining
and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north
from May to October, and south in winter. No protection
will be needed except in very severe frosts, when two or three
thicknesses of garden mats may be thrown over the glass, and
allowed to remain on until the soil is thawed, should it become
frosen.
Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as
soon as ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and
exposed only to the rays of the morning sun. When seed has
been saved from the finer sorts, the operation is one of consider-
able nicety, as it not unf frequently happens that the best seedlings
are at first exceedingly weak. They generally flower in the
second or third year, a few good sorts being all that can be
expected from a large sowing. The established varieties are
increased by taking off the offshoots, an operation performed at
the time of potting in July or the beginning of August. But
some varieties are very shy in producing offsets.
The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of
dwarf habit, bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the
commoner forms raised from seed, as well as one or two double
forms, are interesting hardy border flowers. The choice florists'
varieties are divided into five classes: — the green-edged, with the
margins of the flowers green; the grey-edged, with the green
margins powdered with meal so as to appear to be coloured grey ;
the while-edged, with the mealy powder so dense as to cover the
green; the selfs, which have none of the green variegation of
margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct colour,
as purple, maroon, &c, but have, like the preceding, a white
paste surrounding the eye ; and the al pines, which resemble the
selfs in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ
in having a yellow centre more or less dense. The individual
flowers of the first three groups of florists' auriculas show four
distinct circles: — first the eye or tube, which should have the
stamens lying in it, bat sometimes has the ^in-headed stigma
instead, which is a defect; second, the paste or rirde of pure
white surrounding the eye, third, the body colour, a circle of
some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers out more or
less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it is so
feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer
circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white.
These circles should be about equal in width and dearly defined,
and the nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the
flower. In the group of selfs the conditions are the same, except
that there is no margin, and consequently the body colour,
which should be uniform in tone, extends to the edge. In the
alpines there should be no paste or white surrounding the eye,
but this space should be either golden-yellow or creamy-yellow,
which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the body
colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a paler
hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a distinct
and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal
lobes.
The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated
in 1900:—
Green-edged.— Abbe Liszt. Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd,
Prince Charming, Mrs Henwood.
Grey-edged. — Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olym-
pus, George Rudd, Richard Headly.
White-edged.— Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodsoo,
Rachel, Smiling Beauty.
Selfs.— Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts,
Harrison Weir.
Alpines.— Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor,
Mrs Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The
Bride, Teviotdale.
AURIFABER (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname
borne by three prominent men of the Reformation period in
Germany.
1. Andreas (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but
through his influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-
master of the Teutonic order, and first Protestant duke of
Prussia, became an outstanding figure in the controversy
associated with Andreas Osiander (q.v.) whose daughter he had
married.
a. Joannes (Vratislaviensis ; 1517-1568), the younger
brother of Andreas, was born at Breslau on the 30th of January
15 17, and educated at Wittenberg, where he formed a close and
lasting friendship with Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538
he spent twelve years as docent at the university, and having
then received his doctorate of divinity, was appointed professor
of divinity and pastor of the church of St Nicholas at Rostock.
He distinguished himself by his conciliatory disposition, earned
the special confidence of Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg, and
took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the constitution of
the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious disputes
in the town of Lubeck. In 1 553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious
to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the
discussion of Osiander's doctrines, invited him to Konigsberg,
and in the following year appointed him professor of divinity
and president of the Samland diocese. Joannes, however,
found it impossible to conciliate all parties, and in 1565 returned
to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became pastor in the church of
St Elisabeth and inspector of the Lutheran churches and schools.
He died on the 10th of October 1568.
3. Joannes (Vinariehsis; 1510-1575), was born in the
county of Mansfeldt in 15 19. He studied at Wittenberg where
he heard the lectures of Luther, and afterwards became tutor
to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of x 544-45 he accompanied the
army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as his famulus
or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546. In the
following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick,
elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor,
Charles V. He held for some years the office of court-preacher
at Weimar, but owing to theological disputes was compelled
to resign this office in is6x. In 1566 he was appointed to the
Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there remained till his death
9*6
AURIGA—AUROCHS
in November 1575. Beiidet taking a share in the first collected
or Jena edition of Luther's works (1556), Aurifaber sought out
and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not
included in that edition. He also published Luther's Letters
(1556, 1565), and Table Talk (1566)* This popular work, which
has given him most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second
or third hand compilation.
See G. Kawerau's art. in Hersog-Hauck's Rmlencjk fur fret.
Thcolcgie, and the literature there cited.
AURIGA (the " charioteer " or " waggoner "), in astronomy, a
constellation of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues
of Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Axatus (3rd century B.C.). It
was symbolized by the Greeks as an old man in a more or less
sitting posture, with a goat and her kids In his left band, and
a bridle in his right. The ancient Gseeka associated this con-
stellation with many myths. Some assume it to be Erichthonius,
son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the skies
by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches.
Others assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytie,
and charioteer to Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by
Hermes. Another myth has it to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus,
and father of Aega and Helice, two nymphs who nursed Zeus.
Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-seven,
and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting stars
are: a Auriga* or CapeUa (the goat), one of the brightest
stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be
a spectroscopic binary; Aurigae, a star of the second magnitude
also a spectroscopic binary; e Aurigae, an irregularly variable
star; and Nova Aurigae, a " new " star discovered by Anderson
in x8oa, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed
at Harvard in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also
appear in this constellation.
AURILLAC, a town of central France, capital of the depart-
ment of Cantal, 140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orleans rail-
way between Figeac and Murat. Pop. (1006) 14,097. Aurillac
stands on the right bank of the Jordanne, and is dominated
from the north-west by the Roc Castanet, crowned by the castle
of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the nth century.
Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the exception of
one which contains, among other old houses, that known as the
Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the z6th century,
decorated with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin
to an abbey founded in the 9th century by St Geraud, and the
abbey-church, rebuilt in the 17th century in the Gothic style,
is the chief building in the town. The former college, which
dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a museum and
a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near
Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards
became one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac
is the seat of a prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a
lycee, training-colleges and a branch of the Bank of France.
The chief manufactures are wooden, shoes and umbrellas, and
there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses reared in
the neighbourhood.
AURISPA, GIOVANNI (c. 13 70-1459), one of the learned
Italians of the 15th century, who did so much to promote the
revival of the study of Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in
Sicily. In 14x8 he visited Constantinople, where he remained
for some years, perfecting his knowledge of Greek and searching
for ancient MSS. His efforts were rewarded by the acquisition
of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to Venice. Here he
is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for 50 gold
florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de' Medici,
hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned
the owner to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa
attracted the attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his
secretary; he held a similar position under Nicholas V., who
presented him to two lucrative abbacies. He died at Ferrara.
Considering his long life and reputation Aurispa produced little:
Latin translations of the commentary of Hierocles on the golden
verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of PkUUci Comohhria ad
Ciceronem from Dio Cassius (not published till f Sto); and
according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes.
Aurispa 's reputation rests upon the extensive collection at* MSS.
copied and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts as
revive and promote the study of ancient literature.
AUROCHS (from Lat. urus, the wild ox, and " ox ") or Unts,
the name of the extinct wild ox of Europe (Bos Isanu prim*-
genius) , which after the disappearance of that animal becasse
transferred to the bison. According to the German Fmherr
von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his Moscona, of which an Itaioa
translation was published at Venice in 1550, the aurochs survived
in Poland (and probably also in Hungary) during the latter
middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts — rude but char-
acteristic and unmistakable— of two distinct types of European
wild cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison.
As Herberstein had travelled in Poland, it is probable that fe
had seen both species alive, and the drawings were most hLeh
executed under his own direction. It has Indeed been suggest
that the figure of the aurochs was taken from a domesticated
ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the least important feature
of the work of Herberstein is the application of the name auxuehs
to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. Hie locality where
aurochs survived in Herberstein's time was the forest of Jakto-
xowka, situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw,
in the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaezew. From other
evidence it appears that the last aurochs was killed in this forest
in the year 1627. Herberstein describes the colour of the auroras
as black, and this is confirmed by another old picture of the
animal. Goner's figure of the aurochs, or as he calls it " tbor."
given in the I cones to his History of Animals, was probaMj
adapted from Herberstein's. It may be added that an anaeat
gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild anrdesa.
As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased
to exist in the early part of the 17th century; but as a specs
it survives, for the majority of the domesticated breeds ef
European cattle are its descendants, all diminished in point of
siae, and some departing more widely from the ««%"»*' type
than others. Aurochs' calves were in all probability captured
by the early inhabitants of Britain and the continent and tamed;
and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending of wild
blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle.
Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which
breeds are the nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time
this position was supposed to be occupied by the white haif-vOd
cattle of Chillingham and other British parks. These whue
breeds are, however, partial albinos; and such semi-albinos are
always the result of domestication and could not have arisen
in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display evidence of
their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of red
or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Cbilltngh&m
cattle the cars are generally red, although sometimes black,
and the muzxle is brown; while in the breed at Cadxow Chase,
Lanarkshire, both ears and muzxle are black, and there are
usually flecks of black on the head and f orequarters. It is further
significant that, in the Chillingham herd, dark-coloured calves,
which are weeded out, make their appearance from tune to
time.
A vtry ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and whea
this breed tends to albinism, the ears and muzxle, and more rarely
the fetlocks, remain completely black, or very dark grey, although
the colour elsewhere is whitish, more or less necked and blotched
with pale grey. In the shape and curvature of the horns, which
at first incline outwards and forwards, and then bend somewhat
upwards and inwards, this breed of cattle resembles the aurochs
and the (by comparison) dwarfed park-breeds. Moreover, in
both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the horns are light-
coloured with black tips.
Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by
the fact that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chilitngnm
was found in Wales in the xoth century; these cattle being
white with red ears. Individuals of this race survived till at
least 1650 in Pembroke, where they were at one lias kept
AURORA— AURORA POLARIS
927
perfectly pore u a part of the regular farm-stock. Until a
period comparatively recent, they were relatively numerous, and
were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and the
neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the
same as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are
white, tipped with black, and extended and turned upwards in
the manner distinctive of the park-breed. The inside of the ears
and the muzzle are black, and the feet are black to the fetlock
joint. The skin is unctuous and of a deep-toned yellow colour.
Individuals of the race were sometimes born entirely black, and
then were not to be distinguished from the common Pembroke
cattle of the mountains.
It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot
from the ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft
and well-oiled skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate,
such as that of the forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs.
This disposes of a theory that they are descendants of a white
sacrificial breed introduced into Britain by the ancient Romans.
The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the
sole descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls
claiming -a similar descent This breed shows a light-coloured
line along the spine, which was characteristic of the aurochs.
It has also been suggested that the Swiss Siemental cattle are
nearly related to the aurochs. The latter was a gigantic animal,
especially during the Pleistocene period; the skulls and limb-
bones discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the Thames
valley and many other parts of England having belonged to
animals that probably stood six feet at the shoulder. (R. L.*)
AURORA (perhaps through a form ausosa from Sansk, ush t
to burn ; the common idea of " brightness " suggests a connexion
with aurum, gold), the Roman goddess of the dawn, correspond-
ing to the Greek goddess Eos. According to Hesiod ( Theog. 971)
she was the daughter of the Titan Hyperion and Thea (or Eury-
phassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By the Titan Astraeus,
she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and Boreas,
of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising
every morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was
the mother of Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the
east in a chariot by the horses Lampus and Phaethon to carry
light to gods and men {Odyssey », xxiii. 253); in Homer, she aban-
dons her course when the sun is fully risen (or at the latest at
mid-day, Iliad, ix. 66), but in later literature she accompanies
the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess of the daylight.
From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn, she
bears in Homer the epithet " rosy-fingered." The conception of
a dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in
the Vedic mythology, where the deity Us&s is closely parallel to
the Greco-Roman; see Paul Regnaud, Le Rig-Vida in Annates
dm musie Guimet, vol. i c. 6 (Paris, 1 802). She is also represented
as the lover of the hunter Orion (Odyssey ; v. 121), the representa-
tive of the constellation that disappears at the flush of dawn,
and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by whom she was the mother
of Phaethon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3) In works of art, Eos is
represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast
with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot
drawn by winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dis-
penses the dews of the morning, she has a pitcher in each hand.
In the fresco-painting by Guido Reni in the Rospigliosi palace
at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing flowers before the
chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora was used
(e.g. Virg. Aen. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally.
AURORA, adty of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., In the
N.E. part of the state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W of
Chicago. Pop. (1800) 19,688; (1900) 24,147. of whom 5075 were
foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is served by the Chicago,
Burlington ft Qumcy, the Chicago ft North- Western, the Elgin.
Joliet ft Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota rail-
ways, and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The
city has a soldiers' memorial hall, erected by popular sub-
scription, and a Carnegie library. Aurora is an important manu-
facturing centre; among its manufactures are railway cars —
the shops of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway being
here— flour and cotton, carriages, hardware specialties, corsets,
suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1005 the city's factory
products were valued at $7 ,3 29,028, an increase of 30 % in 5 years.
The municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-
lighting plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora
was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was
incorporated, and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later.
In 1853 the two villages were united under a city charter, which
was superseded by a revised charter in 1887.
AURORA, a dty of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
27 s m. S.W. of St Louis, on the St Louis & San Francisco, and
the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. Pop. (1800)
3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4x48. It is situated near a lead and
zinc mining region, where surface lead was discovered in 1873
and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities of the
state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large
ironworks and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manu-
factured. Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the
surrounding country, and Aurora is the place from which the
products are shipped. Aurora was platted in 1870 and was
chartered as a city in 1886.
AURORA, a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on
Cayuga Lake, x6 m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (19x0)
493. It is served by the Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beau-
tiful place and a popular summer resort, but it is best known as
the seat of Wells College, a non-sectarian college for women,
founded in 1868 by Henry Wells (1805-1878), of the Wells
Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed by Edwin B.
Morgan (x8o6-i88x), also connected with toe same company,
and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a prepara-
tory school for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as
the Cayuga Lake Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory
school for girls). The village has a public library. Aurora was
settled in 1789 chiefly by residents of New England, and was
incorporated in 1905.
AURORA POLARIS (Aurora Borealis and Australis, Polar
Light, Northern Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs
in many forms, some of great beauty.
1. Forms. — Various schemes of classification have been
proposed, but none has met with universal acceptance; the
following are at least the principal types. (i)Arcs. These
most commonly resemble segments of circles, but are not in-
frequently elliptical or irregular in outline. The ends of arcs
frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both ends
stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same
time. Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more
clearly defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker
than elsewhere. It is rather a disputed point whether this dark
segment— through which starlight has been seen to pass-
represents a real atmospheric condition or is merely a contrast
effect. (2) Bands. These may be nearly straight and regular
in outline, as if broken portions of arcs; frequently they are
ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous sinuosities.
(3) Rays. Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed of
innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous
intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc
or band; sometimes they are very approximately parallel to
one another, on other occasions they converge towards a point.
Longer rays often show an independent existence. Not in-
frequently rays extend from the upper edge of an arc towards
the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a luminous
fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous cylinder
Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down
towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts
for the description of aurora as " Merry Dancers." (4) Cttrtai/u
or Draperies. This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where
it is sometimes fairly frequent. It is one of the most imposing
forms. As a rule the higher portion is visibly made up of rays,
the light tending to become more continuous towards the lower
edge; the combination suggests a connected whole, like a
curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade. The
curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the J**-***
)*»
AURORA POLARIS
ige often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in
Greenland auroral curtains have been observed when passing
ght overhead to narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as
vertical sheet of light would seem to do to one passing under-
eath it. (5) Corona. A fully developed corona is perhaps the
nest form of aurora. As the name implies, there is a sort of
rown of light surrounding a comparatively or wholly dark
mtre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is usually
rominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may
e widely separated from one another. (6) Patches, During
>me displays, auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches,
hich* sometimes "bear a very dose resemblance to illuminated
etached clouds. (7) Dijfus'cd Aurora. Sometimes a large
art of the sky shows a diffuse illumination, which, though
tighter in some parts than others, possesses no definite outlines,
[ovr far the different forms indicate real difference in the nature
f the phenomenon, and how far they are determined by the
osition of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not infrequently
sveral different forms are visible at the same time.
2. Isochasms. — Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes.
1 the southern hemisphere there is comparatively little in-
cited land in high latitudes and observational data are few;
ms little is known as to how the frequency varies with latitude
id longitude. Even in the northern hemisphere there are large
reas in the Arctic about which little is known. H. Fritz (2)
is, however, drawn a scries of curves which are believed to give
good general idea of the relative. /requency of aurora throughout
ic northern hemisphere. Fritz' curves, shown in the illustration,
e termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by Aris-
>tle to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed
» have the same average number of auroras in the year, and
lis average number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting
om the equator and travelling northwards we find in the
ctreme south of Spain an average of only one aurora in ten
jars. In the north of France the average rises to five a year;
1 the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little to the north of
ic Shetland* to one hundred a year. Between the Shctlands
and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and
farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum
frequency forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, Lhc
auroral pole, is according to Fritz at about 8i° N. lat., 70* W.
long. Isochasms reach a good deal farther south in America
than in Europe. In other words, auroras are much xncce
numerous in the southern parts of Canada and in the UniLed
States than in the same latitudes of Europe.
3. Annual Variation. — Table I. shows the annual variaxica
observed in the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from
several authorities, especially Joseph Lovcring (4) and Sophjs
Tromholt (5). The monthly figures denote the percentages of the
total number seen in the year. The stations are arranged ia
order of latitude. Individual places are first considered, then
a few large areas.
The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by
Prof. A. Paulsen (0) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters
of 1865 to 1882, supplemented by Lovering's data for summer.
Starting at the extreme north, we have a simple period with a
well-marked maximum at midwinter, and no auroras during
several months at midsummer. This applies to Hammerfest,
Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division ai
Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transi-
tion stage. To the south of this in Europe the single maxim ura
at mid-winter is replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the
equinoxes.
4. In considering what is the real significance of the great differ-
ence apparent in Tabic I. between higher and middle latitude*, a
primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the suo is
some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to •appose that
the physical causes whose effects we sec as aurora are ia c ais tciioc
only when aurora is visible. # Until means are devised for detecting
aurora during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the boar at
which these causes are most frequently or most powerfully in opera-
tion must remain incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that
the differences apparent in Table I. are largely due to the influence
of sunlight. In high latitudes for several months ia summer it is
never dark, and consequently a total absence of visible aurora is
firactically inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived
rom figures obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of
1882-1 §83 at Cape Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78* *•' N. (7). The
original gives the relative frequency of aurora for each degree of
depression of the sun below the horizon, assuming the effect of mi-
light to be nil (i.e. the relative frequency to be 100) when the de-
pression is 1 8-5* or more. The following are a selection of the
figures. —
Angle of depression . . 4*5 75 l°-5 «»*5 155 •
Relative frequency . . 03 93 449 745 9SV
These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from
true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give
a good general idea of the influence of twilight.
If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent aaaaal
variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maxi-
mum at midwinter ana a minimum at midsummer. This is what
is actually shown by the most northern stations and district* ia
Table I. When we come, however, below 65* lat. in Europe the
frequency near the equinoxes rises above that at midwinter, and
we have a distinct double period, with a principal nummum at mid-
summer and a secondary minimum at midwinter. In southern
Europe — where, however, auroras are too few to give smooth results
in a limited number of years — in southern Canada, and in the
United States, the difference between the winter and summer
months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference
between high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of tat
causes rendered visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The Scan-
dinavian data, from the wealth of observations, are probably the
most representative, and even in the most northern district el
Scandinavia the smallnesa of the excess of the frequencies ia Decesa-
ber and January over those in March and October s uggests that
some influence tending to create maxima at the equinoxes ha* largely
counterbalanced the influence of sunlight and twilight in reducing
the frequency at these seasons.
5. Fourier Analysis. — With a view to more minute eiamrnatioa.
the annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier aeries, whose tern*
represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, Ac months. This
has been done by Love ring (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of
the results will best be explained by reference to the formula given
by Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, via.*—
8-33+3-03 nn fooi+iooVO+a-M tin (col +309*5') -H>- 16 sin
(904+313*31 ')+o-56 sin (laxK+ioa^O+o-aisin 05<*+$» J*>
The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and 1 denotes
the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January.
AURORA
Plate I.
Fig. i. — Two Types of Auroral Arcs.
Fig. 2. — Two Types of Auroral Rays.
(From 1he hif<rnafi.<nn/*r<>f<irf»r<chnng, 1«
k'.n.r/nJun . I Aui.fr >,t„ ,frr //'/.,»,/,
I — 188.1, hv prrmission of the
iJinj:.n, Vienna >
Plate II. AURORA
Fig. 3. — Auroral Bands.
Fig. 4. — Auroral Curtain Below an Arc.
AURORA POLARIS
Tablb I— Annual Fnqutncj {RxkXm).
9*9
Place.
Latitude. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
rlaataaejfest
lakobahava . •
Godthaab . . .
St Petersburg . .
Christiania • .
Upaala . . . .
Stockholm » •
Edinburgh ...
Berlin . » . •
London* « . .
Quebec ....
Toronto # .
Cambridge, Mass.
New Haven, Conn.
Scandinavia ; ♦.
New Vork State
70i
J 9
60
60
60
%
4 r i
N. of 68J*
681° to 6$ #
65* to 61 *•
61 r to S»*
S. of 58^
45* to 40*°
20*9
146
1
*4
79
95
8-6
3-6
5-4
5; 1
164
»53
132
K
6-3
17-6
130
124
9-1
ii*4
12-9
100
12-6
108
ir-i
n
Q
146
12-3
II-2
1 1-9
74
8-8
9-2
,!:£
140
149
M-7
iao
164
10-2
!*
8-7
n-8
■a
137
M-5
13-5
U-6
91
o-5
4-9
13-8
11-2
7-4
164
95
X5-5
107
14-2
H-8
10-2
6-2
16
2-9
54
10-9
13-3
no
U
3*4
ix-4
40
4t
t°
n
0-0
0-0
0>2
1-3
1-5
74
e
«•
a
1-2
1*2
1-4
«
O
02
0*2
O-4
7-1
O-O
OO
O-O
17
it
06
29
29
1*1
i-9
5-6
tt
K
11
51
io«3
8-3
57
8-9
8-1
o-o
0*0
0.4
o-o
0*0
II
o-o
0*0
2-8
O-I
»
57
o-t
49
6-6
8-8
104
44
138
14*6
124
12-9
12-6
6-5
14-5
II-2
8-5
13-3
"?
97
131
136
149
117
9*9
-151
13-3
131
12*2
14-3
114
>3-5
169
124
ui
92
7-6
15-t
146
142
138
*35
9*7
I7'0
184
170
76
10-3
10-7
IOO
II-8
!!
IO-6
»4'4
140
12-8
1 0-4
io-3
6'2
200
200
174
73
10-3
lo-7
73
52
a
3-1
7-3
157
141
"8
5*4
Putting I -o, 1, &c., in succession, we get the percentages of the total
number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on.
The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six
months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is
largest when JX30*+ioo° 32'»-450 # . This makes l-n-6 months
after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January, approxi-
mately. The 6»month term has the earliest of its two equal
maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most
important of the periodic terms. The angles ioo° 52', 309* 5', &c,are
known as the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while'
3<>3. 2*53, Ac, are the corre s ponding amplitudes. Table It. gives
a selection of Lovering's results. The stations are arranged according
to latitude.
Table II.
Station.
Annual Term.
6-Month Term.
4-Month Term.
Amp.
Phase.
Amp.
Phase.
Amp.
Phase.
Takobshavn . . . • .
Godthaab
10*40
8-21
•
123
iti
113
1-54
•
206
3«*
0-64
•
333
335
208
St Petersburg
2-81
96
599
309
o-57
Christiania
4*83
116
499
317
0-76
189
Upsala
Stockholm
ss
119
91
JB
322
303
0-86
l«3i
£
Makerstown (Scotland) . .
ss
0-18
102
447
3 I°
2-00
34a
Great Britain . . • .
126
424
287
0-40
73
Toronto .......
12
2-13
260
052
305
Cambridge, Mass. • • . .
1*02
262
284
339
1-28
253
New Haven, Conn. . . .
New York State
o-99
•183
I-02
313
057
197
1-34
264
2-29
3*5
0-54
157
Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance
as we travel south. North of 55° in Europe its phase angle seems
fairly constant, not differing very much from the value no* in
Lovering's general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two
most northern stations, but south of 60* N. fat^it is on the whole
the most important term. Excluding Takobshavn, the phase angles
in the 6-month term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value
309* in Lovering's general formula. North of tat. 30* the 4-raonth
tern is, as a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American
stations its relative importance is increased. The phase angle,
however, varies so much as to suggest that the Jerm mainly repre-
sents local causes or observational uncertainties. Lovering's general
formula suggests that the 4-month term is really less important than
the 3-month term, but he gives no data for Che latter at Individual
6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral
frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be
denved from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (7)
observations. These show how the frequency of visible auroras
diminished as cloud increased from o (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky
woolly overcast).
Grouping the results, we have*
Amount of cloud . . .0 I to 3 4 to 6 7 to 9 10
Relative frequency . . 100 82 37 46 8
Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast
the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate
days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an
equal number of hours with the sky quite dear. The figures being
based on only one season's observations are somewhat irregular.
Smoothing them, Carlheim-Gyljenskold gives/-ioo'-7'3c as the
most probable linear relation between c. the amount of cloud, and
/. the frequency, assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no
cloud.
7. Diurnal Variation.— The apparent daily period at most
stations is largely determined. 1 by the influence of daylight on
the visibility. It is only during winter and in high latitudes that
we can hope to ascertain anything directly as to the real diurnal
variation of the causes whose influence is visible at night as
aurora. Table HI. gives particulars of the number of occasions
when aurora was seen at each hour of
the twenty-four during three expeditions
in high latitudes when a special outlook
was kept.
The data under A refer to Caps)
Thorsden (78 28' N. lat., 15° 4 a' E.
long.); those under B to Jan Mayen (8)
(71* o' N. lat., 8° 28' W. long.), both for
the winter of 1882-1883. The data under
C are given by H. Arctowski (9) for the
"Belgica" Expedition in 1898. They may
be regarded as applying approximately
to the mean position of the " Belgica,"
or 7 oJ e S.lat, 86i* W. long. The method
of counting frequencies was fairly alike,
at least fn the case of A and B, but
in comparing the different stations the
data should be regarded as relative rather than absolute.
The Jan Mayen data refer reallv to Gottingen mean time, but
this was only twenty- three minutes late on local time. In
calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon occur-
rences half the entries under nodn and midnight were assigned
to each half of the day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at mid-
winter is only x i° below the horizon at noon, and its effect on the
visibility is thus not wholly negligible. The influence of daylight
is presumably the principal cause of the difference between the
phenomena during November, December and January at. Cape
Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in the equinoctial months the
results from these two stations arc closely similar. Whilst day-
light is the principal cause of the diurnal inequality, it is not the
only cause, otherwise there would be as many auroras in the
morning (forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The number
seen in the evening is, however, according to Table III., consider-
ably in excess at all seasons. Taking the whole winter, the
percentage seen in the evening was the same for the " Belgica "
as for Jan Mayen, it. for practically the same latitudes South
and North. At Cape Thorsden from November to January
there teems a distinct double period, with minima near noon
and midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden show a
single maitmum and minimum, the former before midnight
93<>
AURORA POLARIS
The same phenomenon appears at Jan Mayen especially in
November, December and January, and it is the normal state
of matters in temperate latitudes, where the frequency is usually
greatest between 8 and 10 p.m. An excess of evening over
morning occurrences is also the rule, and it is not infrequently
more pronounced than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65* 37'
N. lat., 37° ss' W. long.) the Danish Arctic Expedition (10)
of 1004 found seventy-five out of every hundred occurrences
to take place before midnight.
Table III.— Diurnal Variation.
Feb.,
March,
Sept. to
March (N.Lat.).
Hour.
Dec.
Nov. and Jan.
Sept. and Oct.
March to Sept. (S. Lat.).
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
C
1
14
7
14
8
27
33
S3
38
24
2
10
6
15
6
ao
«5
45
37
23
3
9
4
15
5
»5
ai
39
30
10
4
10
5
21
7
M
18
45
3?
4
1
13
5
20
3
10
10
n
18
a
it
3
15
4
a
3
10
1
I
9
a
'2
3
1
a
23
7
5
1
1
11
2
9
7
a
9
16
2
10
10
I
9,
15
11
9
15
O
Noon
10
i
\t
1
10
a
it
10
3
3
1
ao
3
4
4
16
7
19
7
1
1
36
«S
1
12
TI
aa
10
I
a
39
23
3
)t
IO
ai
16
5
43
*l
3
I
13
23
16
ao
9
1?
3«
H
«5
12
22
18
»4
3
So
25
9
14
»5
18
17
«7
g
3t
10
12
»5
;?
15
3«
U
55
*°
11
10
ia
17
n
61
55
26
Midnight
9
9
13
11
22
So
42
26
Totals . .
277
140
354
167
366
244
897
551
221
Percentages —
Forenoon
Afternoon .
S
28
72
s
as
75
2?
46
34
41
59
9
8
8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the
different forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs,
bands and, generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms,
show their greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or
patches. Table IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m.
;) occurrences of the principal forms as recorded by the
r* at Cape Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak.
(morning) occi
Arctic observe!
Tablb IV.
Arcs.
Bands
Rays.
Patches.
Cape Thorsden .
Jan Mayen . .
Tasiusak
e.
m.
e.
m.
e.
m.
e. 1 m.
76
6
24
22
»5
66
68
85
34
32
IS
52
60
6S
48
40
35
5.
60
62
49
38
At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65,
m. 35, practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak.
8 p.m. was the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands,
whereas patches had their maximum frequency at. 11 tm. and rays
at midnight.
9. Lunar and other Periods.— The action of moonlight neces-
sarily gives rise to a true lunar period in the
visibility of aurora. The extent to which it
renders aurora invisible depends, however, so
much on the natural brightness of the aurora —
which depends on the time and the place— and
on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is
difficult to gauge it. Ekholm and Arrheoius( 1 1)
daim to have established the existence of a true tropical lunar
period of 27 -32 days, and also of a 26-day period, or, as they make
it, a 25920-day period. A 26-day period has also been derived
by J. Lixnar (12), after an elaborate allowance for the disturbing
effects of moonlight from the observations la 1882-2883 at
Bossckop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen Neither ot these periods
is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and
earth magnetic disturbances renders it practically certain tLit
if a 26-day or similar period exists in the one phenomenon it
exists also in the other, and of the two terrestrial magjsetisic
(9.9.) is probably the element least affected by external coo-
plications, such as the action of moonlight.
10. Sun-spot Connexion. — The frequency of auroral displays
is much greater in some years than others. At most places the
variation in the frequency has
shown a general similarity to
that of sun-spots. Table V.
gives contemporaneous data for
the frequency of sun-spots and
of auroras seen in Scandinavia.
The sun-spot data prior to 1901
are from A. Wolfer's table is
the Met. ZeUsckri/t for 1002,
p. 195; the more recent data
are from his quarterly lists. Afl
are observed frequencies, derived
after Wolf's method; maxima
and minima are in heavy type.
The auroral data are from
Table E of Tromholl's cata-
logue (5), with certain modifica-
tions. In Tromholt's yearly data
the year commences with July.
This being inconvenient for com-
parison with sun-spots, use was
made of his monthly valors to
obtain corresponding data for
years commencing with January.
The Tromholt-Schroeter data
for Scandinavia as* a whole com-
menced with 1761; the figures
for earlier years were obtained
by multiplying the data for
Sweden by 1*356, the factor
being derived by comparing
the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia
from July 1 761 to June 1783.
In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years
of many sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few
sun-spots years of few auroras; but it does not disclose any
very definite relationship between the two frequencies. The
maxima and minima in the two phenomena in a good many
cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand, there
is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very
striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 18x0 and
1823.
II. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of
maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking
the three years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the
three years of least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years
of many and thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period
into an earlier half, 1764 to 181 7, and a later half, 1818 to 1672.
containing respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above
groups of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual
means derived from the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of
years of many and few sun-spots are as follows. —
Years of
1764-1872.
1 764-1 8 1 7.
1*818-1872.
Spots.
Auroras.
Spots.
Auroras.
Spots.
Auroras.
Many sun-spots. .
Few
W-4
«3'4
99-9
61-5
867
136
70-7
516
too- 1
131
iao*i
71-3
In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many
sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do
not harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group
of years of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-
periods, but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly
40% in excess of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the 1
AURORA POLARIS
93*
frequency in the yeats of many tun-spots-ln the ea
Tb» inconsistency, though startling at first sight, i
apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in 1
5 earlier sub-period.
_ it, is probably more
.apparent than real. It ii almost certainly due in large measure to
a progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In
Che case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (13) has compared J. R. Wolf and
A. Wolfer's frequencies with data obtained by other observers for
areas of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit
in one or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time
to time. Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at
securing a definite standard, and there are several reasons for
believing that the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than
the sun-spot frequency. R. Rubcnson (14), from whom Tromholt
derives his data lor Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the
apparent increase in auroral frequency since i860 to the institution
by the state of meteorological nations in 1859, and to the increased
interest taken in the subject since 1865 by the university of Uptala.
The figures themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conerasSon,
unless we are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enor-
mously in number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the
last three 1 1 -year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we
obtain as yearly means.—-
1 749-1 "8 1 . Sun-spots 56-4
1 844-1876 . „ 558
Auroras 77*5
The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only
1 %, but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45 % in excess
of that in the earlier.
The above figures would be almost conclusive h* it were not for
the conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot
frequencies for different 1 l-year periods* Schuster, who has con-
sidered the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence of
other periods— notably 8-4 and 4-8 year*— in addition to the recog-
nised period of 11 -125 years, and he regards the difference between
the maxima in successive 11 -year periods as due at least partly
to an overlapping of maxima from the sevesal periodic terms. This
cannot, howev e r , account for all the fluctuations observed in sun-spot
frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist. There
has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value of
sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall see,
there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The
period in question may be regarded as extending from 1704 to 1826
inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three
years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies. —
33-Year Period.
Son spots.
Auroras.
1 761-1793
1794-1826
18*7-1859
66-6
30-3
36-1
761
£2
1 a. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies
shown in Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. . It is shown, for
instance, in Loomis's auroral data, which are based on observations
at a variety of European and American stations (Ency. BriL oth cd.
art. Metbosology, Table XXVI 1 1.). It does not seem, however, to
apply universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam
Paulsen (IS), comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spot*:—
3-Year Period.
Total Sun-spot
Frequency.
Total Nights
of Aurora.
1865-1668
1869-1872
1876-1879
48
339
3
*73
The years start in the autumn, and 1863-1868 Includes the three
winters of 1865 to '66, '66 to '67, and '67 to *68. Paulsen also gives
data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to
1879) and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same pheno-
menon as at Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to
the north of Fritz's curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the
suggestion has been made that the zone of maximum frequency
expands to the south as sun-spots increase, and contracts again as
they diminish, the number of auroras at a given station increasing
or diminishing as the zone of maximum frequency approaches to
or recedes from it. This theory, however, docs not seem to fit all the
facts and stands in want of confirmation.
13. Amoral if *tfta.~It is a common belief that the summit
of an auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer's magnetic
meridian. On any theory it would be rather extraordinary if
this were invariably true. In temperate latitudes auroral area
are seldom near the zenith, and there is reason to believe them
at very great heights. In high latitudes the average height is
probably less, but the direction in which the magnetic needle
Table V.
Year.
Frequency.
Year.
Frequency.
Year.
Frequency.
V—r
Frequency.
Sun-spot.
Auroral.
Sun-spot.
Auroral.
Sun-spot*
Auroral. H ,
Sun-spot.
Amoral.
1749
80*9
»03
1789
118 1
89
1829
67-0
710
93
I869
.?*:?
160
1750
83-4
"34
1790
&2
90
1830
%
l870
"*5
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47-7
47-8
53
"79"
«
1831
478
1871
II 1-2
I75a
in
"79»
600
183a
s
54
1873
101 7
300
1753
30-7
IS
"793
46-9
39
"833
£
1873
66.3
,8 t
1754
12-2
"794
410
37
"834
56-9
121-5
138 3
I874
447
158
1730
9-0
10*3
a
1796
313
16-0
34
II
3
30
:s$
H
Wyl
171
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1757
1758
3*4
47-6
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1797
1798
ft
\%i
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82'
9
13
136
1759
1760
Si
"d
"799
1800
6-8
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1839
1840
85-8
3^-8
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6-0
3*"3
1761
124
1 801
340
n
1841
75
1881
543
1763
612
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1843
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1763
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1764
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. .
1773
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1817
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1857
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166
36-3
"4
1864
470
124
1904
43-0
S3
8' 1
82 <9
1825
1826
40
58
1865
1866
30-5
16-3
"19
«30
1905
1906
628
93*
AURORA POLARIS
point* changes rapidly with change of latitude and longitude,
and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there must in general
be a difference between the observer's magnetic meridian-
answering to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his
station— and the direction the needle would have at a given hour,
if undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena
which the observer sees as aurora exist.
Very elaborate observations have been made during several
Arctic expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs.
At Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from
371 arcs was 24* 12' W., or it* 27' to the W. of the magnetic meridian.
As to the azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by
less than io B , 1 18 by from 10* to ao*, 8a by froth so* to 30*, 21 by
from 30* to 40°, 14 by from 40* to 50°; in six cases the departure
exceeded 50*, and in one case it exceeded 70°. .Also, whilst the
mean azimuths deduced from the observations between 6 a*m. and
noon, between noon and 6 p.m., and between 6 p.m. and midnight,
were closely alike, their united mean being 22 *a* W.of N. (or E. of S.),
the mean derived from the 1 13 arcs observed bet ween midnight and
6 a.m. was 47-8* W. At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 the mean
azimuth of the summit of the arcs was 28*8° W. of N., thus approach-
ing much more closely to the magnetic meridian 29-9° W. As to
individual azimuths. 1 13 lay within io° of the mean, 37 differed by
from io* to 20°, 18 by from 20* to 30*. 6 by from 30° to 40*. whilst
6 differed by over 40 . Azimuths were also measured at Jan Mayen
for 338 auroral bands, the mean being 22-0* W.,or 7*9° to the cast
of the magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs and
bands, Carlheim-Gyllenskold gives the " anomaly " of the auroral
meridian at Jan Mayen as s-7 E. At the British Polar station of
1882, Fort Rae (62* 23' N. lat.. 115° 44' W. long.), he makes it
15-7 W. At Codthaab in 1 882-1 883 the auroral anomaly was,
according to Paulsen, 15-5° E., the magnetic meridian lying 57 -6° W.
of the astronomical.
14. Auroral Zenith. — Another auroral direction having appar-
ently a dose relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line
drawn to the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona — i.e.
the point to which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general
to be nearly coincident with the direction of the dipping needle.
Thusat Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable
number of observations made the angle between the two directions
only 1 ° 7', the magnetic inclination being 80 35', whilst the coronal
centre had an altitude of 79* 55' and lay somewhat to the west of the
magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been found
for the angle between the auroral and magnetic " zeniths " — as the
two directions have been called—*.?, o* 50' at Dossekop (16) in
1838-1839, and o° 7* at Treurenberg (17) (79* 55' N. lat., 16° 51' E.
long.) in 1 899-1900.
15. Relatiotu to Magnetic Storms.— That there is an intimate
connexion between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes
and terrestrial magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright
$urora visible over a large part of Europe seems always accom-
panied by a magnetic storm and earth currents, and the largest
magnetic-storms and the most conspicuous auroral displays
have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are afforded
by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and Sep-
tember i-a, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and
August 12, 1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903.
On some of these occasions aurora was brilliant in both the
northern and southern hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances
were experienced the whole world over. In high latitudes,
however, where both auroras and magnetic storms are most
numerous, the connexion between them a much less uniform.
Arctic observers, both . Danish and British, have repeatedly
reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special
magnetic disturbance. This has been more especially the case
when the auroral light has been of a diffused character, showing
Only minor variability. When there has been much apparent
movement, and brilliant changes of colour in the aurora/ magnetic
disturbance has nearly always accompanied it. In- the Arctic,
auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and this
may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers
have reported an apparent connexion of a particularly defi-
nite character. According to Paulsen (18), during the Ryder
expedition in 1891-1893, the following phenomenon was seen
at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at Scoresby Sound (70° 27'
K. lat, ad° 10' W. long.). An auroral curtain travelling with
considerable velocity would approach from the south, pass right
overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain approached,
the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated as
the curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east
The behaviour of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly
what it should be if the space occupied by the auroral curtaia
were traversed by electric currents directed upwards from the
ground. The Danish observers at Tasiusak (10) in 1898-1899
observed this phenomenon occasionally in a slightly altered
form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching the zenit*
usually retired in the direction from which it had come The
direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east
according as the curtain approached from the south or the
north; as the curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished.
Kr. Birkeland (19), who has made a special study of magnetic dis-
turbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they ax.*
from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence at-
tempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents,
asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were in-
sufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean line of
flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc, he
invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so.
16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the aone of
greatest frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most
generally appears is the magnetic north. In higher latitudes
auroras are most often seen in the south. The relative frequency
in the two positions seems to vary with the hour, the type of
aurora, probably with the season of the year, and possibly with
the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle.
At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882*1883. out of 1 77 arcs 1
accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their
averaging 38-3° above the northern horizon; 88 were
south, their average altitude above the southern horizon
while 45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (10) in 1698-1
magnetic directions of the principal types were noted aej
The results are given in Table VI.
Table VI.
in the
irizon being 33*5°:
in 1898-1890 the
eepaxnzcrjr.
Direc-
tion.
Absolute Number for each Type.
Percentage
from all
Types.
Arcs.
Bands.
Curtains.
Rays.
Patches.
N.
9
16
5
15
4
10
N.E.
9
»3 :
?
20
4
9
E.
3
<"< ;
a
26
3
I
S.E.
3
6
*
10
7
S.
45
43
i6
15
*4
S.W.
9
9
3
12
'I
9
W.
3
11
#
22
9
N.W.
2
8*.
2
8
S
S
remainder 15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the
whole sky. Auroral displays generally cover a considerable
area, and are constantly changing, so the figures are necessarily
somewhat rough. But clearly, whilst the arcs and bands, and
to a lesser extent the patches, showed a marked preference for
the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such preference.
At Cape Thorsden (7) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whose were
divided into those seen in the north and those seen in the r — ' L
The variation throughout the twenty-four hours in the |
seen in the south was as follows : —
Hour.
O-3
3-6-
6-9.
9-12.
A.M.
P.U.
69
55
55
70
n
*i
The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three.
Between 3 a.m. and 3 tm. the percentage of auroras seen in the
south thus appears decidedly below the mean.
17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs
were obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped accord-
ing to the height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I.
contained thirty arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11* 45';
Group II. thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between is* and
and Group HI. thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between 36* and I
' ' T I II. I UL
i8o*
Group.
Greatest width ,
Least
Mean
345'
lao'
vr
ai-o*
a-o*
6-9*
There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with) the
altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared
wider than others near the zenith. Furthermore, GyUeiuucofcl says
that when* arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did. from tbs
horizon, their apparent width might go on increasing right up to the
AURORA POLARIS
933
xscnkh, or it might increase until an altitude or about 45° was reached
sand then diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was
reached. Of course the phenomenon might be due to actual change
ass the arc, but it is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of
two kinds, one form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth
but considerable real horizontal width, the other form having little
Horizontal width but considerable vertical depth, and resembling
to some extent an auroral curtain.
1*8. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thors-
den, the apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the
average with their altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs,
156, whose angular velocities wete measured into three numerically
equal groups, according to their altitude, the following were the
results in minutes of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute
of time) :—
Group.
I.
II.
III.
All.
Mean attitude . . .
Greatest velocity . .
Mean velocity . . .
io*5°
048
i5-ia
242
7*-3°
109*09
867
3*86
Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The
intervals to which the velocities referred were usually from five to
ten minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109*09 was much the
largest observed, the next being 52-38; both were from observations
lasting under half a minute.
19. la 1 882-1 883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north
to south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 38% of the
cases at Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction
in the northern hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the
zone of maximum frequency, but a considerable preponderance of
movements towards the north was observed in Franz Joseph Land
by the Austrian Expedition of 1872-1874. The apparent motion of
arcs is sometimes of a complicated character. One end only, for
example, may appear to move, as if rotating round the other: or
the two ends may move in opposite directions, as if the arc were
rotating about a vertical axis through its summit.
20. Height.— If an auroral arc represented a definite self-
luminous portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a
uniform height above the ground, its height could be accurately
determined by observations made with theodolites at the two
ends of a measured base, provided the base were not too short
compared to the height. If a very long base is taken, it becomes
increasingly open to doubt whether the portions of space emitting
auroral light to the observers at the two ends are the same.
There is also difficulty in ensuring that the observations shall
be simultaneous, an important matter especially when the
apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite
results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate.
Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are
those made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of
1838- 1839 (16) and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and
those made in the latter year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden
and the Danes at Godthaab. At Bossekop and Cape Thorsden
there were a considerable proportion of negative or impossible
parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were those obtained
at Godthaab by Paulsen (16). The base was 58 km. (about
3! miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian,
on opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to
this meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals.
Heights were calculated only when the observed parallax
exceeded i 9 , but this happened in three-fourths of the cases.
The calculated heights — all referring to the lowest border of the
aurora — varied from 0-6 to 67 -8 km. (about 04 to 42 m.),
the average being about 20 km. (12 m.). Regular arcs were
selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained was for
a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually situated
between the two stations.
In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherltn made similar observations at
Nanortaltk near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only
1250 metres (about i m.). Their results were very similar to Paul-
sen's. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an
hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a
fairly regular fashion from 1-6 to 12-9 km. (about t to 8 m.). The
calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and
24 km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards,
sometimes away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding
3 km. (nearly 2 m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been
calculated from the apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in
Europe or America. The heights calculated in this way for the under
surface of the arc, have usually excee d ed 100 m-.; some have been
much in excess of this figure. None of the results so obtained can
be accep 4 - J — r * L *"-* '*- ' reasons for believ-
ing that elow that in lower
latitudes 3 less direct ways,
by obser » summit of an arc
and the and then making
some as le to an observer
may be t e so-called auroral
pole. 1 >ns, where careful
observat t ways, has varied
from 58 1 lskold) to 227 km.
(about 1 ;ht has also been
calculate s its source where
the atm< :h most brilliancy
is obsen turn tubes. Esti-
mate* 01 b order of 50 km.
(about 3 linties, as the con-
ditions 01 aiscnarge in tne tree atmospnerc may differ widely from
those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab observations can be trusted,
auroral discharges must often occur within a few miles of the earth's
surface in Arctic regions. In confirmation of this view reference
may be made to a number of instances where observers — «.f . General
Sabine, Sir John Franklin, Prof. Selim Lcmstrora, Dr David Walker
(at Fort Kennedy in 1 858-1 859), Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1 825)
and others — have seen aurora below the clouds or between themselves
and mountains. One or two instances of this kind have even been
described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland Abbe (20) has given a full
historical account of the subject to which reference may be made
for further details.
21. Brightness. — In auroral displays the brightness often varies
greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates
of the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary
scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can
read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading
type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have
been employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest
part of the display. At Jan Mayen (8) in 1882-1883 a scale was
employed running from i, taken as corresponding to the brightness
of the milky way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The
following is an analysis of the results obtained, showing the number
of times the different grades were reached : —
Scale of
Intensity.
t.
2.
3.
4-
Mean
Intensity.
Arcs . . .
Bands . .
Rays . . .
Corona . .
46
30
3
5
116
»4
13
.1?
12
1
22
28
12
1-87
2-24
2-21
2-8t
On one or two occasions at Tan Mayen auroral light is described as
making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of
electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than
the moon s disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare,
however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both
bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs
seldom appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It
is not unusual for ares and bands to look as if pulses or waves of
light were travelling along them : also the direction in which these
pulses travel does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to
the east were Itwice as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous
at Traurenberg as movements to the west. In some cases changes
of intensity take place round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect
that would be produced by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter.
In the case of isolated patches the intensity often waxes and wanes
as if a search-light were being thrown on and turned off.
22. Colour.-— The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually
with a distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white
when the light is faint. When the light is intense and changing
rapidly, red is not infrequently present, especially towards the
lower edge. Under these circumstances, green is also sometimes
visible, especially towards the zenith. Thus a bright auroral
ray may seem red towards the foot and green at its summit,
with yellow intervening. In some cases the green may be only
a contrast effect. Other colours, e.g. violet, have occasionally
been noticed but are unusual.
23 . Sptctru w.— The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of
lines. Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-
lengths of the brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so
dominant optically as often to be described as the auroral line.
Its wave-length is probably very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it
is very close to, if not absolutely coincident with, a prominent
line in the spectrum of krypton. This line is so characteristic
that its presence or absence is the usual criterion for deciding
934
AURUNCI
whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish Expedi-
tion (17) of 1890-1001, engaged in measuring an arc of the
meridian in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided spectro-
graphically, and succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in
conjunction with artificial lines—chiefly of hydrogen— which led
to results claiming exceptional accuracy. In the spectrograms
three auroral rays— including the principal one mentioned
above— were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths,
for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the
observer, J. Westman, gives the values 4*76-4 an <l 39«3'5- In
addition, he assigns wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines
between wave-lengths 5 205 and 3513. The following table gives
the wave-lengths of the photographically brightest of these,
retaining four significant figures in place of Westman's five.
Table VII.
4830
44*9
4329
38
3861
4709
4420
424*
3804
4699
4371
4230
3947
3793
4661
4356
4225
4078
3S
3704
4560
4344
3607
4550
4337
4067
3876
3589
There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-
length. For the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following
wave-lengths (unit 1 up or iXicr* metre):— 630, 578, 566,
535. 5*3, 5«>.
Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer
than 3684 tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or
nitrogen lines at the negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst
the lines thus identified are the two principal auroral lines having
wave-lengths 4*76*4 and 3913-5. The interval considered by
Westman contains at least 300 oxygen and nitrogen lines, so
that approximate coincidence with a number of auroral lines
was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the coin-
cidences may be accidental. E. C. C. Baly (21), making use of the
observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899,
accepts as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines
557o, 4376 and 3912; and he identifies all three and ten other
auroral lines ranging between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines
measured by himself. In addition to these, he mentions other
auroral lines as very probably krypton lines, but in their case
the wave-lengths which he quotes from Paulsen (22) are given to
only three significant figures, so that the identification is more
uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines which Baly identi-
fies with auroral lines require for their production a Leyden jar
and spark gap.
If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of
electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the auroral
lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however, as
regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical
discharges take glace must vary greatly in different auroras, or even
sometimes in different parts 01 the same aurora. Further, auroras
are often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines
may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler's
principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably
the same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be
only partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many
of the auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint,
so that even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high
precision.
24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a
characteristic sou nd is a disputed question. I f sou nd waves originate
at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible
on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness
prevails. 1 1 is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According
to Captain H. P. Dawson (26). in charge of the British Polar Station
at Fort Rae in 1882-1883, " The Indians and voyageurs of the
Hudson Bay Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say
that it (sound! is not uncommon . . . there can be no doubt that
distinct sound does occasionally accompany certain displays of
aurora." On the one occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it
himself, " the sound was like the swishing of a whip or the noise
produced by a sharp squall of wind in the upper rigging of a ship,
and as the aurora brightened and faded so did the sound which
accompanied it." If under these conditions the sound was really
due to the aurora, the latter, as Captain Dawson himself remarks,
must have been pretty dose.
•■ Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive
compared to the earth and increases with the height (sew Atwv
srHBaic ELBCTaictTY). Several Aictfcohasrmi.hciw* syi .< ■ w na Jy
Paulsen (18
even a chanj
Paulsen (18) have observed a diminution of positive
nge to negative, for which they could sugges
tion except the
poexpUna-
nnntsh Arctic Expedition of 1 88*- 18*3.
ie (23) described and gave drawings at
they beheved to be artificially produced
silk points, s u ppor t ed on insulators* were
to negative, for which they could suggest no
r i presence of a bright aurora. OtherArctic <
have failed to find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is
presumably confined to cases when the auroral discharge ceases
unusually low.
26. Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora.— At Sodantryla, the
station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of i8S*-t&Sj.
SeKm Lemstrom and Biese (23) *
optical phenomena which they bt
aurora. A number of metallic points, 1
connected by wires enclosing several hundred square m e ti e a 00 the
top of a hill. Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even
without it illumination resembling aurora was seen on several
occasions, extending apparently to a considerable height. la the
laboratory, Kr. Birkeland (19) has produced phenomena beans?
a striking resemblance to several forms of aurora. His appatratu
consists of a vacuum vessel containing a magnetic sphere intended
to represent the earth — and the phenomena are produced by imfing
electric discharges through the vessel.
27. Theories. — A great variety of theories have been advassted
to account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it
as some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (19) s u p po ses- the
ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun ; C. Nord-
mann (24) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; whist
Svante Arrhentus (25) believes that negatively charged particles are
driven through the sun's atmosphere by the. Maxwell-Bartoii re-
pulsion of light and reach the earth's atmosphere. For the ssse and
density of particles which he considers most likely, Arrfaesaus cal-
culates the time required to travel from the sun as forty-six boors.
By modifying the hypothesis as to the size and density, times
appreciably longer or shorter than the above would be obtained.
Cathode rays usually have a velocity about a tenth that of light,
but in exceptional cases it may approach a third of that of Ug at.
Hertzian waves have the velocity of light itself. On either Birke-
land's or Nordmann's theory, the electric impulse from the sen acts
indirectly by creating secondary cathode rays in the earth's atmo-
sphere, or ionizing it so that discharges due to natural difference!
of potential are immensely facilitated. The ionized ceedUka
must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent for a good many
hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the whale night.
The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked decay of
auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening, the
maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly favour-
able to theories which postulate Ionization of Che
some cause or other emanating from the sun.
Authorities.— The following works are numbered aceordiag
to the references in the text:— (I) A. Angot, Let Auroras patents
(Paris, 1895); (2) H. Fritz, Das PoUulickl ^Leipzig. 1B81); (3) Svaotr
August Arrhenius, Lehrbuch der kosmiscken Pkysik; (4) Joseph
Lovering, "On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis,** Mem.
American Acad. vol. x. (1868) ; (5) Sophus Tremholt, Cntefs* der is
Norwegen bis Juni 1878 beabackteten Nordlickter; (6) Observations
internationates bolaires (1882-1683), Expedition Danoise, tome i
* Aurores boreales ": (7) Carlhcim-Gyllenskaid, " Aurores bortale***
Tkorsden Sbiteberg fur Fexpeditirm
\ Osterreichisehe Polar Station Jao
. yen" in Die Internationale Polarjorsckung, 188J-1883. Bd. it
Abth. I ; (9) Henryk Arctowski, " Aurores australes " in Exptdthen
antarctique beige . . . Voyage duS. K "BdfrVa"; (10)G. C. Amdrup.
Observations . . . faites par V expedition danoise; H. PLarn.Obtrr-
vations de Vaurore boriofe de Tasiusak; (11) K. Sven. Vet.-Akcd.
Hand. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &c; (12) Site. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. (Vienna).
Math. Naturw. Classe, Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia. 1888; (13) Proc. Jtc\.
Soc., 1906, Ixxvii. A, 141 : (14) Kongl. Sven. Vet. -A tad. Hand. Bd. 15.
No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1; (IS) Bull. Acad. Roy. Danoise, 1889, p. 6?:
(10) Voyages. .. p* — —
Recherche, "Aurores
in Observation* faites an Cab T
suidoise, tome u. 1 ; (8) " Die <
Mayen " in Die Internationale J
Missions scientijxqu
sutdoise, tome it. V
. pendant tes annies i8\8, i8j(> el 2840 *ur.\ .la
ores boreales." by MM. Lot tin, Bravais, &c; (17)
ues . . . au Spittberg ... en 1809-1002, Missy-%
III* Section, C. "Aurores boreales *; (18) Bull.
(IP) Kr. Birkeland.
dts aurores boreales
Acad. R. des Sciences da Danemark, 1894, p. I,
Expedition norvigienne 1800-1000 bow til
(Christianta, 1901) ; (20) terrestrial Magnetism, voL iii. (1898),
PP- 5. 53. 149; (21) A strobkvsical Journal, 1004, xix. p. 187; (22)
Rapports prtscnlts auConrgfs international de Pkysiauereuni A F '
1900,
'apports prhenthau Conrgfs international de Pkysiquerhtni iParii.
900, iii. 43* ; (23) Expedition polaira fiulandaisa (1882-1884). tome
iii.; (24) Charles Nordmann, Theses prisenHes i la Fatuiti des
Sciences de Paris (1903)
p. 1; (26) Observations 01 _
j 88 j Fort Rae ... by Capt. H. P. Dawson, R.A.
. , .. - (25) Terrestrial Magnesium, vol. 10, 1005.
(26) Observations o[ Ike International Polar Expeditious r&s-
XCCMO
AURUNCI, the name given by the Romans to a tribe which
in historical times occupied only a strip of coast on either side
of the Mons Massicus between the Volturnus and the Liris,
although it must at an earlier period have extended over a
considerably wider area* Their own name for thes na dves in
AUSCULTATION— AUSONIUS
935
the 4th ctnttuy i.e. was Amines, and in Greek writers we find
the name Ausonia applied to Latium and Campania (tee Strabo
v. p. 147; Aristotle, Pol. iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 7]), while in
the Augustan poets («.g . Virgil, Aim. vii. 795) it is used as one of
many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only
for a brief space, from 340 to 99s B.C. (Mommsen, CJ.L. x.
pp. 451, 463, 4»s), and their straggle with the Romans ended
in complete extermination; their territory was parcelled out
between the Latin colonies of Calea (Livy viii. 16) and Suessa
Aurunca (id. is. 28) which took the place of an older town called
Ausoua (id. ix. 35; viii. 15), and the maritime colonies Sinuessa
(the older Veseia) and Minturnae (both in 295 B.C., Livy x. *i).
The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on the strength
of its supposed legend Aurunkud has now been certainly referred
to Naples (see R. & Conway, Italic Dialects, 145, and Venter's
lam in Italy, p. 78, where the change of * to r is explained as
probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe
was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., we can
scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its
geographical situation and the frequency of the co-suffix in that
■trip of coast (besides Aurumci itself we have the names Vcscia,
Mans Massicus, Marica, Clanica and Caedicii; see Italic
Dialects, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours
the Volsci («.*.). (R.S.C.)
AUSCULTATION (from LaL auscultare, to listen), a term in
medicine, applied to the method employed by physicians for
determining, by the sense of hearing, the condition of certain
internal organs. The andent physicians appear to have practised
a kind of auscultation, by which they were able to detect the
presence of air or fluids in the cavities of the chest and abdomen.
Still no general application of this method of investigation was
resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance of the study
of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality, structure
and uses of the various organs of the body, and the alterations
produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Aueabrugger
(1734-1809), a Viennese physician, published his Inventum
Nooum, describing the art of percussion in reference more
especially to diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping
with the fingers the surface of the body, so aa to elicit sounds
by which the comparative resonance of the subjacent parts or
organs might be estimated. Auenbrugger's method attracted
but little attention till the French physician J. N. Cbnrisert
(1 755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great practical importance,
and then its employment in the diagnosis of affections of the
chest soon became general. Percussion was originally practised
la the manner above mentioned (immediate percussion), but
subsequently the method of mediate percussion was introduced
by P. A. Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing
upon the spot to be examined some solid substance, upon which
the percussion strokes are made with the fingers. For this
purpose a thin oval piece of ivory (called a pleximeter, or stroke-
measurer) may be used, with a small hammer; but one or more
fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the part answer equally
well, and this is the method which most physicians adopt
Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation,
particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for
the physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal
condition of that part of the body in reference to percussion is
thus able to recognise by the ear alterations of resonance pro-
duced by disease. But percussion alone, however important
in diagnosis, could manifestly convey only limited and imperfect
information, for it could never indicate the nature or extent of
functional disturbance,
In 1810 the distinguished French physician R. T. H. Lacnnec
(1781-1826) published his Traits do VouseuUotim mediate,
embodying the present methods of auscultatory examination,
and venturing definite conclusions based on years of his own
study. He also invented the stethoscope (arfaot, the breast,
and emrtir, to examine). Since then many men have widened
the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda, Wintrich, A. Geigel,
Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laennec the essential
of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the tone
vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this
matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite
schools. The first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope,
maintaining that the tones are bound to be altered; the second
and younger school warmly advocates its use. In America,
more than elsewhere, there is a type of panendoscope much used
by the younger men, which has the advantage that it can be
used when the older type of instrument fails, via. when the
patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it
beneath the patient's back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing
over the bases of the lungs behind can often be obtained.
Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials.
They usually consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber
or metal, with an enlarged tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end,
and an ear-plate with a hole in the middle, fastened perpendicu-
larly to the other end. To enable the instrument to be more
conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be unscrewed from the
tube. The length of the stem of the Instrument is of minor
importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of
the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in
general use both in England and America transmits the sound
from a funnel through lubes to the ears of the observer. This
is the common form of a binaural resonating stethoscope. It is
convenfent and gives a loud tone, but is condemned by the
older school, who say that the resonance is confusing, and that
the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing
murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which
has by far the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the
most skilled physicians of all find a special use in each form, the
monaural non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-
pitched sounds, and of greater assistance in differentiating
the sounds and murmurs of the heart, the ordinary binaural
form being more useful in examining the lungs and other organs.
In using the stethoscope, it must be applied very carefully, to
that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight connexion with
the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but lightly
applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient
The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recog-
nized and discriminated from each other with a precision which,
but for auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been
altogether unattainable. The same holds good in the case of
the heart, whose varied and often complex forms of disease can,
by auscultation, be identified with striking accuracy. But in
addition to these its main uses, auscultation is found to render
great assistance m the investigation of many obscure internal
affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases of the oesoph-
agus and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields
valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours,
and especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy— the only evidence
now accepted as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being
the hearing of the foetal heart sounds.
AUKMflUSt DBCIMUt MAGNUS (e. 310-395), Roman poet
and rhetorician, was bom at Burdigala [Bordeaux). He received
an excellent education, especially in grammar and rhetoric, but
confesses that his progress in Greek was unsatisfactory. Having
completed his studies; he practised for some time as an advocate,
but his inclination lay in the direction of teaching. He set
up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place, which was
largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus,af terwards
bishop of Nbla. After thirty years of this work, he was summoned
by Valenttnian to the imperial court, to undertake the education
of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained
the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed
upon him the highest tides and honours,culminating in the consul-
ship (379). After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired
to his estates near Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not
very enthusiastic) convert to Christianity. He died about 39$.
His most important extant works are: in prose, Cratiarum
Actio, an address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the
consulship; Periotkae, summaries of the books of the Iliad and
Odyssey; and one or two epistolae; in verse, Epitrammata,
including several free translations from the Greek Anthology;
93&
AUSSIG— AUSTEN
Bpkemeris, the occupations of a day ; Parentalia and Commemo-
ralio Projcssorum Burdigalensium, on deceased relatives and
literary friends; Epitapkia, chiefly on the Trojan heroes;
Caesar a, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from Julius
Caesar to Elagabalus ; Ordo NobUmm (Jrbium, short poems
on famous cities ; Ludus Seplem Sapientum, speeches delivered
by the Seven Sages of Greece ; Idyllia, of which the best-known
are the Mosella, a descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the in-
famous Cento Nuptialis. We may also mention Cupido Cruciatus,
Cupid on the cross ; Technopaegion, a literary trifle consisting
of a collection of verses ending in monosyllables ; Edogarum
Liber, on astronomical and astrological subjects; Epistoiae,
including letters to Paulinus and Symmachus ; lastly, Prae-
fatiunculae, three poetical epistles, one to the emperor Thco-
dosius. Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a poet; his
wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of
subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit ;
even his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective.
There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius's works.
Editio princeps, 1 472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730,
Schenkl 1883, Peiper 1886; cf. Mosella, Backing 1845, de la Ville
de Mirmont (critical edition with translation) 1889, and De Ausonii
Mosella, 1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, Un Poete bordelais
ii868); Eve rat, De Ausonii Operibus (1885); JuWutn, Ausone tt
lordeaux (1893); C. Vcrrier and R. de Gourraont, Les tLpitrammei
4' Ausone (translation with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, Les
Demurs lUrivains profanes (1907)
AUSSIG (Csech Ousti nod Labem), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
68 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 37,255, mostly German.
It is situated in a mountainous district, at the confluence of the
Bicla and the Elbe, and, besides being an active river port, is an
important junction of the northern Bohemian railways. Aussig
has important industries in chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-
building, and carries on an active trade in coal from the neigh-
bouring mines, stone and stoneware, corn, fruit and wood. It
was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs (1728-1779).
Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 093. It was
made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century.
Xn 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector
Frederick of Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison.
In 1426 it was besieged by the Hussites, who on the 1 6th of June,
though only 25,000 strong, defeated a German army of 70,000,
which had been sent to its relief, with great slaughter. The
town was stormed and sacked next day. After lying waste for
three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much during the
Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars, and in 1830 it had only
1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm,
where, on the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place
between the French under Vandamme and an allied army of
Austriaas, Prussians and Russians. The French were defeated,
and Vandamme surrendered with his army of 10,000 men.
AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on
the 16th of December 1775 at the parsonage of Steven ton,
In Hampshire, a village of which her father, the Rev. George
Austen, was rector. She was the youngest of seven children.
Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of Theophilus Leigh,
a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of BaUiol, Oxford.
The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful
than Miss Austen's. She did not marry, and she never left home
except on short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years
were spent in the rectory at Steven ton, where she began early
to trifle with her pen, always jestingly, for family entertainment.
In 1801 the Austens moved to Bath, where Mr Austen died in
1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and her sister Cassandra,
to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up the home ;
his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis
William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral's rank.
In 1805 the Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809
to Chaw ton, near Alton, in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen
remained till 1817, the year of her death, which occurred at
Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window in the cathedral
testifies.
During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary
work to interfere with her domestic duties : sewing much and
admirably, keeping house, writing many letters and leading
aloud. Though, however, her days were quiet and her area
circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class provincial society
to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous faculties
might build, and such was her power of searching observation
and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in Rrtglnh
fiction more faithful representations of the life she knew than
we possess in her novels. She had no predecessors in this gense.
Miss Austen's " little bit (two inches wide) of ivory " on which
she worked " with so fine, a brush "—her own phrases—was her
own invention.
Her best-known, if not her best work, Pride and Prejudice,
was also her first. It was written between October 1796 and
August 1797, although, such was the blindness of pahhshns,
not issued until 2813, two years after Sense and Sensibility,
which was written, on an old scenario called " Eleanor and
Marianne," in 1707 and 1798. Miss Austen's inability to find
a publisher for these stories, and for Nortkangtr Abbey, written
in 1708 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in 1803 for
£10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away
in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems
to have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that
between 1708 and 1809 she wrote anything but the fragment
called " The Watsons," after which year she began to revise
her early work for the press. Her other three books belong
to a later date — Mansfield Park, Emma and Persuasion being
written between 1811 and 1816. The years of publication were
Sense and Sensibility, 18x1 ; Pride and Prejudice, 181 3 4 Mans-
field Park, 1814 ; and Emma, 1816— all in their author's lifetime.
Persuasion and Nortkanger Abbey were published posthumously
in 18x8. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author's
retiring disposition.
Although Pride and Prejudice is the novel which in the mind
of the public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen's
name, both Mansfield Park and Emma are finer achievement*—
at once riper ano* richer and more elaborate. But the fact that
Pride and Prejudice is more single-minded, that the love story
of Elizabeth Bennet and D'Arcy is not only of the book but if
the book (whereas the love story of Emma and Mr Ksughtle?
and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel streams),
has given Pride and Prejudice its popularity above the others
among readers who are more interested by the course of romance
than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as it
Pride and Prejudice so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside
the niceness of analysis of motives in Emma and the wonderfsl
management of two houseful* of young lovers that is exhibited
in Mansfield Park.
It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss
Austen has never been approached in her own domaia. No eat
indeed has attempted any dose rivalry. No other novelist has
so concerned herself or himself with the trivial daily comedy of
small provincial family life, disdaining equally the a^shtanrr
offered by passion, crime and religion. Whatever Miss Austen
may have thought privately of these favourite ingredients of
fiction, she disregarded all alike when she took her pen in hand.
Her interest was in life's little perplexities of emotion and con-
duct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward
event in any of her books is Louisa's fall from the Cobb at Lyme
Regis, in Persuasion ; the most abandoned, Maria's elopement
with Crawford, in Mansfield Park, In pure ironical humoar
Miss Austen's only peer among novelists is George Meredith,
and indeed Emma may be said to be her Egoist, or the Egoist bts
Emma, But irony and fidelity to the tact alone would not have
carried her down the ages. To these gifts she allied a perfect
sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid and
flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading.
Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until
quite recent times that to read her became a necessity of culture.
But she is now firmly established as an English clastic, standing
far above Miss Burney (Madame d'Arblay) and Miss Edgewortk.
who in her day were the popular women novelists of real life,
AUSTTERLITZ
937
while Mrs RadcUffe and " Monk " Lewis, whose supernatural
fancies Northanger Abbey was written in part to ridicule, are no
longer anything but names. Although, however, she has become
only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her pane-
gyrists among the best intellects— such as Coleridge, Tennyson,
Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop
Whately, the last of whom may be said to have been her dis-
coverer. Macaulay, whose adoration of Miss Austen's genius
was almost idolatrous, considered Mansfield Park her greatest
feat; but many critics give the palm to Emma. Disraeli read
Pride and Prejudice seventeen times. Scott's testimony is often
quoted: "That young lady had a talent for describing the
involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which
is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big
bow-wow I can do myself like any one going, but the exquisite
touch which renders commonplace things and characters inter-
esting from the truth of the description and ihe sentiment is
denied to me."
Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written; on
to the authorised Life by her nephew I. E. Austen Le fO t
and the collection of her Letters edited by Lord Brabou U.
The chief books on her and around her arc Jane AusU F.
Maiden (1889); Jane Austen, by Goldwin Smith (1 me
Austen: Her Contemporaries and Herself, by W. H. P< \ne
Austen: Her Homes and Her Friends, by Con lill
(1903); Jane Austen and Her Times, by G. E. Mitton ( \ne
Austen's Sailor Brothers, by J. H. and E. C. Hubback nd
the essay on her in Lady Richmond (Thackeray) Ritchie's Booh of
Sibyls (1883). (E. V. L.)
AU8TERLITZ (Caech Slavkov), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
IS m. E.S.E. of Brttnn by rail. Pop. (1000) 3145, mostly Czech.
It contains a magnificent palace belonging to the prince of
Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a beautiful church.
The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I.
defeated the Austrians and Russians on the and of December
1805, was fought in the country to the west of Austerliu, the
position of Napoleon's left wing being almost equi-distant from
Brfinn and from Austerlits. The wooded hills to the northward
throw out to the south and south-west long spurs, between
which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The
scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau.
The famous " lakes " in the southern part of the field were
artificial ponds, which have long since been drained. On the
west or BrUnn side of the Goldbach is another and lower ridge,
which formed in the battle the first position of the French right
and centre. On the other wing is the mass of mils from which
the spurs and streams descend: here the OlmfiU-Brunn read
passes. The road from Brttnn to Vienna, Napoleon's presumed
line of retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village
of Raigern (3 m. west of Mdnitx) is very close to the extreme
right of the French position, a fact which had a great influence
on the course of the battle. (The course of events which led
to the action is described under Napoleonic Campaigns.)
Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the allied Austrians
and Russians from Olroutz, bivouacked west of the Goldbach,
whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of the
roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys
east of the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained
inactive, Napoleon's by express order, the enemy's seemingly
from mere negligence, since they had 177 squadrons at their
disposal. Napoleon, having determined to fight, as usual called
up every available battalion; the splendid III. corps of Davout
only arrived upon the field after a heavy march, late on the night
of December xst. The plan of the allies was to attack Napoleon's
right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their advanced guard
began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish towards
Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his
troops, thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into
torches in his honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to
betoken the familiar device of lighting fires previous to a retreat,
and thus confirmed them in the impression which Napoleon's
calculated timidity had given. Thus encouraged, those who
desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper hand in the
councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack orders
for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general
Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior
officers, of whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent,
and the chief Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the
five columns and the reserve, into which the Austxo-Russian
army was organized, the following tasks: the first and second
(Russians) to move south-westward behind the Pratxen ridge
towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to cross the
southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right of
the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolo-
wrat) on the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz.
An Austrian advanced guard preceded the 1st and and columns.
Farther still on the right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince
John of Liechtenstein) was to hold the northern part of the
plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmiitz road; across the road itself
was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of Liechtenstein's
corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke Constan-
tino) . Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into
the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between
Bagration and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein's squadrons could
not form a serious obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon's
centre. The whole plan was based upon defective information
and preconceived ideas; it has gone down to history as a classical
example of bad generalship, and its author Weyrother, who was
perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a charlatan.
Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the
powers of his men, which was the secret of his generalship,
entrusted nearly half of his line of battle to a division (Legrand's)
of Souk's corps, which was to be supported by Davout, some
of whose brigades had marched, from Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight
hours. But the ground which this thin line was to hold against
three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely intersected
by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the Grande
Amite, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's
marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left.
" Whilst they march to turn my right," said Napoleon in the
inspiriting proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle,
" they present me their flank,", and the great counterstroke
was to be delivered against the Pratzen heights by the French
centre. This was composed of Souk's corps, with Bernadotte's
in second line. On the left, around the hill called by the French
the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes' corps, supported
by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve
consisted of the Guard and Oudinot's grenadiers.
938
AUSTIN
The attack of the allies was begun by the first three
which moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pimtsen
plateau before dawn on the and, towards TdniU and Sokoinitz.
The Austrian advanced guard engaged at daybreak, and the
French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence; both parties were
reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in fulfilling his
mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The contest was
long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back Legrand
and a part of Davout's corps; numerous attacks both of infantry
and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforce-
ments each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at
about 10 A.M., the allies were in possession of the villages on the
Goldbach from Sokolnita southwards, and Davoufs line of
battle had reformed more than a mile to rearward, still, however,
maintaining touch with the French centre on the Goldbach at
Kobelniu. Between the two lines the fighting continued almost
to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the
Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy.
In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had
delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which
was crossed by Liechtenstein's cavalry moving in the opposite
direction. The objective of this column was Kobemitr, and the
two emperors and Kutusov accompanied it. The delay had, how*
ever, opened a gap between Kolowrat and the 3rd column on his
left; and towards this gap, and the denuded Pratzen plateau,
Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire's division of Soult's corps for
the decisive attack. Kutusov waspursuing this march to the south-
west when be was surprised by the swift advance of Soult's men
on the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the
allies; Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front
to his right and called up his reserves. The French did not win
the plateau without a severe struggle. St Hilaire's (the right
centre) division was fiercely engaged by Kolowrat's column,
General Miloradovich opposed the left centre attack under
Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the best fighting
generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian 2nd
column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a
bold counter stroke against St Hilaire's right flank, but were
repulsed, and Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout
by attacking Sokoinitz. The Russians in Sokoinitz surrendered,
an opportune cavalry charge further discomfited the allied left,
and the Pratxen plateau was now in full possession of the French.
Even the Russian Guard failed to shake Vandamme's hold.
In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been engaged in the
defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed the
greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French.
The cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history
of the mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won
fresh laurels against the cavalry of Liechtenstein's command.
The French not only held their ground, but steadily advanced and
eventually forced back the allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring
their retreat on Olmutz. The last serious attempt of the allies
in the centre led to some of the hardest fighting of the day;
the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke Constantine
pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau,
and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers
came into action. After the " Chevalier Guards " had been
routed by Marshal Bessiercs and the Guard cavalry, the allies
had no more hope of victory; orders had already been sent to
Buxhdwden, who commanded the three columns engaged against
Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further attempt was made
on the plateau, which was held by the French from Pratzen to
the Olmtttx road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last
confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach
was one for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps
the hardest of the whole battle, but the inevitable retreat,
every part of which was now under the fire of the French on the
plateau, was terribly costly. Soult now barred the way to
Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward towards Satschan.
As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was broken up
by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were drowned.
^t twelve hours from 7 a.m. to nightfall, the 65,000 French
troops had bat 6800 warn, or abool 10%; the 1
engaged) had i*,aoo killed and wounded, and left ia the <
hands 15,000 prisoners (many wounded) and 133 gone.
AUSTIIf, ALFRED (1835- ), English poc t 4n irntr , wea
born at Headingley, near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. Hn
father, Joseph Austin, was a merchant of the city of Leeds
his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke, M.P. for Honrtem. Mr
Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oncott, and London Univer-
sity, where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar four
years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; bat ■
1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and action.
he made his first noteworthy appearance aa a writer with a
satire called The Season, winch contained incisive Hues, asd
was marked by some promise both in wit and observation.
In 1870 he published a volume of criticism, The PoUry of the
Period, which was again conceived in a spirit of satirical invec-
tive, and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Arnold and
Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused name
discussion at the time, but its judgments were exu e n se ly un-
critical In 1 88 1 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy,
Savonarola, to which he added Soliloquies in 1882, Prime*
Lucifer in 1887, England's Darling in 1896, The Caemrsiom of
Winchdmann in 1897, &c A keen Conservative in politics, for
several years he edited The National Xeoiem, and wrote leading
articles for The Standard. On Tennyson's death in 189s it vas
felt that none of the then living poets, except Swinburne or
William Morris, who were outside consideration on other
grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the sanrd
crown, and for several years no new poet-laureate wasnesninated
In the interval the claims of one writer and another were mock
canvassed, but eventually, in 1806, Mr Austin was appointed
As poet-laureate, bis occasional verses did not escape advene
criticism; his hasty poem in praise of the Jameson Raid ia
1806 being a notable instance. The most effective characteristic
of Mr Austin's poetry, as of the best of his prose, is n genuine
and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, The Garde* last
/ lost and In Veronica's Garden, are full of a pleasant, open-air
flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of hia Fm*4ith
Lyrics. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and
individuality, but many of them possess a simple, orderly
charm, as of an English country lane. He has, indeed, a true
love of England, sometimes not without a suspicion of insularity,
but always fresh and ingenuous. A drama by him, Ptedden
Field, was acted at His Majesty's theatre in 1003.
AUSTIN, JOHN (1700*1859), English jurist, was born on the
3rd of March 1700. His father was the owner of flour nulls at
Ipswich and in the neighbourhood, and was in good circumstance*.
John was the eldest of five brothers. One of his brother*,
Charles (1799-1874), obtained great distinction at the bar.
John Austin entered the army at a very early age; be b said
to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment under
Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have
liked his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and
even in the follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from s
journal kept by him at the time that he occupied himself wit*
studies of a far more serious kind than is common amongst
young officers in the army. He notes having read in the coarse
of one year Dugald Stewart's Philosophical Essays, Drummond'k
Academical Questions, Enfield's History ef Philosophy, and
Mitford's History ef Greece, and upon all of these he makes
observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for
criticism which must have come from extensive reading else-
where. The prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter
self-depredation. He says in it that the retrospect of the past
year (18? x) "has hardly given rise to one single feeling of
satisfaction," and farther on he says that " indolence, always
the prominent vice of my character," has " assumed over me
an empire I almost despair of shaking off." It is difficult to
believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading
consisted of such books, and who (as appears from the same
journal) was In the habit of turning to the classics as an alter-
native, could have deserved the reproach of indolence.
AUSTIN
939
Iii x$is, he resigned Ma commtarioi In the army, and Returned
home. He then began to read law in the chambers of a banister.
He was called to the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk
circuit, but he never obtained any large practice, and he finally
retired from the bar in 1825. In 18x9 he married Sarah Taylor
(see Austin, SaRah).
Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was
not long before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities
and in a manner peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind.
In 1836 a number of eminent men were engaged in the foundation
of University College, and it was determined to establish in it a
chair of jurisprudence. This chair was offered to Austin and he
agreed to accept it. As he was not called upon to begin his
lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to Germany in
order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the method
of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided
first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived
on terms of intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny
and EL J. A. Mittermaier, and such eminent men of letters as
Niebuhr, Brandis, Schlegel and A. W Heffter. He began
lecturing in 1828, and at first was not without encouragement.
His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It included a number
of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics and
philosophy— Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller,
Charles Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord
Romilly, Edward Strutt afterwards Lord BeJper, Sir William
Erie and John Stuart Mill were all members of his class.
All of these have left on record expressions of the profound
admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those who
heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional
in quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary
attached to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain
in London, and in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published
his Province of Jurisprudence determined, being the first ten of
his delivered lectures compressed into six.
There is ample testimony that Austin's lectures were very
highly appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault
was that they were over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid
ambiguity, he repeats his explanations and qualifications to an
extent which must have tired his hearers. Nevertheless the
lectures excited an admiration which almost amounted to
enthusiasm. Nor was Austin's influence confined to his lectures.
Sir William Erie says in a letter written to him in 1844, "The
interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln's Inn I
regard as a deeply important event in my life, and I ever
remember your friendship with thankfulness and affection."
John Stuart Mill, whose views on political subjects were entirely
opposed to those of Austin, spoke of him after his death as the
man " to whom he (Mill) had been intellectually and morally
most indebted," and he expressed the opinion " that few men
had contributed more by their individual influence,, and their
conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active
minds of the generation."
In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of
criminal law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a
member. The first report was signed by all the commissioners,
and was presented in June 1834. Nevertheless it appears from
some notes made at the time that Austin, though he thought it
his duty to sign the report, strongly objected to some passages
which it contained. It is pretty obvious from the nature of
these objections that nothing would have satisfied him short of
a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the
commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a
digest Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice -Wills felt some
years later, that the anomalies which a code would remove
would " choke a digest."
In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin
to give lectures on the " General Principles of Jurisprudence
and Internationa] Law." He delivered a few lectures in the
spring of that year, but in June 'the course was by order of the
benchers suspended on account of the smallness of the attend-
ance, and it was never resumed. He then went to live with his
wife and only cbfld Lock (afterwards Lady DnfiNGordon) at
Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He
then accepted an appointment offered hhn by Sir James Stephen
to go as royal commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr
(afterward Sir George) Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the
nature and extent of the grievances of which the natives of that
Hie Austins remained in Malta until Jury 1838. After their
return they lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled
m Paris, where they remained until driven out of France by
the revolution of 1848. They then took a house at Weybridge,
and there Austin remained until his death in December 1859.
He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition of the
Ptv m nu of Jurisprudence, which was then out of print, and he
went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray
of an extended work on "The Principles and Relations of
Jurisprudence and Ethics." But nothing came of it
In 1849 Austin published in the Edinburgh Review an attack
upon Friedrich List's system of trade protection (Das nationale
System der politischen Okonomie). And in 1850 be published a
pamphlet entitled " A Plea for the Constitution/' This was
occasioned by the publication of Lord Grey's essay on M Parlia-
mentary Government." Its main object was to show that the
consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform
were ail of them either impossible of realization or mischievous.
He thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to
improve their position was barred by the inexorable laws of
political economy; and that if they obtained power they would
only use it to plunder the rich; whilst, on the other hand, he seems
not to have had any suspicion that the " proprietary class "
were likely to disregard the interests of the poor. He thinks
that political power is safest in the hands of those possessed
of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property
even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of
political capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the
Benthamite sense, and remained so to the end of his life. It
must be remembered that Bentham's sole and immutable test
of human action was the greatest happiness of the greatest
number. This is a principle which an aristocrat may adopt if
he chooses, no less than a democrat; an individualist no less
than a socialist; and there is nothing in the " Plea for the
Constitution" which contravenes this. But Austin thought,
and m this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass
of the people did not know their own interests so welt as " an
aristocracy of independent gentlemen " who might be trusted
to provide for the wants of all classes alike.
Austin's position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate.
Twice his influence appeared likely to produce some impression
upon English law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short
time, and never extended very far. The men whom he influenced
were very eminent, but in numbers they were few. As a rule,
students for the bar never at any time paid any attention to his
teaching. The first published lectures were almost forgotten
when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to lecture
on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and
public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the
importance of Austin's analytical inquiries into the meaning of
legal terms. He used to say that it was Austin's inquiries
which had made a philosophy of law possible. Undoubtedly
Maine's influence revived for a short time the interest in Austin's
teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of Austin's death,
and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the Province
of Jurisprudence, and this was followed soon after by two
volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the
remaining lectures delivered at University College and other
notes {Lectures on Jurisprudence', or The Philosophy of Positive
Law).
It cannot be said that Austin's views of jurisprudence have
had, as yet, any visible influence whatever on the study of
English law. But if we consider what it was that Austin en-
deavoured to teach, it can hardly be said that the subject is one
which a lawyer can with impunity neglect. He proposes to
94°
AUSTIN
distinguish law iron) morals; to explain the notions which
have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punish-
ment and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to,
sovereignty; to examine the distinction between rights in rem
and rights in personam, and between rights ex contractu and
rights ex delicto; and further to determine the meaning of
such terms as right, obligation, injury, sanction, person, thing,
act and forbearance. These are some of the terms, notions
and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain. They
are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only
portion of Austin's work which has attracted much attention
of recent years is his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum
that all laws properly so called must be considered as sanctioned
expressly or tacitly by the sovereign. This has been indignantly
denied. It has been considered enough to justify this denial
to point out that there are in existence states where the seat
of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law, cannot be accur-
ately indicated. But this criticism is entirely misplaced;
for as pointed out by Maine {Early History of Institutions,
Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin's views,
which in the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon
was not an inquiry into the nature of sovereignty as it is found
to exist, but an inquiry into what was the connexion between
the various forms of political superiority. And this inquiry
was undertaken in order to enable him to distinguish the province
of jurisprudence properly so called from the province of morality ;
an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion just stated
was clearly conceived. Austin's views of sovereignty, therefore,
was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but by
no means useless for others. "There is," as Maine says, "not
the smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these
great writers (i.e. Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference,
but there is the strongest necessity for knowing what these con-
clusions are. They are indispensable, if for no other object,
for the purpose of clearing the head." These last words exactly
express the work which Austin set himself to do. It was to clear
his own head, and the beads of his hearers, that he laboured so
hard. As Austin once said of himself, his special vocation was
that of untying intellectual knots. The disentangling of classifica-
tions and distinctions, the separation of real from accidental
distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly apprehended, these
(as has been truly said) were the characteristics of Austin's
work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that this
somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the
study of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It
is a curious reflection that whilst the lectures in which these
inquiries were begun (though not completed) excited the ad-
miration of his contemporaries, hardly any one now thinks
such inquiries worth pursuing.
The Lectures on Jurisprudence were reviewed by J. S. Mill in the
Edinburgh Review of October 1863, and this review is republished
in Mill's Dissertations and Discussions, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor
lethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin's earlier
lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There
is a sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the Lectures on
Jurisprudence, which she published after his death. (W. Ma.)
AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867), English author, was bom in
1793, the daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and
a member of the well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great
grandfather, Dr John Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the
Presbyterian church there, and wrote a once famous polemical
work on The Scripture Doctrine oj Original Sin (1738), which
called forth celebrated treatises by Jonathan Edwards on Original
Sin. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an exceedingly clever
woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent to her
daughter. Their friends included Dr Aldcrson and his daughter
Mrs Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James
Mackintosh. Sarah Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (q.v.).
They lived in Queen Square, Westminster, where Mrs. Austin,
whose tastes, unlike her husband's, were extremely sociable,
gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill
and the G rotes being especially intimate. She received many
Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born
her only child, Lude, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon, lbs.
Austin never attempted any considerable original work, cue-
tenting herself chiefly with translations, of which the most
important are the History of the Reformation in Germany and
the History of the Popes (1840), from the German of Leopold t«bi
Ranke, Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia (1*34)
from the French of V. Cousin, and F. W. Carove's The SUrj
without an End (1864). After her husband's death in 1859 she
edited hia Lectures on Jurisprudence. She also edited tat
Memoirs of Sydney Smith (1855) and Lady DnJE-GataWs
Letters from Egypt (1865). She died at Weybridge on the 8th d
August 2867.
See Three Generations of Englishwomen (r898), by her gnat
daughter, Mrs Janet Ross.
AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836), American pioneer,
was born in Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of
November 1793. He was the son of Moses Austin (^67- 1821),
a native of Durham, Connecticut, who in 1820 obtained from
Mexico a grant of land for an American colony in Texas, bat died
before he could carry out his project. The son was educated
in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University,
Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a
member of the territorial legislature from 1813 to 18 19. In
18 19 he removed to Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed
a circuit judge. After his father's death he obtained a con-
firmation of the Texas grants from the newly established Mexican
government, and in 1821-1823 he established a colony of several
hundred American families on the Brazos river, the principal town
being named, In his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was a
firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in
1833 he was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from
a convention in Texas praying for the erection of a separate
state government. While there, despairing of success for his
petition, he wrote home recommending the organization of a
state without waiting for the consent of the Mexican congress.
This letter falling into the hands of the Mexican government,
Austin, while returning home, was arrested at Saltillo, carried
as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a year without
trial Returning to Texas in 1 83 5, he found the Texans in armed
revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief
of the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio
he resigned the command, for which be had never considered
himself fitted, and in November 1835 went to the United States as
a commissioner to secure loans and supplies, and to leant the
position the United States authorities would be likely to take
in the event of a declaration of Texan independence. He suc-
ceeded in raising large sums, and received assurances that satisfied
him that Americans would look with great favour on an inde-
pendent Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of 1836,
he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency
of the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by
Samuel Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his
sudden death on the 7th of December 1836.
See A Comprehensive History of Texas, edited by D. C. Wootea
(a vols., Dallas. 1898).
AUSTIN, a city and the county-seat of Mower county.
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek,
(by rail) 105 m. S. of Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul
Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state census) 6489 (913 foreign-bom);
(1910, U.S. census) 6960. It Is served by the Chicago
Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways.
Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College
and Austin School of Commerce (1S96), and has a Carnegie
library, court house and city hall. It is a market for live-stock,
and for dairy and farm products, and has slaughtering and
packing establishments, flour mills, creameries and cheese
factories, canning and preserving factories, carriage works,
a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick, tile, sewer-pipe,
and hydraulic cement aTe manufactured, and there are railway
repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for manu-
facturing purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value
AUSTIN— AUSTRALIA
:94*
and beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns
And operates its own water-supply system and electric-fighting
plant. Austin was settled in 1855, was incorporated as a village
in 1868, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
AUSTIN, the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat
of Travis county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near
the centre of the state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston.
Pop. (1800) 14,575; (1900) 21,258, of Whom 5822 were negroes;
(19x0 census) 29,860. Austin is served by the Houston &
Texas Central, the International & Great Northern, and the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city is built on high
bluffs 40-1 20 ft above the river, which is spanned here by a bridge,
built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building,
of red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than
$3,500,000, and stands in a square in the centre of the city.
It was built (188 1- 1 888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for
a land grant of 3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Creek cross,
with an extreme length of 556-5 ft. and an extreme width of
a88-8 ft. Next to the National Capitol at Washington, it is
the largest capitol building in the United States, and it is said
to be one of the ten largest buildings in the world. Austin
is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in 1883; co-
educational); the medical department of the state university
is at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college
of arts, department of education, department of engineering,
department of law, school of pharmacy, and school of nursing.
The government of the university is vested in a board of eight
regents nominated by the governor and appointed with the
advice and consent of the state senate. At Austin are also
state institutions and asylums for the insane, the blind, the
coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and dumb;
the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman's home-
(1907; for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors),
maintained by the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary's
Academy (Roman Catholic, under the supervision of the
Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875, chartered 1886); St
Edward's College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885); the Austin
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church,
South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905
partly controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College
(a negro school under Congregational control, founded by the
American Missionary Association, chartered in 1877, and opened
in 1 881); and Samuel Huston College (for negroes; Methodist
Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in honour of an Iowan
benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are the
Statesman (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper,
and the Tribune (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening
paper. The Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society is
published here. Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre
for central and western Texas, is an important market for live-
stock, cotton, grain and wool, and has extensive manufactories
of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods, lumber and wooden
ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,569,353,
being 105-2 % more than in 1900. The city owns and operates
its water-supply system. In 1 890-1 893 one of the largest dams
in the world, an immense structure of granite masonry, iaco ft.
long, 60-70 ft high, and 18 to 66 ft thick, was constructed
across the Colorado river 2 m. above the dty for the pur-
pose of supplying water and power, creating a reservoir (Lake
M*Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the spring of 1900.
however, undermined the wall, and on the 7 th of April the dam
broke with a resulting loss of several Jives and about $1,000,000
worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected
in 1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo,
but in 1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the
Republic of Texas, ft was renamed in honour of Stephen F.
Austin, one of its founders. Under the influence of General Sam
Houston the capital was for a time in 1842-1845 removed from
Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an ordinance was passed making
Austin the capital, and it remained the state capital after Texas
entered the Union, although Huntsville and Tehuacana Springs
in 1850 and Houston in 187a attempted in popular elections
to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement
in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1813 by members of
the Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe.
In 1009 Austin adopted a commission form of government.
AUSTRALASIA, a term used by English geographers in a
sense nearly synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers.
It thus comprises all the insular groups which extend almost con-
tinuously from the south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than
half-way across the Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia
with the Philippines; Australia with Tasmania and New
Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea, New Britain, New
Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa Crux,
Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the
Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert
groups; lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti,
the Marquesas, Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters.
The term is so far justified in that it harmonizes better than
Oceania did with the names of the other continents, and also
embodies the two essential facts that it is a south-eastern
extension of Asia, and that its central and most important
division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more
restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large
division including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.
See Australasia, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Scries, new issue
(London, 1907-1908).
AUSTRALIA, the only continent entirely in the southern
hemisphere. It lies between i6°39 # and 39* 1 1|' S., and between
1 1 3° 5' and 253° 16' E. . Its greatest length is 2400 m. from
east to west, and the greatest breadth 1971 m. from north to
south. The area is, approximately, 2,946,691 sq. m. t with a
coast line measuring about 8850 m. This is equal to 1 m. to
each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest proportion of coast shown
by any of the continents.
Physical Geogxavbt
Physiopapky.— -The salient features of the Australian
continent are its com p a c t outline, the absence of navigable
rivers communicating with the interior, the absence of
active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains, its
isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of
the most profound changes that have taken place on this globe
occurred in Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia
was already dry land when vast tracts of Europe and Asia
were submerged; in this sense, therefore,. Australia has been
rightly referred to as one of the oldest existing land surfaces.
It has been described as at once the largest island and the
smallest continen t on the globe. The general contours exemplify
the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to their
having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest
mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N.
Australia is bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and
Torres Strait; on the E. by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by
Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean; and on the W. by the
Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in three
fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces
is the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average
depth of 15,000 ft From this profound foundation rise
Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia, in varying slopes. The
first ledge rising from the ocean floor has a depth averaging
8000 ft below sea-IeveL The outer edge of this ledge is roughly
parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and more than 150 m.
from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continue* parallel
to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge still
averaging 8000 ft in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat 55°,
and forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of
the abysmal area comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania
and New South Wales, approaching to within 60 m. of Cape
Howe. The terrace closest to the land, known as the continental
shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft., and connects Australia,
New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep. Compared
with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is ex-
tremely narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where
AUSTRALIA
. . >. .^» Jv>va to oceanic depths with an abruptness
, . i A s .1 v HI the t>ccosland coast toe shelf broadens,
. *• t*-»ug lined by the seaward face of the Great
„ K,vi r ivm Tones Strait to Danpier Land the shelf
, „A out. And connects Australia with New Guinea and the
VWu\ VumpcUgcv An elongation of the shelf to the south joins
I t«.iunia with the mainland. The vertical relief of the land
aU>\c the ocean is a very important factor in determining the
vlimtte as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a
continent.
The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than
that of any other continent ; and the chief mountain systems are
parallel to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the con-
tinent as a whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-
lying well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part
arid, interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies
a position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the con-
tinent, and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch
upwards to the few-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
The contour of the continent in latitude *o° 5/ is as follows:— ^a
short strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain
range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast.
From thb a gently-doping plateau extends to almost due north of
Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to sea-
level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000 ft.
above sea-levcL A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads to
the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of
few-lying coastal land to the sea.
With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour
wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sen except on its northern
shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of Car-
pentaria, situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the pro-
_, _ .. ugh much
smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between
it and the ocean ; while beyond this, Queen's Channel and Cambridge
Gulf form inlets about 14* 50' S. On the north-west of the continent
the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being Admiralty
Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman Land.
Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets, Exmouth
Gulf and Shark's Bay being the only bays of any sise. The same
remark may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the
exception of Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip
on the south, and Morcton Bay. Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on
the east, the coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however,
numerous spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which
are referred to in the detailed articles dealing with the different
states. The Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off
the north-cast coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is
1200 m., and it is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The
channel b et we en the reef and the coast n in places 70 m. wide and
400 ft. deep. There are a few clear openings in the outer rampart
which the reef presents to the ocean. These are opposite to the
large estuaries of the Queensland rivers, and might be thought to
have been caused by fresh water from the land. The breaks are,
however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and more probably were
caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known to exist below
sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with New Guinea, seem
to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin's well-known subsidence
theory, and any facts that appear to be inconsistent with the theory
of a steady and prolonged subsidence are explainable by the assump-
tion of a slight upheaval
With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands
belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea. Timor and
other islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed
any great distance from the continent, do not belong to its system.
On the east coast there are a few small and unimportant islands.
In Bass Strait are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke
Island, and a few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the
entrance of St Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the
Australian coast, measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average
width of so m. Numerous small islands lie off the western coast,
but none has any commercial importance. On the north coast an
Melville and Bathurst Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and
48 m. broad, is fertile and well watered. These islands are opposite
Port Darwin, and to the westward of the large inlet known as
Van Dtemen's Gulf. In the Gulf of Carpentaria are numerous
islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name of Groote Eylandt.
Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession
of mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing
Range originates in the south-eastern corner of the con-
tinent, and runs parallel with and dose to the eastern
shore, through the state* of Victoria and New South Wales,
it up to the far-distant York Peninsula in Queensland. In
right
v5*
Ictoria the greatest elevation is reached in the peaks of Mount
' ' (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303 ft.), both of which
(GEOGRAPHY
he nc«th of the Drvidk* Range: m tke mam Uotf^n
(6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (602$ ft.) are the highest s-^isr 1
In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian bonier, are f '_*iar • »
loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount To»wi
rising to heights of 7 128 and 7260 ft- respectively. The ra\n«e *• H -»
called the Munioog. but farther north it receives the nsuneot M<-(_
Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its average t*
only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it der~*
both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles only. »r- -
elevation of scarcely I sop ft.; under the name of tbe Blue Mow cu <•
the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the due* pr-a
being Mount Clarenccfaooo (t-).Mount Victoria(jS2S ft-), and V 1
Hay (3270 ft-X. The Dividing Range drrrrasrs north of the t r
Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of tbe 00a 1
to the Darling. The t
where the highest peak, Mount <sO
north, in the New England Ri--
rivers from those f
more in the Liverpool I _
reaches 4500 ft., and farth _ _
Ben Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near tbe Qu«t~>
border. Mount Lindsay, in the Macphcraon Range, rise* to a r .'.
of 5500 ft. In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerve* ml t •
no other peak north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle f -»-t
in the Beflenden Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean «\ -* n
of the Victorian Dividing Range hardly attains to the di^nX ,
high mountains. An eastern system in South Australia totf ho- it
a few points a height of 3000 ft. *. and the Stirling Range. br*or; ••«;
to the south-western system of South Australia, reaches to 234
There are no mountains behind the Great Australian Burnt. < -
the west the Darling Range faces the Indian Ocean, and cvrr -,
from Point D*Entrecasteaux to the Mardttsoo river. North of :•*•
Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount Bruce, with their c onn ** • ■ «g
highlands, cut off the coastal drainage from the interior; bit u
point on tbe north-west coast reaches a greater altitude than aro > .':
Several minor ranges, the topography of which is little kn •■*.
extend from Cambridge Golf, behind a very much broken coast -In*.
to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing is owe
remarkable than the contrast betwe en the aspect of the coav J
ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The
higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are ♦ •*
worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold i?w
above the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree :.«.
Their summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken sol.: jJc.
Having left the tree-line Tar behind him. nothing is visible t« :>«
traveller for miles around but barren peaks ana torn crags tr ; <y
describable confusion. A verdure of herbage cloches the va'*\s
that have been scooped from the summits do w nwa rd s . But there are
no perpetual snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these vaftc>v ;^J
no alpine hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. Tbe r -r-
tains of the north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their s j - - :i
with a rich and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear '. i t
themselves from a sea of green, and a tropical veaylatsu n. qo.te
Malaysian in character, covers everything.
The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of th'-~z\
in a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of rt
volcanoes of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption
probably subsequent to the advent of the biack-feUow. la sens
rnstances the cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and *ot-k
are as yet almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in t v e
Tertiary period vast sheets of lava poured from many point* of the
Great Dividing Range of eastern Australia. But it ss notablr that
all recent volcanic action was confined to a wide best parallel to
the coast. No evidences of recent lava flows can be sound in us
interior over the great alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Hi* tr
Steppes. Nor has the continent, as a whole, in recent times bri
subjected to any violent earth tremors; though in 1873. to tV
north of Lake Amadeus, in central Australia, Ernest Giles record!
the occurrence of earthquake shocks violent enough to dislodge con-
siderable rock masses.
Australia po ss esse s one mountain which, though not a volcano,
ts a *' burning mountain." This is Mount Wingen. situated in a «r» j
of the Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone Its fires
are not volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal was
distance underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geoU^^ts
estimate that the burning has been going on for at least 800 yean.
The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with
the exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight
and Spencer Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the
east coast there are some fine rivers, but the majority have
short and rapid courses. In Queensland a succession of rivers fans
into the Pacific from Cape York to the southern boundary of the
The Burdeldn is the finest of these, draining an area of
53.900 sq. m-. and emptying into Upstart Bay; K receives numerous
tributaries in its course, and carries a huge body of fresh water even
in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy river is the second in point ii
sire ; it drains an area of 55.600 sq. m.. and receives several tributary
streams during its course to KcppeJ Bay. The Brisbane river,
falling into Moreton Bay, is important chiefly from the fact that the
city of Brisbane is situated on its banks. In riew South Wales then
are several important rivers, the largest of which is the Hunter,
draining 11.000 sq. m. f and having a course of aoo m. Taking tkess
from north to south, the principal rivers are tbeF' " * —- - - -
SEOLOGY]
M acfeay. Hastings, Maiming , Hunter, Hawkesbury and Sfcwlhaven.
The Snowy river hat the greater part of its course in New South
Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in Victoria. The other
rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering the sea at Port
Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (q.v.), the greatest river
of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and thence into the
•ea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no other rivers
of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the Gawler
may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of
the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length
un pie reed by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight,
towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-
west coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size;
amongst these is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western
Australia, is built. Between the Swan and North- West Cape the
principal rivers are the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on
the north-west coast, the Ashburton, Fortescue and Oe Grey; and in
the Kimberley district, the Fitsroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the.
Ord. In the Northern Territory are several fine rivers. The Victoria
river is navigable for large vessels for a distance of about 43jn. from
the sea, and small vessels may ascend for another 80 m. The Fits-
maurice, discharging into the estuary of the Victoria, is also a large
stream. The Daly, which in its upper course is called the Katherine,
b navigable for a considerable distance, and small vessels are able
to ascend over 100 m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay,
has been navigated by large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels
ascend still farther. The South Alligator nver, flowing into Van
Diemen's Gulf, is also a fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large
vessels; the East Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been
navigated for 40 ra. Besides those mentioned, there are a number
of smaller rivers discharging on the north coast, and oa the west
shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself
into Limmen Bight. The Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable
for about 75 or 80 m. by vessels of the largest tonnage, and light
draught vessels can ascend 20 m. farther. Along the portion of the
south shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland
and the east coast, many large rivers discharge their waters, amongst
them the Norman, Flinders, Lekhhardt, Albert and Gregory on the
southern shore, and the Batavia, Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten
and Gilbert on the eastern shore. The rivers flowing into the Gulf
of Carpentaria, as well as those in the Northern Territory, drain
Country which is subject to regular monsoonal rains, and have the
general characteristics of sub-tropical rivers.
The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling
and Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The
so-called rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some
of them do not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters
disappear often within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by
porous soil, stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying
bed-rocks. In many cases the rivers as they approach the main
stream break up into numerous branches, or spread their waters over
vast flats. This is especially the case with the tributaries of the
Darling on its left bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers
overspread their banks and flood the flat country for miles around
and thus reach the main stream. Lieutenant John Qxley went down
the Lachlan (1817) during one of these periods of flood, and the great
plains appeared to him to be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a
matter of fact, they are an alluvial deposit spread out by the same
flood waters. The great rivers of Australia, draining inland, carve
out valleys, dissolve limestone, and spread out their deposit over
the plains when the waters become too sluggish to bear their burden
farther. From a geological standpoint, the Great Australian Plain
and the fertile valley of the Nile have had a similar origin. Taking
the Lachlan as one type of Australian river, we And it takes its rise
amongst the precipitous and almost unexplored valleys of the Great
Dividing Range. With the help of its tributaries it acts as a denud-
ing agent for 14.000 so. m. of country, and carries its burden of
sediment westwards. A point is reached about 200 m. from the
Dividing Range, where the river ceases to act as a denuding agent,
and the area of deposition begins, at a level of 250 ft. above the sea.
but before the waters can reach the ocean they have still to travel
about 1000 m.
The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world,
for it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgctt to its confluence
with the Murray. 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of
.587 m.— making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives
no correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly
be said to drain its own watershed From the sources of its various
tributaries to the town of Bourke. the river may be described as
draininga watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct
line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it
flows through.
The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no
e whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia.
AUSTRALIA
9+3
The discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to
more than 10 % of the rainfall over the country which it drains.
It was this remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the
rainfall could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the
tiver discharge, much of the 90 % unaccounted for must sink into
the ground, and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock.
All Australka rivers, sxespt Iks Murray and the MtnrombWgee*
depend entirely and directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after
rain, and in seasons of drought many of them, especially the tribu*
taries of the Darling, become chains of ponds. Springs which would]
equalize the discharge of rivers by continuing to pour water into
their beds after the rainy season has passed seem entirely absent
in the interior. Nor are there any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the)
other continents. More remarkable still, over large tracts of country
the water seems disposed to flow away from, rather than to, tho
river-beds. As the low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit,
the coarser sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first
overflows its banks to spread out over the plains. The country
nearest the river receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way
the highest ground, and so continues until a " break-away " occurs,
when a new river-bed is formed, and the same process of deposition!
and accumulation is repeated. As the general level of the country
is raised by successive alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds
become buried, but being still connected with the newer rivers at
some point or other, they continue to absorb water. This under*
ground network of old river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains
must be filled to repletion before flood waters will flow over the
surface. It is not surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of
the rainfall over the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches
the sea by way of. the river systems; indeed these systems as
usually shown on the maps leave a false impression as to the actual
condition of things.
The great alluvial plain is one of Australia's most notable inland
features; its extent is upwards of 900,000 sq. ra., lying- east of
135* W. and extending right across the continent from mmmw
the Gulf of Carpentaria to the M urray river. The interior
of the continent west of 135* and north of the Musgrave ranges it
usually termed by geographers the Australian Steppes. 1 1 is entirely
different in all essential features from the great alluvial plains Its
prevailing aspect is characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped
by desert sandstone, with stone-covered flats stretching over
long distances. The country round Lake Eyre, where some of the
land is actually below sea-level, comes under this heading. The
higher steppes, as far as they are known, consist of Ordovkian and
Cambrian rocks, with an average elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above
sea-level Over this country water-courses are shown on maps.
These run in wet seasons, but in every instance for a short distance
only, and sooner or later they are lost in sand-hills, where their
waters disappear and a line of stunted gum-trees (Eucalyptus rostrata)
is all that is present to indicate that there may be even a soakage to
mark the abandoned course. The steppes covers surface of 400,000
sq. m., and from this vast expanse not a drop of the scanty rainfall
reaches the sea; there is no leading drainage system and there are
no rivers. Another notable feature of the interior is the so-called
lake area, a district stretching to the north of Spencer Gulf. These
lakes are expanses of brackish waters that spread or
contract as the season is one of drought or rain. In
seasons of drought
which for a time r
crusted with salt. The country around is the dreariest imagii
the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy timber and practically
no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of these depressions, some-
times forms a sheet of water 100 m. m length. To the north again
stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner. Some of these
lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a very slight
depression of the land to the south of them would connect much of
the interior with the Southern Ocean. (T. A. C.)
Ctolcey.— The states of Australia are divided by natural bound-
arics, which separate geographical areas having different characters,
owing, mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the
general stratigraphies! geology can be most conveniently summarized
for each state separately, dealing here with the geological history of
Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great
plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archcan
block or " coign, "which still occupies nearly the whole of the western
half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms
the foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria,
and is exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western
flank of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean
rocks were doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated
by the foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea. which
divided the continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian
festoon; and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the
Gulf of Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New
South Wales, to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the
Archean areas of eastern and western Australia. The breaking up
of the old Archean foundation block began In Cambrian and Ordo-
vician times. A narrow Cambrian sea must have extended across
central Australia from the Kimberley Gold field ill the north-west,
through Tempe Downs and the Macdonnell chain in central Australia,
to the South Australian highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield,
and northern Tasmania. Cambrian rocks occur in each of these
districts, and they are best developed in the South Australian high-
lands, where they include a long belt of contemporary glacial de-
posits. Marine Ordovician rocks were deposited along the same
general course. They are best developed in the Macdonnell ch r
;ht they are hardly more than swamps and mud flats,
ic may become a grassy plain, or desolate coast en-
It. The country around is the dreariest imaginable.
944
AUSTRALIA
[OTOLOGY
EngUA Miles
QSOW «ga jpo 400 sap <g »
LjAsifao/fl/c Hj/UtaioJa
Itousfe L^Jif/cArair A Pfutonle
central Australia and in Victoria, where the fullest sequence is
known; while they also extended north-eastward from Victoria
into New South Wales, where, as yet. no Cambrian rocks have been
found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the sea
from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across
Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of
Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician
in Victoria ; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales
and in Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South
Wales. Silurian rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and
the Silurian sea must have washed the south-western corner of the
continent, if the rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as
of this age.
The Devonian system includes a complex scries of deposits, which
are of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked
by intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east
Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main
terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The
Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in
Europe and America: it produced inland seas, extending into
Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited
limestones with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a
period of marine retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower
Devonian were renewed and great quartz-pebble beaches were
formed on the rising shore lines, producing the West Coast Range
conglomerates of Tasmania, and the similar rocks to the south-east
of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions of granitic massifs in the
Devonian period formed the primitive mountain axis 01 Victoria,
which extends ea»t and west across the state and forms the nucleus
of the Victorian highlands. Similar granitic intrusions occurred in
New South Wales and Queensland, and built up a mountain chain,
which ran north and south across the continent; ha worn-<Lva
stumps now form the east Australian highlands.
The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgrr*** e,
enabling limestones to form in Tasmania and New South \\ * « «
and at the same time the sea first got in along the w es t ern e^cr <t
the western plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rock* of re
Gascoync basin and the coastal plain of north-western Austra' ..
The Upper Carboniferous period was in the main terrestrial, a* i
during it were laid down the coal -scams of New South Wales: tSrv
arc best developed in the basin of the Hunter river, and they can M
southward, covered by Mcsoroic deposits, beyond Sydney. Th<
Coal Measures become narrower in the south, until, owing to t*x
eastward projection of the highlands, the Lower Palaeozoic nxfcs
reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been formed in * cfl-
- - - -- - - - -- - - b . lT
*h is
watered, lowland forests, at the foot of a high mountain range, h-lr
up by the Devonian earth movements. The mountains both is
Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and gianm
flowed down their fla nks and laid down Carboniferous glacial deposits
which arc still preserved in basins that flank the mountain ranges
such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcme
and the Loddon valley m Victoria, and of Branxton and otrcr
localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is
later than the CtossopUris flora and occurs early in the time of the
CantamopUris flora. Kitson's work in Tasmania shows that there
also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal
Measures of New South Wales.
The Permian deposits arc best developed in New South Wales
and Tasmania, where thdr characters show the continuation of tkr
Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triaask bod
period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the Aus-
tralasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which frijuja
CLIMATE)
AUSTRALIA
945
the whole of the Pacific. The Triage beds are beat known in New
South Wales, where round Sydney they include a aeriee of sandstone*
and shale*. They also occur in northern Tasmania.
The Juraaaic system is represented by two types. In Victoria.
Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are
Jurassic terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria,
of the Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the
Ipswich aeries in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on
the western slopes of the east Australian highlands in New Sooth
Wales and Queensland and they occur, with, coal-seams, at Leigh's
Creek, at the northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They
are also preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by
brown coal deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore.
The second and marine type of the Juraatks occurs in Western
Austraha, on the coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western
The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large
area to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower
Cretaceous sea spread southward, across western Queensland,
western New South Wales and the north-eastern districts of South
Australia. In tins aea were laid down the shales of the Rolling
Downs formation. The sea does not appear to have extended com-
pletely across Australia, breaking it into halves, for a protection
from the Archean plateau of Western Australia extended as far east
as the South Australian highlands, and thence probably continued
eastward, titt it joined the Victorian highlands. The Cretaceous sea
gradually receded and the plains of the Rolling Downs formation
formed on ha floor were covered by the subrenal and lacustrine
deposits of the Desert Sandstone.
The Kainocok period opened
most striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round
I with fresh earth movements, the
. ire the volcanic outbreaks all round
These movements in the south-east formed
the Great Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of
the state between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the
tdstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south
In this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or OIh
eocene thnee, a great aeries of lake beds and thick accumulations of
brown coal Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur
in Tasmania and New Zealand; and at about the same time there
began the Kainozoic volcanic period of Australasia. The first
eruptions piled up huge domes of lavas rich in soda, including the
geburile-dabtes and solvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria,
end the kenyte and tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand.
These rocks were followed by the outpouring of the extensive older
basalts in the Great Valley of Victoria and on the highlands of
eastern Victoria, and also in New South Wale* and Queensland.
Then followed a marine transgression along most of the southern
coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the land from the
Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones of the
Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the
western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was
interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania
and Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again,
fringing the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These
marine deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of
Australia; but they occur, and reach about the hum height above
sea-levd, in New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand.
No doubt eastern Australia then extended far out into the Teaman
Sea. The great monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the
east Australian highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After
this marine period was brought to a dote the sea retreated. Tas-
mania and Victoria were separated by the foundering of Baas
Strait, and at the same time the formation of the rift valley of
Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens, isolated the South Australian
highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and toe Westralian plateau.
Earth movements ere still taking place both along Bass Strait
and the Great Valley of South Australia, and apparently along the
whole length of the southern coast of Australia.
The Flowing Wells of Central Australia.— The clays of the Rolling
Down* formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with
water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a
flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The
first of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South
Wales in 1880. In 1883, Dr W. L. Jack concluded that western
Queensland might be a deep artesian basin. The Blackball bore, put
down at hb advice from i88« to 1888. reached a water-bearing layer
at the depth 011645 ft. and discharged 291 ,000 gallons a day. It was
the first of the deep artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on
the Rolling Downa formation are mostly waterless, the discovery
of this deep reservoir of water has b en of great aid in the develop-
ment of cmtrsl Aitstralia. In Queensland to the 90th of June 1904,
973 wells had been sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the
total flow was 63,635,732 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that
at Whitewood, 5046 ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of
June 1903, die government had put down 101 bores producing 66
Bowing wells and 33 sub-artesian wells, with a total discharge of
54,000,000 gallons a day; and there were also 144 successful private
well*. I n South Australia there are 38 deep bores, from 30 of which
there. is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a day.
The wens were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of
II 16*
the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a
higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed
to nave percolated underground, through the Blytheadale Braystone,
which outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs
formation. But the Blvtbesdale Braystone is a small local formation,
unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of
the well* derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstonea.
The difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern
intake and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their
distance apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole
of the available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain
gases; thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which
from its well. The chemical characters of the well-waters.
pilar distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of
the underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of
the wells of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which
are not explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J. W. Gregory
has maintained {Dead Heart of Australia, 1906, pp. 271-341) that
the ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included
gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some
of the water is of plutonic origin, 1 (J* W. G.)
Climate.— The Australian continent, extending over 38° of
latitude, might be expected to show a considerable diversity of
climate. In reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic
variations than the other great continents, owing to its distance
(28*) from the Antarctic circle and (u°) from the equator.
There is, besides, a powerful determining cause in the uniform
character and undivided extent of its dry interior. The plains
and steppes already described lie either within or close to the
tropics. They present to the fierce play of the sun almost a
level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes
intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation.
Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the
atmosphere which takes place under such circumstances would
draw in a supply of moisture from the ocean, but the heated
interior, covering some 900,000 sq. m., is so immense, that the
moist air from the ocean does not come in sufficient supply, nor
are there mountain chains to intercept the clouds which from
time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of Australia, com-
prising a region stretching from the Australian Bight to ao° S.
and from 117° to 142° £•> receives less than an average of 10 in.
of rain throughout the year, and a considerable portion of this
region has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very little of
Queensland and New South Wales lie within this area. The
rest of the continent may be considered as well watered. The
north-west coast, particularly the portions north of Cambridge
Gulf and the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, are favoured
with an annual visitation of the monsoon from December to
March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into the continent, and
sweeping sometimes across western and southern Queensland
to the northern interior of New South Wales. It is this tropical
downpour that fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake Eyre
and those falling into the Darling on its right bank. The whole
of the east coast of the continent is well watered. From Cape
York almost to the tropic of Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 »»•
and ranges to over 70 in. At Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and
portions of the New South Wales coast receive a like quantity,
but speaking generally the fall is from 30 in. to 40 in. The
southern shores of the continent receive much less rain. From
Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be taken at from 30 in.
to 40 in., Melbourne itself having an average of 25*6 in. West
of Fort Phillip the fall is less, averaging ao in. to 30 in., diminish-
ing greatly away from the coast Along the shores of Encounter
Bay and St Vincent and Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges
from 10 to 20 in., the yearly rainfall at Adelaide is a little less
than ai in., while the head of Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to
10 in. district. The rest of the southern coast west as far as
124° E M with the exception of the southern projection of Eyre
Peninsula, which receives from, xo to so in., belongs to the
1 The literature of the geology of Australia Is enumerated, to
1884, in the bibliography by Etneridge and Jack. A general sum-
mary of the stratigraphies) geology was given by R. Tate, AsA.
Austral. Assoc. Adv. Set. vol. v. (1893), pp. T-69. References to the
chief sources of information regarding the states is given under each
of them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of
50 m. to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887(6)
sue sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.
la
946
AUSTRALIA
{CLIMATS
district with from 5 to xo in. annual rainfall. The south-western
angle of the continent, bounded by a line drawn diagonally
from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an average of from 30 to
40 in. annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to 30 in in the
country along the diagonal line. The remainder of the south
and west coast from 224° E. to York Sound in the Kimberley
district for a distance of some 150 m. inland has a fall ranging
from 10 to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall band circles across
the continent through the middle of the Northern Territory,
embraces the entire centre and south-west of Queensland, with
the exception of the extreme south-western angle of the state,
and includes the whole of the interior of New South Wales to a
line about 200 m. from the coast, as well as the western and
northern portions of Victoria and South Australia south of the
Murray.
The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is
843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and
east is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the tea
are the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table
snows the area of the rainfall cones in square miles :—
Rainfall
Under 10
10 to so
so to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50
Sco 60
to 70
Over 70
Total .
Rainfall Areas
in sq. m.
. 1,219,600
«43.«oo
• 399.900
325.700
140.300
47.900
56,100
• '4.10Q
. 2,946,700
The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these
the northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m., com-
prising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the north-
western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South
Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and
more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m.,
are without the tropics. 1 n a region so extensive very great varieties
of climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a
general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of
corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During J uly , which
is the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has
a mean temperature ranging from 45* to 61*, and the other half from
6a*to8o*. The following are the areas subject to the various average
temperatures during the month referred to;—
Temperature Area
Fahr. in sq. m.
45 # -50 # 18,800
&£ ::•::: :SS2
0V-6V 834400
65/70* 515.000
70*-75* *75.900
75 -«o 84,500
The temperature in December ranges from 60* to above 95* Fahr.,
half of Australia having a mean temperature below 84*. Dividing
the land into zones of average summer temperature, the following
are the areas which would fau to each.—
Temperature Area
Fahr. in sq. m.
6o # -6V 67J00
65*-70 # 63,700
7o*-75* 352.300
K*-8o* 439.*oo
. :«5: 733.600
•5*-90* 570.600
90*-95* 584.100
95* and over I35.400
Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a
considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by
European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in
excess of 95* Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north
of the 20th parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the
seaboard, lying between the meridians of 120* and 140*, and north
of the 35th parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90* Fahr.
The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its
climate will not be understood without reference to the individual
mm,, states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies
i^~ in the tropics, the remaining area lying between the
* tropic and ao* S. The temperature, however, has a daily
sanga less than that of other countries under the same isothermal
lines. This circumstance is due to the sea-breexes, which blow with
Kit regularity, and temper what would otherwise be an nnwiii
t. The hot winds which prevail during the summer 1st some of
the other colonies are unknown in Queensland. Of coarse, in a
territory of such large extent there are many varieties of eUmar*.
and the heat is greater along the coast than on the elevated land* of
the interior. In the northern parts of the colony the high tem-
perature is very trying to persons of European descent. The meaa
temperature at Brisbane, during December, January and February,
is about 76*, while during the months of June, July and August «
averages about 60*. Brisbane, however, is situated near the estrone
southern end of the colony, and its average temperature is con-
siderably less than that of many of the towns farther north. Thw
the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65*, while the sumaa
heat rises almost to 85*; and at Townsville and Normanioa t!
average temperature is still higher. The average rainfall along the
coast is high, especially in the north, where it ranges from 60 to 70 ia,
Esr annum, and along a strip of country south from Cape Melville ta
ockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70 in. At Brisbane
the rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of forty years. A large
area of the interior is watered to the extent of ao to 30 in. per annum,
but in the west and south, more remote than from 250 to 300 «-.
there is a rainfall of less than ao in.
Climatically. New South Wales is divided into three meshed
divisions. The coastal region has an average summer temperatare
ranging from 78* in the north to 67* in the south, with m _
a winter temperature of from 59* to 53* Taking the Ttl - t
district generally, the difference between the meaa n/ana.
summer and mean winter temperatures may be set down
as averaging not more than so*, a range smaller than is fooad ia
most other parts of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude 33*51 'S-,
has a mean temperature of 62*9* Fahr., which corresponds with that
of Barcelona in Spain and of Toulon in France, the former of these
being in latitude 41* aa' N. and the latter in 43V N. At Sydney
the mean summer temperature is 708* Fahr., and that of wintnr
53-9*. The range is thus 16-9* Fahr. At Naples, where the una
temperature for the year is about the same as at Sydney, the summer
temperature reaches a mean of 74-4*. and the meaa of winter
b 47*6*, with a range a6-8*. The mean temperature of Sydney
for a long series of yearn was spring 6a*. summer 71*, autnaaa 64*.
winter 54*.
Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region
b entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65*4*. and
a mean winter temperature of 41*4*. may be taken as illustrative
of the climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the
northern. The yearly average temperature of the latter b scarcely
65'5*. while the summer only reaches 67*7*, and the winter fans
t044-4 # .
The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state aie
entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer
b hot, but on the whole the climate b very healthy. The town «f
Bourke, lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an aia m n l e of
many of the interior districts* and illustrates peculiarly veft the
defects as well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region.
Bourke has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean luwiir
temperature b i*i* leas, and its mean annual temperature 4* km
than that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same
parallel is, 4* hotter in summer. As regards winter temperataie
Bourke leaves little to be desired. The mean winter reading, of
the thermometer b 54*7, and" accompanied as thb b by dear skies
and an absence of snow, the season b both
vigorating. The rainfall of New South Wales ranges fa
average of 64 in. at various points on the northern « _
Kiandira in the Monaro district, to 9 in. at Milparinka in the trans-
Darling district. The coastal districts average about 4a in. per
annum, the tablebnds 3a in., and the western interior has an average
as low as ao in. At Sydney, the average rainfall, since obstmsliiiiii
were commenced, has been 50 in.
The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New
South Wales. The heat, however, b generally less intense in summer,
and the cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands nssiai
in btitude 37* 50' S.. has a mean temperature of 57J*.
and therefore corresponds with Washington in the United States,
Madrid. Lisbon and Messina. The difference b etween at
winter b, however, tern at Melbourne than at any of the f
tioned, the result of a long series of observations being >_
summer 65*3*. autumn 58*7*, and winter 49a" The highei
temperature in the shade at Melbourne b 110-7°, and the I
a7*. but it b rare for the summer heat to exceed 8s* t or for the whiter
temperature in the daytime to fall below 40* Bauarat, the second
city of Victoria, lies above 100 m. west from Melbourne at a height
of 1400 ft. above sea-level. It has a minimum temperature of so",
and a maximum of 104*5*. the average yearly mean being 54»*-
The rainfall of Melbourne averages 2558 in., the mean rmsaber of
rainy days being 131.
South Australia proper extends over a6 degrees of britade, and
naturally present* considerable variations of climate. The tulJu st
months are June, July and August, during which the gasne
temperature is very agreeable, averaging 53*6*. 3I-7°, AaaWwKsY
and 54* in those months respectively. On the plains
slight tioats occur occasionally, and ice b sometimes seen on the
FAUNA AND FLORA)
highlands, jAraoiflmtlwMahwgfCitpower.AadtbeltnMmbire
reaches ioo° in the shade, with hot winds blowing Iron the interior.
The weather on the whole is remarkably dry. At Adelaide there axe
on an average 120 rainy days per annua, with a mean rainfall of
ao-88 i«* The country is naturally very healthful, as evidence of
which may be mentioned that no gnat epidemic has ever visited
the state.
Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter
or weft season, which commences in April and ends in October, and
the summer or dry season, which comprises the remainder
n.._> ^ wet season frequent and heavy
AUSTRALIA
9+7
***** <*.*■**»
During the wet i
rains (all, and thunderstorms, with r ,
in the summer, especially on the north-west coast, which is some-
times visited by hurricanes of great violence. In the southern and
early-settled parte of the state the mean temperature is about 64*,
but in the more northern portions the heat is excessive, though the
dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to moist tropical
climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in* per annum.
The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely hot, except
on the elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part
of the continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and
the climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the
and the annual average along the coast is about 6* in. Thewl
" ' 1 north of 15'^ has a rainfall coaaiderably
of the
exuem e north, especially in January and February, is very heavy,
40 in. This region is backed by a belt of about 100 in. wide, in
which the rainfall is from 30 to 40 uu. from which inwards the
rainfall gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and
s it faUa to between 5 and 10 in.
Fauna and Ware.— The origin of the fauna and flora of
Australia hat attracted considerable attention. Much accumu-
lated evidence, biological and geological, has pointed to a
southern extension of India, an eastern extension of South
Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the Indian
Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in
Western Australia and South Africa first suggested a common
source for these primitive types. Dr H. 0. Forbes drew attention
to a certain community amongst birds and other vertebrates,
invertebrates, and amongst plants, on all the lands stretching
towards the south pole. A theory was therefore propounded
that these known types were all derived from a continent which
baa been named Antarctica. The supposed continent extended
across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South
America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in
the arctic regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated
for Antarctica. Modern naturalists consider that many of the
problems of Australia's remarkable fauna and flora can be best
explained by the following hypothesise— The region now covered
by the antarctic ice-cap was in early Tertiary times favoured
by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic continent or archipelago.
From an area corresponding to what is now South America
there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing modifica-
tion, passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants
then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian
flora and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position
of a disparaged heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The
discovery as fossil, in South America, of primitive or ancestral
forms of marsupials has given it much support. One of these,
Prolhytacitnu, is regarded as the forerunner of the marsupial
wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link between divergent
marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the Coenolesies, a
another discovery of recent years. On the Australian side the
fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the
gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this
antarctic element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name
Euromctian, entered a desert barren of all h'fe. Previous to its
arrival Australia doubtless possessed considerable vegetation
and a scanty fauna, chiefly invertebrate. At a comparatively
recent date Australia received its third and newest constituent.
The islands of Torres Strait have been shown to be the denuded
remnant of a former extension of Cape York peninsula in North
Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait, and across
its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan forms.
Along; the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these
found in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants
the wild banana, pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron,
epiphytic orchids and the palm; among mammals the bats and
rats; among birds the cassowary and rifle bMs; and among
reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes, characterize this element.
The numerous facts, geological, geographical and biological,
which when linked together lend great support to this theory,
have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley
of the Australian Museum, Sydney.
The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very con-
spicuous point of difference from that of other regions of the globe,
in the prevalence of non-placental mammalia. Toe vast
majority of the mammalia are provided with an organ in
the utenu^ by which, before the birth of their young, a vascular
connexion is maintained between the embryo and the parent animal.
There are two orders, the Marsupialia and the Moaotremata, which
do not possess this organ; both these are found in Australia, to
which region indeed they are not absolutely confined.
The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting.
The opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing
anomalies as great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and
Myrwucobius (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no
single living marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological
region. The forms of life characteristic of India and the Malay
peninsula come down to the island of Bali. Bali is separated from
Lombok by a strait not more than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow
belt of water is the boundary line between the Australasian and the
Indian regions. The zoological boundary passing through the Bali
Strait is called " Wallace's line," after the eminent naturalist who
was its discoverer. He showed that not only as regards beasts, but
also as regards birds, these regions are thus sharply limited. Aus-
tralia, he pointed out, has no woodpeckers and no pheasants, which
are widely-spread Indian birds, instead of these it has mound-
making turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos and brush-tongued lories,
all of which are found nowhere else in the world.
The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species
of mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the
female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she
can place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. t The
opossum of America is the only species out of Australasia which is
thus provided. Australia is inhabited by at least 1 10 different species
of marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these
have been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat,
viz., the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-caters (wombats), the
insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats),
and the fruit-eaters (phaUngers).
The kangaroo (Macroftu) lives in droves in the open grassy
plains. Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are
known as wallabies, and are common everywhere. Tne kangaroo
and most of its congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of
the hind limbs to the tore part of the body. The rock wallabies again
have short tarsi of the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing,
like that of the tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa.
Of the larger kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 ft and more,
eight species are named, only one of which is found in Western
Australia. Fossil bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with;
these kangaroos must have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that
of any species now living.
There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania,
besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are
wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other
terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (rkascoUmyx), a large, clumsy,
burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of from
60 to. too lb; the bandicoot ^Peramdes), a rat-like creature whose
depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat (Dasyurus),
noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf (TkyUxcinus),
which preys on large game; and the recently discovered Nolorycttt,
a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert of the interior.
Arboreal species include the well-known opossums {Phaianter) ; the
extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland tropics; the flying
squirrel, which expands a membrane between the legs and arms, and
by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to tree; and the native
bear (Phascotarctos) t an animal with no affinities to the bear, and
having a long soft fur and no tail.
The Myrmtccbius of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater
about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of
more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a
ytry ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing con-
dition during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived
in England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found
in the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated
from that which gave rise to the Pans Tertiary strata by an abyss
of past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands
of years.
We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals,
that ot the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs
of evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal
bones are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with
pouches for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled
into their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and
Tasmania possess two animals of this order— the echidna, or spiny
9+8
AUSTRALIA
ant-eater (hairy in Tasjaania}, end the Platypus a*Jt*V*av, the duck-
billed water mole, otherwise named the Orntihorkynckus paradoxus.
This odd animal is provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that
of a bird, affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin
Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant
beasts. The comparatively few indigenous placental mammals,
besides the dingo or wild dog — which, however, may have come from
the islands north of this continent— are of the bat tribe and of the
rodent or rat tribe. There are four species of large fruit-eating bats,
called flying foxes, twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of
land-rats, and five of water-rats. The sea produces three different
teals, which often ascend rivers from the coast, and can live in
lagoons of fresh water: many cetaceans, besides the " right whale "
and sperm whale; and the dugong. found on the northern shores,
which yields a valuable medicinal oil.
The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species
may be deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals;
yet it will not stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa
and South America in the same latitudes. The black swan was
thought remarkable when discovered, as belying an old Latin
proverb. There is also a white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty
species of parrots, some of them very handsome, are found in Aus-
tralia. The emu corresponds with the African and Arabian ostrich,
the rhea of South America, and the cassowary of the Moluccas and
New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is represented by the
apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa, the remains of which
have been found likewise in Queensland. The graceful Mcnura
superba, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread in the shape of a
lyre, is a very characteristic form. The mound-raising megapodes,
the bower-building satin-birds, and several others, display peculiar
habits. The honey-eaters present a great diversity of plumage.
There are also many kinds of game birds, pigeons, ducks, geese,
g overs and quails. The ornithology of New South Wales and
ueensland is more varied and interesting than that of the other
provinces.
As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and
not of great site. The " leathery turtle," which is herbivorous, and
yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra
coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are numerous,
chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region. The
great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of
30 ft. ; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with
in the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory.
Lizards occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-
tongued lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said
to grow to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do
not extend to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the
goanna, a name derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal.
There are about twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which
hibernate. One species can utter a cry when pained or alarmed,
and the tall-standing frilled lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or
bop like a kangaroo. There is also the Moloch horridus of South
and Western Australia, covered with tubercles bearing large spines,
which give it a very strange aspect. This and some other lizards
have power to change their colour, not only from light to dark, but
over some portions of their bodies, from yellow to grey or red.
Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the brilliant green frogs being
especially conspicuous and noisy. ( Australia is rich in snakes, and
has more than a hundred different kinds. Most of these are venomous,
but all are not equally dreaded. Five rather common species arc
certainly deadly — the death adder, the brown, the black, the superb
and the tiger snakes. During the colder months these reptiles remain
in a torpid state. No certain cure has been or is likely to be dis-
covered for their poison, but in less serious cases strychnine has
been used with advantage. In tropical waters a sea snake is found,
which, though very poisonous, rarely bites. Anions the inoffensive
species are counted the graceful green " tree snake, which pursues
frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost branches of the forest: also
several species of pythons, the commonest of which is known as the
carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain a length of 10 ft.;
they feed on small animals which they crush to death in their
folds.
The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera
as exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar
to Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by
what is called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine fresh-
water fish is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 lb; and
the golden perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour.
Among the sea fish, the Bchnapper is of great value as an article of
food, and its weight comes up to 50 lb. This is the Pagrtis unkoior, of
the family of Sparidae, which includes also the bream. Its colours are
beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows
old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the
shape of a monstrous human-tike nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals
off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson
for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing some-
what from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The
so-called red garnet, a pretty fWh, with hues of carmine and blue
•tripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The Trivia
(FAUNA AND FUHU
p4yommato.<* *yk* wuMt* to * rmter bmvty, wlA at* body of
crimson and silver, and ha large pectoral fine, spread like wing*, of
1 down the Queensland coast to portions of the New SoacJb
1 littoral, and also round the Gulf of Carpentaria, t»t has
been able to obtain a hold in the snore arid interior. It he*
a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black asm) whw
•pot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others kssowa
by local names, are in theiist* of edible 6ahe« belonging to New Sour*
Wales and Victoria. Oystars abound on the eastern coast, and oe
the shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl
oyster is the source of a considerable industry.
Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in i
the Uyrmtcobtus (ant-eater) la toe eyes of the natuimlis*.
the Cerotodms PortUri and the Port Jackson shark. The '
fish " of Queensland (Cera**** Font**) belongs to an ancient order
of fishes— the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have •
past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a <
between fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-nan has bo
only in the Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of he
tine Interest is the Port Jackson shark ( g alsja rf in f n i ). It is a
harmless heimeted ground-shark, living on mc" — ""
the sole survivor of a genus abundant in the 1
Europe.
The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their
botany and In their zoology than any of the other parte. Thesis doe
In part to the different physical conditions there prevail-
ing and in part to the invasion of the nort h a astera
portion of the continent by a number of plants cfcaractenstkafiV
Melanesiaa. This element was introduced via Torres Strait, and
spread down the \
Wales 1
never been a.
so completely obliterated the original flora, that a Queensland coast
jungle is almost an exact replication off what nay be seen 00. the
opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. Thai wealth of plant
life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but the central
valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a coratderaote
wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora inland in the
same latitudes. In the interior there is little change in the general
aspect of tiie vegetation, from the Australian Bight to the region
of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the
luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range,
we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and
sombre dulncss. Physical surroundings rather than latitude deter-
mine the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the
heights above sea-level are the directions along which ■packs spread
to form zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetatioa of the north
and east coast-line, the Australian bash gains its peculiar character
from the prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (Eucalyptus) and the
acacias, of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypti above
all are everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe, the tree-limit en
Mount Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are in-
dicated by a line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over
the vast continent from Wilson's Promontory to Cape York, none,
south, east and west— where anything can grow— there will be found
a gum-tree. The eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted fa
their leaves, and the large quantity of astringent resin of their bark.
This resinous exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hencs
the name " gum " tree. It will not dissolve in water as gems do,
but it is soluble ia alcohol* as resin usually is. Many of the gum-
trees throw off their bark, so that it bangs in long dry strips frost
the trunk and branches, a feature familiar in bush " pictures.
The bark, resin and " oils M of the eucalyptus are well knosn as
commercial products. As early as 1 866, tannic acid, gallic acid,
wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and eucalyptol were produced
from various species of eucalyptus, and researches made by Aus-
tralian chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and Smith of the Sydney
Technical College, have brought to light many other valuable pro-
ducts likely to prove of commercial value. The genus Eucalyptus
numbers more than 150 •pecies, and provides some of the most
durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands
is well known {Eucalyptus sideroxyUm), and is so catted from the
hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its
rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been
studied after forty-three years' immersion in sea-water. Portions
most liable to destruction, those parts between thetide marks, were
found perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine
organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of
the continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum. red
gum, mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine
XSyucarpiataurifolia), which has proved to be more resistant to the
attacks of teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf
construction in infested waters. There are also several extremely
valuable soft timbers, the principal being red cedar (CedreU Toon*),
silky oak (GrtvilU* rdbusta), beech and a variety of teak, with several
important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray
valley and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important
and valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests c4
.hardwood, principally jarrah {Eucalyptus morfsuata), a very durable
timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this sceoes.
Jarrah timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and
there is good evidence to snow that, exposed to wear and weather, or
placed Under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained
•POPULATION!
AUSTRALIA
949
intact after nearly fifty years' trial. The following figures show the
feign density of Australian timber.—
Australian Specific
timber. gravity.
Tarrah . 112
Grey iron-bark 1*18
Reef iron-bark 1-22
Forest oak i«2I
Tallow wood 1-23
Mahogany I 20
Grey gum . "OI7
Redi
1 gum
European
timber.
Ash . .
Beech
•995
Specific
gravity.
'23
690
Chestnut -535
British oak 99
The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very
high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of I- 18 has a modulus
of rupture of 17,900 lb per sq. in. compared with 11.800 lb for
British oak with a specific gravity of -69 to -oo. No Australian
timber in the foregoing list has- a less modulus than 13,100 tt> per
sq. in.
Various " scrubs " characterize the interior, differing very widely
from the coastal scrubs. " Mallee " scrub occupies large tracts of
South Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of
16.000 so. m. The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to
14 ft. high. The tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and
these branch again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-
fashion on the outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest
of dried osier, growing so close that it is not always easy to ride
through h. Hardly a leaf is visible to the height of one's head ; but
above, a crown of thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight.
The "■ A
e ground below is perfectly bare, and there is r
>ld add to the sterility and the monotony of t
1 visible to the height of one's head ; but
sunlight.
s no water. Nothing
could add to the sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs,
1 Mulga " scrub is a somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas.
The tree in this instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed
through all parts of the continent. Some species have rather elegant
blossoms, known to the settlers as " wattle. They serve admirably
to break the sombre and monotonous aspect of the Australian vege-
tation. Two species of acacia are remarkable for the delicate and.
violet-like perfume of their wood — myall and yarran. The majority
of the species of Acacia are edible and serve as reserve fodder for
sheep and cattle. In the alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous
plants — saltbush, blucbush, cottonbush— are invaluable to the
pastoralist, and to their presence the pre-eminence of Australia
as a wool-producing country is largely due.
Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable
element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The
herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a
spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more
stable growth of nutritious grasses.
Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it ib
customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the
year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon
t he natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants,
although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic
of Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering
plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard,
dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They
are found fn New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest
developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent.
Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are
also abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most
conspicuous feature of vegetation. The range in species is very
limited, no one being common to eastern and western Australia.
The chief genera are banksia (honey trickle), and hakea (tutdle bush).
The Moreton Bay pine (Araucaria Cunninghamii) is reckoned
amongst the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one
long extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the
utility of its wood. Another species, A. Bidmllii, or the bunya-
bunya, afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most
remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed
tree (Adansania Cregorii), one of the Malvaceae. It is related closely
to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The "" grass-tree " (Xon-
thorrhoea), of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly Australian
in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a few feet in
diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a walking-stick,
rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a long spike
thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives as distinct
a character to an Australian picture as the agave and cactus do to
the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the gigantic
lily of Queensland (Nymphaea giganlea), the leaves of which float
on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic lily
(Doryanlhes excelsa) which grows to a height of IS feet. The " flame
tree ' is a most conspicuous feature of an ITlawarra landscape,
the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The
waratan or native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which,
with the kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Pro-
teaceae. The natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers
for the honey they contained. The " nardoo " seed, on which the
aborigines sometimes contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing
plentifully in swamps and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural
order of Marsileaceae. The spore-cases remain alter the plant is
dried up and withered. These are collected by the natives, and are
known over most of the continent as nardoo.
No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account
satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step
towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic,
the South African, and the Australian floras have many types In
common. There is also to a limited extent a European element
present. One thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora
that is a remnant of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer
has described such Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus,
GrevUlea and Rakea from the Miocene of Switzerland. Another
¥>int agreed upon is that the Australian flora is one of vast antiquity,
here are genera so far removed from every Uving genus that many
connecting links must have become extinct. The region extending
round the south-western extremity of the continent has a peculiarly
characteristic assemblage of typical Australian forms, notably a
great abundance of the Proteaceae. This flora, isolated by arid
country from the rest of the continent, has evidently derived its
plant life from an outside source, probably from lands no longer
existing.
Political and Economic Conditions
Population. 1 — The Australian people are mainly of British
origin, only 3I % of the population of European descent being
of non-British race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the
section on Aborigines below) are very much less numerous than
when the country was first colonized, but their present numbers
can be given for only a few of the states. At the census of 1901,
48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of whom 7434 were in New
South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South Australia, and
6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the Queensland
authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is a
crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South
Australia and the Northern Territory a large number are outside
the bounds of settlement, and it is probable that they are as
numerous there as in Queensland. The census of Western
Australia included only those aborigines in the employment
of the colonists; and as a large part of this, the greatest of the
Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it may be presumed that
the aborigines enumerated were very far short of the whole
number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things
into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent
may be set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering
about 30,000, are chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland,
Victoria, and the Northern Territory. Of Japanese there were
3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600, according to recent com-
putation, but the policy of the Commonwealth is adverse to
further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders
and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000,
were in 1906 to be found principally in Queensland, but further
immigration of Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted,
and the majority of those in the country in 1906 were deported
by the middle of 1907.
At the dose of 1906 the population of Australia was approxi-
mately 4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of
population since 1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881,
2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237; 1901, 3,773,248. The expansion
has been due mainly to the natural increase; that is, by reason
of excess of births over deaths. Immigration to Australia has
been very slight since 1891, owing originally to the stoppage of
progress consequent on the bank crisis of 1893, and, subse-
quently, to the disinclination of several of the state governments
towards immigration and their failure to provide for the welfare
of immigrants on their arrival. During 1006 a more rational
view of the value of immigration was adopted by the various
state governments and by the federal government, and immigra-
tion to Australia is now systematically encouraged. Australia's
gain of population by- immigration,— i.«. the excess of the
1 The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which
It a member of the Australian Commonwealth.
95o
AUSTRALIA
IFOFULATKP
inward over the outward movement of a population— since the
discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten years periods, was
1852-1861 520.713
1862-1871 .... 188,158
1872-1881 223,326
1882-1 891 .... 374.097
1892-1901 2,377
During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table,
there was practically no increase in population by immigration.
The birth rate averages 26-28 per thousand of the population
and the death rate 12-28, showing a net increase of 14 per
thousand by reason of the excess of births over deaths. The
marriage rate varies as in other countries from year to year
according to the degree of prosperity prevailing. In the five
years 1881-188$ the rate was 8«o8 marriages (161 persons) per
thousand of the population, declining to 6-51 in 1891-1895; in
recent years there has been a considerable improvement, and
the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between
6-75 and 7*25. The death rate of Australia is much below that
of European countries and is steadily declining. During the
twenty years preceding the census of ioox there was a fall in the
death rate of 3-4 per thousand, of which, however, x per thousand
is attributable to the decline in the birth rate, the balance being
attributable to improved sanitary conditions.
Territorial Divisions.— Australia, is politically divided into
five states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Common-
wealth of Australia. The area of the various states is as follows :
Sq. m.
New South Wales 310,700
Victoria 87.884
Queensland 668,497
South Australia .... 903,690
Western Australia 975-920
2,946,691
26.215
Commonwealth
• 2.972.906
To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be
added that of New Guinea, 00,000 sq. m.; this would bring
the area of the territory controlled by the Commonwealth to
3,062,006 sq. m. The distribution of population at the dose of
1006 (4,118,000) was New South Wales 1,530,000, Victoria
1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia 381,000, Western
Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of increase since
the previous census was 1*5 % per annum, varying from 0*31 in
Victoria to 2 06 in New South Wales and 6- 9 in Western Australia.
Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds
100,000, and fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and
towns are Sydney (pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill,
Paramatta, Goulburn, Maitland, Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow,
Tarn worth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New South Wales;
Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, Eagle-
hawk, Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria;
Brisbane (pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Towns-
ville, Gympie, Ipswich, and Toowoomba in Queensland;
Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port Adelaide and Port Pirie in
South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000), Fremantle, and Kal-
goorlie in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500) and
Launceston in Tasmania.
Defence. — Up to the end of the 19th century, little was
thought of any locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces,
the mother-country being relied upon. But the Transvaal War
of 1 800-1902, to which Australia sent 63 10 volunteers (principally
mounted rifles), and the gradual increase of military sentiment,
brought the question more to the front, and more and more
attention was. given to making Australian defence a matter of
local concern. Naval defence in any case remained primarily
a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for
ten years) between the British government and the governments
of the Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of
£200,000) and of New Zealand (£40,000), an efficient fleet
patrolled the Australasian waters, Sydney, its headquarters,
being ranked as a first-class naval station. Under the agreement
a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the Impe-~
vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews recro --
from the Australian states. At the end of 1008 the strength .
the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence departBcn-
was: permanent, 2x7, naval militia, 1016; the estimate,
expenditure for 1908-1009 being £63,531. In 1908-100? .
movement began for the establishment by Australia of a fcc -
flotilla of torpedo-boat destroyers, to be controlled b> . -
Commonwealth in peace time, but subject to the orders of tr-
British admiralty in war time, though not to be removed free tr -
Australian coast without the sanction of the Commonwcil -
and by 1009 three such vessels had been ordered in Esg^: -
preparatory to building others in Australia. The nnlu-
establishment at the beginning of 1009 was represented t? a
small permanent force of about 1400, a militia strength of abr -*
17,000, and some 6000 volunteers, besides 50,000 member* . '
rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the expenditure being (estimate
1908-1009) £623,046. But a reorganization of the miLtirj
forces, on the basis of obligatory national training, w*& alreac •
contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this purpose fa 7
Mr Dcakin's government (Sept. 1008) was dropped, and in x 90c
the subject was still under discussion.
Religion.— There is no state church in Australia, nor is tie
teaching of religion in any way subsidized by the state. TU
Church of England claims as adherents 39% of the papula tier
and the Roman Catholic Church 22%; next in numcr!^
strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists, numbering
12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians xs%, Cos-
gregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These property
varied very little between 1881 and 1906, and may be tales
as accurately representing the present strength of the v&noes
Christian denominations. Churches of all derjominatiofts are
liberally supported throughout the states, ami the residents ef
every settlement, however small, have their places of worship
erected and maintained by their own contributions.
Instruction. — Education is very widely distributed, and is
every state it is compulsory for children of school ages to attr~d
school. The statutory ages differ in the various states; in Xr*
South Wales and Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 yeia
inclusive, in Victoria 6 to 12 years, in Queensland 6 to xi yean
and in South Australia 7 to xa years inclusive. Religious in-
struction is not imparted by the state-paid teachers in any stite.
though in certain states persons duly authorized by the religious
organizations are allowed to give religious instruction to childro
of their own denomination where the parents' consent has bec-
obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7:0:
state schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and ihe
average attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state
schools there were 2x45 private schools, with 7825 teachers ccd
137,000 scholars, the average number of scholars in attendant
being 120,000. The census of 1901. showed that about gj^r
of the whole population and more than 91 % of the populatioa
over five years of age could read and write. There was, therefore,
a residue of 9 % of illiterates, most of whom were not born ib
Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of
education. In 1005 only ten persons in every thousand married
were unable to sign their names, thus proving that the number
of illiterate adults of Australian birth is very smalL
Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominoJ
cost, and high schools, technical coUege&and agricultural colleges
are maintained by appropriations from the general revenues
of the states. There are also numerous grammar schools and
other private schools. Universities have been established at
Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart, and arc well equipped
and numerously attended; they are in part supported by grants
from the public funds and in part by private endowment*
and the fees paid by students. The number of students attend-
ing lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little orer
£100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia average)
about x is. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average
attendance at state schools is £4 :x3 : 9.
Pastoral end Agricultural Industries— The
INDUSTRY]
AUSTRALIA
95 »
essentially a pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and
herds constitute the chief element in the wealth of Australia.
Practically the whole of the territory between the 145° meridian
and the Great Dividing Range, as well as extensive tracts in
the south and west, are a natural sheep pasture with climatic
conditions and indigenous vegetation pre - eminently adapted
for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically
the flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world's sheep,
and in just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of
Australian wool alone reached the value of £650,000,000. During
the same period, owing to the efforts of pastoralists to improve
their flocks, there was a gradual increase in the weight of wool-
produced per sheep from 3 jib to an average of over 7m. The
'cattle and horse-breeding Industries are of minor importance
as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless represent a
great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion in the
over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea
carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for
Australian beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion
of dairying, there being an annual output of over 160 million lb
of butter, valued at £6,000,000; of this about 64 million lb,
valued at £2,500,000, is exported annually to British markets.
Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal
source of Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area
devoted to tillage was 9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for
the production of breadstuffs being 6,270,000 acres or over
two-thirds of the whole extent of cultivation. At first wheat
was cultivated solely in the coastal country, but experience
has shown that the staple cereal can be most successfully grown
over almost any portion of the arable lands within the 20 to 40 in.
rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour exported
in 1005 was £5,500,000.
Other important crops grown are — maize, 324,000 acres;' oats,
403,000 acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000
acres; potatoes, 119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres;
vines, 65,000 acres; and other crops, 422,000 acres. The chief
wheat lands are in Victoria, South Australia and New South
Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the acre; this
low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands
to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively
deal with; the introduction of scientific fanning should almost
double the yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South
Wales and Queensland. The vine is cultivated in all the states,
but chiefly in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.
Australia produces abundant quantities and nearly all varieties
of fruits; but the kinds exported are chiefly oranges, pine-
apples, bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives well in New South
Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation are not
largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the
world, Australia does not take a high position in regard tq,the
gross value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation
being for the most part low and without regard to maximum re-
turns, but in value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed,
some of the states show averages which surpass those of many of
the leading agricultural countries. For 1905 the total value of
agricultural produce estimated at the place of production was
£18,750,000 sterling, or about £4: 13 : 4 per inhabitant.
Timber Industry. — Although the timbers of commercial value
are confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western
coastal belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute
an important national asset. The early settlement of heavily
timbered country was characterized by wanton destruction
of vast quantities of magnificent timber; but this waste is a
thing of the past, and under the pressure of a demand for sound
timber both for local use and for exportation, the various
governments are doing much to conserve the state forests.
In Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queens-
land there are many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording
employment to about 5000 men. The export of timber is in
ordinary years valued at a million sterling and the total pro-
duction at £2,250,000.
P iiAericf.— Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the
Australian seat and in many of the rivers. In several of the
states, fish have been introduced successfully from other
countries. Trout may now be taken in many of the mountain
streams. At one time whaling was an important industry on
the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards
on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to
New Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful
practice of killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers.
Of late years whaling has again attracted attention, and a small
number of vessels prosecute the industry during the season.
The only source of maritime wealth that is now being sufficiently
exploited to be regarded as an industry is the gathering of
pearl-oysters from the beds off the northern and north-western
coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters there are about
300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about 450
licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of
pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling;
Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks,
and to difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured
crews, many of the vessels have now gone farther afield. As
the pearl-oyster is remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts
that within a few years of their abandonment by fishing fleets
the denuded banks will become as abundantly stocked as ever.
Mineral Production. — Australia is one of the great gold
producers of the world, and its yield in 1905 was about £x 6,000,000
sterling, or one-fourth of the gold output of the world ; 0eUt
and the total value of its mineral production was
approximately £ 2 5 ,000,000. Gold is found throughout Australia,
and the present prosperity of the states is largely due to the
discoveries of this metal, the development of other industries
being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence to
the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first
discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of
£460,000,000 sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria,
in a period of fifty-four years, contributed about £273,000,000
to this total, and is still a large producer, its annual yield being
about 800,000 ox., 29,000 men being engaged in the search for
the precious metal. Queensland's annual output is between
750,000 and 800,000 oz.j the number of men engaged in goldt
mining is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest production
was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious metal,
when the output was valued at £2,660,946; the production in
1905 was about 270,000 oz., valued at £1,150,000. For many
years Western Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral
deposits of any value, but it is now known that a rich belt of
mineral country extends from north to south. The first im-
portant discovery was made in 1882, when gold was found in
the Kimbcrley district; but it was not until a few years later
that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887 gold
was found in Yilgam, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the
first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have
made Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian
group. In 1007 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and
it was estimated that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged
in the search for gold. In 1905 the production amounted to
1 ,983,000 oz., valued at £8,300,000. Tasmania is a gold producer
to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz. a year, valued at
£300,000 ; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.
Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still
some important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest
development of quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the
mines being of great depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo
district over 3000 ft. deep, and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In
the Victoria mine a depth of 3750 ft. has been reached, and in
Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat district a depth of 2530
ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In Queensland
there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed 2000 ft.
in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the
various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and
dredging is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits.
So far this form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South
Wales, where there are about fifty gold-dredging plants in
95*
AUSTRALIA
(MINEUOS
successful operttion. Over 70,000 men . are employed in the
gold-mining industry, more than two-thirds of them being
engaged in quart* mining.
Silver hat been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the
form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,
jrMMn iodide and- chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous
lead ores, the largest deposits of the metal being found
in the last-mentioned form. The leading silver mines are in New
South Wales, the returns from the other states being compara-
tively insignificant. The fields of New South Wales have proved to
be of immense value, the yield of silver and lead during 1905 being
42,500,000, and the total output to the end of the year named over
£40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was discovered in 188J,
extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has developed into one of the
principal mining centres of the world. It is situated beyond the
river Darling, and ctose to the boundary between New South Wales
and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian metamorphic
micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and diorite, and
traversed by numerous quarts reefs, some of which are gold-bearing.
The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It varies in
width from xo ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several miles.
Although indications of silver abound in all the other states, no fields
of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end of
1004 Australia had produced silver to the value of £45,000,000. At
Broken Hill mines about 1 1,000 miners are employed.
Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined
extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
r Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number
nwwn ^ of years had a depressing effect upon the industry, and
many mines once profitably worked were temporarily closed, but
In 1906 there was a general revival. The discovery of copper had
a marked effect on the fortunes of South Australia at a time when
the young colony was surrounded by difficulties. The first important
mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in 1842. It is estimated that at
one time 2000 tons were produced annually, but the mine was closed
in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated Burn Burra mine was discovered.
This mine proved to be very rich, and paid £800,000 in dividends to
the original owners. For a number of years, however, the mine has
been suffered to remain untouched, as the deposits originally worked
were found to be depleted. For many years the average output was
from 10,000 to 1 i r ooo tons of ore, yielding from 22 to 23% of copper.
For the period of thirty years during which the mine was worked the
production of ore amounted to 334,648 tons, equal to 51,622 tons of
copper, valued at £4,749.924- The Wallaroo and Moonta mines,
discovered in i860 and 1861, proved to be even more valuable than
the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time upwards
of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to
about £1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during
recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper
mining in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905
was valued at £470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New
South Wales are found in the central part of the state between the
Macquarie, Darling and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been
found in the New England and southern districts, as well as at Broken
Hill, showing that the mineral is widely distributed throughout the
state. The more important mines are those of Cobar, where the
Great Cobar mine produces annually nearly 4000 tons of refined
copper. In northern Queensland copper is found throughout the
Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the Star river, and the
Hcrbcrton district. The returns from the copper fields in the state
are at present a little over half a million sterling per annum, and
would be still greater if it were not for the lack of suitable fuel for
smelting purposes, which renders the economical treatment of the ore
difficult; the development of the mines is also retarded by the want
of easy and cheaper communication with the coast. In Western
Australia copper deposits have been worked for some years. Very
rich lodes of the metal have been found in the Northampton,
Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the country to
the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania is now the
largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905 the
output was over £672,01 o and in earlier years even larger. The chief
mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are
situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to
Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in
Australia up to the end of 1905 was £42,500,000 sterling, £24,500,000
having been obtained in South Australia, £7,500,000 in New South
Wales, £6,400,000 in Tasmania and over £3,500,000 in Queensland.
Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of colon-
isation. The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory
-£. in this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Tack, late
Government geologist of the former state, and the late
Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, appears to be very great. The most
important tin-mines In Queensland are in the Herberton district,
south-west of Cairns: at Cooktown, on the Annan and Bloom field
rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of New South Wales.
Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than three-fourths
of the total production of the state. Towards the close of the 19th
century the production greatly decreased in consequence of the low
price of the metal, but in 1 899 a stimulus was given to the industry,
and since then the production has increased very considerably, tfc
output for 1905 being valued at £989,627. In New South Uisj
lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin under ifc
basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at Tenier>4i
Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England Tsi
metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many or* '
places. The value of the output in too*} was £226,1 10. The > al
of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of isr.p.*>
ance have been discovered; but towards the latter end of i«qs
extensive deposits were reported to exist in the GipptJand di*na
— at Omco and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is us.-*
portant. In Western Australia the production from the tin-fed*
at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at £87.000, Tascusa
during the last few years has attained the foremost position to tat '
production of tin, the annual output now being about £303- "**
The total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a mi m ,
sterling per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 *n
£22.500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New Sects
Wales one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.
Iron is distributed throughout Australia, but for want of capnl
for developing the fields this industry has not progressed la S«
South Wales there are, together with coal and limestone _^
in unlimited supply, important deposits of rich iron ores ^^
suitable for smelting purposes; and for the manufacture of steel d
certain descriptions abundance of manganese, chrome and tunsptes
ores are available. The most extensive fields are in the Mutagen
Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which are roughly esumateJ ••
contain in the aggregate 12,944.000 tons of ore, containing 5.8; V «*
tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits, which are being devrt^cd
successfully,- occur in Tasmania* it being estimated that there are.
within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000 tons of ore. Magnecixt.
or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron ores, is found in abundance
near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The proximity of coal-br4»
now being worked should accelerate the development of the ra
deposits, which, on an average, contain 41 % of metaL Magnet i*e
occurs in great abundance in Western Australia, together «.is
haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap labour «tt
available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in New Scv-a
Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation aad
the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai. and arc enhanced in their ts!bc
by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Ltthgow extensive deposit* f
limonite, or clay-Sand ore, are interbedded with coal. Some aam;«*
of ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district. % *".
pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at ux
Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.
Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is soa*>
times f ou nd associated with gold. In New South Wales the prioopsl
centre of this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where ^^
the Eleanora Mine, one of the richest in the state, is qi T* r „
situated. . The ore is also worked for gold. In Victoria the aaSSB * VBV
production of antimony gave employment in 1690 to ajn 1 sniaerv
but owing to the low price of the metal, production has alcr «;
ceased. In Queensland the fields were all snowing deveJopmcct is
189 1, when the output exhibited a very large increase compart
with that of former years; bur, as in the case of Victoria, tsc
production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes of si it m«
(sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in W'otaa
Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work there
Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, bat sp
to the present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz.
New South Wales, Queensland. South Australia and Tasmania. It
is usually found in association with tin and other minerals. The
principal mine in New South Wales is situated at Kiagsgate. xa
the New England district, where the mineral is generally associated
with molybdenum and gold.
Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been
found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Westers
Australia, the richest specimens being found in New South Wain.
Little, however, has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands
of the colonial markets being extremely limited. The ore generalK
occurs in the form of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite* and <
a high percentage of .sesquioxidc of manganese.
Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have 1
found in New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quaatrtsr*.
Iridosmine occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drift*.
The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South
Wales at Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as wt-0
as at Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute
quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the
mines at Kalgoorlte, Western Australia, large quantities of ore* ol
telluridc of gold have been found in the lode formations.
Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only
when associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs
in the form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but rnr
quantity of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most
frequently of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so
little ganguc that the ore can very easily be dressed to 8 x or 84 ' V»
The aMociation of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines
of New South Wales adds very greatly to the value of the product.
Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New
COMMERCE]
AUSTRALIA
953
South Wales, In the f brm of cinnabar. It hat been discovered on the
Curly gong river, near Rybtone, and tt alao occur* at Bi
Softferino, YubrilbarandGmma. In the bat-named place the
of ore yielded 2a % of mercury.
"Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, ia
found in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with
diamonds.
Wolfram (tungstate of iron and mi he
states, notably in New South Wales, ) is-
land. Scheelite, another mineral of tu is-
land. Molybdenum, in the form of n b-
denum), is found in Queensland, N< [a,
■— or in ltd in the parent state with ti fs.
Zinc ores, in the several varieties le,
smlphide and sulphate of zinc, have he
Australian states, but have attracted :w
South Wales, where special efforts a to
produce a high-grade sine concent es.
Several companies are devoting all tl in,
susd the output is now equal to about in.
Nickel, so abundant in the island o . he
present been found in none of the Australian states except Queens-
land and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to
prospect systematically for this valuable mineral.
Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia,
and efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the
metal having a high commercial value ' nd
no attempt has been made up to 191 ge
scale. The manganese ores of the 6 th
Wales often contain a small perccntag id,
to warrant further attempts to work les
chromium is found in the northern he
Clarence and Taroworth districts an is
usually associated with serpentine. he
: — •.._* — ;ji„ 1 1 ya j t Q J
industry was rapidly becoming a vali
chrome has greatly restricted the 1
discovered in Tasmania also.
Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and
realgar, is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It
in association with other minerals in veins.
fuel.
The Australian states have been bountifully 1
Five distinct varieties of black coal, <
types, may be distinguished, and
extremes of brown coal or lignite an 1 a
p e rf ec t ly continuous series. Brown coal, or li d-
pnlly in Victoria. Attempts have frequently t he
mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but its as
prevented its general use. Black coal forms mI
resources of New South Wales; and in the oth< its
of this valuable mineral are being rapidly dc a
very fair description was discovered in the bas er,
in western Australia, as far back as the yeai en
ascertained from recent explorations that the 1 ius
formation in that state extends from the Irwi he
Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably he
Kimberley district. The most important discw.w, ~. ~~~ «. .he
state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near Bunbury .
to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to be of
good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are
250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist
of Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state
to be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous
formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great
Western Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures
at present practically explored extend over an area of about 34,000
sq. a. Coal-raining is an established industry in Queensland, and
is umgiega ing satisfactorily, The mines, however, are situated too
far from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle
in an export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supply-
ing local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are
situated in three distinct regions— the northern, southern and
western districts. The first of these comprises chiefly the mines
of the Hunter river districts; the second includes the Illawarra
district, and. generally, the coastal regions to the south of Sydney,
together with Berrima, on the tableland; and the third consists of
the mountainous regions on the Great Western railway and extends
as far as Dubbo. The total area of the Carboniferous strata of New
South Wales is estimated at 23,950 sq. m. The seams vary in thick-
ness. One of the richest has been found at Greta in the Hunter river
district; it contains an average thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal,
and the quantity underlying each acre of ground has been computed
to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of New South Wales give employ-
ment to 14,000 persons, and the annual production is over 6,600,000
tons. Black coal has been discovered in Victoria, and about 250,000
tons are now being raised. The principal collieries in the state are
the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek Proprietary and the Jumbunna.
In South Australia, at Leigh's Creek, north of Port Augusta, coal-
beds have been discovered. The quantity of coal extracted annually
in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000 tons.
Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South
Wales. It is a species of oannel coal, somewhat aUsilar to the Bog-
head mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of
volatile hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality
yields about too to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to
18,000 cub. ft. of gas. with an iUumfaating power of 35 to 40 sperm
candles, when gas only is extracted from die shale.
Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah.
30 m. from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It b said to yield
well, and a quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney
for local consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South
Wales and South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are
common to all the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and town-
ships, however, little use has been made of the abundant deposits of
day. Kaolin, or porcelain clay, although capable of application to
commercial purposes, has not as yet been utilised to any extent,
although found in several places in New South Wales and in Western
Australia.
Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai
Bathurst and Broken Hill districts— in the last-mentioned district
in considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality
have also been met with in Western Australia.
Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered
in various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has
been made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. „
Diamonds are found in all the states; but only in New T "™
South Wales have any attempts been made to work the diamond
drifts. The best of the New South Wales diamonds are harder and
much whiter than the South African diamonds, and are classified as
on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no large specimens have
yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained in the Upper
Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New South
Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant employment.
Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald, oriental
emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topas, cairngorm,
onyx, zircon, Ac, have been found in the gold and tin bearing drifts
and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the states. The
sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the neighbourhood
of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topes has been found in New
South Warns. Oriental amethysts also have been found in that
state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in
New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta,
in Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.
Chrysoberyts have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies
in New South Wales and Victoria; and white topes in all the states.
Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat's eyes are found in New South
Wales; and it b probable that they are also to be met with in the
other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet
and other precious stones of little commercial value are found
throughout Australia.
Commerce.— The number of vessels engaged in the over-set
trade of Australia in 1905 was ana, vis. 1050 steamers, with a
tonnage of 2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,000,000; the
total of both classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the
tonnage was, British 3,771,000, including Australian 288,000,
and foreign 948,000. The destination of the shipping was, to
British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to foreign porta 1,350,000 tons.
The value of the external trade was £95,188,000, vis. £384347,000
imports, and £56841,000 exports. The imports represent
£9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports £14:4:2, with a
total trade of £93:15-8. The import trade is divided between
the United Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as
follows: — United Kingdom £23,074,000, British possessions
£5,384,000, and foreign states £9,889,000, while the destination
of the exports is, United Kingdom £26,703,000, British possessions
£12,510,000, and foreign countries £17,619,000. The United
Kingdom in 1905 sent 60 % of the imports taken by Australia,
compared with 26 % from foreign countries, and 14 % from
British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom
takes 47 %, foreign countries 31 % and British possessions 99 %.
In normal years (that is to say, when there is no large movement
of capital) the exports of Australia exceed the imports by some
£15,300,000. This sum represents the interest payable 00
government loans placed outside Australia, mainly in England,
and the income from British and other capital invested in the
country; the former may be estimated at £7,300,000 and the
latter £8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export
are wool, skins, tallow, frown mutton, chilled beef, preserved
meats, butter and other articles of pastoral produce, timber,
wheat, flour and fruits, gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other
metals. In 1905 the value of the wool export regained the
£20,000,000 level, and with the rapid recovery of the numerical
954
AUSTRALIA
strength of the flocks, great improvements m the quality and
weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent ad-
vancement. The exports of breadstuffs— chiefly to the United
Kingdom— exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a
half millions, and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions,
Gold is exported in large quantities from Australia. The total
gold production of the country is from £14,500,000 to £16,000,000,
and as not more than three-quarters of a million are required
to strengthen existing local stocks, the balance is usually available
for export, and the average export of the precious metal during
the ten years, 1806-1005, was £12,500,000 per annum. The
chief articles of import are apparel and textiles, machinery and
hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives, bags and sacks,
books and paper, oils and tea.
Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other
British ports, with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan,
China, India, San Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Monte-
video, several important lines being subsidized by the countries
to which they belong, notably Germany, France and Japan.
Railways. — Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia
are the property of the state governments, and have been
constructed and equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There
were on the 30th of June 1005, 15,000 in. open for traffic, upon
which nearly £135,000,000 had been expended.
The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge
of 4 ft. 81 in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the
gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in., and
in the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross earnings
amounted to £1 1 ,803,163 ; the working expenses, exclusive of interest,
£7443.546; and the net earnings £4448.716; the latter figure re-
presents 3*31% upon the capital expended upon construction and
equipment ; in the subsequent year still better Results were obtained.
In several of the states. New South Wales and South Australia
proper, the railways yield more than the interest paid bythe govern-
ment on the money borrowed for their construction. The earnings
per train-mile vary greatly; but for all the lines the average Is
7*. id., and the working e xpen ses about as. 5d. t making the net
earnings 2s. 8d. per train-mile. The ratio of receipts from coaching
traffic to total receipts is about 41%, which b somewhat less than in
the United Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly amongst
the states themselves, the more densely populated states approach-
ing most nearly to the British standard. The tonnage of goods
carried amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant,
which must be considered fairly large, especially as no great pro-
portion of the tonnage consists of minerals on which there is usually
a low freightage. Excluding coal lines and other lines not open to
general traffic, the length of railways in private hands is only 38a m.
or about Sf% of the total mileage open. Of this length, 277 m. are
in Western Australia. The divergence of policy of that state from
that pursued by the other states was caused by the inability of the
government to construct lines, when the extension of the railway
system was urgently needed in the interests of settlement. Private
enterprise was, therefore, encouraged by liberal grants of land to
undertake the work of construction; but the changed conditions of
the state have now altered the state policy, and the government have
already acquired one of the two trunk lines constructed by private
enterprise, and it is not likely that any further concessions in regard
to railway construction will be granted to private persons.
Posts and TtUgrapks.— -The postal and telegraphic facilities offered
by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686
post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to
every 600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head ,
the newspapers to 3a per head and the packets to 15 per head
The length of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of
wire nearly three times that distance. In 1905 there were about
11,000,000 telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of
s*7 messages per inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs
are administered by the federal government.
Banking.-— Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-
nine in every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited
amounted to £37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In
ordinary banks the deposits amounted to £106,635,000, so that the
total deposits stood at £143.830,000, equivalent to the very large
earn of £34, 18s. per inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the
banks vanes between 20 and 24, millions sterling and the note circu-
lation is almost stationary at about 3 J millions.
Public Finance. — Australian public finance requires to be treated
under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance.
Under the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control
of the postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several
other services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise
duties; its powers of taxation are unrestricted; but so far no taxes
have been imposed other than those just mentioned. The Common-
wealth is empowered to retain one*voufth of the nee iwenae fnsw
customs and f^ritf. the balsiwe must he T* F * m V d back to the atsesa
This arrangement was to last until 1910. Including the total icceasai
derived from the customs, the Commonwealth revenue, daring su*
year 1906, was made up as follows:—
Customs and exdse £8.999.4*5
Posts, telegraphs, &c 2*824.183
Other revenue 55.676
£11.879343
The return made to the states was £7.385,731, ■> that the 1
revenue disposed of by the Commc ...
°r £4*493i6i*» The expenditure 1
Customs collection £261364
Posts, telegraphs, Ac 2.774,804
Defence 949,286
Other expenditure 508387
states was £7.385,731, ■> that the ad
b Commonwealth was less by that aassi
nditure was distributed aa follows: —
Total.
£4*494*841
The states have the same powers of taxation as the CoenmeewetM
except in regard to customs and excise, over which the CdausK*:-
wealth has exclusive power, but the states are the ow aeis of tsi
crown lands, and the revenues derived from this source form aa im-
portant part of their income. The states have a total revenue, f r -
sources apart from the Commonwealth, of £23,820.439, and if "
this be added the return of customs duties made by the fed*-,
government, the total revenue is £31 ,206,170. Although the financ -
operations of the Commonwealth and the states are quite distinct i
statement of the total revenue of the Australian Commoawea."
and states is not without interest as showing the weight of tto': *
and the different sources from which revenue is obtained. For 19*
the respective revenues were: —
Commonwealth £1 1*879*343
Sutes 33,820.439
£33.699.783
Direct taxation £3*2004000
Indirect taxation ; customs and excise . 0.999,485
Land revenue ...... 3.300,000
Pott-office and telegraphs .... 2,824,182
Railways, Ac 13,650*000
Other service ...... 3,526,115
The revenue from direct taxation b equal to 15s. tod. per inhabit*-!
from indirect taxation £>: 4: 6, and the total revenue from »'.
sources £33.699,782, equal to £8 : t6 : 2 per inhabitant. The fedr»i
government has no public debt, but each of the six states has c ->
tracted debts which aggregate £237,000,000, equal to aboot £34 ?i
" ~~ e bulk of th 7 - ■'— «-*— » — - •— • =L-.-.
The I
his indebtedness has been cootrsr?
per inhabitant.
for the purpose of constructing railways, tramways. water-sapr-Vs.
and other revenue-producing works and services, and it is estxras*^
that only 8% of the total indebtedness can be set down for ospr>
ductive services.
Information regarding Australian state finance win be found usder
the beading of each state. (T. A. C)
Aborigines
The origin of the natives of Australia presents si difholt
problem. The chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical reUticu
is their remarkable physical difference from the ■»«»»*» Wir-f
peoples. And if one turns from physical criteria to their masmen
and customs it is only to find fresh evidence of their tsoatka
While their neighbours, the Malays, Papuans and Pojynemr*
all cultivate the soil, and build substantial huts and bouses
the Australian natives do neither. Pottery, common to leak:. 3
and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the ekbonrr
canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians. Tfccr
then must be considered as representing an extremely pomit^ :
type of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for the*
prehistoric home.
Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that
their first occupation of the Australian continent must have
been at a time so remote as to permit of no traditions.
No record, no folk tales, as in the case of the Maoris
of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved by the
Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal migra-
tions and early tribal history, but nothing, as A. W. Hewitt
points out, which can be twisted into referring even bsdirectljr
to their first arrival. It is almost incredible there should be
none, if the date of their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating
•BORXCINES)
AUSTRALIA
955
Mk. some centuries. Again, while they differ physically from
eighbouring races, while there is practically nothing in common
etween them and the Malays, the Polynesians, or the Papuan
*f elavnesians, they agree in type so dosely among themselves
hat. taaey must be regarded aj forming one race. Yet it is note-
rorthw that the langua g es -of their several tribes are different
The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them
o be derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects—
ometimts unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few
oileas— cannot be explained except by supposing a vast period
o Itavve elapsed since their first settlement. There is evidence
a Hie languages, too, which supports the physical separation
rem their New Zealand neighbours and, therefore, from the
Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were limited,
n some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For
be number " five " a word meaning " many " was employed.
[*bis linguistic poverty proves that the Australian tongue has
10 affinity to the Polynesian group of languages, where denary
muxneration prevails: the nearest Polynesians, the Maoris,
rounting in thousands. Further evidence of the antiquity of
\ustralian man is to be found in the strict observance of tribal
xMindaries, which would seem to show that the tribes must
lave been settled a long time in one place.
A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tas-
maniaft people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in
many ways closely approximated to the Papuan type. They
bad coarse, short, woolly hair and Papuan features. They
clearly had no racial affinities with the Australians. They did
not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they had no boats.
When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which they
could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of
navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated
in physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and
flora of Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two
formed one continent, and it would take an enormous time for
the formation of Bass Strait How did the Tasmanians with
their Papuan affinities get so far south on a continent inhabited
by a race so differing from Papuans? Did they get to Tasmania
before or after its separation from the main continent? If
before, why were they only found in the south ? It would have
been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over
Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is
impossible to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or
rowed round the continent— a journey requiring enormous
maritime skill, which, according to the theory, they must have
promptly lost.
Four points are dear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct
race; (a) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races;
(3) they have occupied the continent for a very long period;
(4) it would seem that the Tasmanians must represent a still
earlier occupation of Australia, perhaps before the Bass Strait
existed.
Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An
attempt has been made to show that the Australians have dose
affinities with the African negro peoples, and certain resem-
blances in language and in customs have been relied on. Sorcery,
tbe scars raised on the body, the knocking out of teeth, circum-
cision and rules as to marriage have been quoted; but many
such customs are found among savage peoples far distant from
each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language
similarities have broken down on close examination. A. R.
Wallace is of the opinion that the Australians " are really of
Caucasian type and are more nearly allied to ourselves than
to the civilized Japanese or the brave and intelligent Zulus."
He finds near kinsmen for them in the Ainus of Japan, the
Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the Micro-
ncsian islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit
marked Caucaslc types. He regards the Australians as repre-
senting the lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive
Caucasic type, and be urges that they must have arrived in
Australia at a time when their ancestors had no pottery, knew
no agriculture, domesticated no animals, bad no houses and
used no bows and arrows. This theory has been supported by
the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of Heidelberg,
who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther back,
for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the Australians
are " a generalised, not a specialised, type of humanity— that
is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of the
common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the
qualities of the specialized races of dyilization." Dr Klaatsch's
view is that they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited
a vast Antarctic continent of which South America, South
Africa and Australia once formed a part, as evidenced by the
identity of many species of birds and fish. He urges that the
similarities of some of the primitive races of India and Africa
to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were
peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and
attractive as it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged
primitive character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks,
nevertheless, the Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan
type be found in what was certainly once a portion o£ the
Australian continent? The theory which meets this difficulty
is that which has in its favour the greatest weight of evidence,
viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a Papuan type of
man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New
Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be un-
dateable, a Dravidian people driven from their primitive home
in the hills of the Indian Deccan made their way south via
Ceylon (where they may to-day be regarded as represented by
the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and drifted in their bark
boats to the western and north-western shores of Australia.
It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such numbers
as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were
probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory
is adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent
which permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the
soil, who were probably in very scattered and defenceless
communities.
In the slow process of time they drove them into the most
southerly comer of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the
Celts into Cornwall and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian
invasion is put subsequent to the Bass Strait forming, even if
one allows the probability of much crossing between the two
races at first, in time the hostilities would be renewed. With
their earliest settlements on the north-north-west coasts, the
Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north, north-east
and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most
natural one for the Papuans. 1 When at last they were driven
to the Strait they would drift over on rafts or in dumsy shallops;
being thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then
possibly only in an approximately pure state, in the island to
which the Dravidians would not take the trouble to follow them,
and where they would have centuries in which once more to fix
their radal type and emphasize over again those differences,
perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which were found to
exist on the arrival of the Whites.
This Indo •Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is
borne out by their physique. In spite of their savagery they
are admitted by those who have studied them to be far removed
from the low or Simian type of man. Dr Charles Pickering
(1805-1878), who studied the Australians on the spot, writes:
1 In his Discoveries in Central A ustralia, E. T. Eyre has ingeniously
attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the Australians in
thdr advance across the continent. He has relied, however, in his
efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the prevalence or
absence of such customs as circumcision— always very treacherous
evidences— to allow of his hypothetical distribution being regarded
very seriously. The migrations must have always been dependent
upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or mountain
barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements, such
as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom between
tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of
tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the
first caused oy tribal wars, tbe second to escape punishment for
some offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as
to dan-marriages.
956
AUSTRALIA
[ABORfGlKSE
" Strange as It may appear, I would refer to an Australian aa
the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met; in
muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and
strength, while his head might have compared with the antique
bust of a philosopher/' Huxley concluded, from descriptions,
that " the Deccan tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian
races." Sir W. W. Hunter states that the Dravidian tribes were
driven southwards in Hindustan, and that the grammatical
relations of their dialects are " expressed by suffixes," which is
true as to the Australian languages. He states that Bishop
Caldwell, 1 whom he calls " the great missionary scholar of the
Dravidian tongue," showed that the south and western
Australian tribes use almost the same words for " I, thou, he, we,
you, as the Dravidian fishermen on the Madras coast" When
in addition to all this it is found that physically the Dravidians
resemble the Australians; that the boomerang is known among
the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the doubtful exception
of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except Australia,
and that the Australian canoes are like those of the Dravidian
coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the
Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from
Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how
they traversed the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which,
by their very nature, there can be no satisfactory answer.
The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached
their new home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is
remarkable, because they must have been frequently in contact
with more civilized peoples. In the north of Australia there
are traces of Malay and Papuan blood. That a far more advanced
race had at one time a settlement on the north-west coast is
indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures discovered by
Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg river,
north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of
Prince Regent's river, are representations of human heads and
bodies, apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all
the faces are without any indication of mouths. The heads
are surrounded with a kind of head-dress or halo and one wears
a necklace. They arc drawn in red, blue and yellow. The figures
are almost life-size. Rough sculptures, too, were found, and two
large square mounds formed of loose stones, and yet perfect
parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west In the same
district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people
he describes as M almost white." On the Gascoyne river, too,
were seen natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and
in the neighbourhood of Sydney rock-carvings have been also
found. All this points to a temporary occupation by a race at
a far higher stage of culture than any known Australians, who
were certainly never capable of executing even the crude works
of art described.
Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average
European in height, but is inferior in muscular development,
Psycho* * ne ^S 8 and anns befog °* * leanness which is often
emphasised by an abnormal corpulence. The bones
are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in black
races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity
small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead
broad and receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken,
large and black, the nose thick and very broad at the nostrils.
The mouth is large and the lips thick but not protuberant.
The teeth are large, white and strong. In old age they appear
much ground down; particularly is this the case with women,
who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make nets
and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat
high, and the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and
shorter than that of most Europeans. The colour of the skin
is a deep copper or chocolate, never sooty black. When born,
the Australian baby is of a much lighter colour than its parents
and remains so for about a week. The hair is long, black or very
dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never woolly,
and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an
auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On
' Tkt Languages of India (1875}.
the Balonne river, Queensland, Baron Miklubo Mnday fe^r
a group of hairless natives. The head hair is usually mar •
with grease and dirt, but when clean is fine and glossy. 1
skin gives out an objectionable odour, owing to Use habit
anointing the body with fish-oik, but the true fetor of the acx-
is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the blackfellowi &-?
musical Their mental faculties, though inferior to those of vl
Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much acvtr-
ness of perception for the relations of individual objects, bat hu^r
power of generalization. No word exists in their language :V
such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they nave in veal? .
a name for every species of vegetable and animal they Lao»
The grammatical structure of some north Australian knguafEk
has a considerable degree of refinement. The verb present* t
variety of conjugations, expressing nearly all the moods as.
tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well as a plural f «ra
in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and adjectives.
The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper nanus
of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, a.**
declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the
elementary numbers, one, two, three; but " four " is use*', y
expressed by " two-two." They have no idea of detimaJa, The
number and diversity of separate languages is bewildering.
In disposition the Australians are a bright, laaghter-lovi**
folk, but they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human k:<
cheaply. They have no great physical courage. They ra„ MB g
are mentally in the condition of children. None of
them has an idea of what the West calls morality, except the
simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A »i<
will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her hmbacd.
but the same wife will have had to submit to the nnt-mgai
promiscuity, a widespread revel which Roth shows is a regUai
custom in north-west-central Queensland, A husband ckias
his wife as his absolute property, but he has no scruple in handk*
her over for a time to another man. There is, however, u>
proof that anything like community of women or unlimiied
promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong, however, t:
conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state d
things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word,
there is none. In bis treatment of women the aboriginal c*j
be ranked lower than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australia
is capable of strong affections, and the blind (of whom then
have always been a great number) are cared for, and are of us
the best fed in a tribe.
The Australians when first discovered were found to U
living in almost a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was tat
meat they killed in the chase, or seeds and roots, mtutl
grubs or reptiles. They never, in any situation,
cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They oner
reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated anirJ
except the dog, which probably came over with them in lit- -
canoes. They nowhere built permanent dwellings, but contcnui
themselves with mere hovels for temporary shelter. The?
neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels beyond suA
articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as Uwy
might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag fuc
daily use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude
Sometimes in the south during the cold season they wear a dot*
of skin or matting, fastened with a skewer, but open on the
right-hand side.
When going through the bush they sometimes wear an aproe
of skins, for protection merely. No headgear is worn, except
sometimes a net to confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the
tails of small animals. The breast or back, of both sexes, a
usually tattooed, or rather, scored with rows of hideous raised
scars, produced by deep gashes made at puberty. Their d weUiaei
for the most part are either bowers, formed of the branches of
trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with grass or bark,
which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp. Bui
some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Capiat
Matthew Flinders on the south-east coast in 1790, and by
Captain King and Sir T. Mitchell on the northeast, where they
r ABORIGINES)
AUSTRALIA
95?
no longer appear. The ingenuity of the race is mostly exhibited
in the manufacture of their weapons of warfare and the chase.
While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem to have
occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly
made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins
pointed with stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the
Australian is the boomerang (?.».). Their nets, made by women,
either of the tendons of animals or the fibres of plants, will
catch and hold the kangaroo or the emu, or the very large fish
of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark, for the inland waters,
are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and straits of the
north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes and
rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous.
In central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous
and harmless, are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed
to pulp with a stone.
The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that
of the family. There were no hereditary or formally elected
chiefs, nor was there any vestige of monarchy. The
affairs of a tribe were ruled by a council of men past
middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized territory,
averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a
common dialect This district was subdivided between the
chief heads of families. Each family, or family group, had a
dual organization which has been termed (i) the Social, (a) the
Local. The first was matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned
through the mother. No territorial association was needed.
All belonged to the same totem or totemic class, and might be
scattered throughout the tribe, though subject to the same
marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a strictly
territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same
hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended
through the males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers'
hunting-ground, but bore their mothers' name and therewith
the right to certain women for wives. The Social or matriarchal
took, precedence of the Local or patriarchal organization. In
many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of the
tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it
ordered blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so
on. Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended
to overwhelm the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective
of matriarchy, and inclined towards hereditary chieftainship.
The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage
within and without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There
is said to be but one exception to the rule that marriage must
be contracted outside the totem name. This exception was
discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among the Arunta of
central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest neighbours
to the nor^h, the Kaitish, This tribe may legally marry within
the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual
amours these class laws were invariably observed, and the
young man or woman who defied them was punished, he with
death, she with spearing or beating. At the death of a man,
his widows passed to his brother of the same totem class. Such
a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a predominant position,
and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws and penalties
in protection of property were enforced by the tribe. Thus,
among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting
another's wife was to stand with leg extended while each male
of the tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not
protect the women, who were the mere chattels of their lords.
Stringent rules, too, governed the food of women and the youth
of both sexes, and it was only after initiation that boys were
allowed to eat of all the game the forest provided. In every
case of death from disease or unknown causes sorcery was
suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked
by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This
formality having been gone through, the flight of the first bird
which passed over the body was watched, the direction being
regarded as that in which the sorcerer must be sought. Some-
times the nearest relative sleeps with his head on the corpse,
in the belief that he will dream of the murderer. The most
sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of
the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant
taunts and insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost
universal, either in the case of enemies killed in battle or when
animal food was scarce. In the Luritcha tribe it was customary
when a child was in weak health to kill a younger and healthy
one and feed the weakling on its flesh. Cannibalism seems
also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral observance,
in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently
ate portions.
They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols.
The evidence on the question of whether they believed in *
Supreme Being is very contradictory. Messrs Spencer
and Gillen appear to think that such rudimentary idea
of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected among the
blackfeflows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with mis*
sionaries. A. W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied
themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being
(he has different names in different tribes) having some of the
attributes of a Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this
being " no trace of a divine nature, though under favourable
conditions the beliefs might have developed into an actual
religion." Other authorities suggest that it is going much too
far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and instance as
proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic
beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yum and cognate
tribes dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of
Baiame) and the medicine men " invocate his name." A good
deal perhaps depends on each observer's view of what religion
really is. The Australians believed in spirits, generally of an
evil nature, and had vague notions of an after-life. The only
idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems to be that of
the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old man
lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is
deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up
the world. Researches go to show that Baiame has his counter-
part in other tribes, the myth varying greatly in detail. But the
Australians arc distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory
ceremonies. Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the
north and south, but not in Western Australia or on the Murray
river. In South Australia boys had to undergo three stages of
initiation in a place which women were forbidden to approach.
At about ten they were covered with blood from head to foot,
several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At about
twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes,
as an alternative on the cast coast) a front tooth was knocked
out, to the accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer
(q.v.). At the age of puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred
with gashes cut in back, shoulders, arms and chest, and the
septum of the nose was pierced. The gashes varied in patterns
for the different tribes. Girls, too, were scarred at puberty and
had teeth knocked out, &c The ceremonies — known to the
Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites, Bora
r— were much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was
rare, due possibly to the scarcity of women. 1 Infanticide was
universally recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead
varied. Among some tribes a circular grave was dug and the
body placed in it with its face towards the east, and a high
mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it. In New
South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried.
On the Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks
and left to decay. Young children are often not buried for
months, but are carried about by their mothers. At the funeral
of men there is much mourning, the female relatives cutting or
tearing their hair off and plastering their faces with clay, but for
women no public ceremonies took place.
The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing.
It was estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native
1 The existence of " Group Marriage M is a much-controverted
point. This custom, which has been defined at the invasion of
actual marriage by allotting permanent paramours, m confined t»
Bet of tribe*.
95»
AUSTRALIA
population did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race
exists in each of the provinces, while a few tribes still wander
over the interior.
Authorities.— Dr A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-east
Australia (1904) and On Ike Organization of Australian Tribes (1889) ;
G. T. Bettany, The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia (1890);
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Nattoe Tribes of Central Australia (1899);
The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1004) ; E. M. Curr,
The Australian Race (3 vols., 1 886-1887); G. W. Rusden, History of
Australia (1897); Australasia, British Empire Series (Kegan Paul
& Co., 1900); A. R. Wallace, Australasia (1880, new ed., 2 vols.,
1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A. W. Howitt, Kamilaroi
ana Kurnai, Croup Marriage and Relationship (Melbourne, 1880);
H. Ling Roth, Queensland Aborigines (Brisbane, 1897) ; Carl Lum-
hoitx. Among Cannibals (X889); Walter E. Roth, Ethnological
Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines (London,
1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, Euahlayi Tribes (1903); F.J. Gillen,
Notes an Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the MacdonneU
Ranges belonging to the Arunta Trtbe; J. E. Frazer, The Beginnings
of Religion and Totemisra among the Australian Aborigines?'
Fortnightly Review, July 1903; N. W. Thomas, Native Tnbes of
Australia (1007). (C. An.)
History
1. The Discovery of A ustralia.
It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of
Australia, although there is evidence that the Chinese had some
knowledge of the continent so far back as the 13th century.
The Malays, also, would seem to have been acquainted with the
northern coast; while Marco Polo, who visited the East at the
dose of the 13th century, makes reference to the reputed existence
of a great southern continent. There is in existence a map,
dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large southern
land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears to
have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic
history.
In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmycr, sieur de
Gonneville, was blown out of his course, and landed on a large
island, which was claimed to be the great southern land of tradi-
tion, although Flinders and other authorities arc inclined to
think that it must have been Madagascar. Some French
authorities confidently put forward a claim that Guillaumc le
Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The Portu-
guese also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia,
but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their preten-
sions. As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytflict, describes
the Australis Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds
to give some circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical
relation to New Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it
thoroughly explored, it would be regarded as a fifth part of the
world.
Early in the 17 th century Philip LU. of Spain sent out an
expedition from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for
fw---, a southern continent. The little fleet comprised three
oo^ma. vcsse | s with thc Portuguese p ji otj d c Quiros, as
navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military commander.
They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in thc
following year discovered thc island now known as Espiritu
Santo, one of thc New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under
the impression that it was indeed thc land of which he was in
search, named La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo. Sickness and
discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros' vessel, and thc crew,
overpowering their officers during the night, forced thc captain
to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by his consort,
De Torres, compelled to bear up for thc Philippines to refit,
discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name,
and may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of thc
Australian continent. His discovery was not, however, made
known until 1792, when Dalrymple rescued his name from
oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage which separates New
Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain to rc-cngage
in the work of petitioning thc king to despatch an expedition
for the purpose of prosecuting thc discovery of thc Terra
Australia. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died
before accomplishing hit work, and was buried in an unknown
IDXSCOVED
grave in Panama, never being privileged to set his foot upec the
continent the discovery of which was the inspiration of his Lift
During the same year in which De Torres sailed through 'b
strait destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel ck.
the " Duyfken," or " Dove," set sail from Bantam,
in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This ship entered ^ mmmtmt .
the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape
Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed. t>-:
being attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore ti*
country. In 1616 Dirk Hartog discovered the island beans;
his name. In 1622 the "Lecuwin," or " Lioness," made see*
discoveries on the south-west coast; and during the foDowJ*;
year the yachts M Pent " and " Arnheim " explored the sh-v->
of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the
Northern Territory, still appears dn many maps as a mctrxz'j>
of this voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers «.->•
Edel; Pool, in 1629, in the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nu>t
in the " Guide Zeepaard," along the southern coast, which be
called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and Pelsae-t.
in the " Batavia." Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtmaa t
Abrolhos; his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered
greatly from want of water. The record of his voyage is interest-
ing from the fact that he was the first to carry hack to Enrcfe
an authentic account of the western coast of Australia, whk*.
he described in any but favourable terms. It is to Dutch
navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we owe
the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and
adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these
mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By
1665 thc Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the wbok
of thc western littoral, while to the mainland itself they hod
given the name of New Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers,
Pelsaert was the only one who made any detailed observatiocs
of thc character of the country inland, and it may here be re-
marked that his journal contains the first notice and description
of the kangaroo that has come down to us.
In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discoverr
from Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and eoaxtcZ
of the Dutch East Indies, under whose auspices the expeditjoa
was undertaken. He was furnished with a yacht, the ** Hceso-
kirk," and a fly-boat, the " Zeehaen " (or " Sea Hen "), under
the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left Batavia ca
what has been designated by Dutch historians the "Happy
Voyage," on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to tie
Mauritius, then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the
south-east, and on the 24th of November sighted the western
coast of the land which he named Van Diemen's Land, in honour
of thc governor under whose directions he was acting:. The
honour was later transferred to thc discoverer himself, and lie
island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern
extremity of Van Diemen's Land and explored the east coa<t
for some distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taliinr.
possession of thc country in thc name of the government of tie
Netherlands was actually performed, but the description of the
wildness of thc country, and of the fabulous giants by wh-Yh
Tasman's sailors believed it to be inhabited, deterred the Duuh
from occupying thc island, and by thc international principle
of " non-user " it passed from their hands. Resuming his voyc^rr
in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west coast of
thc South Island of New Zealand on the 13th' of December of the
same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of *' high
mountainous country."
Thc first English navigator to sight the Australian continent
was William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in xoSS,
as supercargo of thc " Cygnet," a trader whose crew u^^^
had turned buccaneers. On his return to England he ■"■^P"*
published an account of his voyage, which resulted in his being
sent out in the " Roebuck " in 1609 to prosecute his discoveries
further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for about
000 m. — from Shark's Bay to Dam pier's Archipelago, and
thence to Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several
places in search of water. His account of the country was
HSCOVERY]
AUSTRALIA
959
uite as unfavourable as Pelsaert's. He described it as barren
nd sterile, and almost devoid of animals, the only one of any
importance somewhat resembling a raccoon — a strange creature,
rhich advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of walking,
istng only its hind legs, and covering x a or 15 ft. at a time. The
ef erence is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsacrt had also
emarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously.
During the interval elapsing between Damper's two voyages,
in accident led to the doser examination of the coasts of Western
\ustralia by the Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from
Holland for the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, and after
rounding the Cape of Good Hope, she was never again heard of.
Some twelve years afterwards the East India Company fitted
out an expedition under the leadership of Commander William
de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any traces of the
lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards the
close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of
Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following
year a landing party discovered and named the Swan river.
The vessels then proceeded northward without finding any traces
of the object of their search, but, at the same time, making fairly
accurate charts of the coast-line.
The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1760-1770, was
primarily undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit
r - of Venus, but he was also expressly commissioned
to ascertain "whether the unexplored part of the
southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or
contain another continent." H.M.S. " Endeavour/' the vessel
fitted out for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying
twenty-two guns, and built originally for a collier, with a view
rather to strength than to speed. Chosen by Cook himself,
she was renamed the " Endeavour," in allusion to the great work
which her commander was setting out to achieve. Mr Charles
Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical observa-
tions, and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed
botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the
transit from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it,
the " Endeavour's " head was turned south, and then north-west,
beating about the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the
great continent whose western shores had been so long known
to the Dutch. On the 6th of October 1769 the coast of New
Zealand was sighted, and two days later Cook cast anchor in
Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and hostility
of the natives.
After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the
19th of April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a
point which he named after his lieutenant, who discovered it,
Point Hicks, and which modern geographers identify with
Cape Everard.
The " Endeavour " then coasted northward, and after passing
and naming Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Up-
right, Cape St George and Red Point, Botany Bay was discovered
on the 28th of April 1770, and as it appeared to offer a suitable
anchorage, the " Endeavour " entered the bay and dropped
anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives,
who were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew,
unacquainted with the character of the Australian aborigines,
were not a little astonished that these natives took no notice
of them or their proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in
the water, and the noise of the cable running out through the
hawse-hole, in no way disturbed them at their occupation, or
caused them to evince the slightest curiosity. But as the captain
of the " Endeavour " ordered out the pinnace and prepared to
land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on the boat
approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of
spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made
threatening signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that
the ingenious wmmcro, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to
Australia, was first observed on this occasion. As the men were
evidently determined to oppose any attempt at landing, a
musket was discharged between them, in the hope that they
would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no effect
beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of
which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his
comrade resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast
a stone towards the boat, which earned him a charge of small
shot in the leg. Nothing daunted, the two ran back into the bush,
and presently returned furnished with shields made of bark,
with which to protect themselves from the firearms of the crew.
Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of passing notice. Unlike
the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and his crew
to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed
with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first
discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians
were neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by
the superior number and unknown weapons of the strangers.
Cook examined the bay in the pinnace, and landed several times;
but by no endeavour could he induce the natives to hold any
friendly communication with him. The well-known circumstance
of the great variety of new plants here obtained, from winch
Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed over. Before
quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the
Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north
head, formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the
British crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had
to perform the painful duty of burying a comrade— a seaman
named Forby Sutherland, who was in all probability the first
British subject whose body was committed to Australian soil.
After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw
and named Port Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural
harbour in Australia. Broken Bay and other inlets, and several
headlands, were also seen and named, but the vessel did not
come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was reached, although the
wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour. Still sailing
northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart of the
coast, -and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of
Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any
event worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten
o'clock the water was found to shoal, without any sign of
breakers or land. While Cook was speculating on the cause of
this phenomenon, and was in the act of ordering out the boats
to take soundings, the " Endeavour " struck heavily, and fell
over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other heavy gear
had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As
day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the
morning tide; but these were unsuccessful The water was
rising so rapidly in the hold that with four pumps constantly
going the crew could hardly keep it in check. At length one of
the midshipmen suggested the device of " fothering," which he
had seen practised in the West Indies. This consists of passing
a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum, wool, and
other materials, under the vessel's keel, in such a manner that
the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture,
and thus partially stop the vent This was performed with great
success, and the vessel was floated off with the evening tide.
The land was soon after made near the mouth of a small stream,
which Cook called, after the ship, the Endeavour river. A
headland close by he named Cape Tribulation. The ship was
steered into the river, and there careened and thoroughly
repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast,
to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and
named Cape York, the northernmost point of Australia, and
took final possession of his discoveries northward from 38 S.
to ioj° S., on a spot which he named Possession Island, thence
returning to England by way of Torres Straits and the Indian
Ocean.
The great navigator's second voyage, undertaken in 1771,
with the " Resolution " and the " Adventure," is of less im-
portance. The vessels became separated, and both at different
times visited New Zealand. Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the
" Adventure," also found his way to Storm Bay in Tasmania.
In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east passage
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Cook again touched
at the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand.
960
AUSTRALIA
[EXPLORATtOtf
On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the
belief that Van Diemen's Land, as Tasmania was then called,
was a separate island. The observations of Captain Furncaux,
however, did not strengthen this belief, and when making his
final voyage, the great navigator appears to have definitely
concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia. This
continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1708, when
Bass discovered the strait which bears his name. The next
recorded expedition is a memorable one in the annals of Australian
history — the despatch of a British colony to the shores of
Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May 1787, and arrived off the
Australian coast early in the following January.
2. Inland Exploration*
For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment
of a British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only
acquainted with the country along the coast extending north-
wards about 70 m. from Sydney and about a like distance to the
south and shut in to the west by the Blue Mountain range,
forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at its broadest
part.
The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and
4000 ft. only, but they are intersected with precipitous ravines
1500 ft. deep, which baffled every effort to reach the interior
until in 1813, when a summer of severe drought had made it of
vital importance to find new pastures, three of the colonists,
Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more fortunate than
their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the Nepean
river at Emu -Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were
able to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the
grassy valley of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side
of the Dividing Range. The western descent of the mountains
appeared to the explorers comparatively easy, and they returned
to report their discovery. A line of road was constructed
across the mountains as far as the Macquarie river by the
surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out This
marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the
continent. Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst,
resulting in the discovery of the Lachlan, and in x8x6 the first
of the great exploration expeditions of Australia was fitted out
^^^ under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N. Oxley was accompanied
' by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist,
and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the
Lachlan in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until
it lost itself in the swamps east of 147° E. t then crossing the
river he traversed the country between the Lachlan and Murrum-
bidgee as far as 34° S. and 144 3c/ E. On his return journey
Oxley again crossed the Lachlan about 160 m., measured along
the river, below the point where he left it on his journey south.
Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley struck the
Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from this
place in the following year he organized a second expedition in
hopes of discovering an inland sea. He was, however, dis-
appointed in this, as after descending the course of the Macquarie
below Mount Harris, he found that the river ended in an immense
swamp overgrown with reeds. Oxley now turned aside — led by
Mr Evans's report of the country eastward — crossed the Arbuth-
not range, and traversing the Liverpool Plains, and ascending
the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue Mountains, gained
sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port Macquarie. A
valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been gained
by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result
was a disappointment to those who had looked for means of
inland navigation by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed
issue in a mediterranean sea.
During the next two or three years public attention was
occupied with Captain King's maritime explorations of the
north-west coast in three successive voyages, and by explorations
of Western Australia in i8j i. These steps were followed by the
foundation of a settlement on Melville Island, In the extreme
north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In 1823 Lieutenant
Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the first place
500 m., the other 600 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site of a
new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor
he met with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the
river Brisbane. About the same time, in the opposite direction,
south-west of Sydney, a large extent of the interior was revealed.
Messrs Hamilton Hume and Hovell set out from Lake George,
crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after following the river lor s
short distance, struck south, skirting the foothills of what arc
now known as the Australian Alps until they reached a fine
river, which was called the Hume after the leader's father.
Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, h»«rHg to the
south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached
the sea-coast near where the town of Geclong now stands. In
1827 and the two following years, Cunningham prosecuted
instructive explorations on both sides of the Liverpool range,
between the upper waters of the Hunter and those of the Peel
and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New South Wales.
Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora's Pats and
the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility.
By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaint-
ance with the eastern parts of the Australian continent, although
the problem of what could become of the large rivers
flowing north-west and south-west into the interior M
was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question.
Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the ex-
pedition under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to
the marshes at the end of the Macquarie river, found his progress
checked by the dense mass of reeds in that quarter. He therefore
turned westward, and struck a large river, with many affluents,
to which he gave the name of the Darling. This river, flowing
from north-east to south-west, drains the marshes in which the
Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared to be lost.
The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was
followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition
in 1831 with a more satisfactory result He travelled on tins
occasion nearly 2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrum-
bidgee, carrying with it the waters of the Lachlan morass, and
likewise the Darling, from a more northerly region, finally joined
another and larger river. This stream, the Murray, in the upper
part of its course runs in a north-westerly direction, but after-
wards turning southwards, almost at a right angle, expands into
Lake Alexandria on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east of
the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Knronatcr Bay
in £. long. 130 .
After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destina-
tion of the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1&33,
led an expedition northward to the upper branches — ^^
of the Darling; the party met with a sad disaster in
the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the exainest
botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Began river.
The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1S33.
and after establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell tractd
the Darling southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river
was identical with that reported by Sturt as joining the Moray
about 14a E.
Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia,
on the shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys
to the north and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre,
who explored a country very difficult of access. In *~
1840 be performed a feat of extraordinary personal daring,
travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of the Great
Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound.
Eyre also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer
Gulf, where he was misled, however, by appearances to form aa
erroneous theory about the water-surfaces named Lake Torrent
It was left to the veteran explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous
enterprise of penetrating from the Darling northward to the very
centre of the continent. This was in 1 845, the route lying ior the
most part over a stony desert, where the heat (reaching iji°
Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much suffering to the party.
The most northerly point reached by Sturt on this t *^ n ^vm was
about S. lat. 24° 2^
JCPLORATION]
A military station having been fixed by the British govern-
cnt at Fort Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the
^^ protection of shipwrecked mariners on the north coast,
Jjj' it was thought desirable to find an overland route
between this settlement and Morcton Bay, in what
ten was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called
ueensland. This was the object of Dr Leichhardt's expedition
i 1844, which proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson
id the Mackenzie, tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland.
: thence passed farther north, to the Burdekin, ascending to
ic source of that river, and turned westward across a table-land,
om which there was an easy descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria,
kirting the low shores of this gulf, all the way round its upper
all to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed Arnheim Land to the
Jligator river, which he descended to the western shore of the
eninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port Essington,
fter a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three
lonths. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable
ask, that of crossing the entire continent from east to west.
lis starting-point was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river
:ondamine, in Queensland, between the 26th and 27th degrees
I S. latitude. But this eminent explorer had not proceeded
ax into the interior before he met his death, his last despatch
lating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In the same region,
rom 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr £. B. Kennedy
sxplored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river
n S. lat. 24°, named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to
he south-west This river was more thoroughly examined by
Mr A. C. Gregory in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848,
seing killed by the natives while attempting to explore the
peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham Bay to Weymouth
Bay.
Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical
utility in surveying and opening new paths through the country,
we may mention that of Captain Banister, showing the way
across the southern part of Western Australia, from Swan river
to King George Sound, and that of Messrs Robinson and G.H,
Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port Phillip to
Gipps' Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub,
which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle.
Again, in Western Australia there were the explorations of the
ArrowsmHh, the Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton
rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R.
Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose discoveries have great
importance from a geographical point of view.
These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts
of Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of
staar1m Australian geography, must yield in importance to the
grand achievement of Mr Stuart in 1862. The first
of his tours independently performed, in 1858 and 1859, were
around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens, Lake
Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously
taken for parts of one vast horseshoe or sickle shaped lake, only
some 20 m. broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the
inland country, with drainage at one end by a marsh into
Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in all the old maps of
Australia, had originated in a curious optical illusion. When Mr
Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840, looking
between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own
name, the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt
that covers a large space of stony or sandy ground produced an
appearance of water. The error was discovered, after eighteen
years, by the explorations of Mr Babbage and Major Warburton
in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same time, gained a more
complete knowledge of the same district
A reward of £10,000 having been offered by the legislature
of South Australia to the first man who should traverse the
whole continent from south to north, starting from the city of
Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved to make the attempt He started
in March i860, passing Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre, beyond
which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he crossed the
MacdoantU range of mountains, just under the line of the tropic
AUSTRALIA
961
of Capricorn. . On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in
S. lat. nearly 22°, and E. long, nearly 134°, which is the most
central marked point of the Australian continent, and has been
named Central Mount Stuart Mr Stuart did not finish his task
on this occasion, on account of indisposition and other causes.
But the 18th degree of latitude had been reached, where the
watershed divided the rivers of the Gulf of Carpentaria from
the Victoria river, flowing towards the north-west coast. He
had also proved that the interior of Australia was not a stony
desert, like the region visited by Sturt in 1845. On the first day
of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started for a second
attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight months.
He failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical
degree north of the point reached in i860, his progress being
arrested by dense scrubs and the want of water.
Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund
subscribed among the colonists and a grant by the legislature,
the ill-fated expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills .
was started. It made for the Barcoo (Cooper's Creek), WfHm
with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a
northerly courre midway between Sturt's track to the west and
Leichhardt's to the east The leading men of the party were Mr
Robert O'Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John
Wills, of the Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body
of his party at Menindie on the Darling under a man named
Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses and sixteen camels,
pushed on for Cooper's Creek, the understanding being that
Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed
to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the
district beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the
party to Cooper's Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined
to push on. Accordingly, dividing his party, leaving at the
depot four men and taking with him Wills and two men, King
and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left Cooper's Creek
on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed by
Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great diffi-
culties, past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21 and
22°, and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the
head of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing
on the sea-beach of the northern shore, they met the tidal waters
of the sea. On the 23rd of February 1861 they commenced the
return journey, having in effect accomplished the feat of crossing
the Australian continent Gray, who had fallen ill, died on the
16th of April. Five days later, Burke, Wills and King had
repassed the desert to the place on Cooper's Creek (the Barcoo,
S. lat. 27 40', £. long. 140 30'), where they had left the depot,
with the rest of the expedition. Here they experienced a cruel
disappointment The depot was abandoned; the men in charge
had quitted the place the same day, believing that Burke and
those with him were lost The men who had thus abandoned
the depot rejoined the main body of the expedition under Wright,
who at length moved to Cooper's Creek, and, incredible to relate,
neglected to search for the missing explorers. Burke, Wills and
King, when they found themselves so fearfully left alone and
unprovided in the wilderness, wandered about in that district
till near the end of June. They subsisted miserably on the bounty
of some natives, and partly by feeding on the seeds of a plant
called nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died of starvation.
King, the sole survivor, was saved by meeting the friendly blacks,
and was found alive in September by Mr A. W. Howitt's party,
sent on purpose to find and relieve that of Burke.
Four other parties, besides Howitt's, were sent out that year
from different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively
commanded by Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman,
sailed to the north, where the latter two landed on the shores
of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr Walker marched inland
from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J. McKinlay,
from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens.
By these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was
simultaneously entered from the north, south, east and west,
and important additions were made to geographical knowledge.
Landsborough crossed the entire continent from north to south.
962
AUSTRALIA
(EXPLORATION
between February and June 1862; and McKinlay, from south to
north, before the end of August in that year. The interior of
New South Wales and Queensland, all that ties east of the 140th
degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper's
Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland
mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in
South Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and
other northern rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of
Carpentaria were also explored. These valuable additions to
Australian geography were gained through humane efforts to
relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of Burke and Wills were
recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn public funeral,
and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.
Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to
traverse the continent from Adelaide along a central line, which,
inclining a little westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim
Land, opposite Melville Island. He started in January, and on
the 7 th of April reached the farthest northern point, near S. lat.
17°, where he had turned back in May of the preceding year.
He then pushed on, through a very thick forest, with scarcely
any water, till he came to the streams which supply the Roper,
a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides these
streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim
Land, Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is
called the Adelaide river of north Australia. Thus he came at
length to stand on the verge of the Indian Ocean; " gazing
upon it/' a writer has said, " with as much delight as Balboa,
when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the Atlantic to
the Pacific." The line crossing Australia which was thus
explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph
connecting Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian
cities with London.
A third part, at least, of the Interior of the whole continent,
between the central line of Stuart and the known parts of
Oggg^ Western Australia, from about xao - to 134° E. long.,
an extent of half a million square miles, still remained
a blank in the map. But the two expeditions of 1 873, conducted by
William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards deputy surveyor-
general for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major) Egerton
Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this terra
incognita west of the central telegraph route. That line of more
than 1800 m., having its southern extremity at the head of
Spencer Gulf, its northern at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land,
passes Central Mount Stuart, in the middle of the continent,
S. lat. 22°, E. long. 134°. Mr Gosse, with men and horses pro-
vided by the South Australian government, started on the 21st
of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of Central Mount
Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the Reynolds
range and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled
to turn south, where he found a tract of well-watered grassy
land. A singular rock of conglomerate, 2 m. long, z m. wide,
and 1 100 ft. high, with a spring of water in its centre, struck his
attention. The country was mostly poor and barren, sandy
hillocks, with scanty growth of spinifex. Mr Gosse, having
travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26* 32' S. and 227° E.,
two degrees within the Western Australian boundary, was forced
to return. Meantime a more successful attempt to reach the
western coast from the centre of Australia was made by
Major Warburton, with thirty camels, provided by Mr
(afterwards Sir) T.Elder, of South Australia. Leaving
the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23* 40' S., 133° 14' E.),
xi 20 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton succeeded in making
his way to the De Grey river, Western Australia. Overland
routes had now been found possible, though scarcely convenient
for traffic, between all the widely separated Australian provinces.
In northern Queensland, also, there were several explorations
about this period, with results of some interest That performed
by Mr W. Hann, with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in 1873,
related to the country north of the Kirchner range, watered by
thft I.vnrf the Mitchell, the Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on
■5 Gulf of Carpentaria. The coasting expedition
of Mr G. Elphinstone Dalrymple, with Messrs Hfll mxuf Johnstoat
finishing in December 1873, effected a valuable survey of ik
inlets and navigable rivers in the Cape York Peninsula.
Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, cm
Major Warburton'* expedition, the most successful, had faux
in the important particular of determining the nature cf tk
country through which it passed. Major Warburton hai
virtually raced across from the Macdonnefl ranee in Scan
Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river cm Use sorts*
west coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note tk
characteristics of the country. The next important eiprdrtia
was differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John) j^m*
Forrest was despatched by the Perth g o ver nm ent
with general instructions to obtain information regarding tk
immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers faffae.
into the sea on the northern and western shores of Westers
Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about 1st, aft* S .
long, xi 6* E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchbon
river, and followed the course of that river to the Robinson
ranges; thence his course lay generally eastward along the
36th parallel. Forrest and his party safely crossed Use entirr
extent of Western Australia, and entering South Aostralu
struck the overland telegraph line at Peake station, and, after
resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest traversed seveateea
degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful achievement,
more especially as he was able to give a full report of the country
through which he passed. His report destroyed sJl hope Uut
pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; aad
the main object of subsequent explorers was to detennine the
extent of the desert in the direction of north and south. Ernest
Giles made several attempts to cross the Central (mu
Australian Desert, but it was not until his third
attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost wi dt
Forrest's in the importance of its results and the success will:
which the appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome.
Through the generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Gtks's
expedition was equipped with camels. It started on Use 13rd
of May 1875 from Port Augusta. Working westerly along the
line of the 30th parallel, Giles reached Perth in about five month*.
After resting in Perth for a short time, he commenced the rerun
journey, which was made for the most part be t ween the u&
and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed the desert
reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months.
Giles's journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the character-
istics of Western and South Australia, and be was able to bear
out the common opinion that the interior of Australia west of
13 a* E. long, is a sandy and waterless waste, entirely oast ior
settlement
The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after
Forrest's and Giles's expeditions the main object ceased to be
the discovery of pastoral country: a new aest had _
been added to the cause of exploration, and most of uuftmmt
the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the
search for gold. Amongst the more important explorations
may be ranked those of Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1801.
of Wells in 1896, of HUbbe in 1806, and of the Hon. David
Carnegie in 1806-07. Lindsay's expedition, which was fitted
out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of Austrsisaa
exploration, entered Western Australia about the *6th paraOet
south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. Fran
this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to
Queen Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Gda't
expedition of 187 s. From the Springs the expedition went
north-west and made a useful examination of the country lying
between 119° and 115° meridians and between *6* and 26* S. hi.
Wells's expedition started from a base about xsa" so' £. aad
*5° 54' S., and worked northward to the Joanna Springs, situated
on the tropic of Capricorn and near the 114th meridian. From
the springs the journey was continued along the same sssridtas
to the Fitzroy river. The country passed through was mostly
of a forbidding character, except where the Kimberley district
was entered, and the expedition suffered even more than 1st
POLITICAL HISTORY]
AUSTRALIA
9*3
usual hardships. The establishment of the gold-fields, with
their large population, caused great interest to be taken in the
discovery of practicable stock routes, especially from South
Australia in the east, and from Kimberley district in the north.
Alive to the importance of the trade, the South Australian
government despatched Hubbe from Oodnadatta to Coolgardie.
He successfully accomplished his journey, but had to report
that there was no practicable route for cattle between the two
districts.
One of the most successful expeditions which traversed
Western Australia, was that led and equipped by the Hon.
David Carnegie, which started in July 1896, and travelled
north-easterly until it reached Alexander Spring; then turning
northward, it tsavessed the country between Wells's track of
xSo6 and the South Australian border. The expedition en-
countered very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall
Creek in the Kimberley district. After a few months' rest it
started on the return journey, following Sturt Creek until its
termination in Gregory's Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel
with the South Australian border as far as Lake Macdonald.
Rounding that lake the expedition moved south-west and
reached the settled districts in August 1807. The distance
travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight
months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long
entertained, that itwas possible to obtain a direct and practicable
route for stock between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and
it also proved that, with the possible exception of small isolated
patches, the desert traversed contained no auriferous country.
It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an
end; there remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive,
between the tracks of the old explorers yet to be examined, and
these are chiefly in the Northern Territory and in Western
Australia north of the tropic of Capricorn. The search for gold
avnd the quest for unoccupied pasturage daily diminish the
extant of these areas.
5. Political History.
Of the six Australian states, New South Wales itf the oldest
It was in 1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored
_ the east coast, that Port Jackson was founded as
^f*__ a penal station for criminals from England; and
JJJJ,* the settlement retained that character, more or less,
during the subsequent fifty years, transportation being
virtually suspended in 1839. The colony, however, from 1821
had made a fair start in free industrial progress. By this time,
too, several of the other provinces had come into existence.
Van Diemcn's Land, now called Tasmania, had been occupied
as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under New
South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government
From this island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait
to Port Phillip, where a new settlement was shortly established,
forming till 185 r a part of New South Wales, but now the state of
Victoria. In 1827 and 1820, an English company endeavoured
to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and this, added toa small
military station established in 1825 at King George Sound,
constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf St
Vincent, again, from Y835 to 1837, South Australia was created
by another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wake-
field scheme of colonisation. Such were the political component
parts of British Australia up to 1830. The early history, there-
fore, of New South Wales is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other
mainland provinces, it was at first held and used chiefly for the
reception of British convicts. When that system was abolished,
the social conditions of New South Wales, Victoria, and South
Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold discoveries
of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general summary
view.
The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with
despotic power. They were naval or military officers in command
of the garrison, the convicts and the few free settlers. The
duty was performed by such men as Captain Arthur Phillip,
Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve years' rule of General
Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a- substantial
advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were con-
structed, and a route opened into the interior beyond n*»*i
the Blue Mountains. A population of 30,000, three- n»w
fourths of them convicts, formed the infant common- Souik
wealth, whose attention was soon directed to the profit- waits,
able trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain
John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-183 x,
Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the
army, being successively governors, the colony increased, and
eventually succeeded in obtaining the advantages of a repre-
sentative institution, by means of a legislative council. Then
came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise and liberal
administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales
became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital
Its enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh
country north and south. In the latter direction, explored by
Mitchell in 1834 and 1836, lay Australia Felix, now Victoria,
including the well-watered, thickly-wooded country of Gipps'
Land.
This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor
Sir George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position
claiming independence. Melbourne, which began with
a few huts on the banks of the Yarra-Yarra in 1835,
was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the
population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong
and Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted
to £204,000, and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth
of infant Victoria in five years; that of Adelaide or South
Australia, in the same period, was nearly equal to it. At Mel-
bourne there was a deputy governor, Mr Latrobe, under Sir
George Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own governors, first
Captain Hindmarah, next Colonel Gawler, and then Captain
George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with
less than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling
andHutt.
The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-
mining, had been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial
crisis, from 1 841 to 1843, caused by extravagant land nti
speculations and inflated prices. Victoria produced ©/SET*
already more wool than New South Wales,the aggregate
produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 lb; and South
Australia, between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable
mines of copper. The population of New South Wales in 1851
was 100,000; that of Victoria, 77,000; and that of South
Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek, 20 m. north
of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered, in
February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California.
The intelligence was made known in April or May; and then
began a rush of thousands,— men leaving their former employ-
ments in the bush or in the towns, to search for the ore so greatly
coveted in all ages. In August it was found at Anderson's
Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the great Ballarat
gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and after that,
Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New
South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were
revealed, but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary
industry was left for the one exciting pursuit The copper mines
of South Australia were for the time deserted, while Tasmania
and New Zealand lost many inhabitants, who emigrated to the
more promising country. The disturbance of social, industrial
and commercial affairs, during the first two or three years of
the gold era, was very great. Immigrants from Europe, and to
some extent from North America and China, poured into Mel-
bourne, where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a
week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelve-
month of the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports
was multiplied tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony
of Victoria was constituted a separate province in July 185 1,
Mr Latrobe being appointed governor, followed by Sir Charles
Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession.
The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia.
9 6 4
AUSTRALIA
(POLITICAL HBfOn
under the name of Queensland, from the original province of
New South Wales, took place in 1850. At that time the district
contained about 25,000 inhabitants; and in the first six years
its population was quadrupled and its trade trebled.
At the beginning of i860, when the excitement of the
gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states
had received from the home government the boon
of responsible government, and were in a position to work out
the problem of their position without external interference; it
was not, however, until 1800 that Western Australia was placed
in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible
government the main questions at issue were the secular as
opposed to the religious system of public instruction, protection
as opposed to a revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage,
abolition of transportation and assignment of convicts, and
free selection of lands before survey; these, and indeed all
the great questions upon whkh the country was divided, were
settled within twenty years of the granting of self-government. 1
With the disposal of these important problems, politics in
Australia became a struggle for office between men whose
political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power
enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the
principles of administration so much as upon the personal
fitness of the head of the ministry, and the acceptability of his
ministry to the members of the more popular branch of the
legislature.
The two most striking political events in the modern history
of Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown
to remain a part of the British empire (q.v.) t and to
mm develop along Imperial lines, are the advent of the
»T Labour party and the establishment of federation.
As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it
was accomplished from within, there being no real external
necessity for the union of the states. Leading politicians have in
all the states felt the cramping effects of mere domestic legislation,
albeit on the proper direction of such legislation depends the well-
being of the people; and to this sense of the limitations of local
politics was due, as much as to anything else, the movement
towards federation.
Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the
evolution of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some
other questions which have been of general interest
iEJJ" in Australia. Taking the states as a whole, agrarian
tiom. legislation has been the most important subject that
has engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and
every state has been more or less engaged in tinkering with its
land laws. The main object of all such legislation is to secure
the residence of the owners on the land. The object of settlers,
however, in a great many, perhaps in the majority of instances,
is to dispose of their holdings as soon as possible after the require-
ments of the law have been complied with, and to avoid per-
manent settlement. This has greatly facilitated the formation
of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary to
the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to en-
courage Ullage,or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage
large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great
that it is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every
parliament of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or
amend its land laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical
changes made in New South Wales. In Victoria the law has been
altered five times, and in Queensland and South Australia seven
times.
The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured
races has also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention.
The agitation against the influx of Chinese commenced
very soon alter the gold discoveries, the European
miners objecting strongly to the presence of these
aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made con-
cerning the Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue
1 Australia, it may be noted, has woman's suffrage in all the
state* (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for
the federal assembly.
industry. The Chinese were hard-working and had the ass*'
fortune attending those who work hard. They spent Utile m
drink or with the storekeepers, and were, therefore, by no max
popular. As early as i860 there had been disturbances «f 1
serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the goMfec iA
of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at t^—sa^ r^
on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, no far a*
the mining population was concerned, was solved by the extra-
tion of the extensive alluvial deposits; the miners* p e t jwfri
against the race, however, still exists, though they are no loacv
serious competitors, and the laws of some of the states farhd
any Chinese to engage in mining without the eaptcs* antborirf
in writing of the minister of mines. The nearness of Chasa »
Australia has always appeared to the Australian democracy at •
menace to the integrity of the white settlements; and at tk
many conferences of representatives from the varioas states
called to discuss matters of general concern, the Chinese quesfcez
has always held a prominent place, but the absence of any feden.
authority had made common action difficult In 1688 the as*
important conference on the Chinese question was held a
Sydney and attended by delegates from all the states. Previ-
ously to the meeting of the conference there had been a great 6bl
of discussion in regard to the influx of Chinese, and such mflas
was on all sides agreed to be a growing danger. The confercsxx.
therefore, merely expressed the public sentiment when it renohve
that, although it was not advisable to prohibit altogether tav
class of immigration, it was necessary in the public interests
that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be »
limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becemtsr,
an important element in the community. In conformity vita
this determination the various state legislatures marred new
laws or amended the existing laws, to cope with the diffioany;
these remained until they were in effect superseded by Coxaaon-
wealth legislation. The objection to admitting immigrants was
not only to the Chinese, but extended to all Asiatics; but as s
large proportion of the persons whose entrance into the colonies
it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the Imperial
government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting
in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part
of the empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislatiae;
this was the more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power
in the East and the alliance of that country with Great Britah
rendered it necessary to pay attention to the susceptibilities ol a
powerful nation whose subjects might be affected by restrictm
laws. Eventually the difficulty was overcome by the device of aa
educational test based on the provisions of an act in operation xa
Natal It was provided that a person was to be prohibited from
landing in Australia who failed to write in any prescribed
language fifty words dictated to him by the conunonwealu
officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this Icgtslatioa
is in its administration, the language in which coloured ahem
are usually tested being European. The agitation against the
Chinese covered a space of over fifty years, a long period a
the history of a young country, and was promoted and kept
alive almost entirely by the trades unions, and the restrictm
acts were the first legislative triumph of the Labour party,
albeit that party was not at the time directly represented ia
parliament
One of the most notable events in the modern history of
Australia occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890, This
was what is ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1803. __
Although this crisis followed on the great strike, the 5J«f
two things had no real connexion, the crisis being the is**,
natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The
effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern state*
Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South
Australia being affected chiefly by reason of the fart of their
intimate financial connexion with the eastern states. The
approach of the crisis was heralded by many signs. Deposits
were shifted from bank to hank, there were small runt on semsi
of the savings banks guaranteed by the government, mortgages
required additional security from their debtors, bankruptcies
POLITICAL HISTORY]
became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate
gold against the evQ day. The building societies and financial
institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on
an unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression,
so also did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds
of the depositors, especially those whose holdings were small,
and most of the banks were, at a very early period, subjected to
the strain of repaying a large proportion of their deposits as
they fell due. For a time the money so withdrawn was hoarded,
bat after a while it found its way back again into the banks.
The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when the
failures begad to take place they were spread over a period of
sixteen weeks.
The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of
employment Much capital was locked up in the failed banks,
and was therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-
earners. Wages fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was
an almost entire cessation of building, and a large number of
houses in the chief cities remained untenanted, the occupants
moving to lodgings and more than one family living in a single
house. Credit became greatly restricted, and all descriptions
of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming
power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the
year following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad
diminished by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, every-
where the demand for goods, especially of those for domestic
consumption, fell away; and there was a reduction in the
average number of persons employed in the manufacturing
industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of
employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining.
industry, and indeed every industry in the states, except those
connected with the export trade, was severely affected. During
the crisis banks having a paid-up capital and reserves of
£5,000,000 and deposits of £53,000,000 closed their doors. Most
of these, however, reopened for business before many weeks.
The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in the
country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any
other capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to
many families, previously to all appearances in opulent circum-
stances, but by all classes alike their reverses were borne with
the greatest bravery. In its ultimate effects the crisis was by
no means evil. Its true meaning was not lost upon a business
community that had had twenty years of almost unchecked
prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to teach it
a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first effects
of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder
footing than had been the case for very many years. One of
the first results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish
most of the abuses of the credit system, but the most striking
effect of the crisis was the attention which was almost immedi-
ately directed to productive pursuits. Agriculture everywhere
expanded, the mining industry revived, and, if it had not
been for the low prices of staple products, the visible effects
of the crisis would have passed away within a very few
yean*
Another matter which deserves attention was the great
drought which culminated in the year 1902. For some years
Dfoarht previously the pastoral industry had been declining
J/JJSJ; and the number of sheep and cattle in Australia had
greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of
veritable drought The failure of the crops was almost universal
and large numbers of sheep and cattle perished for want of food.
The troth is, pastoralists for the most part carried on their
Industry trusting very greatly to luck, not making any special
provisions against the vicissitudes of the seasons.. Enormous
quantities of natural hay were allowed every year to rot or be
destroyed by bush fires, and the bountiful provision made by
nature to carry them over the seasons of dry weather absolutely
neglected; so that when the destructive season of 1002 fell upon
them, over a large area of territory there was no food for the
stock. The year 1003 proved most bountiful, and in a few years
all trace of the disastrous drought of 1903 passed away. But
AUSTRALIA
965
beyond this the pastoralist learnt most effectually the 1
that, in a country like Australia, provision must be made for the
occasional season when the- rainfall is entirely inadequate to the
wants of the farmer and the pastoralist
The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers
of the original constitution which was bestowed upon New South
Wales. In the report of the committee of the legislative
council appointed in 1852 to prepare a constitution 2f"*
for that colony, the following passage occurs: — " One
of the most prominent legislative measures required by the
colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is
the establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws
in relation to those intercolonial questions that have arisen or
may hereafter arise among them. The questions which would
claim the exercise of such a jurisdiction appear to be (x) inter-
colonial tariffs and the coasting trade; (2) railways, roads,
canals, and other such works running through any two of the
colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4) inter-
colonial gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies;
(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies;
(7) a power to legislate on all other subjects which may be
submitted to them by addresses from the legislative councils
and assemblies of the colonies, and to appropriate to any of
the above-mentioned objects the necessary sums of money, to
be raised by a percentage on the revenues of all the colonies
interested." This wise recommendation received very scant
attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies
forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the
framers of the original constitution suggested. Federation at
no time actually dropped out of sight, but it was not until thirty-
five years later that any practical steps were taken towards its
accomplishment Meanwhile a sort of makeshift was devised,
and the Imperial parliament passed a measure permitting the
formation of a federal council, to which any colony that felt
inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies
New South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council,
and from the beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of
the prestige that would have attached to a body speaking and
acting on behalf of a united Australia. The council had also
a fatal defect in its constitution. It was merely a deliberative
body, having no executive functions and possessing no control
of funds or other means to put its legislation in force. Its
existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia
until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but
slight interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held
eight meetings, at which many matters of intercolonial interest
were discussed. The last occasion of its being called together
was in 1809, when the council met in Melbourne. In 1889 an
important step towards federation was taken by Sir Henry
Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards
on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other
premiers on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of
defence. The immediate result was a conference at Parliament
House, Melbourne, of representatives from each of the seven
colonies. This conference adopted an address to the queen
expressing its loyalty and attachment, and submitting certain
resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an early union,
under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on principles
just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian colonics
should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards
agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment
of delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider
and report upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention.
In accordance with the understanding arrived at, the various
Australasian parliaments appointed delegates to attend a national
convention to be held in Sydney, and on the 2nd March 1891
the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry Parkes was
elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions embodying
the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring foundation,
the structure of a federal government These resolutions were
slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the
following form.*—
$66
AUSTRALIA
[POLITICAL HIST5P
I. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact,
except as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over
to the Federal government.
a. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the
legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament.
3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free.
4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal
government and parliament.
5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command.
6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each
state to make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the
purposes of federation.
Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of
March Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on
constitutional machinery, brought up a draft Constitution BUI,
which was carefully considered by the convention in committee
of the whole and adopted on the 9th of April, when the conven-
tion was formally dissolved. The bill, however, fell absolutely
dead, not because it was not a good bill, but because the
movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative, and
therefore failed to reach the popular imagination.
Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not
received by the people with any show of interest, the federation
movement did not die out; on the contrary, it had many en-
thusiastic advocates, especially in the colony of Victoria. In
1894 an unofficial convention was held at Corowa, at which the
cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but it was not
until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of the
proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr
G. H. Reid of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies
except New Zealand were represented, and it was agreed that
the parliament of each colony should be asked to pass a bill
enabling the people to choose ten persons to represent the colony
on a federal convention; the work of such convention being the
framing of a federal constitution to be submitted to the people
for approval by means of the referendum. During the year 1896
Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria,
Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates
were elected by popular vote in all the colonies named except
Western Australia, where the delegates were chosen by parlia-
ment The convention met in Adelaide on the 22nd of March
1897, and, after drafting a bill for the consideration of the
various parliaments, adjourned until the and of September.
On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated
the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures
of the federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it
was announced that Queensland desired to come within the
proposed union; and in view of this development, and in Order
to give further opportunity for the consideration of the bill,
the convention again adjourned. The third and final session
was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but
Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further con-
sideration, the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March
and remitted to the various colonies for submission to the people.
The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia
and Tasmania by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales
very great opposition was shown, the main points of objection
being the financial provisions, equal representation in the Senate,
and the difficulty in the way of the larger states securing an
amendment of the constitution in the event of a conflict with
the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were concerned, it
was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention throughout
Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce political
contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the
fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether
the statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance
of the bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded,
for the result of the referendum in New South Wales showed
71,595 votes in favour of the bill and, 66,228 against it, and
it was accordingly lost In Victoria, Tasmania and South
Australia, on the other hand, the bill was accepted by triumphant
majorities. Western Australia did not put it to the vote, as the
Enabling Act of that colony only provided for joining a federation
of which New South Wales should form a part The existence
of such a strong opposition to the biS in the mother cuts.-
convinced even its most zealous advocates that some cLc-
would have to be made in the constitution before it colj: *
accepted by the people; consequently, although the gcrv
election in New South Wales, held six or seven weeks a jz
was fought on the federal issue, yet the opposing parties seer
to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the question narrs-i
itself down to one as to which party should be entrusted 1
the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony, vi
view to securing a modification of the objectionable featu-ca .
the bilL The new parliament decided to adopt the procE>:~ '
of again sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, arz- •
with a series of resolutions affirming its desire to bring abou: _»
completion of federal union, but asking the other colocir*
agree to the reconsideration of the provisions which were n •
generally objected to in New South Wales. The other cxJ. - -
interested were anxious to bring the matter to a speedy ters^--*
tion, and readily agreed to this course of procedure. Acrr
ingly a premiers' conference was held in Melbourne: at the c |
of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first l=.
represented. At this conference a compromise was cSct..
something was conceded to the claims of New South Uia
but the main principles of the bill remained intact The btL 1-
amended was submitted to the electors of each colon} &r
again triumphantly carried in Victoria, South Australia is.
Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there were s—
a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which »s.«
nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales ha\ -=;
decided in favour of federation, the way was dear for a oedsaa
on the part of Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed tie
various stages in the parliament of that colony, and the quesi*£*
was then adopted by referendum.
In accordance with this general verdict of afl the states, tk
colonial draft bill was submitted to the imperial government ar
legislation as an imperial act; and six delegates were sent u
England to explain the measure and to pilot it through the cabiar
and parliament. A bill was presented to the British pariiust&.
which embodied and established, with such variations as h*-
been accepted on behalf of Australia by the delegates, :!*
constitution agreed to at the premiers' conference of 1809 **'
speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the g i
of July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September
of the same year, declaring that, on and after the xst of January
1 00 1, the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South AustnU,
Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia should be un>t«i
in a federal commonwealth under the name of the Commonweal^
of Australia.
The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominate*
original states, and new states might be admitted, or m%fat be
formed by separation from or union of two or snore states ^
or parts of states; and territories (as distinguished from ^***"
states) might be taken over and governed under the Iegis- "l^L 1 *
lative power of the Commonwealth. The legislative • rjam
power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the s ov m.fr
a senate, and a house of representatives, the soverara heir;
represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of u*
same number of members (not less than six) for each state. zis
term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement th«<
half the number would retire every three years. The Home a
Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the du5erc=»
states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fe--«
than five. The first House of Representatives was to conr.ii-*
seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors <J
states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives t V
g ov ernor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate «rcU
choose its own president, and the House of Representatives «i
speaker; each bouse would make its own rules of procedure: n
each, one-third of the number of members would form a quor.ra
the members of each must take oath, or make affirmation of aJkiji-
ance; and all alike would receive an allowance of (400 a year. Thr
legislative powers of the parliament have a wtde^ range. m*a\
matters being transferred to ( it from the colonial parliaments. TV
more important subjects with which it deals are trade, shipr»rf
and railways; taxation, bounties, the borrowing of money on the
credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and telegraphic servkn.
defence, census and statistics; currency, coinage, banking, btsk-
ruptcy; weights and measures; copyright* patents and trade
POLITICAL HISTORY)
narks; marriage and divorce; immigration end emigration; con-
dilation and arbitration in industrial dispute* BUb imposing
taxation or
and neither
annual service of the government may
but the Senate may return such bub to the House of Representative*
with a request for their amendment- Appropriation laws must not
deal with other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one
subject of taxation ; but customs and excise duties may, respectively,
be dealt with together. -•---■
AUSTRALIA
967
id arbitration in industrial disputes, mils imposing
appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate,
- taxation bub nor bitts appropriating revenue for the
ice of the government may be amended in the Senate,
The constitution provides means for the settlement of disputes
between the houses, and requires the assent of the sovereign to all
laws. The executive power is vested in the governor-general, assisted
by an executive council appointed by himself. He has command of
the army and navy, and appoints federal ministers and judges.
The ministers are members of the executive council, and must he,
or within three months of their appointment must become, members
of the parliament. The judicial powers are vested in a high court
and other federal courts, and the federal judges hold office for life
or during good behaviour. The High Court hasappelbte jurisdiction
in cases from other federal courts and from the supreme courts of the
states, and it has original jurisdiction in matters arising under laws
made by the federal parliament, m disputes between states, or
residents in different states, and in matters affecting the representa-
tives of foreign powers. Special provisions were made respecting
appeals from the High Court to the sovereign in council. The con*
etitutioo set forth elaborate arrangements tor the administration of
finance and trade during the transition period following the trans-
ference of departments to the Commonwealth. Within two years
uniform customs duties were to be imposed; thereafter the partis*
ment of the Commonwealth had exclusive power to impose customs
and excise duties, or to grant bounties; and trade within the
Commonwealth was to be absolutely free. Exceptions were made
permitting the states to grant bounties on mining and (with the
consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or manufactures
— Western Australia being for a time partially exempted from the
prohibition to impose import duties.
The constitution, parliament and bws of each state, subject to
the federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were
carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given
powers of adjudication and of administration of the bws relating
to trade, transport and other matters. Provision was made for
n ec essar y alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but
so that no alteration could be effected unless the question had been
directly submitted to, and the change accepted by the elect o r ate in
the states. The seat of government was to be within New South
Wales, not less than 100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area
not less than 100 sq. m. Until other provision was made, the
gov er nor-g ener al was to have a salary of £10,000, paid by the
Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries of the governors of states,
the constitution made no provision.
The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth
fell upon Lord Hopctoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who
had won golden opinions as governor of Victoria a few years
before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund) Barton, who had taken
the lead among the Australian delegates, became first prime
minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the open-
ing of 1901. The first psrharnent under the constitution was
elected on the agth and 30th of March 1001, and was opened by
the prince of Wales on the oth of May following. In October
1908 the Yass-Canberra district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W.,
was at length selected by both federal houses to contain the
future federal capital.
The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to
the early days when transportation was in vogue, and the free
immigrant and the time-expired convict objected
1 to the competition of the bond labourer. The great
object of these early struggles being attained, Labour
directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It
was aided very materially by the dearth of workers consequent
on the gold discoveries, when every man could command his
own price. When the excitement consequent on the gold finds
had subsided, there was a considerable reaction against the cbims
of Labour, and this was greatly helped by the congested state
of the hbour market; but the principle of an eight-hours day
made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In the early
years of the 'seventies the colonies entered upon an era of well-
being, sod for about twelve years every man, willing to work
snd capable of exerting himself, readily found employment.
The Labour unions were able to secure in these years many
tt ttceaiofts both as to hours sad wages. la 1873 there was an
Important rise in wages, In the following year there was a further
advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages fell back a
little, though not below the rate of 1874. In x88a there was
a very important advance in wages; carpenters received us. a
day, bricklayers is*. 6d., stone-masons its. 6d., plasterers 12s.,
painters us., blacksmiths ios., and navvies and general bbourers
8s., and work was very plentiful. For five years these high
wages ruled; but in 1886 there was a sharp fall, though wages
•till remained very good. In 1888 there was an advance,
and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve of a great
change and wages fell, in most cases to a point so % below the
rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards,
prices, other than of labour, were steadily tending downwards,
so that the cost of living in 1890 was much below that of 1873.
Taking everything into consideration the reduction was, perhaps,
not less than so %, so that, though the nominal or money wages
in 1873 and 1800 were the same, the actual wages were much
higher in the Utter year. Much of the improvement in the lot
of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour organisations,
yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little account,
politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was
passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and
it was simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union
shall not be deemed unlawful (so ss to render a member liable'
to criminal prosecution for conspiracy or otherwise) merely
by reason that they are in restraint of trade. After the year
1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New South
Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery
owners during the greater part of the six years intervening
between then and what is called the Great Strike. The strong
downward tendency of prices made a reduction of wages im-
perative; but the labouring classes failed to recognise any such
necessity, and strongly resented say reductions proposed -by
employers. It was hard indeed for a carter drawing coal to a
gasworks to recognise the necessity which compelled a reduction
in his wages because wool had fallen 20 %. Nor were other
labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests,
satisfied with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen
in price all round. Up to 1 880 wages held their ground, although
work had become more difficult to obtain, and some industries
were being carried on without any profit It was Th9Qnm
at such an inopportune time that the most extensive 3*0*
combination of Labour yet brought into action against */Jsm
capital formulated its demands. 1 1 is possible that the
London dockers' strike was not without its influence on the minds
of the Australian Labour leaders. That strike had been liberally
helped by the Australian unions, and it was confidently predicted
that, as the Australian workers were more effectively organized
than the English unions, a corresponding success would result
from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle miners,
after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1800,
and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in
Labour circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed
down, and a week later a conference of employers issued a
manifesto which was met next day by a counter-manifesto of
the Intercolonial Labour Conference, and almost immediately
afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The time chosen
for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a cessation
of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience.
Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the dty was fa
a state of industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes.
Riotous scenes occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields,
and a large number of special constables were sworn in by the
government Towards the end of October ao,ooo shearers were
called out, and many other trades, principally concerned with
the handling or shipping of wool, joined the ranks of the strikers,
with the result that the maritime and pastoral industries through-
out the whole of Australia were most injuriously disturbed.
The Great Strike terminated early in November 1800. the
employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonics were, how-
ever, to have other and bitter experiences of strikes before
Labour recognized that of all means for settling industry 1
9 68
AUSTRALIA
disputes strikes are, on the whole, the most disastrous that
it can adopt The strikes of the years 1890 and 189a are just as
important on account of their political consequences as from
the direct gains or losses involved.
As one result of the strike of 1800 a movement was set afoot
by a number of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that
has resulted in a measure of more or less disaster.
A* " 6 * 1 This was the planting of a colony of communistic
^jjj^, Australians in South America. After much negotiation
the leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist,
decided on Paraguay, and he tramped across the continent,
preaching a new crusade, and gathering in funds and recruits in
his progress. On the x6th of July 1893 the first little army of
"New Australians" left Sydney in the "Royal Tar," which
arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consign-
ments of intending settlers in " New Australia " followed; but
though the settlement is still in existence it has completely failed
to realise the impracticable ideals of its original members. The
Queensland government assisted some of the disillusioned to
escape from the paradise which proved a prison; some managed
to get away on their own account; and those that have remained
have split into as many settlements almost as there are settlers.
Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more practical direc-
tion. New South Wales was the first country which endeavoured
to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and to send
a great party to parliament as the direct representation of
Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was
unable to obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle
of one-man one-vote had been persistently advocated without
arousing any special parliamentary or public enthusiasm until
the meeting of the Federal Convention in 1891. The convention
was attended by Sir George Grey, who was publicly welcomed
to the colony by New Zealanders resident in Sydney, and by
other admirers, and his reception was an absolute ovation.
He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of one-
man one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This
subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform.
Several attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the
Labour party to enter the New South Wales parliament, but
it was not until 1891 that the occurrence of a general election
gave the party the looked-for opportunity for concerted action.
The results of the election came as a complete surprise to the
majority of the community. The Labour party captured 35
seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties
almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was
impossible, the Labour representatives dominated the situation.
It was not long, however, before the party itself became divided
on the fiscal question ; and a Protectionist government coming into
power, about half the Labour members gave it consistent support
and enabled it to maintain office for about three years, the party
as a political unit being thus destroyed. The events of these
three years taught the Labour leaders that a parliamentary party
was of little practical influence unless it was able to cast on all
important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a new
method was devised. The party therefore determined that
they would refuse to support any person standing in the Labour
interests who refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions
in such way as the majority of the party might decide to be
expedient. This was called the " solidarity pledge," and, united
under its sanction, what was left of the Labour party contested
the general election of 1894. The result was a defeat, their
numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal triumph
was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused
to take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united
party were able to accomplish more with their reduced number
than under the old conditions.
The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are
its detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The
caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines
by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party,
independence of action being allowed on minor questions only.
So far the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other
sanies of the state. It supports the government as the power
(POLITICAL HtSTCr. |
alone capable of promoting legislation, but its support is gives -
so long as the measures of the government are consistent whr *
Labour policy. This position the Labour party has been aL* .
maintain with great success, owing to the circumstance that the **jb
parties have been almost equally balanced.
The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labor
party was not confined to New South Wales; on the cootarr
it was common to all the states, having its origin in s^**.
the failure of the Great Strike of 1890. The experience mmmm
of the party was also much the same as in New South g ■* — '
Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in * m *'
South Australia. The Labour party has been in power a
Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia, and hai
on many occasions, decided the fate of the government «e 1
critical division in all the states except Tasmania, and Vict.-w
Different ideals dominate the party in the different states. TV
one ideal which has just been described represents the Labce
party from the New South Wales standpoint. The only quaJiso .
tion worth mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidary. 1
The other ideal, typified by the South Australian party, d£ca
from this in one important respect To the Labour party a
that state are admitted only persons who have worked for their
living at manual labour, and this qualification of being an acta]
worker is one that was strongly insisted upon at the formaUos
of the party and strictly adhered to, although the temptation ta
break away from it and accept as candidates persons of saperinr
education and position has been very great On the formaline
of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the
federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation ia
the House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger propor-
tion in the Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader
basis than the state parties, the solidarity pledge extends only
to votes upon which the fate of a government depends. Natu-
rally, however, as the ideals of the members of the party nre the
same, the members of the Labour party will be generally focH
voting together on all important divisions, the chief exception
being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour party
held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has
had the balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of
the Commonwealth. (T. A. C.)
Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century
and the first decade of the aoth bore the most evident traces
of the Labour party's influence. In all the colonies a
complete departure from principles laid down by the *f*
leading political economists of the 19th century was tf^
made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of
domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals,
which were empowered among other important functions to
fix the minimum rate of wages to be paid to all grades of work-
men. (See also the articles Arbitration and Coxciuatiox.
Trade Unions; Labour Legislation.)
Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorias
act of that character dat ing from 1 873. I n 1 804 a royal c
appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions
of employment in the colony and certain allegations of
" sweating " that had then recently been made, reported that ?—
" The most effective mode of bringing about industrial co-openti> a
and mutual sympathy between employers and employed, and thus
obviating labour conflicts in the future, is by the establishment if
courts of conciliation in Victoria, whose procedure and awards siuii
passing of a number of acts which, proving ineffectual, were followed
by the Factories and Shops Act of 1696, passed by the ministry of
Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock. This measure, together
with several subsequent amending acts, of which the most important
became law in 1903. 1905 and 1907. forms a complete industrial code
in which the principle of state regulation of wages is recognized
and established. Its central enactment was to bring into existence
(l) " Special Boards," consisting of an equal number of repre*nta-
tives 01 employers and workmen respectively in any trade, limber
the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Coert of
Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request
of any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of
the Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be
given on oath, the special board issues a " determination," axing
the minimum rate of wages to be paid to various classes el workers
of both sexes and different ages in the trade covered by the deter-
mination, including apprentices; and specifying the number of soon)
EftArf.
OLITICAL HISTORY]
er week for which such wages are payable, with the rates for over-
me when those hours are exceeded. The determination is then
aret ted, and it becomes operative over a specified area, which varies
i different cases, on a date fixed by the board. Either party, or the
linister for Labour, may refer a determination to the court of
idustria! appeals, and the court, in the event of a special board
tiling to make a determination, may itself be called upon to frame
ne. The general administration of the Factories and Shops Acts,
o which the special boards owe their being, is vested in a chief
nspector of factories, subject to the control of the minister of Labour
n matters of policy. Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate
rades in Victoria had obtained special boards, by whose determina-
ions their operations were controlled.
&„iM A similar system was introduced into South Australia
iMtrmBm. ty an act passed in 1900 amending the Factory Act of
1894, which was the first legislation of the sort passed in
hat state.
In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from
1896, keen parliamentary conflict raged round the pro-
posal in 1007 to introduce the special boards system for
fixing wages. More than one change of government
accurred before the bill became law in April 1908.
In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western
Australia, the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of
, wages was of a somewhat different type. The model
followed in these two states was not Victoria but' New
Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration
Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the guidance of
the attorney-general, the Hon. B. R. Wise, was carried after much
opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force till the
30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted, con-
sisting of a president and assessors representing the employers'
unions and the workers' unions respectively; in any trade in which
a dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered
under the act was given the right to bring the matter before the
arbitration court, and if the court makes an award, an application
may be made to it to make the award a " common rule,' 1 which there-
upon becomes binding over the trade affected, wherever the act
applies. The award of the court is thus the equivalent of the deter-
mination of a special board in Victoria, and deals with the same
questions, the most important of which are the minimum rates of
wages and the number el working hours per week. The act contained
stringent provisions forbidding strikes; but in this respect it failed
to effect its purpose, several strikes occurring in the years following
its enactment, in which there were direct refusals to obey awards.
In the years 1900 and 190a acts were passed in Western Australia
still more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the
Wett*n above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unltke
A.uMtraBa. *"* latter, they reproduced the institution of district
conciliation boards in addition to the arbitration court ;
but these boards were a failure here as they were in New Zealand, and
after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western Australia, too, the act
failed to prevent strikes taking place. In 1907 a serious strike
occurred in the timber trade, attended by all the usual accompani-
ments, except actual disorder, of an industrial conflict.
In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was
whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down
r*d*ml t* 1 ** workers who were members of a trade union should
ArMtrs. be employed in preference to non-unionists. This power
ttoaAct was given to the tribunal in New South Wales, but was
t994% withheld in Western Australia. It was the same question
that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal
Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of
more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parlia-
ment in 1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power,
but only with safeguarding conditions, to the Federafarbitration
court. This tribunal differs from Bimilar courts in the states inasmuch
as it consists of a single member, called the " president," an officer
appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the
High Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint
assessors to advise bim on technical points; and considerable powers
of devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are
conferred upon the court, the main object of which is- to secure
settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the
Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery
for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state,
examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases
submitted to the court— -the one concerning the merchant marine
of Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were
heard in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal
arbitration court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906,
in which were embodied the principles known as the " New Pro-
tection." By the Customs Act the duty was raised on imported
agricultural implements, while as a safeguard to the consumer the
maximum prices for the retail of the goods were fixed. In order to
provides similar protection for the artisans employed in the protected
industries, an excise duty was imposed on the home-produced articles,
which was to be remitted in favour of manufacturers who could
show that they pakl " fair and reasonable " wages, and complied
with certain other conditions for the benefit of their workmen. The
AUSTRALIA
969
chief authority for determining whether these conditions a
or not is the Federal arbitration court.
The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked
by the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states,
and also in the Commonweafth. By the Federal Act,' wdm
passed in the session of 1908, a pension of ten shillings aeosfoas.
a week was granted to persons of either sex over sixty-five
years of age, or to persons over sixty who are incapacitated from
earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation thus made pro-
vision for the aged poor in the three states which up to 1908 had
not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for those
who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were
debarred from receiving pension in any.
An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the
passing of a uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs
in force at the establishment of the Commonwealth, Tariff.
bat many other important measures were considered
and some passed into law. During the first six years of federation
there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the three-
yearly system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was
reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office.
The great task of adjusting the financial business of the Common-
wealth on a permanent basis was one of very great difficulty,
as the apparent interests of the states and of the Commonwealth
were opposed, Up till 1908 it had been generally assumed that
the constitution required the treasurer of the Commonwealth
to hand over to the states month by month whatever surplus
funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus
Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different inter-
pretation of the constitution. Under this act the appropriation
of these surplus funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal
treasury is held to be equivalent to payment to the states. The
money thus obtained was appropriated in part to naval defence
and harbours, and in part- to the provision of old age pensions
under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of 1908. The act was
strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and the
question was raised as to whether it was based on a true inter-
pretation of the constitution. The chief external interest, how-
ever, of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in
its relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial
Conference in London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth
premier, was the leadingadvocateofcolonialpreferencewithaview
to imperial commercial union; and though no reciprocal arrange*
ment was favoured by the Liberal cabinet, who temporarily
spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial representatives
were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the Opposition
(the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part of
Mr Chamberlain's tariff reform movement. In spite of the
official rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian
ministry, in drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial
preference to British imports, and thus showed their willingness
to go farther. (See the article British Empire.) (R. J. M.)
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AUSTRASIA— AUSTRIA
The Coming Com monw ealth: a Handbooh of Federal Government
(Sydney, 1897); George WiUj* m Rufden,^ History of Australia,
3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883) ; K. Schmeisser, The Goldfields of Austral-
asia, a vols. (London, 1809) ; G. F. Scott, The Romance of Australian
Exploring (London, 1899) ; H. de R. Walker, Australasian Democracy
(London, 1897) ; William Westgarth, Half a Century of Australian
Progress (London, 1899); T. A. Coghlan and T. T. Ewing, Progress
of Australia in the 19th Century ; G. P. Tregarthen, Commonwealth
of Australia; Ida Lee, Early Days of Australia-, W. P. Reeves,
State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand; A. Metin, La
Socialisme sans doctrine.
AUSTRASIA. The word Austria signifies the realm of the
cast (Ger. Osl Reich). In Gregory of Tours this word is still
used vaguely, but the sense of it is gradually defined, and
finally the name of A ustria or A ustrasia was given to the eastern-
most part of the Frankish kingdom. It usually had Metz for its
capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom were known as the
Auslrasii. Retrospectively, later historians have given this
name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son
Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-
555); then, after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of
Sigebert (561-575), and of his son Childebert (575-597). They
have even tried to interpret the long struggle between Fredegond
and Brunhilda as a rivalry between the two kings of Neustria
and Austrasia. When these two words are at last found in the
texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is applied to that
part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II. entrusted to his
son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and Arnulf
(623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son
Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop
of Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death
of Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate
kings, with their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose
a real rivalry between these two provinces, which ended m the
triumph of Austrasia. The Austrasian mayors of the palace
succeeded in enforcing their authority in the western as well
as in the eastern part, and in re-establishing to their own ad*
vantage the unity of the Frankish kingdom. The mayor Pippin
the Short was even powerful enough to take the title of king over
the whole.
At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent
a change of meaning and became synonymous with Francia
oriental is, and was applied to the Frankish dominions beyond
the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia was in 843 included
in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then increased
by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms,
on the right bank of the river.
Sec A. Hugucnin, Histoire du royaume mfrovingien d'Austrasie
(Paris, 1857) ; Aug. Digot, Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie, 4 vols.
(Nancy, 1863); L. Drapeyron, Essai sur Vorigine, le dhcloppement
et les risultats de la lultc enire la NcuilrU et VAustrasie (Paris 1867) ;
Auguste Longnon, Atlas historique, 1st and 2nd parts. (C. Pf.)
AUSTRIA. (Ger. Osterrekh), a country of central Europe,
bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic
Sea and Italy, W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German
empire (Bavaria), and N. by the German empire (Saxony and
Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of 115,533 sq. m., or about
twice the size of England and Wales together. Austria is one
of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg)
monarchy (see Austria-Hungary: History), and is also called
Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that
monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria
does not form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts
of this empire belong to different geographical regions. Thus,
Tirol, Styria and Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the
system of the Alps, but these provinces together with those
lying in the basin of the Danube form, nevertheless, a compact
stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia, extending on
the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great plain
of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany;
while Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces,
belongs to the Balkan Peninsula.
Coasts.'— Austria has amongst all the great European countries
the most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly
land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them beans? camst±i '
The Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of* alsoat xoo -
is greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the .
of riume or Quarnero on the east, include between tbem the ;-
insula of Istna. which has many sheltered bays. In the Gt
Quarnero are the Quarnero islands, of which the nost impar
arc Cherso. Veglia and Lussin. The coast west of the mouth d
Isonao is fringed by lagoons, and has the same character a
Venetian coast, while the Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian pea>-
have a steep coast with many Days and safe harbouca. The oris
ports are Trieste, Capodistria, Piraao, Parenxo, Rovigao aad t .
the great naval harbour and arsenal of Austria. The coast ci L.
rnatia also possesses many safe bays, the principal being chose
Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places it is very steep - -
inaccessible. On the other hand a string of islands eKtirwfg ai - -
this coast, which offer many safe and easily accessible peace
anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales which rage is
Adriatic The principal are Pago. Pasman, IsoU Luaga aad U -
Incoronata, Braua, Lesina. Curzola and Meleda.
The political divisions erf Austria correspond, for the most per
so closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed acrt-?'
of the physical features, natural resources and the movement at ;»
population has been given under those separate headings. Is ir
general article the geography of Austria— physical, economical a-
political — has been treated in its broad aspects, aad those po>
inaisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country atarh '.
Mountains. — Austria is the most mountainous country of Eurrar
after Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is m-e
than 600 ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Asses
belong to three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps i§ z
the Carpathians (f.v.), aad the Bohemian-Moravian Mousxa
The Danube, which is the principal river of Austria, divide* tat
Alpine region, which occupies the whole country lying at its sect*
from the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lu'j
at its north; while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate
the last-named mountains from the Carpathians. Of the tint
principal divisions of the Alps — the western, the central aad tte
eastern Alps — Austria is traversed by several groups of the ceox-ai
Alps, while the eastern, Alps lie entirely within its territory. The
eastern Alps arc continued by the Karat mountains, which in the*
turn are continued by the Dinaric Alps, which stretch throuzs
Croatia and Dalmatia. The second great mountr' "-*
itain-ayst
Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern and north-*
portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through Moravia, SScva,
Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards Hungary, smfcsa
which territory they principally extend. Finally, the Bohemias-
Moravian Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and fora
the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of tSe
Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the Jditteigtbi^
of central Europe. Only a little over 25 % of the area of Austria »
occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia, which is part
of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south, along the
Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the Lombardo-Veactija
?lain. Several smaller plains are found along the Danube, as the
ulncr Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken, the pLus
on which the capital is situated ; to the north of the Danube this
plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name d
the Marchcbcne into Moravia as far north as OlmQta. Along the
other principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude.
some of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.
Rivers. — Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, prt-m
equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of
Istria and the Karat region, where there is a great scarcity of e»ea
the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, t2r*
Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adi^t
or Et&ch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the gmi
watershed of Europe, which divides the waters flowing nortb«*r«
into the North Sea or the Baltic from those flowing southward ■ *
eastward into the Mediterranean or the Black Sea. its rivers £jv
in three different directions—northward, southward and eastward
With the exception of the small streams belonging to it which U3
into the Adriatic, all its rivers have their mouths in other count rk%
and its principal river, the Danube, has also its source in anotbrr
country. When it enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where u
receives the Inn, a river which has as large a body of water as itself.
the Danube is already navigable. Till it leaves the country *t
Hamburg, just before Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely betnmfti
by the Alps, and the river passes through a succession of narrow
defiles. But the finest part of its whole course, as regards the pktur-
cjqucness of the scenery on its banks, is between Una and Vienru
Where it enters Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level <<
the sea, and where it leaves it is only 400 ft. ; it has thus a fall viihia
the country of 498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming
latterly much slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 334 nv.
and it drains an area of 50,377 sq.m. Us principal affluents in Austria,
betides the Inn, are theTraun, the Enns and the March. The
Dniester, which, like the Danube, flows into the Black Sea. has ha
source in the Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very
winding course towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has
in Austria a course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and 4 '
AUSTRIA
971
» asrem of i^poo sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into
le Baltic The former rises in Moravia, flows first north through
ustrian Silesia, then takes an easterly direction along the borders
Prussian Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating
alicia from Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not Jar from
indomir. Its course in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500
1. m. It is navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents
re the Dunajec, the San and die Bug. The Oder nas also its source
1 Moravia, flows first east and then north-east through Austrian
ilcsia into Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only
bout 55 m., no part of which is navigable. The only river of this
ountry which flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source
n the Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south,
hen west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then
titers Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Egcr,
ind. most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a court*
rithin the Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is
lavigable. Itdrainsanarcaof upwards of 21 ,000 sq.m. The Rhine,
: hough scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about
15 rn. of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river
>f Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch.
It rises in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then cast, and
afterwards south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a
course of 1*8 m., and drains an area of 4260 aq. m. Its principal
affluent is the Eisalc Of the streams which have their course entirely
within the country, and fall into the Adriatic the principal is the
I sonxo, 75 m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from
its mouth.
Lakes. — Austria does not poss es s any great lakes; but has numer-
ous small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most
renowned for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg,
Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be men-
tioned the periodical lakes situated in the Karat region, the largest
of them being the Lake of Zirknkz. The numerous and large
marshes, found now mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been
greatly reduced in the other provinces through the canalization of
the rivers, and other works of sanitation.
Mineral Springs. — No other European country equals Austria
in the number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly
to be found in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented
watering-places in the world. The most important are, the alkaline
springs of Carlsbad, Marienbad. Franzensbad and Bilin ; the alkaline
acidulated waters of Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the
iron springs of Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower
Austria; the bitter waters of Pullna, Saidschitt and Sedlitx; the
saline waters of Ischl and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters
of Hall in Upper Austria; the different waters of Gastein; and
lastly the thermal waters of Teplitz-Schonau, Johannisbad, and of
Romerbad in Styria. Altogether there are reckoned to exist over
1500 mineral springs, of which many are not used. (O. Br.)
Gtohty. — The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the
great belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Car-
pathians; a secondary branch proceedinff from the main belt runs
along die Adriatic coast and forms the J ulian and Dinaric Alps. In
the space which is thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hun-
garian plain; and outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region
which, geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the
Carpathian folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the
folded belt— the gap between the Alps and the Carpathians— has
formed a connexion between these two regions since the early part
of the Miocene period. On its outer or convex side the folded belt
is clearly defined by a depression which is generally filled by modern
deposits. Beyond this, in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive
plateau, much of which is covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene
beds; but in the deep valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the
ancient rocks which form the foundation of the plateau are laid
bare. Archaean granite is thus exposed at Yampol and other places
in Russia, and this is followed towards the west by Silurian and
Devonian beds in regular succession — the Devonian being of the Old
Red Sandstone type characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern
Russia. Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected
by the Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south.
After Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until
the commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was
overspread by the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea
lie flat upon the older sediments.
Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester
from the margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the
Palaeozoic floor sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the
deep-cut valley of the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than
Miocene. Towards the north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation
falls beneath an increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies
buried far below the surface. At Lemberga boring 1650 ft m depth
did not reach the base of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretace-
ous beds are underlaid by Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general
dip being eastward. It is not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic for-
mationsagain rise to the surface. Here is the margin, often concealed
by very modern deposits, of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeo-
zoic rocks which forms nearly the whole of Bohemia and Moravia.
The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie flat and undisturbed, as in the
PoUsh plain. They are faulted and folded. But the folds are alto-
gether independent of those of the Carpathians; they are of much
earlier date, and are commonly different in direction. The principal
folding took place towards the close of the Carboniferous period,
and the massif is a fragment of an ancient mountain chain, the
Variseische Cebirge of E. Suess, which in Permian and Triassic timet
stretched across the European area from west to east.
In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian
to the Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the
Carboniferous period the area appears to have been dry land until the
beginning of the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread
over it. The deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin
of Upper Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden south-
eastward through Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period
the Bohemian massif has remained above the sea ; but the depression
which lies immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times
been covered by an arm of the sea and at other times has been
occupied by a chain of salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of
Wieliczka and numerous brine springs owe their origin.
The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Car-
pathians is for the most part covered by locos, alluvium and other
modern deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its
borders. In the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of
i
*
5
i
L_JC#rt*n»«r»
dDrWoMit
mtu**.
HBftmfo*
i^-j Crttacwas
EHcoiiostfb
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EH^Dtmumm
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Geological Map of Austria-Hungary.
more ancient rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all
the Mesozoic systems have been recognised here, and granite and
volcanic rocks occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises
above the plain, striking from the Platten See towards the north-
east, where it merges into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain.
These hills are largely formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age;
but near the Platten See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well de-
veloped. The Tertiary eruptions were not confined to this line of hills.
They were most extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians,
and they occurred also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the erup-
tions took place during the Miocene and Plioceneperiods.
The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are
in many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds.
Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of
Erzgebirge and of Pribram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria
and Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the dis-
tricts of Zips and Gdtndr. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines
of Idria in Carniola are in Triassic beds ; and the gold and silver of
northern Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the
Tertiary volcanic rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia
and Bohemia are of the greatest importance; while Jurassic
coal is worked at StcyerdorT and FOnikirchen in Hungary, and
lignite it many places in the Tertiary beds. The great salt mines
of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but salt is also worked largely in
the Trias of the Alps. (See also Alps; Carpathians; Hungary
and Tirol.) (P. La.)
Climate.— The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great
extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is
very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The
most southern extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the
country along the coast, together with the southern portions of Tirol
and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters
are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months.
The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and
other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants
flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 40°
N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg. Styria,
Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol. Southern Morav 2 '
97?
AUSTRIA
Administrative Territories.
Austria —
Lower Austria . .
Upper Austria . .
Salzburg . . .
Styria ....
Carinthia . .
Carniola . . .
Kustcnland . . .
Tirol and Vorarlberg
Bohemia
Moravia ....
Silesia. ....
Galicia ....
Bukovina . .
Dalmatia . . .
and a part of Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than in
the preceding. The winters arc longer and more severe, and the
summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in
favourable situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain arc gener-
ally grown. The northern zone embraces the territory lying north
of 49° N. lat. r comprising Bohemia, Northern
Moravia, Silesia ana Galicia. The winters are
here long and cold ; the vine and maize are no
longer cultivatcd,the principal crops being wheat,
barley, oats, rye, hemp and flax. The mean
annual temperature ranges from about 59° in the
south to 48 in the north. In some parts of the
country, however, it is as low as 46 40' and even
36°. In Vienna the average annual temperature
is 50°, the highest temperature being 94 , the
lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of
the country receives less rain than the western.
In the south the rains prevail chiefly in spring
and autumn, and in the north and central parts
during summer. Storms are frequent in the
region of the south Alps and along the coast.
In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the
rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in.
It is less among the Carpathians, where it usually
varies from 30 to 40 in. In other parts the rainfall
usually averages from 20 to 24 in.
Flora. — From the varied character of its
climate and soil the vegetable productions of
Austria are very diverse. It has floras of
the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an
arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras peculiar
to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate formations. The
number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of which one-third
are phanerogamous.or flowering plants, and two-thirds cry ptogaraous,
or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far surpasses in this
respect the other divisions of the country, having about four-ninths
of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of flowering plants. As
stated above, Austria is a very mountainous country and the moun-
tains are frequently covered with vegetation to a great elevation.
At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower slopes are green
pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn; above are often
forests of oak, ash, elm, &c. ; and still higher the yew and the fir may
be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn grows to between
3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the forests extend to
5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is from 7800 to 8200 ft.
Fauna.— The. animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual
domestic animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c),
wild boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c. ; also bears, wolves, lynxes,
foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels
and the like. Eagles and hawks are cotamon. and many kinds of
singing birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish,
which are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee
and the silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article
of trade. In all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248
species of birds, 377 of Ashes and more than 13,000 of insects.
Divisions. — Austria is composed of seventeen " lands," called
also "crown lands." Of these, three—namely, Bohemia, Galicia
and Lodomcria, and Dalmatia — arc kingdoms; two— Lower and
Upper Austria — archduchies; six — Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia.
Carniola, Silesia and Bukovina — duchies; two— G&rz-Gradisca and
Tirol— countships of princely rank (gefurstste Graf schaf ten); two
— Moravia and I stria — margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg
bears the title simply of '* land." Trieste, with its district, is a town
treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes Trieste,
with Gorz-Gradisca and I stria, constituting the Ktistenland (the
Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as
one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each
an administrative territory by itself.
Population. — Austria had in 1000 a population of 26,107,304
inhabitants, 1 which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m.
As seen from the above table the density of the population is
unequal in the various crown lands. The most thickJy populated
province is Lower Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely
populated, while Salzburg is the most thinly populated crown land
of Austria. As regards sex, for every 1000 men there were
1035 women, the female element being the most numerous in
every crown land, except the Kiistcnland, Bukovina and Dalmatia.
Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows
an increase of 2,211,891, or 03% of the total population. The
increase between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890
l The census returns of 1857, and of 1869. which were the first
systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as
18.224,500 and 20.394.980 respectively. It must be noticed that
between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo- Venetian terri-
tories, with a population of about 5^000,000 inhabitants.
was of 1,750,093 Inhabitants, or 7-9% of the total 1
A very important factor in the movement of the pop__.
is the large over-sea emigration, mostly to the United St_j.:»=
America, which has grown very much during the last <\^^-
Total.
of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become s:L
larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of oversea emigre.:!
was 387,770 persons. The movement of the population she::
in the other vital statistics — births, marriages, deaths — :t
mostly satisfactory, and show a steady and normal progress.
The annual rate per thousand of population in 1000 was: births.
37-0; still-births, i*x; deaths, 25-2; marriages, 8-2. The or! j
unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate btrtfcv.
and the high infant mortality. Of the total population ot
Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural commuci: :*«
with less than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder «-u
distributed in 1742 communities with a population of 2000-5000;
in 260 communities with a population of 5000-10,000; in o*>
towns with a population of 10,000-20,000; in 41 towns witi*
a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6 towns with a popula-
tion of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a populat*.-
of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Acstra
are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132.870V
Lcmberg (159,618), Graz (138,370), Briinn (108,944), Cracc*
(91,310), Czcrnowitz (67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,7;*)
\
Races. — From an ethnographical point of view Austria
contains a diversity of races; in fact no other European suu?
contains within its borders so many nationalities as the Austrisa
empire. The three principal races of Europe — the Lstin, the
Teutonic and the Slavonic — are all represented In Austria*
The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is numerically the
principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a. number
of peoples, differing from one another in language, reUpon,
AUSTRIA
973
culture, customs and historical traditions, (t .does not possess
a national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are
geographically separated from one another by other races, and
are divided into two groups. The northern group includes the
Czechs, the Moravians, the Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the
Poles; while the southern group contains the Slovenes, the
Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical traditions are
different, so are also the aspirations of these various peoples of
the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them,
as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have
prevented them from enjoying the full political advantage due
to their number. The Germans, numbering 9,1 7 1,614, constitute
the most numerous nationality in Austria, and have played
and still play the principal role in the political life of the country.
The Germans arc in a relative majority over the other peoples
in the empire, their language is the vehicle of communication
between all the other peoples both in official life and fn the press;
they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and they
are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have
contributed most to the foundation and to the development
off the Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-
mentioned reasons they are entitled to the principal position
amongst the various nationalities of Austria. The Latin race
is represented by the Italians, Ladini and Rumanians.
The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as
determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900: —
Germans. 9,171,614
Csechs and Slovaks ..»♦... 5.955.397
Poles 4,252,483
Ruthenians ....... t 3.381,570
Slovenes 1,192,780
Italians and Ladini •«.«.» 727,102
Servians and Croats • ....*'. 7» 1.380
Rumanians > 230,963
Magyars 9.5*6
The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg,
Vorarlbcrg, and, to a large extent. Lower Austria; then the north
and central part of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia,
and the north and central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are
concentrated round the borders, in the vicinity of the mountains,
and they form nearly half the population of Silesia; besides they
are found in every part of the monarchy. The Czechs occupy the
central and eastern parts of Bohemia, the greatest part of Moravia
and a part of Silesia. The Poles are concentrated in western Galicia,
and in a part of Silesia; the Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a
ert of Bukovina: the Slovenes in Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca,
tria, the south of Styria, and the Trieste territory. The Servians
and Croats are found in Istria and Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini
in southern Tirol, Gfirz and Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria,
and in the towns of Dalmatia; while the Rumanians live mostly in
Bukovina.
Agriculture. — Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made
by Austria during the last quarter 01 the 19th century, agriculture
still forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants.
In 1900 over 50 % of the total population of Austria derived their
income from agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile,
although there is a great difference in the productivity of the various
crown-lands owing to their geographical situation. The productive
land of Austria covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93-8 % of the total area,
which is 74, 102,001 acres ; to this must be added 0-4 of lakes and fish-
ponds, making a total of 94-2 % of productive area. The remainder
is unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The
area of the productive land has been steadily increasing — it was
estimated to cover about 89 % in 1875, — and great improvements in
the agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
productive area of Austria, 37-6 % is laid out in arable land ; 34-6 %
In woods; 25-2 % in pastures and meadows; 1-3 % in gardens,
0-9 % in vineyards; and 0-4 % in lakes, marshes and ponds. The
provinces having the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia,
Galicia, Moravia and Lower Austria. The principal products are
wheat, rye. barley, oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle
turnip. The produce of the ploughed land docs not, on the whole,
suffice for the home requirements. Large quantities in particular of
wheat and maize are imported from Hungary for home consumption.
Only barley and oats are usually reaped in quantity for export.
The provinces which have the lowest proportion of arable land are
Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these principal crops, other crops of
considerable magnitude are; buckwheat in Styria, Galicia, Carniola
and Carinthia ; rape and rape-seed in Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in
Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Galicia;
hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia; tobacco, which is a state
monopoly, in Galicia. Bukovina, Dalmatia and Tirol; fuller's
thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia, including
the ce l ebr at ed hops round Saac, m Galicia and Moravia; rice in the
Kustenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Gaum, Lower Austria and
Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit dis-
tricts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol for
apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
south — chiefly in Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Tirol ; while in the
south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.
The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres,
the provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dal*
matia, the Kustenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The
wines of Dalmatia are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be
kept for long periods, while those of the other provinces are not so
sweet, but improve with age.
Forests. — The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In
the forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85 %* and
consists of conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the
proportion of seventy against fifteen out of the 85 % of the total
forests laid out in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of
the Karst region, where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy
80 %, and of Dalmatia, where underwood occupies 92 6 % of the
whole forest land. The Alpine region is well wooded, and amongst
the other provinces Bukovina is the most densely wooded, having
43*2 % of its area under forests, while Galicia with 25*9 % is the
most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria. The forests are chiefly
composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and the like, and constitute
one of the great sources of wealth of the country. Forestry is
carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner. Large works of
afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia, Carniola and Tirol
with a view of checking the periodical inundations, while similar
works have been successfully carried out in the Karst region.
Landed Property.— Oi the whole territory of the' state. 74.102,001
acres, about 29 %, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71 % is
disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property
is most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46 % of
the whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia.
To the state belongs 41 % of the total territory. The Church, the
communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large
areas of land; 4 % (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria
is held on the tenure 01 fideucommissum. Of the entire property in
large landed estates, 59 % is laid out in woods; of the property in
fidei-commissum* 66 % is woodland; of the entire forest land, about
10 % is the property of the state; 14/5 % is communal property;
and 3-8 % is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory
in large landed estates includes 52 %'of the entire forest land. The
forest land held under fidei-commissum amounts to over 9 % of the
entire forest land.
JLme Stock. — Although richly endowed by nature,' Austria cannot
be said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except
in certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
years along with the census of the population.
1880.
1890.
1900.
Horses
Mules and asses
Cattle . . .
Goats . •
1463,28a
49.618
8.5*4.077
1,006,675
3,841,340
2,721.541
926,312
1,548.197
57.95a
8,643,936
1,035.832
3,186,787
3.549.700
920,640
1,711,077
66,638
9,506,626
1,015,682
2,621.026
4.682,734
996.139
Sheep • .
Pigs ....
Beehives .
Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its
horses, for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over
the country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest
to the lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful
horses arc found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg;
those of Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are
also famous. In Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Southern Tirol,
horses arc less numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure
take their place. The finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine
region; of the Austrian provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria
contain the largest proportion of cattle. The number of sheep has
greatly diminished, but much has been done in the way of improving
the breeds, more particularly in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and
Upper and Lower Austria. The main object has been the improve*
ment of the wool, and with this object the merino and other fine-
woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound mostly in
Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. a The rearing of pigs is carried on
most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
Southern Tirol and in the Kustenland, and the average annual yield
is 5,000.000 lb of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
97+
AUSTRIA
butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source of
revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.
Fisheries.— The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and arc
divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old stand-
ing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of Dal-
matia and of the Kustenland constitute an important source of
wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels,
with a number of over 16,000 fishermen arc employed, and the
average annual catch realizes £240,000.
In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
constitutes a large source of income.
Minerals. — In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the ex-
ception of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides
the noble metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less
richness in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both
pit coal and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins
of petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are
found zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth,
chromium, uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt.
There are also marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth,
potter's clay, and precious stones. It is therefore natural that
mining operations should have been carried out in Austria from the
earliest times, as, for instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper
Austria, which had already been worked during the Celtic and
Romanic period. Famous through the middle ages were also the
works, especially for the extraction of gold and silver, carried out
in Bohemia and Moravia, whose early mining regulations, for instance
those of Iglau, were adopted in other countries. But the great
industrial development of the 19th century, with its growing necessity
for fuel, has brought about toe exploitation of the rich coal-fields
of the country, and to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output
of any mineral products. To instance the rapid growth in the ex-
traction of coal, it is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was
about 150,000 tons; in 1875, or only alter half a century, the output
has become 100 times greater, namely, over 15.000,000 tons; while
in 1900 it was 32,500,000 tons. Coal is found in nearly every province
of Austria, with the exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the
richest coal-fields are in Bohemia, Silesia, Styria. Moravia and
Carniola in the order named. Iron ores are found more or less in
all the crown-lands except Upper Austria, the Kustenland and
Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia
and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found in Bohemia, Salzburg
and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in Carniola, which after
Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe. Lead is extracted
in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for tin in the whole
of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in Galicia, Tirol
and Bohemia, and copper Is extracted in Tirol, Moravia and Salzburg.
Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite h also raised. Rock-
salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is produced in Salzburg,
Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted in Bohemia,
Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and anti-
mony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured
marbles exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry
products throughout Austria in 1875 was £5,000,000. The number
of persons employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting
works in the same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining
products throughout Austria in 1903 was £10,500,000, and the value
of the product of the foundries was £3,795,000. Of this amount
',,150,000 represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron.
. he increase in the value of the mining products during the period
892-1903 was 40 %; and the increase in the product of the furnaces
in the same period was 35 %. The number of persons employed in
I902 in mining was 140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the
extraction of salt, 7963. The value of the chief mining products of
Austria in 1903 was: Brown coal (21,808.583 tons), £4,182,516;
coal (12,145,000 tons), £4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons),
£615.373; lead ores, £135.965; silver ores, £119,637; quicksilver
ores, £92.049; graphite, £78437; tin ores, £78,275; copper ores,
£32,119; manganese ores, £5368; gold ores, {4407; asphalt. £2250;
alum and vitriol slate, £992. The production of petroleum was
660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons. The value of the principal
r (urn * " ' " v
ft,
ucts of the smelting furnaces in 1903 was: Iron (955.543 tons),
,970,866; coke, £862,137; zinc (metallic), £1 74-344; silver,
' * ' ". £8488;
t. £86L _..„
'. £57.542; sulphuric acid. £8488; copper vitriol,
colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin, £4566; gold.
£384; quicksilver, £218; coal
£141,594", copper, „ T . __., . _ . ,.
£5710; mineral colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin, £4566: gold,
£878; iron vitriol, £603 ; litharge, £384; quicksilver, £218;
briquettes, £93.000.
|8j8; iron vitriol, £603
inquettes, £93.000.
industry. — The manufactures of Austria were much developed
during the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a
whole cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses
many favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It
1 an abundance of raw materials, of fuel — both mineral and
ear tne numoer 01 sptneuet -*
had m 190a. »i. 817 to: •
i principal seat 0/ the ouiu-
l Bohemia, from the Eger *
wood,— of metals and minerals, in fact all the nsmairiri for a pi-
and flourishing industry; and the rivers can easily be utilue^
producers of motive power. It is besides densely populated .
has an adequate supply of cheap labour, while the undrvi^ ,
industries of the Balkan states also offer a ready market tor it* f .-
ducts. The glass manufacture in Bohemia is very old. and has * •
up its leading position in the markets of the world up to the pre*
day. Industrial activity is greatly developed in Bohemia. Lc»
Austria, Silesia, Moravia and Voraiiberg, while in Dalmatia t
Bukovina it is almost non-existent. The principal txraxschn
manufactures arc, the textile industry, the metallurgic iiwlusx™
brewing and distilling; leather, paper and sugar; glass, porct : -
and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and musical instrun*
The textile industry in all its branches — cotton, woollen. L- - -
silk, flax and hemp — is mostly concentrated in Bohemia. Mora *
Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one « r .
has made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of ooechar< .
looms increased more than threefold during this period, and number .
in 1902 about 130,000. In the same year the number of spindles -
work was about 3,100,000. ■ Austria had '
factories with 337.514 workmen. The 1
facture of cotton goods is in northern I _ ___
Rcichcnbcrg, which can be considered as the Lancashire of Aostr
Lower Austria between the Wiener Wald and the Lei t ha. and -
Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are manufactured in the above places,
and besides in Moravia, at Bruno and at Iglau; in Silesia: and -*
Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also distinguished for its naanufact^r
of shawls. The coarser kind of woollen goods are manufactu-t
all over the country, principally in the people's houses as a fcsar
industry. The most important places for tne linen industry are a
Bohemia at Trautenau ; in Moravia and Silesia, while the comou ~
kinds of linen are mostly produced as a home industry by ti-
peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The manufacturr h
ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being carried on pri*>
pally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the Bohemian Erxp>
birge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is especk-h
developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes *»d
oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia sad
Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on ia
Vienna, while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in soothers
Tirol, and to a smaller extent in the Kustenland.
The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches
of industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is e x tiacted annua'!:
in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel nur.-
factures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Austru.
Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. TV*
most important manufactured products arc cutlery, firearms. fik-
wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel Dens, needles, rails, irua
furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its iraa
manufacture is Stcyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture <j
machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of ra3«j%
engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener- Ncustadt, Pn£„?
Brilnn and Trieste ; while the production of rolling stock for rattwax*
is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards I *
sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river- vessels the Larp-4
yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the prinrn-al
are copper works at Brixlcgg and other places in Tirol, atxl -a
Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys. esprru'H
Paekfong or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at Bornd -«
in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, arc nnrci-
pally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and Frag jc
Vienna is also the principal scat for scientific and surgical instrument*.
In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a leading
Krt amongst European states, the principal places of products: s
ing Vienna, Prague, Koniggr5tz, Graslitz and SchOnbach.
The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austru
and is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the
best quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacturr
of earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porceLiB
industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has*
world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended,
and is principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia.
Vienna and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe tra-te,
and the gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputatk>e.
The manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country,
and is very varied. I n Vienna and other large towns the produciioa
of ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The
industry in paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal
scats being in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper ana Lower Austria. Of
food-stuffs, besides milling, and other flour products, the priadnal
industry is the manufacture of sugar from beet-root. Thesugar js-
dustry is almost exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, bilcsu
and Galicia. It has attained such large proportions that Urgt
districts in those provinces have been converted from wheat-grafting
districts into fields for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is ex-
tensively carried on, and the beer produced is of a good quality.
The largest brewing establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna,
and large breweries are also found at Pilsen and Budwcissin Bohemia,
whose products enjoy a great reputation abroad. There were ia
Austria 1341 breweries, which produced 422,993,130 gallons of beer.
AUSTRIA
975
im 1909-19051 Distilling it carried on oil. a lane scale in Galicia,
Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria; the number of
distilleries being 1257, which produced 30435,812 gallons of spirit.
Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs are made in Dalmatia and
Moravia. The manufacture as well as the growth of tobacco is a
government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco factories with over
40.000 work-people, the largest establishment being at Hainburg in
Lower Austria. Other important branches of industry are the
manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemian petroleum
refi nertes in Galicia, and the extraction of various petroleum products :
the manufacture of buttons; printing, lithographing, engraving, and
map- making, especially in Vienna, &c.
In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
3.138,800 persons, of whom 2,264.871 were workmen and 103.854
were labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little
over 7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.
Commerce. — Austria forms together with Hungary one customs
and commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
given under Austria-Hungary. Owing to its situation, the bulk
of the Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland
navigable rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the
commercial interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic
coast is very small.
Commercial Navy. — The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
ton nage of 1 83,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company
is the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers
of 165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged
in the foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was
1.448,764 tons under the A ustro- Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under
foreign nags; the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same
period was 1.503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and
866,591 under foreign flags.
Government— Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional
(limited) monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor.
The succession to the throne is hereditary, in the order of primo-
geniture, in the male line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen;
and failing this, in the female line. The monarch must be a
member of the Roman Catholic Church. The emperor of Austria
is also king of Hungary, but except for having the same monarch
and a few common affairs (see Austria-Hungary), the two
states are quite independent of one another. The emperor
has the supreme command over the armed forces of the country,
has the right to confer degrees of nobility, and has the pre-
rogatives of pardon for criminals. He is the head of the executive
power, and shares the legislative power with the Reichsrat;
and justice is. administered in his name. The constitution of
Austria is based upon the following statutes: — (1) the Pragmatic
Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the
19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne;
(7) the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis H. of the
1 st of August 1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of
Austria; (3) the Diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I.
of the 20th of October i860, by which the constitutional form
of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of the emperor
Frauds Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the
provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws
of the axst Of December 1867, which contain the exposition
and guarantee of the civil and political rights of the citizen, the
organization of justice, the organisation and method of election
for the Reichsrat, &c.
The executive power is vested xn the council pf ministers,
at whose head is the minister-president. There are eight
ministries, namely, the ministry of the interior, of national defence,
of worship and instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture,
of justice, and of railways. There are, further, two ministries,
without portfolio, for Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administra-
t ion in the different provinces is carried out by governors or
sudtholders (Slallkalter), to whom are subordinate the heads
of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided in 1000, and
of the a towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns which have
also the management of the civil administration. Local self-
government of the provinces, districts and communities is
also granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus,
the autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the
provincial committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of
the communities are discharged by an elected communal council
The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which
constitute Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of
two Houses: an Upper House (the Herrenkaus), and a Lower
House (the Abgcordnetenkaus). The Upper House is composed
of (x) princes of the imperial house, who are of age (14 in 1007);
(a) of the members of the large landed nobility, to which the
emperor had conferred this right, and which is hereditary in
their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops- and 8 prince-
bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for
distinguished services (170 in 1007). The Lower -House has
undergone considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by
the various modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867,
1873, 1892, 1896 and 1007. The general spirit of those modifica-
tions was to broaden the electoral basis, and to extend the
franchise to a larger number pf citizens. The law of the 26th of
January 1907 granted universal franchise to Austrian male citizens
over twenty-four years of age, who have resided for a year in the
place of election. The Lower House consists of 516 members,
elected for a period of six years. The members receive payment
for their services, as well as an indemnity for travelling expenses,
A bill to become law must pass through both Houses, and must
receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to
summon the Reichsrat annually.
According to the imperial Diploma of the 36th February
1 86 1, local diets have been created for the legislation of matters
of local interest. These provincial parliaments are x 7 in number,
and their membership varies from 22 members, which compose
the diet of Gore and Gradisca,to the 242 members which constitute
that of Bohemia. They assemble annually and are composed
of members elected for a period of six years, and of members
ex-officio, namely, the archbishops and bishops of .the respective
provinces, and the rector of the local university.
Religion.— Religious toleration was secured throughout the
Habsburg dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but
Protestants were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
Prolestantenbalent of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation of
the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
religious bodies recognized by law of freedom of worship, the manage-
ment of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and disposal
of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense, " estab-
lished," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
strongly attached to the Roman faith, lias always resisted the
extreme claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph U.'s time
resulted, under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), \n what was
practically a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right
to tax church property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the
circulation of papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat
of August 18, 1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent
reversed ; but this agreement soon became a dead letter and was
formally denounced by the Austrian government after the promulga-
tion of the dogma of papal infallibility.
Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were
Roman Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered com-
munities, 606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly
in Bukovina and Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in
Bukovina. The Protestants, who in the 16th century comprised
90 % of the population, arc now only I -9 %. In 1900, 365.505 ofthem
were returned as belonging to the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran),
128.557 to the Helvetic (Reformed). Other Christian Confessions
in Austria arc Hcrrnhuters (Moravian Brethren) in Bohemia,
Mennonites in Galicia, Uppovanians (akin to the Russian Skoptsi)
in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 47 % of the
population, and arc strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided
into eight provinces, seven of the Latin rite — Vienna, Prague,
Lembcrg. Salzburg, OlmOtz, Gdrz and Zara— with 23 bishoprics, and
one of the Greek rite (Lembcrg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian
bishopric of Lembcrg and the Austrian part of the archdiocese of
Breslau are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The
Greek Orthodox Church has one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and
two bishoprics. There are 559 communities of the Jewish religion
(253 in Galicia, and 255 in Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging
to the Roman Catholic Church, 541 monasteries with 7775 monks,
and 877 convents with 19.194 nuns; while the Greek Orthodox
Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members. The Evangelical
Church, according to the constitution granted by imperial decree
on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January 6, 1866
and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis, being
976
AUSTRIA
administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn, subject
to the Supreme Church Council (KJC. Oberkirckenrai) at Vienna,
the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction
of the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.
Education.— The system of elementary schools dates from the time
of Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this Jaw
the control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect
and maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
Voikssckulen (national or primary schools) and B&r§ersckulen (higher
elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the age of
six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious instruc-
tion is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a special grant
is made or a teacher ad hoc appointed in the higher classes (law of
June 17. 1888). Private schools are also allowed which, if fulfilling
the legal requirements, may be accorded the validity of public
primary schools. The language of instruction is that 01 the nation-
ality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the schools the
instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in other
Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools
with 78,02s teachers, frequented by 3.618,837 pupils, which compares
favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were
14.257 elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by
3,050,808 pupils. About 88 % of the children who are of school age
actually attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and
Salzburg nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the
monarchy the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62 % of the total
population of Austria could read and write, and 2-9% could only
read. In the number of illiterates are included children under seven
years of age. For the training of teachers of elementary schools
there were in 1900 54 institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses.
In these training colleges, as also in the secondary or " middle "
schools {Mittdsckulen), religious instruction is also in the hands of
the Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of Tune 20, 1870,
the state must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant
pupils numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually
refuse to take more than 19 Protestants in consequence).
Besides the elementary schools three other croups of educational
establishments exist in Austria: " middle " schools (iiittelsckulen);
" high " schools (Hocksekulcn) ; professional and technical schools
(Facklekranstalten and Cewerbesckulen). The "middle" schools
include the classical schools (JSyntnasien), " modern " schools with
some Latin teaching {Rcalzymnasien), and modern schools simply
(RealsckuUn). In 1903 there were 202 Cymnasien, 19 Rcaltymnasicn
and 117 Realsckulen, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
" high schools include the universities and the technical high
schools {Teckniscke Hocksckulen). Of state universities there
are eight: — Vienna, Gratx, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and
Czernowitz, in which German is the language of instruction; Prague
(Bohemian) with Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as
the language of instruction. Each university has four faculties —
theology, law and political science, medicine, and philosophy. In
Czernowitz, however, the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since
1905 an Italian faculty of law has been added to the university of
Innsbruck. The theological faculties are all Roman Catholic, except
Czernowitz, where the theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern.
All the universities are maintained by the state. The number
of professors and lecturers was about 1596 in 1903; while the
number of students was 17,498.
Justice. — The judicial authorities in Austria are: — (l) the county
courts, 961 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts,
74 in number, to which are attached the jury courts, — both these
courts are courts of first instance; (3J the higher provincial
courts, 9 in number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck,
Zara, Prague, Brunn, Cracow and Lemberg; these are courts
of appeal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of the
criminal courts in their jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of
justice and court of cassation in Vienna. The judicial organization
is independent of the executive power. There are also special courts
for commercial, industrial, shipping, military and other matters.
There is also the court of the Empire at Vienna, which has the power
to decide in case of conflict between different authorities.
Finance.— The growth of the Austrian budget is
following figures: —
1885
189S
1900
1905
Expenditure
Revenue .
(44,121,600
£43.714.666
£55sJ96.9i°
£57.446,091
#6.003494
£66,020.475
/7**>3'*'
474.079 ■■
The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect t.i-v
customs duties, post and telegraph and post-office saving? t. .
receipts, railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, drar. -
and mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real .-
personal; the former include the land tax and house-resit tax .=*!
the latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commr A
and industrial establishments, tax on all business with prr.p-'
audited accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tai ~*
investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monr> '
stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, tb. ^ :
monopoly, excise duty on mineral oiC and excise duty on mem: ^
cattle for slaughtering.
The national debt of Austria is divided into two group*, a «■ a. 'J
national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the Au*" -
Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore j<-.-: .
borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria a ' ---
The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millt-.-j
sterling :—
1885
1890
1895
1900
>905
43-
8823
1 1960
140-68
167.91
At the dose of 1003 the debt of Austria was £156.724.000. as
increase since 1900 01 £16,044,000. This large increase is due to the
great expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable car.a.t
harbour works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1 '/>.•
Railways. — As regards internal communications, Austria a
provided with an extensive network of railways, the indust-^!
provinces being specially favoured. This has been accompliaiied m
spite of the engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nat .re
of the country and of the great financial expenses resulting the -'-
from. The construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 11*54.
for instance, was the first mountain railway built in the Europe ar
continent, and marked an epoch in railway cngineerioK. The 6r*
railway laid down in Austria was in 1824 between fin "
Kerschbaum. over a distance of 40 m., and was at first used for horse
tramway. The first steam railway was opened in 1837 overa distance
of about 10 m. between Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and VYagram.
From the first, the policy of the Austrian government was toc.s>
struct and to work the railways itself; and in granting conocssj_«-s
to private companies it stipulated among its conditions the mr--
sionary right of the state, whereby the line becomes the property J
the state without compensation after the lapse of the period of
concession. With various modifications, according to its financial
means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by both building rail wans
itself, and encouraging private companies to build. In 1905 the
total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 nv, of which 501; ru
belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3339 m. belonged to
private companies, but were worked by the state.
Bibliography.— F. Umlauft, Die tinder OsterreicM-Ungarns ta
Wort und Bild (15 vols., Vienna, 1 881 -1880), Die dsterreicki •>
ungariscke Monarchic (3rd ed., Vienna. 1896), Die tslerrticki . ks
Monarchic in Wort und Bild (24 vols., Vienna, 1688-1902), and l*ut
VWter OsterrtUk-Ungorns (12 vols., Tcschcn. 1881-1883); A. Su W o.
" Osterreich-Ungarn " (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhon^s jLn»4r<-ifc«.,sV
von Eurota, vol. ii.); Auerbach, Les Races et Us nationaixUi cm
Autricke-Hontrie (Paris, 1897); Maycrhofer, Osierreick-mmgari:. kri
Ortslexikon (Vienna, 1 896). For geology see C. Diencr, Ac, Bern. aU
Bild Osierreicks (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Haucr. fW
Ceologie (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the cenrJ
statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of the
ministry of commerce, appearing annually. (O. Ba.)
» OF SECOND VOLUlfg.
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j.i. tAfitv commit, saw yobx,a*» a s. oomnuc* * torn oomtaht, obkbso.
«>.ST " ON, S » ^ 6015
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